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CHEMICAL BONDING
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▪ Atoms or ions are held together in molecules or
compounds by chemical bonds.
▪ The type and number of electrons in the outer
electronic shells of atoms or ions are instrumental
in how atoms react with each other to form stable
chemical bonds.
▪ Over the last 150 years scientists developed
several theories to explain why and how elements
combine with each other.
CHEMICAL BONDS
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Bonding in Chemistry
• Central theme in chemistry: Why and How atoms
attach together
• This will help us understand how to:
1. Predict the shapes of molecules.
2. Predict properties of substances.
3. Design and build molecules with particular sets of
chemical and physical properties.
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Two of the most common substance on our
dining table are salt and granulated sugar
NaCl C12H22O11
The properties of substances are determined in large part
by the chemical bonds that hold their atoms together
CHEMICAL BONDS
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Chemical BondsAll chemical reactions involve breaking of some bonds and formation of new ones which yield new products with different properties.
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Bonding Theories
• Lewis bond Theory
• Valence Bond Theory
• Molecular Orbital Theory
Gilbert Newton Lewis
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Lewis Bonding Theory
• Atoms ONLY come together to produce a more
stable electron configuration.
• Atoms bond together by either transferring or
sharing electrons.
• Many of atoms like to have 8 electrons in their
outer shell.
– Octet rule.
– There are some exceptions to this rule—the key to
remember is to try to get an electron configuration like
a noble gas. Li and Be try to achieve the He electron
arrangement.
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Lewis Symbols of Atoms
• Uses symbol of element to represent nucleus and
inner electrons.
• Uses dots around the symbol to represent valence
electrons.
– Puts one electron on each side first, then pair.
• Remember that elements in the same group
have the same number of valence electrons;
therefore, their Lewis dot symbols will look
alike.
Li• Be• •B• •C• •N• •O: :F: :Ne:• •
•
• • • •
•• •• •• ••
••
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Valence electrons
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Practice to write the Lewis symbol
for Arsenic
• As is in group 15 (5), therefore it has 5
valence electrons.
•
••
••
As
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Using Lewis Theory to Predict Chemical
Formulas Compounds
Predict the formula of the compound that forms between
calcium and chlorine.
Draw the Lewis dot symbols
of the elements.
Ca∙∙Cl ∙∙∙
∙ ∙∙ ∙
Transfer all the valance electrons
from the metal to the nonmetal,
adding more of each atom as you
go, until all electrons are lost
from the metal atoms and all
nonmetal atoms have 8 electrons.
Ca∙∙Cl ∙∙∙
∙ ∙∙ ∙
Ca2+
CaCl2
Cl ∙∙∙
∙ ∙∙ ∙
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Examples for Lewis representation
of some chemical bonds
F••
••
•• • F•••••••
HF••
••
•• ••
••F•• •• H O
••••••
••
H•H• O••
•
•••
F F
O O••••
O O
O••
•
•
••O••
•
•
••
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➢ Total number of valence electrons = 6 + 4 + 6 = 16
➢ Actually 24 electrons needed for completing the octet of each atom
➢ Thus 24 - 16 = 8 electrons are shared.
➢ Since two electrons make a bond, the molecule should have 4
bonds.
➢ The remaining 8 electrons are lone pair electrons.
Information:
Given: CO2
Find: Lewis structure
Solution Map: formula → skeletal →electron distribution → Lewis
Example:
Write the Lewis structure of
CO2.
O C O....
..
..
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Practice—Draw Lewis Resonance
Structures for CNO−
(C Is Central with N and O Attached)
C = 4
N = 5
O = 6
(-) = 1
Total = 16 e-
N C O••
••
•• ••N C O•
•••
••
••
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Example NO3─
1. Write skeletal structure.
– N is central because it is the
most metallic.
2. Count valence electrons.N = 5
O3 = 3 x 6 = 18
(-) = 1
Total = 24 e-
-
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TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS
• Ionic bonds
• Covalent bonds
• Metallic bonds
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The three possible
types of bonds.
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Ionic compounds consist of a cation and an anion
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula unit
must equal zero. Lewis bonding theory is able to explain ionic bonds
very well.
The ionic compound NaCl
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Ionic bonding
• Ionic substances are formed when an atom
that loses electrons relatively easily react
with an atom that has a high affinity for
electrons.
ex. metal-nonmetal compound
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Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds are formed by the attraction of
oppositely charged ions.
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Ionic Bonds
• Metal to nonmetal.
• Metal loses electrons to form cation.
• Nonmetal gains electrons to form anion.
• The electronegativity between the metal and the nonmetal must be > than 2.
• Ionic bond results from + to − attraction.
– Larger charge = stronger attraction.
– Smaller ion = stronger attraction.
• Lewis theory allows us to predict the correct formulas of ionic compounds.
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Ions that pack as spheres in a very regularpattern form crystalline substances .
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Formation of an Ionic Solid
• 1. Sublimation of the solid metal
M(s) → M(g) [endothermic]
• 2. Ionization of the metal atoms
M(g) →M+(g) + e- [endothermic]
• 3. Dissociation of the nonmetal
1/2X2(g) → X(g) [endothermic]
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Sublimation of Li
Ionization of Li
Dissociation of F2
Electron affinity
of F
Formation
of solid
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Lattice Energy Calculations
k: a proportionality constant that depends on the structure of the solid and the electron configuration of the ions
Q1 and Q2: charges on the ions
r: the shortest distance between the centers of cations and anions
)(Energy Lattice 21
r
QQk=
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More Gains and Losses
• Can elements lose or gain more than one electron?
• The element magnesium, Mg, in Group 2 can lose two electron and element oxygen in Group 6 can gain two electrons to form stable Nobel gas configurations. The ions can come together to form a crystal structure.
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Relative sizes of some ions and
their parent atoms.
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Structure of ionic crystals
Different types
of crystals are
formed
depending on
the ionic radii
and the charge
of the ions
involved.
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How about the bonds between
atoms that have the same
electronegativity (as in H-H
molecule) or when the
electonegativuty difference is <
1.0 (as in C-H)?
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Convalent Bonds—Sharing
• Some atoms are unlikely to lose or gain electrons because the number of electrons in their outer levels makes this difficult.
• Consider the Lewis dot structure of carbon
• The alternative is sharing electrons.
.C... C+4 + 4e-
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Covalent Bonds• Often found between two nonmetals.
• Typical of molecular species.
• Atoms bonded together to form molecules.
– Strong attraction.
• Atoms share pairs of electrons to attain octets.
• Molecules generally weakly attracted to each other.
– Observed physical properties of molecular substance due to these attractions.
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Covalent Bonding
• Electron are shared by nuclei
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The Convalent Bond
• Shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei of both atoms.
• They move back and forth between the outer energy levels of each atom in the covalent bond.
• So, each atom has a stable outer energy level some of the time.
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The formation of a bond between
two atoms.
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An electron density plot for the H2
molecule shows that the shared electrons
occupy a volume equally distributed over
BOTH Hydrogen atoms.
Electron Density for the H2 molecule
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Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds form when atoms share 2 or
more valence electrons.
Covalent bond strength depends on the
number of electron pairs shared by the
atoms.
single
bond
double
bond
triple
bond< <
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Examples of Convalent Bond
• The neutral particle is formed when atoms share electrons is called a molecule
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Single Covalent Bonds
• Two atoms share one pair of electrons.
– 2 electrons.
• One atom may have more than one single bond.
F••
••
•• • F•• •••••
HF••
••
•• ••
••F•• •• H O
•• ••••
••
H•H• O••
•
•
••
F F
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Double Covalent Bond• Two atoms sharing two pairs of electrons.
– 4 electrons.
• Shorter and stronger than single bond.
O O••••
O••
•
•
••O••
••
••
O O
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Chemical Bonds
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Bond Polarity
• Bonding between unlike atoms results in unequal
sharing of the electrons.
– One atom pulls the electrons in the bond closer to its
side.
– One end of the bond has larger electron density than the
other.
• The result is bond polarity.
– The end with the larger electron density gets a partial
negative charge and the end that is electron deficient
gets a partial positive charge.H Cl•
•d+ d-
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Nonpolar and polar covalent bonds
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Probability representations of the
electron sharing in HF.
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Trends in electronegativity across
a period and down a group
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Nature of bonds and electronegativity
Electronegativity Bonddifference (∆)
∆ > 2 Ionic
0.4 < ∆ < 2 Polar covalent
∆ < 0.4 Covalent
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In practice no bond is totally ionic. There will
always be a small amount of electron sharing.
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Percent ionic character of chemical bonds as a
function of electronegativity difference
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Bond Polarity and Dipole
Moments
Dipole Moment
μ=QR
Q: center of charge of
magnitude
R: distance
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Dipole Moment of HF
1D=3.336×10-30 coulomb meter
μ=(1.6×10-19 C)(9.17×10-11 m)=1.47×10-29
=4.4 D for fully ionic
Measured dipole moment=1.83 D
1.83×3.336×10-30=δ(9.17×10-11)
δ=6.66×10-20
Ionic character=1.83/4.4=41.6%
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Bond Polarity
0 0.4 2.0 4.0Electronegativity difference
Covalent Ionic
PolarPure
3.0-3.0
= 0.04.0-2.1
= 1.9
3.0-0.9
= 2.1
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Polar Molecules and Electric Field
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Polarized electron of HCl bond
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Molecular Geometry• Molecules are three-dimensional objects.
• We often describe the shape of a molecule
with terms that relate to geometric figures.
• These geometric figures have characteristic
“corners” that indicate the positions of the
surrounding atoms with the central atom in
the center of the figure.
• The geometric figures also have characteristic
angles that we call bond angles.
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Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR Model)
• It is used to predict the geometries of molecules formed from nonmetals.
• Postulate: the structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron pair repulsion.
• The bonding and nonbonding pairs should be positioned as far apart as possible.
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Predicting a VSEPR Structure
• Draw Lewis structure.
• Put pairs as far apart as possible.
• Determine positions of atoms from the
way electron pairs are shared.
• Determine the name of molecular
structure from positions of the atoms.
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For non-metals compounds, four pairs of
electrons around a given atom prefer prior
to form a tetrahedral geometry to minimize
the electron repulsions.
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• Draw the Lewis structure
• Count the pairs of electrons and arrange them to minimize repulsions
• Determine the positions of the atoms
• Name the molecular structure
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• Lone pairs require more space than bonding pair.
• The bonding pairs are increasingly squeezed together as the number of lone pairs increases.
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• The bonding pair is shared between two nuclei; and the electrons can be close to either nucleus.
• A lone pair is localized on only one nucleus, so both electrons are close to that nucleus only.
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Molecular Geometries
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Molecular Geometries
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Practice drawing these shapes below
Linear TP Tetra TBP Octa
Electron Pairs
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COMPOUND is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a
definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds
H2 H2O NH3 CH4
A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
A poly molecule contains more than two atoms
O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
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Polarity of Molecules
• In order for a molecule to be polar it must:
1. Have polar bonds.
• Electronegativity difference—theory.
• Bond dipole moments—measured.
2. Have an unsymmetrical shape.
• Vector addition.
• Polarity effects the intermolecular forces
of attraction.
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Molecule Polarity
The O—C bond is polar. The bonding
electrons are pulled equally toward both O
ends of the molecule. The net result is a
nonpolar molecule.
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Molecule Polarity
The H—O bond is polar. Both sets
of bonding electrons are pulled
toward the O end of the molecule.
The net result is a polar molecule.
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Water molecule behaves as if it
had a positive and negative end.
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The Covalent Chemical Bond
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Bond Energies
• Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic).
• Bond formation releases energy (exothermic).
• DH = SD(bonds broken) - SD(bonds formed)
energy required energy released
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Bond Energies
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Covalent Bond Energies and
Chemical ReactionsH2+F2→2HF
ΔH=ΣD (bonds broken)-ΣD (bonds formed)
ΔH=DH-H+DF-F-2DH-F=1×432+1×154-
2×565
=-544 kJ
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Bond Energy of CH4
Experimental result : 1652 kJ/mol
C(g)+4H(g) →CH4(g) + 1652 kJ/mol
An average C-H bond energy per mole
of C-H bond: 1652/4=413 (kJ/mol)
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Metallic Bonding
• The model of metallic bonding can be used to explain the properties of metals.
• The luster, malleability, ductility, and electrical and thermal conductivity are all related to the mobility of the electrons in the solid.
• The strength of the metallic bond varies, depending on the charge and size of the cations, so the melting points and DHfusion of metals vary as well.
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IONIC COMPOUNDS vs METALS
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BREAKING INORGANIC MATERIAL
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SLIP PLANES
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ALLOY vs PURE METAL