13
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATIVE LITERATURE
This chapter explained aboutPrevious Studies, Compound Words, Lexical
Meaning, Contextual Meaning, Syntax, Semantic, Compound Words vsKata
Majemuk, Twilight Novel, Stephenie Meyer and Frame of Thinking
A. Previous Studies
Before doing this study, there are few thesis that being the references for
choosing this title. These few thesis:
This study is analyzed by Andrevian Ari Wibowo. His research about
compound words that are found in Handbook of Psycholinguistics subject at
7th
semester. This study is aimed to describe what theforms of compound word
are and what the meanings of compound word are in Handbook of
Psycholinguistics subject at 7th semester by using O‟Grady‟s theoryand
Palmer‟s theory.This is a descriptive qualitative research. The object of this
study is compound words. The technique of collecting data is documentation
method. There are several procedures of collecting data such as reading the
handbook, selecting compound words, and retyping. The data is analyzed by
using tree diagram (O‟Grady‟s theory) and identifying meaning using
Palmer‟s theory.The results of this study are 226 of compound words. Based
on the forms of compound word, there are 158 (69,9%) 0f noun compound, 1
(0,4%) of verb compound and 67 (29,7%) of adjective compound. The total is
226 (100%) of compound words. Based on the meanings of compound, there
14
are 184 (81,4%) of transparent meaning and 42 (18,6%) of opaque meaning.
The total is 226 (100%) of compound words.1
The similarities of Wibowo research with this study is found out the forms
of compound word and the meanings of compound word. And this research
also used O‟grady theory in findings the form of compound words. The
differences are this study used novel as the object of the research whereas his
study used Handbook of Psycholinguistic subject at 7th
semester, this study
found about the written perspective of the compound words using Delahuntly,
Garvey, JD. Murty and Katamba‟s theory, and in identify the meaning using
Nigel Fabb‟s theory. This study used content analysis method.
This study is analyzed by SitiFauziaentitled “Hyphenated Compounds
Sebagai Modifier, Head, Dan Object Of Preposition Pada Novel The Hired
Gun Karta Matthew Branton: KajianMorfosintaksis”. She highlighted
hyphenated compound at the syntactic function, the position of hyphen in
compound words and its meaning. The analysis is from the stand points of
scientific fields of morphosyntax. The method of the study is descriptive
analysis. The data obtained from a novel by Matthew Branton “The Hired
Gun”. The result showed that the elements of hyphenated compound word are
the combination of noun with noun, adjective and noun, adjective with
adjective, noun with verb, and preposition with verb. Hyphenated compound
forms a unity of meaning and act as modifiers, the head; verb and noun, and
1Wibowo, Andrevian, Ari. A Morphological Study on English Compound Words Found in
Handbook of Psycholinguistics Subject At 7th
Semester at Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta.
Article, Muhammadyah University of Surakarta.
(eprints.ums.ac.id>ARTIKEL_PUBLIKASI) (access in March 22nd
, 2015 02.22 p.m)
15
also object of preposition. The result also indicated that position of hyphen in
a phrase can affect the context of meaning. Misused of hyphen in a phrase will
make the meaning ambiguous or ungrammatical meaning.2
The similarities of SitiFauzia‟s study with this study are found about the
hyphenated compound words and also used novel as the object of this study.
And the differences of this study with her study are this study found about the
closed compound words and open compound words; found about the
compound noun, verb, and adjective; and found about the exocentric
compound, endocentric compound and the co-ordinate compound. This study
used content analysis method which also different with Fauzia‟s study that
used descriptive analysis method.
This thesis is analyzed by LeonitaWahyuAryana entitled Analisis
Hyphenated Compound Word dalam Novel the Trumpet-Major karya Thomas
Hardy: SatuKajianMorfologis. Her objective of writing is to examine the
structure of hyphenated compound words which are existed in novel the
Trumpet-Major and also to examine their meanings. The method of this
research is the descriptive method in which the first process is collecting the
data by making a list of every data card. The second step is analyzing them
base on the group of the hyphenated compound word. The result of this
research showed that a lot of rules regulate the forming of hyphenated
2SitiFauzia, Hyphenated Compound sebagai Modifier, Head, dan Object of Preposition pada
Novel The Hired Gun Karya Matthew Branton :KajianMorfosintasis, Thesisi, Bandung,
Widyatama University. (http://repository.widyatama.ac.id/xmlui/handle/123456789/3993) (access
on March 22nd
, 2015 02.40 p.m)
16
compound words and these influence the part of speech of the hyphenated
compound word.3
The similarity of Aryana‟s study between this study is has same way to
determine the hyphenated compound words and use novel as an object. And
the difference is this study determine whole word in the novel with all written
perspective, such as Words Perspective, Written Perspective and meaning
perspective, whereas Aryana has researched the rules regulate the forming of
hyphenated compounds words and those influence the part of speech of the
hyphenated compound word.
B. Compound Word
Compounding, according to Plag (2003: 132), is “the most productive type
of word-formation process in English.” Historically, it has a long tradition in
English: two-thirds of the words in the Old English poem Beowulf, for
instance, are compounds. Compounding involves combining two base
morphemes to create a word with a new meaning that is not necessarily a sum
of the meanings of the individual words. For instance, hot and house have
individual meanings, and a hothouse is certainly a building kept at a high
temperature. But it is not simply any kind of “overheated” building but one in
which plants requiring very high temperatures are grown.4
3LeonitaWahyuAryana, Analisi Hyphenated Compound Word dalam Novel The Trumpet-Major
Karya Thomas Hardy : SatuKajianMorfologis, Thesis, Bandung, Widyatama University
(http://repository.widyatama.ac.id/xmlui/handle/123456789/4017) (access on March 22nd
, 2015
03.00 p.m)
4Charles F. Meyer, Introducing English Linguistic, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2009,
p. 179
17
And more explanation from Nigel Fabb in Spencer and Zwicky (2001 :
66), he said that compounds are subject to phonological and morphological
processes, which may be specific to compounds or may be shared with other
structures, whether derived words or phrases, and their implications.5
The meaning of a compound is usually to some extent compositional,
though it is often not predictable. For example, popcorn is a kind of corn
which pops; once you know the meaning, it is possible to see how the parts
contribute to the whole – but if you do not know the meaning of the whole,
you are not certain to guess it by looking at the meaning of the parts. This lack
of predictability arises mainly from two characteristics of compounds: (a)
compounds are subject to processes of semantic drift, which can include
metonymy, so that a redhead is a person who has red hair; (b) there are many
possible semantic relations between the parts in a compound, as between the
parts in a sentence, but unlike a sentence, in a compound, case, prepositions
and structural position are not available to clarify the semantic relation.Nigel
Fabbdivided compound into 2 classes:
a. Exocentric Compound Words
Exocentric compound are compounds without a head. The
distinction between endocentric and exocentric compounds is
sometimes a matter of interpretation, and is often of little relevance, for
5Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59-66
18
example: whether you think greenhouse is an endocentric or exocentric
compound depends on whether you think it is a kind of house.
b. Endocentric Compound Words
Endocentric compounds are compounds which have a head. A head
in compound of compound has similar characteristics to the head of a
phrase: it represents the core meaning of the constituent, and it is of the
same word class. For example: in sneak-thief, thief is the head (a
sneak-thief is a kind of thief; thief and sneak-thief are both nouns).6
Delahuntly, Garvey, JD. Murty and Katamba said that compound word has
3 forms: the closed form, compounds written as single words (newspaper,
goldfish, highway); the hyphenated form, compounds that are hyphenated
(mother-in-law, second-rate, court-martial); the open form, compounds
written as separated words (end zone, high school, health care)7
In applying the rules in this chapter and in using the list of examples in the
following chapter, “Compounding Examples,” The fluid nature of our
language should be kept in mind. Word forms constantly undergo
modification. Although it is often the case that hyphenated compound words
eventually lose their hyphen, many of them start out unhyphenated.8
a. Open Compound Word
6Spencer, Andrew and Arnold M. Zwicky. 2001. The Handbook of Morphology. UK: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd. Syafa 1/13 7LeonitaWahyuAryana, Analisis Hyphenated Compound Word Dalam Novel The Trumpet-Major
Karya Thomas Hardy :SatuKajianMorfologis, Thesis, Bandung UniversitasWidyatama, 2008. p.
21 (access on March 22nd
, 2015 03.00 p.m) 8 Authenticated U.S Government Information, Compound Example (Access in Saturday, February
22, 2014 07.15 p.m)
19
An open compound word refers to cases when the modifying
adjective generally used with its noun to create a new noun. (This is
not the same as a noun with a modifying adjective). We just use a
space between the adjective and the noun, so sometimes it can be hard
to identify; however, if the two words are commonly used together, it
is considered to be a compound word.
1) Living room
2) Full moon
3) Real estate
4) Dinner table
5) Coffee mug
Open compound words are the only ones where the second word
can be capitalized
1) African American
2) North America9
b. Hyphenated compound words
Hyphenated compound words are the ones – obviously – with the
hyphen in between the words. These words are still evolving into full-
fledged compound words. In some places, they may already be written
as a closed compound word, so you should check the dictionary if you
are not sure (although it is better to use a hyphen than the leave it out).
9http://www.grammarly.com/handbook/mechanics/compound-words/3/open-compound-words/
(access on June 12th
, 2015 02.20 p.m)
20
Hyphenated compound words are the ones which give creative writers
the freedom to create a new English word from two or three old ones.10
1) Mother-in-law
2) Master-at-arms
3) Editor-in-chief
4) Ten-years-old
5) Twelve-pack
c. Closed Compound Word
Closed compound words are the ones that look like one word. At
one point, these words were not used together, but they are now
accepted as a “real word” in the English language. Closed compound
words are usually made up of only two words.11
1) Notebook
2) Superman
3) Waistcoat
4) Bookstore
5) Fireman
Words (that is, lexemes, not word forms) formed from other words, mainly
by means of affixes. Compounds that are words formed by combining roots,
and the much smaller category of phrasal words, that is items that have the
internal structure of phrases but function syntactically as words. Some types of
10
http://www.grammarly.com/handbook/mechanics/compound-words/2/hyphenated-compound-
words/ (access on June 12th
, 2015 02.40 p.m) 11
http://www.grammarly.com/handbook/mechanics/compound-words/1/closed-compound-
words/(access on June 12th
, 2015 02.50 p.m)
21
compound are much commoner than others. There are also some styles of
writing (for example, newspaper headlines) in which compounds are
especially frequent. But first that must deal with an issue that has not arisen so
far, because until now all the complex words that we have looked at have
contained at least one bound morpheme.12
According to O‟grady and
Dobrovolsky compounding differs from language to language, while the
practice in English deals with the combination of some lexical categories, such
as nouns, adjective, verbs or preposition in which the right most morpheme is
called as the head that determiners the category of a compounding. Four types
of compound words into which all lexical categories can combine are noun
and noun such as in street light, camp side, and bookcase, adjective and noun
such as in bluebird, happy hour, and high chair, verb and noun such as in
swearword, washcloth, and scrub lady, and preposition and noun such as in
overlord, outhouse and in group O‟grady and Dobrovolsky. Folk mentions no
combination of verb and noun, and preposition and noun, while O‟grady and
Dobrovolsky mention no combination of preposition and preposition, verb and
preposition, and noun and preposition.13
Roots in English are mostly free rather than bound. A definite answer is
not always possible, but there are enough clear cases to show that the
distinction between compounds and phrases is valid. Consider the expressions
a green house, with its literal meaning, and a greenhouse, meaning a glass
12
Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59 13
Siahaan, Sanggam, Issues in Linguistics, GrahaIlmu : Yogyakarta, 2008, p.45
22
structure (not usually green in color!) where delicate plants are reared. There
is a difference in sound corresponding to the difference in meaning: in the first
expression the main stress is on house, while in the second the main stress is
on green. This pattern of semantic contrast between expressions stressed in
different places is quite common, as in the following examples14
:
(1) black board
„board that is black‟
blackboard
„board for writing on‟
(2) silk worm
„worm made of silk (e.g. a soft toy)‟
silkworm
„caterpillar that spins silk‟
(3) hair net
„net made of hair‟
hairnet
„net for covering hair‟
(4) white house
„house that is white‟
(the) White House
residence of the US President‟
(5) toy factory
„factory that is a toy‟
toy factory
factory where toys are made‟
(e.g. in a model city)‟
The items on the left in (1)–(5), like green house, are phrases, because it is
characteristic of phrases in English to be stressed on the last word, unless
some contrast is being stated or implied (e.g. They live in a white house, nota
yellow one! ‟). The items on the right, stressed on the first element like
greenhouse, are generally classified as compounds – though this stress pattern
14
Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59-66
23
applies consistently only to compound nouns, not to compounds in other word
classes.
Apart from stress, a second criterion traditionally used for distinguishing
compounds from phrases is semantic: a compound tends to have a meaning
that is more or less idiosyncratic or unpredictable. This is true of most of the
compounds in (1)–(5). This criterion must be treated with caution, being
semantically unpredictable does not correlate exactly with being a word. All
the same, it is true that words are more likely to be lexical items than phrases
are, so treating semantic idiosyncrasy as an indicator of compound status will
not often be misleading.
All the compounds in (1)–(5) are nouns, and compound nouns are indeed
the commonest type of compound in English.15
a. Compound verbs
Verbs formed by compounding are much less usual than verbs
derived by affixation. Nevertheless, a variety of types exist which may
be distinguished according to their structure:
1. verb–verb (VV): stir-fry, freeze-dry
2. noun–verb (NV): hand-wash, air-condition, steam-clean
3. adjective–verb (AV): dry-clean, whitewash
4. preposition–verb (PV): underestimate, outrun, overcook
15
Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59-66
24
Only the PV type is really common, however, and some
compounds with under-, over- and out- do not need to be classed as
lexical items. For example, out- can create a transitive verb meaning
„outdo in Xing‟ from any verb denoting a competitive or potentially
competitive activity (e.g. outsail, outsing, outswim), while new words
with over- can also be created freely (e.g. overpolish, overcriticise,
overbleach).
You will notice that all these compounds have a verb as the
rightmost element, and also that, with most of them, the activity
denoted by the compound as whole is a variety of the activity denoted
by that rightmost element. Let us call these compounds right-headed,
the rightmost element being the head.16
b. Compound adjectives
Here are some examples of right-headed compound adjectives:
1. Noun–adjective (NA): sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich
2. adjective–adjective (AA): grey-green, squeaky-clean, red-hot
3. preposition–adjective (PA): underfull, overactive
As with verbs, it is the type with the preposition over as its first
element that seems most productive, in that new adjectives of this type,
with the meaning „too X‟, are readily acceptable: for example,
overindignant, oversmooth. In overactive at (3), the head of the
16
Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59-66
25
compound is the adjective active derived from the verb act in the
fashion. In structure, therefore, this adjective is not a mere string of
morphemes (over + act + -ive), but rather a nested structure: [over[act-
ive]].
Adjectives with a VA structure, corresponding to the VV verbs at
(1), would resemble a hypothetical „float-light‟ „light enough to float‟
or „sing-happy‟ „happy enough to sing‟. One actual example is fail-
safe „designed to return to a safe condition if it fails or goes wrong‟.
However, other such compounds scarcely exist, even though it is easy
enough to find plausible meanings for them. This reflects the relative
reluctance of verbs to participate in compounding generally in English.
All the compounds in 1–3 are right-headed. There are also a few
compound adjectives that are not right-headed.17
c. Compound nouns
It is with nouns that compounding really comes into its own as a
word forming process in English. That is not surprising. Cultural and
technical change produces more novel artifacts than novel activities or
novel properties. These changes therefore generate new vocabulary
needs that are more readily answered by new nouns than by new verbs
or adjectives. Examples can be found with each of the other main word
classes supplying the left-hand element:
1. verb–noun (VN): swearword, drophammer, playtime
17
Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59-66
26
2. noun–noun (NN): hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer
3. adjective–noun (AN): blackboard, greenstone, faintheart
4. preposition–noun (PN): in-group, outpost, overcoat
All of these have the main stress on the left – a characteristic
identified in Section 1 as important for distinguishing compound nouns
from noun phrases. (The fact that hair restorer, butterfly net and
mosquito net are spelled with a space does not affect the fact that, from
the grammatical point of view, they each constitute one complex
word.) Most of these are also right-headed.
If you try to think of more examples for the four types at 1–4, you
will probably find the task easiest for the NN type at 2. In fact, almost
any pair of nouns can be place side by side in English so as to form a
compound or a phrase – provided that there is something that this
compound or phrase could plausibly mean. The issue of meaning turns
out to play an important part in distinguishing two kinds of NN
compound. Consider the four examples at 2. Does each one have a
precise interpretation that is clearly the most natural, on the basis of the
meanings of their two components? For hair restorer, the answer is
surely yes: it most naturally denotes a substance for restoring hair
growth. On the other hand, for hairnet, butterfly net and mosquito net
the answer is less clear. What tells us that a hairnet is for keeping one‟s
hair in place, while a butterfly net is for catching butterflies and a
mosquito net is for keeping mosquitoes away? This information does
27
not reside in the meaning of net, nor in the meanings of hair, butterfly
and mosquito. The most that one can conclude from these individual
meanings is that each is a net that has something to do with hair,
butterflies and mosquitoes respectively. Arriving at the precise
meanings of these compounds depends on our knowledge of the world
(that some people collect butterflies, and that mosquitoes can carry
disease) rather than on purely linguistic knowledge.
The difference in precision with which we can interpret hair
restorer on the one hand and hairnet etc. on the other hinges on the
fact that restorer in hair restorer is derived from a verb (restore).
Verbs, unlike most nouns and adjectives, impose expectations and
requirements on the noun phrases that accompany them in the
sentence. For example, with the verb sleep we expect to find one noun
phrase as subject; with eat we expect to find also a noun phrase as
object; and with give we expect to find, or at least to be able to identify
from the context, a third „indirect object‟ noun phrase denoting the
recipient of the gift. These expected or required nominal concomitants
to a verb are called its arguments. For present purposes, what matters
is that, when the head of a NN compound is derived from a verb, as
restorer is, the most natural way to interpret the whole compound is
quite precise: the first element expresses the object argument of the
verb (that is, the person or thing that undergoes the action). For
28
example, an X-restorer, whatever X is, something or someone that
restores X.
Here are some more compounds whose second element is derived
from a verb:
5. sign-writer, slum clearance, crime prevention, wish-fulfilment
For all of these, the most natural interpretation is clear. To interpret
any of them some other way – for example, to interpret crime
prevention as meaning not „prevention of crime‟ but „use of crime for
preventive purposes‟ – seems contrived and unnatural.
It is time to introduce some terminology, for convenience. Let us
call a NN compound like hairnet or mosquito net, in which the right-
hand noun is not derived from a verb and whose interpretation is
therefore not precisely predictable on a purely linguistic basis, a
primary or rootcompound. Let us call a NN compound like
hairrestoreror slum clearance, in which the first element is interpreted
as the object of the verb contained within the second, a secondaryor
verbalcompound. (Yet another term sometime used is synthetic
compound.)
Paradoxically, then, although verbs are relatively rare as elements
in compounds in English (the swearword pattern is unusual), verbal
compounds, in the sense just defined, are common.
Secondary compounds are certainly right-headed, in that (for
example) crime prevention denotes a kind of prevention and wish-
29
fulfillment denotes a kind of fulfillment. In this respect they are like
most NN compounds and most compounds generally – but not all, as
we shall see in the next section.18
C. Lexical Meaning
Lexical is a linguistic item in dictionary. Lexical meaning is a meaning
defined in the dictionary. This meaning, usually occurs when the word is used
in isolation or not in context or without any correlation to other words. For
example, the lexical meaning of the word “hand” which is described in
Longman‟s dictionary. “hand” the moveable parts at the end of arms,
including the fingers. However, the translator must be careful in choosing or
considering the equivalence for a word before he translates a word. A
translator must concern with the context if he wants to get an appropriate
equivalence in receptor language. A translation does not always change the
language with the receptor language. Therefore, a translator should be smart to
choose the appropriate equivalent. There are some lexical problems which
need attention.
One source language equivalences in receptor language. For example,
source language (SL): they surely needed rice. In Indonesia, the word “rice”
has a lot of equivalences such as “padi”, “gabah” , “beras” , or “nasi”. A
translator should reach and see the context besides the word or the sentence. If
there is another sentence, he would not find any difficulties.19
18
Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy, An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and Their
Structure,Edinburgh University Press, 2002, p. 59-66 19
Budianto, Langgeng, FardhaniAan E. A Practical Guide for Translation Skill, Malang : UIN-
Maliki Press, 2010, P.37-38
30
D. Contextual Meaning
According to Suryawinata (1989:23), contextual meaning or situational
meaning is a meaning that is appeared from a situation or context where the
phrase sentence or utterance is used. In pragmatic knowledge, the element of
the context or situation is participant, setting, purpose, topic and
communication‟s element. An expression of “good morning: can have
different meaning although it is the same to be pronounced by an employer to
his employee. “Good morning” means a warning if the employee comes late.
Therefore, a translator must be smart to translate this two expressions of good
morning, because one of them means “selamatpagi” in Indonesia and the other
means “kamuterlambatlagu”, which shows the situational meaning. “Good
morning” is not always equivalent with “selamatpagi” if we concern with the
setting when the dialogue happens. At 01.00 a.m. greeting is “selamatmalam”‟
in Indonesia and “good morning” in English. This, the proper meaning of the
utterance mainly depends on the context at the time it is spoken.
Suryawinata (1985) gives another example: the phrase “good morning” is
usually used as a greeting when someone meets others in the morning and it
brings a message of friendliness or warmness. But in different situation the
greetings “good morning” changes its meaning quite extreme as that shown in
the new situation below.
“A staff, which always comes late and is lazy, is being questioned by his
manager but he is arguing and sure with his own reasons. This makes the
manager irritates. At last he shouts: „That is enough. Good morning!’
(Suryawinata, 1985)
31
The utterance Good morning which is spoken in high tone and rising
intonation is completely not a greeting, but it is a sign of commanding the
staff to go out of the room as quickly as possible. There isn‟t any friendliness
message anymore in the greeting, but an anger or insult. Therefore, the result
of the idiomatic translation in Indonesian is as follows “Cukup. Keluar!”20
In translation the meaning of compound words that was used in Twilight
novel in this study used lexical meaning which has a real meaning from the
dictionary that used Oxford Dictionary by Oxford University, and also used
contextual meaning that has different meaning from the dictionary but
sometimes had unique meaning depend on the text that is used in Twilight
Novel.
E. Syntax
Syntax is one of the core domains of linguistic. Other core domains are
morphology, semantics, pragmatic, phonetic and phonology. While
morphology investigates the internal structure of words, syntax concentrates
on how words are arranged in a sentence. It is concerned with the structure of
sentences and the smaller parts which make up sentences.21
Compounding
word is part of the concentration of syntax that how words are arranged in a
sentence. Syntax arranged free word into the new word that has new meaning
on it.
20
Budianto, Langgeng, FardhaniAan E. A Practical Guide for Translation Skill, Malang : UIN-
Maliki Press, 2010, P.40-41 21
Schonenberger, Manuela. Introduction to Syntax.University of Oldenburg.(www.uni-
oldenburg.de>cornelia.hamann)
32
In Ardiyanto‟s thesis Miller said “Syntax has to do with how word are put
together to build clauses or bigger phrases, and with how clauses are put
together to build sentences.” Miller‟s theory said about syntax is make the
original word together to build clauses or phrases and also sentences. Whereas
Robert said “Syntax is the area of grammar that is concerned with the relations
of words in sentences, the way in which they are put together to form
sentences.”22
According to the Robert‟s theory said about syntax is about the
concerned of the relations of words in sentences which is also concern on the
combining words.
F. Semantic
According to Lyons in Leonita‟s thesis semantic is traditionally defined as
the study of meaning; and this is the definition which we shall initially adopts.
Lyons explains that there are six theories about the meaning, such as :
a. The referential (or denotational) theory (“the meaning of an
expression is what it refers to (or denotes), or stands for”; e.g., „Fido
means Fido, „dog‟ means either the general class of dogs at the
essential property which they all share);
b. The ideational, or mentalistic, theory (“the meaning of an expression
is the idea, or concept, associated with it in the mind of anyone who
knows and understand the expression”);
22
Ardiyanto.AnalisisSintaksisdanSemantisFrasaVerbaBerpartikel Out atauOffdalam Novel If
Tomorrow Comes Karya Sidney Sheldon danTerjemahannya.Thesis, Bandung, Widyatama
University. P.5 (access on April 4th
, 2015 02.10 p.m)
33
c. The behaviorist theory (“the meaning of an expression is either the
stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination
of both, on particular occasions or utterance”);
d. The meaning-is-use theory (“the meaning of an expression is
determined by, if not identical with, its use in the language”);
e. The verificationist theory (“the meaning of an expression, if it has
one, is determined by the verifiability of the sentences, or prepositions,
containing it”);
f. The truth-conditional theory (“the meaning of an expression is its
contribution to the truth-conditions of the sentences containing it”)23
Lyons theory about semantic has six theories about meaning. The
referential theory, the ideational theory, the behaviorist theory, the meaning-
is-use theory, the verificationist theory and the truth-conditional theory are
easy to get the meaning of the compound words which are found in the novel.
It depend on each words would used one of each theory of semantic.
For make it simpler, this study determined the meaning of compound word
used connotation and connotation. Connotation and Denotation are two
principal methods of describing the meanings of words. Connotation refers to
the wide array of positive and negative that most words naturally carry with
23
LeonitaWahyuAryana, Analisi Hyphenated Compound Word dalam Novel The Trumpet-Major
Karya Thomas Hardy : SatuKajianMorfologis, Thesis, Bandung, Widyatama University
(http://repository.widyatama.ac.id/xmlui/handle/123456789/4017) (access on March 22nd
, 2015
03.00 p.m)
34
them, whereas denotation is the precise, literal definition of a word that might
be found in a dictionary.
G. Compound words versus Kata Majemuk
According to Ramlan in ZaenalArifin‟s thesis, “Kata majemukialah kata
yang terdiridaridua kata sebagaikomponenunsurnya” and Rahardjo said
about kata majemuk “Kata majemukadalahgabungandaridua kata ataulebih
yang eratsekali, sehinggamembentuksuatukesatuandansuatuartibaru.”24
In
the meaning of the compound words, Indonesian version and English version
is not made any difference. According to Marcella Frank theory in Eka‟s
thesis said that the term of compound means consisting of two or more
independent element that have been joined together to form a large unit.25
Between three theories above, there are no differences in the meaning of
compound words.
These are the example of compound words :
1. Mind-numbing
2. Bathroom
3. Gray-green
4. Blow-dry
These are the example of kata majemuk :
24
ZaenalArifin, A Morphological Study On English Compound Words Found In Kangguru Radio
English Magazine, Thesis, Malang, State Islamic University Maulana Malik Ibrahim Of Malang.
P.22 (http://lib.uin-malang.ac.id/?mod=th_viewer&id=fullchapter/04320061.pdf) (access on
November 13th
,2015 02.00 p.m) 25
EkaPutriGinting, AnalisisPsikologisTokohUtama Masako Dalam Novel “Princess Masako”
karya Benn Hills, Sumatera Utara, UniversitasSumeatera Utara, 2011. p 17
(http://repository.usu.ac.id/handle/123456789/29537) (access on July 18th
, 2015 02.00 p.m)
35
1. Kapaludara
2. Naikturun
3. Keraskepala
4. Tuamuda
Based on the example above there is no differences between them, it has
new meaning when it combined to be one word. The difference is when the
new word in the context, it has own meaning that did not mean in real
meaning, and when the English words translated into Indonesian it was not all
have the same function as a compound in Indonesian.
H. “Twilight” Novel
Twilight is a young-adult vampire-romance novel by author Stephenie
Meyer. It is the first book of the Twilight series, and introduces seventeen-
year-old Isabella "Bella" Swan, who moves from Phoenix, Arizona to Forks,
Washington and finds her life in danger when she falls in love with a vampire,
Edward Cullen. The novel is followed by New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking
Dawn.
When first published in hardback in 2005, it reached No. 5 on the New
York Times Best Seller list within a month of its release and eventually
reached No. 1. That same year, Twilight was named one of Publishers
Weekly‟s Best Children‟s Books of 2005. The novel was also the biggest
selling book of 2008 and the second biggest selling of 2009, only behind its
sequel New Moon. It has been translated into 37 different languages.
36
When first published, Twilight gained mostly positive reactions. Critics
often described it as a “dark romance that seeps into the soul” and praised it
for capturing “perfectly the teenage feeling of sexual tension and alienation”.
On the other hand, in more recent reviews, some critics thought that Bella‟s
appeal to Edward was “based on magic rather than characters” and that Bella
is a weak female character.
A film adaption of Twilight was released in 2008. It was a commercial
success, grossing more than 392 million dollars worldwide and an additional
157 million dollars from North American DVD sales, as of July 2009.26
Twilight was released in 2005 to rave reviews, quickly becoming a best-
seller. An active member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,
Meyer had eschewed strong sexuality in her writing, supplanting it with florid
sensuality-a draw for her numerous (and primarily female) reader.
Twilight was honored as a New York Times “Editor‟s Choice and
Publishers Weekly Best Book of the Year.” The following year, Meter
published her sophomore effort, the sequel New Moon, and sold the film rights
to Twilight. With the third and fourth installments, Eclipse (2007) and
Breaking Dawn (2008), Meyer‟s series has sold more 250 million copies, and
has been translated into 37 languages. The books were also adapted for a film
series amassing five installments, including The Twilight Saga: Breaking
Dawn- Part 2, released in November 2012. Grossing nearly $200 million
26
Twilight.Inwikipedia.org (http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twilight_2008)) (Access in April 06th
,
2014 02.00 p.m)
37
domestically, the Twilight film series stars Kristen Stewart (Bella Swan),
Robert Pattinson (Edward Cullen) and Taylor Lautner (Jacob Black).27
I. Stepehie Meyer
Stepehie Meyer, born on December 24, 1973, in Hartford, Connecticut, is
the best-selling author of the Twilight book series. Inspired by a dream, she
wrote the first book and attracted the attention of agent Jodi Reamer, who
secured her a three-book publishing deal. The books have sold more than 250
million copies, been translated into 37 languages, and adapted for a hit film
series that includes five installments.
On June 2, 2003, Meyer became an author in earnest. Following a
compelling dream-the inspiration for the Twilight book series, and the basis
for Chapter 13 of its first book- Meyer began a frenzied writing spree. The
series‟ early chapters explored the romance between Edward Cullen, a
vampire, and Bella Swan, a human girl. Influenced by authors like William
Goldman, Orson Scott and Douglas Adam, Meyer worked diligently to flesh
out the story, often writing while her children slept.
Within three months, Meyer had created a 500 pages manuscript and
begun searching for a publishing contact. Using advice taken from author
Janet Evanovich‟s website, she was eventually contacted by Jodi Reamer, a
literary agent at Writer‟s House. Reamer and Meyer worked together to polish
the manuscript- among other things, Reamer insisted that Meyer change her
first title, Forks, to the current title- and the book was soon presented to
27
www.biogrphy.com (http://www.biography.com/people/stephenie-meyer-456668#commercial-
success) (Access in April 06th
, 2014 02.00 p.m)
38
publishing houses. Not long after, Reamer secured a three-book deal from
Little, Brown and Company, which included a $750.000 advance-the highest
sum the publishing house had ever paid a new writer at the time.
Like J.K Rowling‟s Harry Potter franchise, Meyer‟s book bridged the gap
between teen and adult fiction. She also increased her popularity through her
online accessibility, and frequently made herself available to her fan base. In
2008, Meyer released her first non-Twilight work. The Host, a grittier novel
targeted at an adult audience, features an alien romance instead. Meyer‟s
Twilight books, as well as the film franchise, continue to garner media and fan
attention.28
28
www.biography.com (http://www.biography.com/people/stephenie-meyer-456668#commercial-
success) (Access in April 06th
, 2014 02.00 p.m)
39
Figure 1.1 Frame of Thinking
Discussion
Conclusion
Compound Words Used in Twilight
Novel Written by Stephenie Meyer
The form of
compound
word
The function
of compound
word
The Meaning
of compound
word