Download - Chapter 3: Racial & Ethnic Inequality
RACE & ETHNICITY
THE SOCIAL MEANING OF
RACE & ETHNICITY
RACE
Race – a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of society consider important Such As?
Skin Color Hair Texture Facial Features Body Shape
Highly variable concept. Varies across time and place.
We consider racial differences more important than other societies do.
In the US we tend to “see” just 3 racial categories: white, black, and Asian. Other cultures are different (ex: Brazil).
The Social Construction of Race: The US Census & Others
Defined differently by different people within a society. Ex: Colorism Among African-Americans
RACIAL TYPES
Invented by scientists over 100 years ago to organize
the world’s physical diversity.
Initial categories were Caucasoid, Negroid, and
Mongoloid. Misleading at best and harmful at worst.
Knowing people’s race allows us to predict almost
nothing about them, but societies still consider race
very important. Why? Categories allow societies to rank people in a hierarchy,
giving some people more money, power, and prestige
than others and allowing some people to feel that they
are naturally “better” than others.
So it is all about stratification and the justification for
stratification!
ETHNICITY
Ethnicity – a shared cultural heritage, which typically
involves common ancestors, language, and religion
Give people a unique social identity.
Also socially constructed, only becoming important when
society defines it that way.
Race (biological) & ethnicity (cultural) do go hand-in-
hand sometimes.
US Society Hundreds of Ethnicities
Is “American” an ethnicity?
American Ethnic Food
INTERRACIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Racial and ethnic categories are becoming increasingly
diluted due to the increase in interracial relationships
and child-bearing.
Young people are more supportive of interracial
relationships than older people.
Trends in Interracial Relationships
RACIAL AND ETHNIC CATEGORIES IN THE
UNITED STATES, 2006SOURCE: U.S. CENSUS BUREAU, 2007
MINORITIES
Minorities – any category of people, identified by
physical or cultural traits, that a society subjects to
disadvantage Identity
Minorities share a distinctive identity .
Ability to blend in depends on the desire to hold on to
traditions and the willingness of others to accept.
Power Minorities are disadvantaged, receiving less schooling and
lower-paying jobs.
Not everyone in any minority category is disadvantaged.
Fewer Numbers? Not as important anymore! Over 25% of the US population are a R or E minority.
Majority minority in over ½ the 100 largest US cities and in
4 US states (Map on Next Slide).
NATIONAL MAPWHERE THE M INORITY MAJORITY A LREADY EX ISTS
PREJUDICE & STEREOTYPES
PREJUDICE
Prejudice – any rigid and unfounded generalization about an
entire category of people
Prejudgement developed before interaction.
Difficult to change.
Positive vs. Negative
Involve social class, gender, religion, age, political
orientation, and sexual orientation.
Most are based on race and/or ethnicity.
Exs: Black people are lazy. Asians are smart.
Stereotypes – an exaggerated description applied to every
person in some category
Rigid beliefs that are often at odds with reality.
Typically negative, but not always.
Ex: All black men are criminals.
Stuff White People Like
There are ethnic stereotypes as well.
MEASURING PREJUDICE
Measuring Prejudice: The Social Distance Scale
Bogardus (1925) – developed the social
distance scale to measure prejudice among
students at US colleges
Asked students how closely they were willing to
interact with people in 30 racial and ethnic
categories.
7 Point Scale
Marriage Barred from the Country
On Next Slide
BOGARDUS SOCIAL DISTANCE RESEARCH
MEASURING PREJUDICE:
RESULTS
Bogardus’ Results (1925):
Found that people feel much more distance from some
categories of people than from others.
Most prejudiced against Latinos, African Americans,
Asians, and Turks.
Most accepting of the English, Scots, and Canadians.
Parillo & Donoghue’s Results (2005):
More accepting of all minorities.
See less difference between the various minorities.
Increased prejudice against Arabs and Muslims.
Another Modern Study
RACISM
Racism – the belief that one racial category is innately
superior or inferior to another Why is racism so widespread?
Because the claim that people are biologically inferior can
be used to justify making them socially inferior.
Past: Colonization & Slavery
Present: Hate Groups
Institutional Racism – racism at work in the operation
of social institutions, including the economy, schools,
hospitals, the military, and the criminal justice system Prejudice is institutional when attitudes are part of the
society’s culture so that there’s a widespread pattern.
Ex: The belief inherent in the CJS that minorities are
more likely to commit crimes.
DISCRIMINATION
DISCRIMINATION
What’s the difference between prejudice and discrimination? Discrimination – the unequal treatment of various categories
of people Prejudice = Attitudes / Discrimination = Actions Can be positive (+) or negative (--). Ruling out an entire category of people is wrongful
discrimination and it is illegal. Ex: Only interviewing applicants that have “Asian-sounding”
names for a job opening. Race & Crime
Institutional Discrimination – discrimination that is built into the operation of social institutions, including the economy, schools, and the legal system Ex: The widespread practice among police of pulling people
over for DWB, “driving while black.” Ex: News Coverage of Crime Victims
VICIOUS CYCLE
Prejudice &
Discrimination: A Vicious
Circle
Thomas Theorem at
work!
Prejudice and
discrimination
reinforce each other.
Police Example
CONSEQUENCES OF P&D
What are they?
Class Standing
Wealth
Wealth Gap
Types of Jobs Available
Joblessness
The link between race & class is so strong that the two
are often conflated (become fused).
Health Outcomes
Childhood Asthma
Infant Mortality
Birth Rate
CONSEQUENCES OF P&D
Beliefs About Self
Racism in Toyland
Tokenism
Doctoring Diversity
Black Top Chefs
Commodification
Orientalism
Objectification of the Native via Tourism
Fetishization
Fethishization of the Black Body
Exclusion from Media & Public Life
Cast of Glee on Cover of Rolling Stone
Left Out of Politics
PATTERNS OF MAJORITY-
MINORITY INTERACTION
PATTERNS OF MAJORITY-
MINORITY INTERACTION
1. Genocide – the systematic killing of one category of
people by another 1500s+: Colonization
1930s & 1940s: Nazis in Germany & Stalin in Russia
Late 1970s: Cambodia
Present: Hutus massacre of the Tutsis in Rwanda; Serbs
murders of the Croats in E. Europe; Darfur in Sudan
2. Segregation – the physical and social separation of
categories of people Sometimes minorities self-segregate, but usually the
majority segregates minorities by forcing them to the
margins of society.
De Jure (by law) vs. De Facto (in fact) Segregation
Challenging segregation is difficult due to ↓ power.
PATTERNS OF MAJORITY-
MINORITY INTERACTION
3. Assimilation – the process by which minorities gradually adopt cultural patterns from the dominant majority population Melting Pot – minorities adopt the cultural patterns of the
dominant majority Ex: English as the Official Language Varies by region.
4. Pluralism – a state in which people of all racial and ethnic categories have about the same overall social standing Salad Bowl – cultural patterns co-exist No minority category is subject to disadvantage. US: All people have equal standing under the law, but
tolerance for diversity is limited.
Which best represents modern US society? We are arguably somewhere between assimilation and
pluralism, but leaning more toward assimilation.
RACE & ETHNICITY IN THE U.S.
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
Native Americans
Hundreds of distinct societies.
1400s: Conflict began with European explorers.
Referred to as “bringing civilization” to the New World.
Seen as the destruction of their civilizations.
Originally viewed as independent nations, but eventually
squelched through military power.
1871: Declared wards of the federal government.
Goal: Assimilation – Christianity, Reservations, English
1924: Gained full citizenship.
Low social standing likely due to cultural factors as well
as P&D due to their darker skin (Albon 1971).
Table 11-2, p. 318 – Continuing Disadvantage
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
WASPs Dominated the nation after European settlement began.
12% of our modern society, mostly from England as well
as Scotland and Wales..
Found at all class levels.
Experienced less P&D than other immigrants because of
their work ethic (due to Protestantism – Weber!).
Never a united group – much in-group hostility.
WASP wealth & power peaked in the 1950, but their
legacy remains. English is the dominant language.
Protestantism is the dominant religion.
Legal system has English roots.
Privileged referent – everyone else is a race or ethnicity.
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
African Americans
1619: Beginning of slavery.
1661: First slave law in Virginia.
1776: Slavery was legal in every state.
1808: Slave trade declared illegal after over 500k arrived.
1863: Emancipation Proclamation
1868: Citizenship granted to all people.
1940s-60s: Ending legal segregation.
Sidestepped the D of I by claiming A-As weren’t people.
Despite major progress, currently A-As face continued
P&D and it is reflected in their lower social standing.
Table 11-3, p. 320 – Continuing Disadvantage
Note: There are NON-African blacks in the US!
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
Asian Americans Over 4% of the US Population and 33% of All Immigrants
Very diverse group from a variety of different Asian countries.
Suffered immense P&D in the mid-20th century. 1882: Chinese Exclusion Act – ended the flow of new immigrants from
China (followed by similar provisions for other Asian immigrants)
1920: Some states banned interracial marriage.
WW2: Executive Order 9066 – forced the relocation of all Japanese-
Americans to military camps
1988: Symbolic compensation of $20k given to all surviving inmates.
Often described as the model minority due to emphasis on
education.
Many have assimilated, particularly those of high SES. But many also remain segregated.
But anti-Asian prejudice remains strong.
Table 11-4, p. 322 – Less Disadvantage than Other Minorities
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
Hispanic Americans/Latinos
2006: 44M Hispanics, 14.8% of the US Population
There are many Latino cultures.
Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans – all came for different
reasons
Typically economically motivated.
Map 11-3, p. 324 – Southwest Concentration
Table 11-5, p. 325 – Below Average Social Standing
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
Arab Americans
1.2M Arab Americans, 1% of the US Population
Increasing in size.
Arab cultures are also diverse.
“Arab” is an ethnic category, while “Muslim” refers to a
follower of Islam.
Most Arabs are Muslim; Most Muslims are NOT Arabs.
Diverse in terms of social class.
Table 11-6, p. 327 – High Poverty Rate
Rising hostility toward Arab-Americans since 9/11.
Arabs often downplay their ethnicity to avoid P&D.
THE SOCIAL STANDING OF
US MINORITIES
White Ethnic Americans
Non-WASPs with ancestors from Ireland, Poland,
Germany, Italy, or other European countries.
White Ethnics – recognizes the ethnic heritage and social
disadvantages of many white people
Over 50% of the US population.
Due to high rates of immigration from Europe in the 19th c.
Have historically experienced P&D.
Some formed supportive residential enclaves.
Gained a foothold in specific trades.
Diverse in terms of their social standing.
Ethnic heritage is often a source of pride now.
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
THEORIES OF P&D
Authoritarian Personality Theory (Adorno 1950) - prejudice
is strong in people with an authoritarian personality
Feel a lot of hostility and conform to conventional norms.
See the world as right vs. wrong and us vs. them.
Can be caused by cold and demanding parents and limited
schooling, leading to little tolerance for others.
Scapegoat Theory – prejudice develops among people who
are frustrated at their lack of control over their lives and
blame someone safe rather than the real cause
Cultural Theory – prejudice is built into our culture
Conflict Theory – prejudice is used as a tool by powerful
people to justify privileges for themselves and to oppress
others
Which do you most agree with? Why?
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
S-F Analysis: The Importance of Culture
Different cultural orientations can lead to unequal social
standing.
Culture of Poverty
Lewis (1966) – “Fatalism”
Poor Low Self-Esteem Sense of Hopelessness Don’t
Take Advantage of Opportunities
Fordham & Ogbu (1992) - Oppositional Culture
Discourages achievement by labeling it as “acting white.”
Critical Review
Culture is central and important.
Blames the victim.
If disadvantaged people lack optimism and confidence, it
is more the result than the cause of low social standing.
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
S-I Analysis: The Personal Meaning of Race
WEB DuBois (late 19th c.) – every time black and white
people meet, race hangs in the air, defining each in the eyes
of the other A-As live with a “double consciousness,” a sense of always
looking at oneself through the eyes of others. Avatar & “The Veil”
US society makes whites the standard by which all people are
measured.
Race is a master status, a trait that defines and devalues.
Critical Review Race and ethnicity are a key building block of the reality we
experience in everyday life.
Race involves more than personal understandings. Important Structure
Dimension of Social Stratification
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
S-C Analysis: The Structure of Inequality
The unequal standing of minorities reflects the organization
of society itself.
Class, race, and ethnicity operate together as important
dimensions of social inequality.
Importance of Class (Marx) Roots of social inequality lie in economy.
Criticized capitalism for concentrating wealth in the hands of
a small elite.
Capitalists play up racial and ethnic differences to keep the
working class divided.
Critical Review Downplays what people have in common.
Removes people’s responsibility for their own lives.
Ignores the significant strides we have made in dealing with
social diversity.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
What is the difference between race & ethnicity?
Why do we consider ethnicity, and particularly race,
such a defining characteristic?
What are some ways in which race & ethnicity are (or
have been) socially constructed?
Why should we study the sociology of race?
What can we do to fight prejudice & discrimination?
What are the various theoretical views of race?
CONCLUSION
Race and ethnicity are socially constructed!
Primarily as a tool to justify stratification.
Categorizing people based on race and ethnicity is frowned
upon in our society.
But R&E inequality persist & minorities experience P&D.
Exists in the actions of individuals.
And in the operation of society itself.
Sociologists have tried to explain racial and ethnic stratification
in a variety of ways.
Racial and ethnic inequality will remain an important issue for
years to come, particularly as immigration to the US continues.
Any questions?
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION
WRAP-UP
Ultimately many factors about individuals are socially
constructed:
Sex
Gender
Race
Ethnicity