Argumentation
Structure and Development
On Argumentation:
“The aim of argument, or of discussion, should not be victory, but progress.” -Joseph Joubert, Pensees, 1842
Argument vs PersuasionPersuasion: method writer uses to
move audience (belief or action) – Relies on appeals
Argumentation: the appeal to reason– Does not try to move an audience– Primary purpose: demonstrate certain
ideas are valid and others are not– Most effective arguments combine
appeals
Basic Structure of an Argument
Makes PointsSupplies EvidenceEstablishes logical chain or
reasoningRefutes Opposing ArgumentsAccommodates the views of the
Audience
An Argument:
In an argument a writer or speaker has a specific purpose for addressing a targeted audience. He/she uses reasoning to accept or reject an idea based on its validity and truth.
An argument has a thesis statement or claim (a stand on the issue), which is supported with various premises (evidence).
When analyzing an argument:
Determine the credibility of the writers and their purposes for writing.
Be familiar with how writers appeal to targeted audiences by using three classical strategies:
Three different strategies are:PathosEthosLogos
Rhetorical TriangleAPPEALS TO LOGIC AND REASONING [logos]
APPEALS TO EMOTIONS [pathos]
APPEALS TO CREDIBILITY AND CHARACTER [ethos]
PURPOSE
Rhetorical TriangleAPPEALS TO LOGIC APPEALS TO LOGIC AND REASONING AND REASONING [logos][logos]
APPEALS TO APPEALS TO EMOTIONS EMOTIONS [pathos][pathos]
APPEALS TO APPEALS TO CREDIBILITY CREDIBILITY AND AND CHARACTER CHARACTER [ethos][ethos]
PURPOSE
At the core of the rhetorical At the core of the rhetorical triangle is purpose.triangle is purpose.
You must gain practice in identifying precisely writer’s apparent purposes.
Logical Appeal [Logos]
Appeals to an audience’s reasoning or logic
Language may be more dispassionate, appealing to the intellect rather than the emotions.
Be able to identify:INDUCTIVE
REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
specific to general conclusion (ISG = inductive moves from specific to general)
general to specific conclusion (DoGS = deductive moves from general to specific)
Also be able toUnderstand the flaws
in logic (logical fallacies).
Recognize concession and counterargument.
ConcessionAn expression of concern for
the feelings of those who may disagree with the writer’s position.
Shows the writer to be a logical thinker and a concerned, fair-minded person who realizes that every argument has two sides.
Counterargument Three parts: - acknowledging
(concession)
- accommodating (“setting
them up”)
- refuting (“shooting them
down”)
Logical reasoning will also rely on:Facts and evidenceresearchtradition (precedent)authoritiescause/effectanalogieseffective metaphors
Emotional Appeal [Pathos]
Passion, not logic, stirs most people to take a stance.
Writers will use a friendlier, more relaxed tone and appeal to the basic needs that all people have:
physical needs--life and health of the body
psychological needs--a person’s inner life, the need for love and self-respect
social needs--the need for freedom, for status and power, for acceptance by others
Three strategies to employ:connotative diction, imagery,
metaphorsappeals to pity, compassion--the
qualities that unite all humanscarefully crafted syntax such as
parallelism, anaphora, etc. to appeal to the reader’s sense of order and control
Pathos Question
How has the writer appealed to audience’s emotions?
Ethical Appeals [Ethos]Ethos in Greek loosely translates to
“character”possess good character and argue
in ways that reveal that good character
audience should see writers as people very much like themselves--establish credibility
Ethos QuestionsHow does the writer or
speaker present himself as reliable, good?
How does the writer or speaker aim to build bridges with the audience or opposition?
Ethos Strategiesmake qualified claims (exceptions
to rules, “perhaps” “some” “many”)restate opposing view accurately
and fairlyassociate self with relevant
authorities; relevant allusionsuse first-person plural pronouns
“we” “us” to establish a relationship
In Persuasive essay address issue in one of three ways:Defend, or agree with a positionChallenge, or disagree with a
positionQualify, or make the claim more
flexible by adding certain terms: almost, may, probably, in most cases, hardly, sometimes, might, frequently, usually, often et. al.
Rhetorical Devices
Repetition/Anaphora (deliberate use of any element of language more than once)
Allusion (reference to a mythological,
literary, or historical person place or thing)
Parallelism/Antithesis