Download - ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
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ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
CAMPBELL & REECECHAPTER 51
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ANIMAL BEHAVIOR
• a behavior is an action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus
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Behavior • over time is subject to natural
selection • understanding any behavior requires
answering 4 ?s1. What stimulus elicits the behavior, & what
physiological mechanisms mediate the response?
2. How does the animal’s experience during growth & development influence the response?
3. How does the behavior aid survival & reproduction?
4. What is the behavior’s evolutionary history?
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Behavioral Ecology
• study of the ecological & evolutionary basis for animal behavior
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Fixed Action Patterns
• sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus
• are essentially unchangeable• once started, they continue to
completion• sign stimulus: the trigger for the
behavior
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Migration
• a regular long-distance change in location
• animals use environmental stimuli to provide cues to trigger behavior
• some animals track their position relative to the Sun (even though Sun’s position relative to Earth changes thru out the day)
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Migration
• animals adjust to changes in Sun’s or stars position by means of circadian clock
• some use magnetic fields (pigeons & some fishes)
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Behavioral Rhythms
• linked to seasons called: circannual rhythms– influenced by periods of daylight &
darkness in the environment– birds exposed to artificial light
simulating longer daylight hrs will start to migrate
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Behavioral Rhythms
• not all are linked to light/dark–male fiddler crab waves large claw to
attract mates using signal of full or new moon
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Animal Signals & Communication
• a stimulus transmitted from 1 animal to another is called a signal
• transmission & reception of signals constitutes animal communication
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Forms of Animal Communication
• 4 common modes of animal communication:
1. Visual2. Chemical3. Tactile4. Auditory
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Forms of Animal Communication
• courtship behavior of Drosophila melanogaster– is a stimulus-response chain (response
to each stimulus is the stimulus for next behavior
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Symbolic Language of the Honeybee
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Pheromones
• chemical substances released by animals that communicate thru odors or tastes
• common among mammals & insects• often related to reproductive
behavior
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Pheromones as Alarm Signals
• in fish: if 1 injured injured cells release substance that increases vigilance of other fish school becomes more tightly packed move to lake or river bottom where they are safer
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Innate Behavior
• animal behavior that is developmentally fixed & under strong genetic control
• it is exhibited in virtually same form in all individuals in a population despite internal & external environmental differences during development & thru out their lifetimes
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Experience & Behavior
• How do researchers test the 2nd ?:• How an animal’s experience during
growth & development influence the response to stimuli?
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Cross-Fostering Study
• young of 1 species placed under the care of adults from another species
• these studies can be used to measure the influence of social environment & experience on behavior
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Human Twin Studies
• compare behaviors of identical twins raised apart with those raised in same household– studies have revealed nature & nuture
both contribute significantly
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Learning
• modification of behavior based on specific experiences
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Imprinting
• formation at a specific stage in life of a long-lasting behavioral response to a specific individual or object
• distinguished from other types of learning by having a sensitive period or critical period: a limited developmental phase when this type of learning can occur
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Imprinting
• during the sensitive period:– the young imprint on their parent &
learn basic behaviors of their species– parents learn to recognize their
offspring
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Imprinting
• birds have no innate recognition of “mother”
• they identify with the 1st object they encounter that has certain key characteristics (like any object that is moving away from them)
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Greylag Geese Imprinting of Lorenz: 1933
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Saving the Whooping Cranes
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Spatial Learning
• establishment of a memory that reflects the environment’s spatial structure
• studied digger wasps:–Mother covers entrance with sand when
leaves nest..always comes right back to it
– hypothesized she locates her nest by learning its position relative to local landmarks
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Digger Wasp Study
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Cognitive Map
• some animals guide their activity using a cognitive map: a representation in the nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundings
• these animals can navigate more flexibly & efficiently by relating landmark positions to one another
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Associative Learning
• ability to associate 1 environmental feature (like color) with another (foul taste)
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Associative Learning
• suited to lab studies because usually involves classical conditioning or operant conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
• an arbitrary stimulus becomes associated with a particular outcome
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Operant Conditioning
• aka “trial-and –error” learning
• animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment & then tends to repeat or avoid that behavior
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Associative Learning & Evolution
• makes sense that some animals cannot learn to make particular connections…
• associations animals make typically reflect relationships likely to occur in nature
• associations that cannot be formed are those unlikely to be of selective advantage in a native environment
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Cognition
• process of knowing that involves:– awareness– reasoning– recollection– judgement
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Cognition
• has been thought that only humans, higher apes & marine mammals
• but...some insects & many other groups of animals have demonstrated some levels of cognition in lab experiments
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Problem Solving
• the cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from 1 state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles
• varies with individual experience & abilities
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Development of Learned Behaviors
• some birds learn their songs in stages (during a sensitive period)– young sparrow does not sing but memorizes
adult songs– followed by a 2nd learning phase when
juvenile bird sings tentative notes called a subsong
– juvenile bird compares his subsong to adult song..when he has it right the song “crystallizes”…bird will only sing that song rest of life
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Social Learning
• modification of behavior thru observation of other individuals
• young chimps learn to crack nuts by watching their elders
• young vervet monkeys learn correct use of alarm calls by (+) reinforcement from elders
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Social Learning
• forms the roots of culture (a system of information transfer thru social learning or teaching that influences the behavior of individuals in a population)
• can change behavior and thereby influence the fitness of individuals
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Foraging Behavior
• food-obtaining behavior• an optimal foraging model is based
on the idea that natural selection should favor the foraging behavior that minimizes the costs of foraging & maximizes the benefits
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Mating Behavior & Mate Choice
• mating behavior & mate choice play a major role in determining reproductive success
• includes:– seeking or attracting mates– choosing among potential mates– competing for mates– caring for offspring
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Mating Systems
• vary with regard to both the length & # of relationships
• Promiscuous: no strong pair-bonds• Monogamous: mates remain
together for longer periods of time• Polygamous: an individual of one sex
mating with several of the opposite sex
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Sexual Dimorphism• extent to which makes & females
differ in appearance– typically varies with type of mating
system–monogamous: male & females alike– polygamous: male much showier than
females
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Mating Systems & Parental Care
• needs of the young greatly influences the evolution of mating systems
• young birds require a large amount of food: having a single mom would greatly reduce survival chances…probably why most birds are monogamous
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Certainty of Paternity
• influences mating behavior & parental care
• certainty of paternity generally low in most species–may explain why exclusively male
parental care is rare in mammals & birds
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Certainty of Paternity
• is high when egg laying & mating occur at same time– external fertilization• fishes: parental care just as likely to be
male parent as female parent
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Certainty of Paternity
• does not mean that animals are aware of those factors when they behave a certain way…parental behavior correlates with certainty of paternity because it has been reinforced over generations by natural selection
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Sexual Selection
• influences the degree of sexual dimorphism w/in a species
• intersexual selection: 1 sex choose mates on basis of characteristics of other sex– 1 with best song, or dance
• intrasexual selection: competition between members of 1 sex for mates
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Mate Choice by Females
• may play central role in evolution of male behavior & anatomy thru intersexual selection
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Mate Choice Copying
• behavior in which individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others– female guppies prefer mates that are
ass’c with another female & they prefer male guppies with more orange coloration
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Male Competition for Mates
• may involve agonistic behavior: males have a competition..winner gets the female– does not seem to affect genetic
variation
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Game Theory
• evaluates alternative strategies in situations where the outcome depends on the strategies of all individuals involved
• provides a way to think about complex evolutionary problems in which relative performance (reproductive success compared to other phenotypes), not absolute performance is the key to understanding evolution of behaviors.
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Genetic Basis of Behavior
• studies in insects have revealed existence of regulatory genes that control complex behavior
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Courtship Songs of Insects
• found to be under influence of multiple genes as are other specific behaviors– variations in these multiple genes
brings about variation in behavior
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Voles Study: Closely Related Species
• single gene variations can determine differences in complex behaviors involved in both mating & parenting– increasing amt of vasopressin receptors
in males changed their mating & parenting behaviors
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Genetic Variation & Evolution of Behavior
• significant differences can also be found among members of same species– coastal garter snakes will prey on
banana slugs & inland garter snakes will not a genetically acquired taste
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Genetic Variation in Western Garter Snake
• turns out the inland western garter snake cannot detect the odor of the banana slug
• hypothesis: 10,000 yrs ago when garter snake 1st inhabited coastal area those who could smell the plentiful banana slug higher fitness so their #s increased in coastal area
• inland where # of slugs much less, that advantage gone
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Variation in Migratory Patterns
• Blackcap warbler: • 1st migratory pattern: Germany
Africa• 1950’s some Germany Britain• behavior change rapid• researchers showed the different
patterns reflected a genetic variation
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Altruism
• selflessness• decreases an individual’s fitness but
increases the fitness of others in the population
• explained by concept of inclusive fitness
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Inclusive Fitness
• the total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and by providing aid that enables close relatives to produce offspring
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3 Key Variables in Act of Altruism
1. Benefit to the Recipient2. Cost to the Altruist3. Coefficient of Relatedness (r) =
fraction of shared genes• natural selection will favor altruism
when (benefit to recipient) x (r) > (cost to altruist) = Hamilton’s Rule
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• altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future
• exchange of favors called reciprical altruism
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Sociobiology
• study of how human nature is related to evolutionary behavior
• premise: certain behavioral characteristics exist because they are expressions of genes that have perpetuated by natural selection
• Debate that is ongoing
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