ANCIENT AND CLASSICAL GREECE
CIVILIZATION COMES TO EUROPE
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY • The Land
– Mountains dominate land; cross land travel difficult
– Fertile river valleys were center of settlement
– River valleys formed basis of polis
– No place more than a few miles from sea
– Outdoor life common due to temperate climate
• The Sea – Greece is a series of peninsulas, islands
– Sea travel easier than land communication
– Most Greeks took to the sea
• Economy – Agriculture: Grains, honey, olives, grapes
– Herding: Goats, sheep, cattle
– Trade: Necessary to make up for lack of resources
PHYSICAL MAP OF AREA
MINOAN SOCIETY • Knossos
– Minoan society arose on Crete, late 3rd millennium B.C.E. – Takes name from legendary king of Knossos, Minos – Lavish palaces at Knossos, between 2000 and 1700 B.C.E. – Linear A, a kind of written language, is found
• Island of Crete – From 2200 to 1450 B.C.E., center of Mediterranean commerce – Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt – Established colonies on Cyprus and islands in the Aegean Sea
• Society – Much evidence of egalitarian society; women had rights – Agriculture was important: grapes, olives, fishing, wheat – Trade was very important: marble, artifacts, cloth
• Decline of Minoan Society – After 1700 B.C.E., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis – After 1450 B.C.E., wealth attracted a number of invaders – By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign (Hellenic) domination
THE ISLAND OF CRETE
MYCENAEAN GREECE • Mycenaean society
– Indo-European immigrants settled in area, 2000 B.C.E.
– Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script Linear B
– Fortified agricultural settlements in Peloponnesus
– Most important settlement was Mycenae
– Society resembled Aryan: emphasis on war, trade
– Kingdoms ruled by strongest of nobles; constant strife
• Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean 1100 to 800 BCE – Mycenaeans engaged in Trojan war, about 1200 B.C.E.
• Troy may have been a Hittite city-state and trade rival
• Tomb of Agamemnon, Troy excavated by von Schliemann
• Recorded by Homer in the Illiad and the Odyssey
– More invasions by Hellenic tribes
– “Sea Peoples” • Later Hellenic invaders moved by sea along coasts
• Seemed to have raided into Palestine, Egypt as Philistines
ANCIENT GREECE
THE GREEK DARK AGES
• 800 TO 500 BCE
– Called Dark Ages due to loss of writing
– Age remembered through oral traditions
– A period of migration and warfare
– Hellenes spread to Italy, Sicily, Asia Minor, Cyprus
• The Hellenes
– Indo-Europeans who settled in area
– Tribes include Dorians, Attics, Achaeans
– Originally aristocratic societies
– Warfare, slavery, and trade common
GREEK TRIBES
THE POLIS • Greek City-State
– Polis = city-state; Poleis = city-states
– Metropolis = city of polis
– Acropolis = fortified center of city
– Boundaries shaped by geography
– Terms of politics come from POLIS • Politics, politic, politician, polite, polity
• Police, metropolis, metroplex
• Most important – Athens
– Sparta
POLIS OF ATTICA
POLITICAL FORMS • Archon: Greek for “ruler” – English “archy”
• Kratien: Greek for “to rule” – English “cracy” – Demos: People – Democracy (direct election)
– Aristos: The Best – Aristocracy (nobles)
– Oligos: The Few – Oligarchy (rule by select few)
– Monos: One – Monarchy (rule by a king)
– Di: Two – Diarchy (Sparta’s state had 2 kings)
– An: None – Anarchy (No government)
– Theos: God – Theocracy (Rule by priests, religion)
– Geron: Old Man – Gerontocracy (rule by elderly)
– Pater: Father – Patriarchy (rule by males)
– Mater: Mother – Matriarchy (rule by women)
– Auto: Self – Autocracy (dictatorial rule)
– Tyrannos: Tyrant – Tyranny (rule by a dictator)
– Ethnos: Ethnic or locals – Ethnarchy (rule by the local people)
SPARTA • Sparta
– Situated in a fertile region of the Peloponnesus
– Began to extend control during the 8th and 7th centuries B.C.E.
– Reduced neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or servants
– By 6th century B.C.E., helots outnumbered Spartans by 10 to 1
– Maintained domination by a powerful military machine
• Spartan society – Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle
– Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent
– Commitment to military values was strong
– Society was a military aristocracy; state ruled by two kings
– Young boys, girls educated in military barracks
– After marriage, men still lived at barracks; women ran homes
– Women: surprisingly free in comparison to other Greek women
– All merchants were foreigners licensed by state
LACONIA: SPARTA
ATHENS • Athens
– Population growth, economic development caused political strain
– Sought to negotiate order by democratic principles
– Citizenship was open to free adult males
– Foreigners, slaves, and women had no rights
• Athenian society – Maritime trade brought about prosperity
– Aristocratic landowners were principal beneficiaries
– Owners of small plots began to sell lands, some became slaves
– Class tension became intensified, the 6th century B.C.E.
• Solon and Athenian democracy – Solon forged a compromise between the classes
– Opened polis councils for any male citizen
• Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.) – The most popular democratic leader of Athens – Ruled Athens during its Golden Age
GREECE & THE LARGER WORLD
• Greeks founded more than 400 colonies – Controlled Black, Aegean, Adriatic, Ionian Seas
– Settled Sicily, S. Italy, Corsica, France, Spain, Africa
– Settled Coasts of Yugoslavia, Albania, Turkey, Cyprus
• Effects of Greek colonization – Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands
– Facilitate exchanges between peoples, cultures
– Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions
– Stimulated development of surrounding areas
– Spread civilization to ancient, Neolithic areas
– Warfare increased
– Technology stimulated: naval, navigation, astronomy
THE GREEK WORLD
GREEK MILITARY • Based on citizen soldiers
– Lightly armed, armored foot soldiers (Hoplites) • Carry shields, long spear • All citizens had to furnish own arms, armor • All citizens expected to fight in army, navy • All citizens had military training in school
– Fought in massed formations called Phalanx • Very useful in rugged terrain; used 10’ long pikes • Easily defeats massed cavalry favored by others
• Greek navy – Rowed vessels called galleys
• Most famous was the trireme or three oar banked • Rowed by free citizens • Fought by ramming other vessels; than hand to hand
– Greek fleets included larger vessels
• Equites or mounted troops were aristocrats
THE PERSIAN WARS • The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.)
– Cyrus and Darius controlled Anatolia
– Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted, 500 B.C.E.
– Darius’ Invasion • The battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E.
• Greeks led by Spartans and Athens battled Persia to a draw
– Xerxes Invasion • To fight Persians, Athenians build a wall of wood, or a navy
• Xerxes seized, burned Athens
• Athenian navy destroys Persian in the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.E.
• Persian army retreated back to Anatolia, 479 B.C.E.
• The Delian League – Alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat
– Military force from Athens, finance from other poleis
– As Persian threat subsided, poleis no longer wanted to participate
– Athens uses navy to turn Delian League into Athenian Empire
PELOPONNESIAN WAR • Pericles Rebuilds Athens
– Athens experiences a Golden Age
– Pericles turns Delian states into Athenian colonies
• 30 Year Civil War (431-404 B.C.E.) – Athens and Allies vs. Sparta and Allies
– Costly victories/defeats and plague wreck city
– Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E.
• Hegemony first by Sparta and then by Thebes – Constant warfare between leagues, allies
– Spartan hegemony replaced by Theban
– Greece horribly weakened
– Athens remained intellectual center of Greece
RISE OF MACEDONIA • The kingdom of Macedon
– A frontier state north of peninsular Greece – Partially Hellenized society
• Philip of Macedon (re. 359-336 B.C.E.) – Built a powerful army, overcame the power of clan leaders – Began to offend Greece from 350 B.C.E. – Brought Greece under control by 338 B.C.E. – Murdered possibly by wife and son
• Alexander of Macedon and his conquests – Educated by Aristotle; gifted in many areas – At age 20, Alexander succeeded Philip – Invaded Persia, controlled Ionia and Anatolia, 333 B.C.E. – By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia – Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis – Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E.
– Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of 33
ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE
HELLENISTIC EMPIRES • The Hellenistic Era: Age of Alexander and his successors
– Saw a blending of Hellenic (Greek) and Asian, Egyptian traditions – A Greek layer of upper class ruled over an Asians, Egyptians
• The Antigonid empire in Greece, Macedonia and Thrace – Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities – The economy of Athens flourished again through trade – Overpopulation, many moved to the Seleucid empire
• The Ptolemaic empire ruled Egypt, Cyprus, often Holy Land – The wealthiest of the Hellenistic empires – Greek rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society – Efficient organization of agriculture, industry, and taxation – Royal monopolies over textiles, salt, and beer – Alexandria
• The capital of Ptolemaic empire, at the mouth of the Nile • Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library
• The Seleucid empire Mesopotamia, Persia, India – More Greek influence than in Egypt – Greek, Macedonian colonists flocked to new Greek – Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society
• Parthians, Bactrians, Mauryans, Romans were all Hellenistic
HELLENISTIC WORLD
INTEGRATION OF MEDITERRANEAN
• Trade – Olive oil, wine, in exchange for grain and other items – Trade brought prosperity, population growth, colonization – Merchant ships with 400 tons capacity were common – Some cities relied more on commerce than on agriculture – Controlled slave markets of Eastern Mediterranean – Trade rivalry with Carthage in North Africa – Athenian silver drachma was common currency
• Panhellenic festivals – Sense of being Greek prevailed among all Greeks – Romans later admitted to Panhellenic, Olympic games – Colonists shared the same religion and language – Periodic panhellenic festivals reinforced their common bonds – Olympic games, the best known panhellenic festival
FAMILY AND SOCIETY • Greek society in Homer's works
– Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world – Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly – Highest achieve was arete
• Aristocracy (landed elites) vs. common – Over years, aristocracy gradually came to control most states – Held most of the social, political power
• Patriarchal society – Male family heads ruled households, could abandon newborns – Upper-class women wore veils in public, accompanied by servants – Women could not own land but could operate small business – Priestess was the only public position for women – Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis – Common occupation of women was cloth making
• Slavery – By law, slaves were private chattel property of their owners – Worked as agricultural laborers, domestic servants – Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen, business managers – Slaves were commonly prisoners of war
RATIONITY AND PHILOSOPHY • The formation of Greek cultural traditions
– From the 8th century, drew inspirations from Mesopotamia and Egypt – About 800 B.C.E., adapted the Phoenicians' alphabet to their own language – The Greek cultural feature: a philosophy based on human reason, rationality
• Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.) – An Athenian philosopher, determined to understand human beings – Encouraged reflection on ethics and morality
• Integrity was more important than wealth and fame • "The unexamined life is not worth living"
– Critical scrutiny to traditional ethical teachings – Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths
• Plato (430-347 B.C.E.) – A zealous disciple of Socrates – The theory of Forms or Ideas – His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) – Plato's disciple, but distrusted theory of Forms or Ideas – Devised rules of logic to construct arguments; father of western science – His Nicomedian Ethics became later basis in Christianity
• Legacy of Greek philosophy – Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until 17th century – Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians. – Provided a powerful intellectual framework for future generations
GREEK RELIGION & FINE ARTS • Greek Polytheism
– Atheism considered treason, illogical – Deities: Zeus, Athena, Apollo and many others – Worship tied to patriotism and civics of the polis – Public worship and house gods
• Various types of religious cults – Dionysian Rites – Oracle of Delphi
• The Theatre – Tragic drama (Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides)
• Dramas performed at annual theatrical festivals • Tragedians explored possibilities, limitations of human action
– Comic drama (Aristophanes) • Lampooned public and political figures
• Art and Architecture – Both were for public consumption and public enjoyment – Balance, proportion and rationality part of design
HELLENISTIC WORLD VIEWS • Hellenistic philosophers
– Epicureans • Identified pleasure as greatest good; freedom from turmoil, pressure
– Skeptics • Doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity
– Stoics • Taught individuals duty to aid others, lead virtuous lives
• Emphasized inner moral independence and tranquillity
• Cultivated by strict discipline of the body and mind.
• Religions of salvation – Many people felt no allegiance to old gods, beliefs
– Syncretism: Mixing of Greek, foreign beliefs
– Mystery religions • Promised eternal bliss for true believers
– Foreign Cults • Egyptian cult of Osiris became very popular
• Worship of Isis favored by women
– Speculation about a single, universal god emerged