Exposé
Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing
country-of-origin information on product evaluations Submitted by
Anastasia Savkina
European Master in Business Studies
University of Kassel
Kassel, Germany
30th October 2012
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 2
Abstract
Background:
Previous research has demonstrated the influence of ambient scents on
consumer purchasing decision and product evaluation. The significant impact
of the country of origin effect on product perception was also proved.
However, there is no research on the intersection of these two topics.
Purpose:
This study investigates the influence of the scent marketing in combination
with the country of origin information on the product evaluation by the
consumer.
Method: The foundation of this study is an experiment. The effects of using ambient
scents, containing COO information, in the product evaluation process were
tested in order to investigate their influence on the perception of the product.
Main findings: It was elaborated that the mere presence of ambient scent enhanced product
evaluation. Moreover, the nature of the smell had considerable impact as well.
Thus, consumers’ overall liking of the product was higher for the smell,
representing the COO associated with high-quality production.
Keywords: sensory marketing, olfaction, COO effect, processing fluency
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 3
Introduction
Background
With the development of new technologies and rapid product innovation, consumer
behavior cannot be addressed by purely utilitarian approaches – new experiential perspective
should be applied. Contemporary consumers prefer particular products and brands not because of
their greater utilities (Zajonc & Markus, 1982). They search for novelty, emotions, imagery, and
fun (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Rodrigues, Hultén, & Brito, 2011; Schmitt, 1999). As stated
by Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), consumption nowadays can be described as a process
directed toward the hedonic pursuit of pleasure.
Consumers want to be involved and create their own experiences trough consumption, so
the emotional and irrational aspects involved in the purchasing process should be emphasized
(Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2000; Schmitt, 1999). Experience of the purchase and emotional
connection with the brand can be created by appealing to human mind and senses (Hirschman &
Holbrook, 1982; Hultén, 2011). All five human senses affect consumer behavior by influencing
our emotions, memories, preferences and choices (Krishna, 2010).
Despite the fact that Kotler recognized the importance of “atmospherics”1 as a marketing
tool already in 1973 (Kotler, 1973), the real sensory marketing boom started several years ago
(Bradford & Desrochers, 2010). Nowadays consumers are overloaded with information and not
responding to the traditional marketing tools. In order to stand out of the crowd companies seek
for new approaches. Sensory marketing is a good solution, as it can be applied to create
subconscious triggers appealing to human senses, and thus engaging consumers in a more
efficient way (in comparison to the traditional explicit marketing tools) (Krishna, 2012). Even
though markets and retailers start to apply sensory marketing, there is still limited academic
research investigating its effects on consumer behavior (Krishna, 2010; Peck & Childers, 2008).
Having in mind that sense of smell is considered to have the power to strongly influence
consumers, due to its direct connection to emotional seat (Bradford & Desrochers, 2010; Herz,
2002; Lindstrom, 2005) and memory center of the brain (Buck, 2005; Krishna, Lwin, & Morrin,
2010), I decided to limit my research to the scent marketing, notably ambient scents. The effects
of the olfaction cues on the consumer behavior was under the focus of researchers since the mid
1990s (Herrmann, Zidansek, Sprott, & Spangenberg, 2012). Influence of olfactory stimuli on
affect (Bosmans, 2006; Krishna, 2012), cognition (Bone & Jantrania, 1992), memory (Krishna et
al., 2010), shopping behavior (Chebat & Michon, 2003; Gulas & Bloch, 1995) and product
1 “Atmospherics is the effort to design buying environments to produce specific emotional effects in the
buyer that enhance his purchase probability” (Kotler, 1973 p.50)
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 4
evaluation (Riker, Morales, & Nowlis, 2005; Spangenberg, Crowley, & Henderson, 1996) were
demonstrated.
Ambient scents can be considered affective cues that guide consumers` subsequent
product evaluation (Bosmans, 2006) by evoking emotions and memories (Riker et al., 2005).
Another cue, that has a considerable influence on consumer`s decision-making process is
the country of origin (COO) information (Bilkey & Nes, 1982; Veale, 2006). There has been a
considerable research on COO effects and their impact on purchasing decisions since 1960s. All
studies indicate that COO information has an impact on product quality perceptions, overall
evaluation of a product and the likelihood of purchasing the product (Bolliger, 2011; Veale,
2006). Several studies empirically provide empirical evidence of the cognitive nature of COO
information cue processing (Bolliger, 2011; Sauer, Young, & Unnava, 1991; Verlegh &
Steenkamp, 1999) stating that consumers make rational decisions by using COO cues.
Problem Statement
New trends on the market revealed the drawbacks of considering just the cognitive factors when
analyzing consumer behavior without taking sphere of affect into consideration. However, as
truly remarked by Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), the explanation of consumer behavior
cannot be reduced to a narrow simple model, neither behaviorist nor psychoanalytic, ethological
or anthropomorphic, cognitive or motivational. That is why it is important for marketers to take
into consideration both problem-directed and experiential components.
I found no studies exploring the consumers` evaluation of the products by addressing
both affective (sensorial perception) and cognitive (COO information) cues. Moreover, the
review of previous research revealed the contradictions concerning the effects of ambient scent
on product evaluation.
Purpose/ Research Question
Addressing the research gap identified in the literature, I aim to investigate if the information
about the country of origin transmitted to the consumer by the means of scent marketing can
alter product evaluations. To answer the purpose of my thesis, the following research questions
will be examined:
Will the mere presence of pleasant ambient scent improve the evaluation of the
product by consumers?
Will the nature of the scent (associations with high/low quality country of origin)
influence consumers` appraisal of the product ?
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 5
Theoretical background
In this study I intend to investigate the effect of the ambient “country” scent on consumers with
the help of psychological paradigms and theories. Most of the research on the influence of scent
marketing is based on the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) paradigm, proposed by Mehrabian
and Russell in 1974 (Russell & Pratt, 1980; Spangenberg et al., 1996; Turley & Milliman, 2000).
However, the empirical results of previous research on scents influence do not confirm
theoretical hypothesis: controlled experiments in most cases show null effects than significant
effects (Bone & Ellen, 1999). That is why to address the discrepancies in the previous research
on olfactory effects I would analyze one the most recently suggested theory – metacognitive
construct of processing fluency (Herrmann et al., 2012; Schwarz, 2004). Moreover, I will review
the research explaining the occurrence of COO effects as well as the function of odor receptors,
aiming to explicate the importance and efficiency of olfactory cues. The theoretical framework
will be concluded by the formulation of the hypotheses:
H1: Presence of ambient scent improves the evaluation of the product. That means that
subjects in experimental groups (regardless the COO and treatment) will appraise the
product higher than subjects in the control group.
H2: “Smell of France” will make the product more desired for subjects than the “smell of
China”. So, subjects in “high-quality” experimental group will increase the expected
quality evaluation for the watch and will show higher desirability to purchase the product,
than subjects in “low quality” group.
H3: Evaluation of the product will be different within experimental groups depending on
the treatment (feel or think). When subjects will be primed to associate the ambient smell
with the country of origin, the COO effect will be higher comparing to the treatment
when no indications will be given.
Definitions
Ambient scent: “Scent that is not emanating from a particular object but is present in the
environment and affects perceptions of the store and the products presented.”(Spangenberg et al.,
1996)
Country of origin effect: “Any influence, positive or negative, that the country of manufacture
might have on the consumer`s choice processes or subsequent behavior.”(Elliott & Cameron,
1994).
Sensory marketing: “Marketing that engages the consumers' senses and affects their perception,
judgment and behavior.” (Krishna, 2012).
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 6
Limitations
The research is limited to the examination of the effects of the smell of two countries,
representing the stereotypic high and low quality production (China and France). The “smell of
the country” was validated by 20 respondents, randomly picked on the territory of the University
of Kassel.
Moreover, the perception of the “smell of the country” can be quite subjective and people
might not associate the ambient smell and the country of origin.
The experiment conducted in the study took place in Kassel, Germany. The respondents
were mainly students of the University of Kassel, between 18 and 28 years old.
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 7
Review of Literature
My literature review is divided in two main topics, the intersection of which I am trying to
explore in my study: sensory marketing and COO effects. Each topic also has subdivisions.
Olfaction and Sensory marketing
Topic Title Author Journal/
Book
Content
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
Scents in the
marketplace:
Explaining a
fraction of
olfaction.
Bone, P. F., &
Ellen, P. S.
(1999).
Journal of
Retailing,
75(304),
243–262.
The article presents the
review of 22 studies of
retailing relevant olfaction
research.
Studies are discussed along
3 major dimensions:
presence of scent, scent
pleasantness and scent
congruity.
Main finding states that
olfaction effects are hardly
predictable and most of the
empirical results are not
significant.
New theories (accessibility
and availability) are
proposed to increase the
reliability of capturing
olfactory effects
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
The Use of Scents
to Influence
Consumers: The
Sense of Using
Scents to Make
Cents.
Bradford, K. D.,
& Desrochers, D.
M. (2010).
Journal of
Business
Ethics,
90(S2), 141–
153.
Main purpose of the article
is to reveal the ethical issues,
connected with the use of
scent marketing, as the sense
of smell is not controlled by
the consumers.
Overview of possible
applications of scent in
marketing is given and the
distinction between marketer
scent, product scent and
ambient scent is made (with
pointing to the ethical issues
arousing from the usage of
covert objective ambient
scents.
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
Theoretical
background.
Impact of ambient
odors on mall
shoppers’
emotions,
cognition, and
spending.
Chebat, J.-C., &
Michon, R.
(2003).
Journal of
Business
Research,
56(7), 529–
539.
The article discusses the
effect of ambient scents on
enhancing shoppers`
perceptions by employing 2
models: derived from
environmental psychology
and based on cognitive
theory of emotions. Major
finding: second theory
(emotional) better explains
the effect of ambient scents.
Influence of Right under our Gulas, C. S., & Journal of Model describing the effects
of ambient scents on
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 8
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
noses : ambient
scent and consumer
responses.
Bloch, P. H.
(1995).
Business and
Psychology,
10(1), 87–98.
consumer behavior is
proposed.
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
The Power of
Scent : Empirical
Field Studies of
Olfactory Cues on
Purchase Behavior.
Haberland, M. F.
(2010).
Dissertation.
University of
St. Gallen
Set of essays on ambient
scent effects
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
The Power of
Simplicity:
Processing Fluency
and the Effects of
Olfactory Cues on
Retail Sales.
Herrmann, A.,
Zidansek, M.,
Sprott, D. E., &
Spangenberg, E.
R. (2012).
Journal of
Retailing.
Article in
press
The article provides
theoretical explanation to the
effects of ambient scents on
consumers in the light of
processing fluency theory
(olfactory stimuli that are
easier to process will be
more successful in terms of
marketing outcomes). The
effect of scent complexity on
cognitive processing as well
as consumers buying
behavior is examined trough
the field and laboratory
study.
Main finding: scents with
fewer components (more
simple) have bigger impact
on the consumers in
comparison with multiple-
element scents: greater retail
sales increased cognitive
processing and more
favorable shopping behavior
was observed in simple scent
conditions.
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
There’s Something
in the Air: Effects
of Congruent or
Incongruent
Ambient Odor on
Consumer Decision
Making.
Mitchell, D. J.,
Kahn, B. E., &
Knasko, S. C.
(1995).
Journal of
Consumer
Research,
22(2), 229–
238.
The main focus of the article
is the influence of the degree
of congruency of odor on
consumer decision making
process. Effects of congruent
and incongruent scents on
changes in memory process
were examined.
Main findings consist in the
fact that consumers in
congruent odor conditions
comparing to the
incongruent environment:
- spend more time on
information acquisition
- process data more
holistically
- rely more on personal
experience (attitudes,
memories)
- spend choices evenly
among the products
presented
These results may be
explained by the fact that
congruent odor stimulate
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 9
cognitive enrichment.
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
A theoretical
investigation into
the potential
applications of
olfactory cues to
the marketing of
new products.
Shiu, E., Walker,
D., & Cheng, C.
(2006).
Innovative
Marketing,
2(4), 44–53.
This article presents the
investigation of whether
ambient scents can increase
the adoption for new
products among consumers.
Literature on the effects of
scents on human behavior is
reviewed. The contribution
of this article is possible
managerial applications of
olfactory cues.
Influence of
ambient odors
on consumer
behavior
Improving theStore
Environment: Do
Olfactory Cues
Affect Evaluations
and Behaviors?
Spangenberg, E.
R., Crowley, A.
E., & Henderson,
P. W. (1996).
Journal of
Marketing,
60(2), 67–80.
The article dwells upon the
effects of inoffensive
(providing positive or
neutral affective response)
ambient scents on the store,
product evaluation as well as
shopping behavior of
consumers. Authors aimed at
finding if the impact varies
depending on the affect
nature and the intensity of
the scent.
The article includes a
review of previous research
on environmental
psychology and olfaction in
marketing and an
experiment.
Results of the experiment
prove more positive
evaluations of the store and
merchandise in the scented
environment. It was also
found that customers
perceive to spend less time
in scented shops. Finally, the
importance of the presence
of the scent was found
regardless its specificity.
Affect and
cognition
Influence of
affective and
cognitive
judgments on
autonomic
parameters during
inhalation of
pleasant and
unpleasant odors in
humans.
Bensafi, M.,
Rouby, C., Farget,
V., Bertrand, B.,
Vigouroux, M., &
Holley, a. (2002).
Neuroscience
Letters,
319(3), 162–
166.
The article dwells upon the
connection between the
emotional and olfactory
processing. Two theories of
what is primary emotion or
cognition are presented.
The main finding consists
in the fact that consumers
categorize scents according
to their pleasantness without
realizing it (involuntary).
Affect and
cognition
Affective and
cognitive factors in
preferences.
Zajonc, R., &
Markus, H.
(1982).
Journal of
Consumer
Research,
9(2), 123–
131.
Traditional (preferences are
consequences of greater
utilities of products) and
alternative (focus on the
affective factors) view on
the nature of preferences is
presented in the article.
Main findings: It is stated
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 10
that preference judgments
can be independent of
cognition and changed over
time (with more experience)
while utilities of the product
remain unchanged. It is
possible to change
preferences based on
cognition, but very hard for
those base on the affect.
Analysis of the exposure
effect.
Scents and
products
Olfaction as a cue
for product quality.
Bone, P. F., &
Jantrania, S.
(1992).
Marketing
Letters, 3(3),
289–296.
This article aims at
providing empirical
evidence of the effects of the
scents on product evaluation
by examining their
appropriateness. The results
of the study show consumer
preference for products with
congruent smells.
Scents and
products
Should Mary smell
like biscuit?
Investigating scents
in product design.
Ludden, G., &
Schifferstein, H.
(2009).
International
Journal of
Design, 3(3),
1–12.
The main focus of this
article is the use of scents to
enhance consumers`
experience of products,
especially for normally non-
scented products.
The main result is that odors
did not influence subjects`
liking of the products.
Environmental
psychology
Atmospheric
Effects on
Shopping Behavior:
A Review of the
Experimental
Evidence.
Turley, L. W., &
Milliman, R. E.
(2000).
Journal of
Business
Research,
49, 193–211
Review of the research on
the effects of the
environment
(“Atmospherics”) on
costumers’ buying behavior.
Environmental
psychology
SOR
paradigm
Situational
Variables and
Consumer
Behavior.
Belk, R. W.
(1975).
Journal of
Consumer
Research,
2(3), 157–
164.
The article presents the
explanation of consumer
behavior by using situational
variables (links between the
situation/objects, person and
behavior: SOR paradigm).
Processing
fluency,
semantic
priming
Of Frog Wines and
Frowning Watches:
Semantic Priming,
Perceptual Fluency,
and Brand
Evaluation
Labroo, A. A.,
Ravi, D., &
Schwarz, N.
(2008).
Journal of
Consumer
Research,
34(6), 819–
831.
This article examines the
fluency effects on affective
judgment, particularly how
semantic primes can
enhance perceptual fluency
and consequently increase
the product liking.
Processing
fluency
Effects of
Perceptual Fluency
on Affective
Judgments.
Reber, R.,
Winkielman, P.,
& Schwarz, N.
(1998).
Psychologica
l Science,
9(1), 45–48.
The article explores the
influence of perceptual
fluency on affective
judgments.
Sensory
marketing
Sensory marketing:
the multi-sensory
brand-experience
concept.
Hultén, B. (2011). European
Business
Review,
23(3), 256–
273.
The article aims at
presenting the concept of
multi-sensory brand-
experience based on the
theories of branding,
experiences, value creation
and the human senses.
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 11
Main findings: sensorial
strategies should be applied
as long-term strategies in
order to differentiate and
distinguish the brand
(suggestions for all 5 senses
are given).
Sensory
marketing
An integrative
review of sensory
marketing:
Engaging the
senses to affect
perception,
judgment and
behavior.
Krishna, A.
(2012).
Journal of
Consumer
Psychology,
22(3), 332–
351.
This article presents the
review of the studies on the
sensory marketing (all the
five senses).
Sensory
marketing
Broad sensory
branding.
Lindstrom, M.
(2005).
Journal of
Product &
Brand
Management
, 14(2), 84–
87.
Effectiveness of sensory
marketed is illustrated on the
example of the case studies
from global brands. The
main finding: stronger
emotional bond between the
consumer and the brand is
achieved by appealing to 5
senses.
COO effects
Topic Title Author Journal/
Book
Content
COO and
product
evaluation
Country-of-origin
effects on product
evaluations.
Bilkey, W., &
Nes, E. (1982).
Journal of
international
business
studies, 13(1),
89–99.
Literature review of the
COO effect on consumer
evaluation of products.
COO and
product
evaluation
Countering
negative country-
of-origin effects:
The role of
evaluation mode.
Chu, P.-Y.,
Chang, C.-C.,
Chen, C.-Y., &
Wang, T.-Y.
(2010).
European
Journal of
Marketing,
44(7/8), 1055–
1076.
This article investigates
possible ways of reducing
COO effect.
COO and
product
evaluation
Consumer
Behaviour Induced
by Product
Nationality: The
Evolution of the
Field and its
Theoretical
Antecedents.
Dmitrovic, T., &
Vida, I. (2010).
Transformatio
n in Business
and
Economics,
9(1), 145–165.
Analysis of the two streams
of literature, exploring COO
effect. Integrative
framework is proposed.
COO and
product
evaluation
Consumer
perception of
product quality and
the country-of-
origin effect.
Elliott, G., &
Cameron, R.
(1994).
Journal of
International
Marketing,
2(2), 49–62.
The article provides the
investigation on the
importance of COO
information comparing to
other product attributes as
well as its relevance as a
quality cue. The study of the
COO effect across product
categories is also presented.
The results of the study:
COO effect has important
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 12
influence on purchase
decisions; consumers
generally prefer domestic
products; COO plays a role
of a quality cue if the
objective quality can`t be
assessed.
COO and
product
evaluation
Consumer
ethnocentrism and
attitudes toward
domestic and
foreign products.
Watson, J., &
Wright, K.
(2000).
European
Journal of
Marketing,
34(9), 1149 –
1166.
The article investigates link
between ethnocentrism and
consumers` preferences
toward foreign products
(when no domestic
alternative exist). It was
found that ethnocentrism is
significantly related to the
foreign product evaluation
(preference for products
from culturally similar
countries). So, in some cases
it is better not to stress the
COO.
Cognitive
aspect
The CoO-ELM
model: A
theoretical
framework for the
cognitive processes
underlying country
of origin-effects.
Bloemer, J., Brijs,
K., & Kasper, H.
(2009).
European
Journal of
Marketing,
43(1/2), 62–
89.
The article investigates the
application of Elaboration
Likelihood Model to explain
and predict the cognitive
processes underlying COO
effect. Several cognitive
approaches are integrated in
one model that provides a
useful insight of how COO
information is used by
consumers.
Cognitive
aspect
Effects of country-
of-origin and
product-attribute
information on
product evaluation:
an information
processing
perspective.
Hong, S., & Jr, R.
W. (1989).
Journal of
Consumer
Research,
16(2), 175–
187.
This article aims at
investigating the cognitive
processes underlying the
COO effects. Main
findings: COO not only
influences product
evaluations, but makes
consumers explore other
attributes of the products
(COO stimulates an interest
in the product). Results are
explained by the cognitive
elaboration theory.
Cognitive,
affective and
normative
aspects
A review and meta-
analysis of country-
of-origin research.
Verlegh, P. W. J.,
& Steenkamp, J.-
B. E. M. (1999).
Journal of
Economic
Psychology,
20(5), 521–
546
Review of previous research
on COO effects.
Main finding: COO has
greater impact on perceived
quality than on consumer
purchase intentions.
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 13
Methodology
In this research the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and deductive approach
were used. This method and approach correspond to the goals I set and research questions I
intend to explore. Basing on the theoretical concepts, I formulated hypotheses (see Theoretical
background), which were later tested in the experiment. Data, collected by the means of the
experiment, was analyzed to find statistically significant relationships between variables
(independent variable – “smell of the country”, dependent variable – “product evaluation”).
However, using a quantitative method performing experiments has some limitations in
the sense that there have been some events out of my control that might have affected the results
of the experiment (additional scents…).
Before conducting the main study it was necessary to identify the “smell of the country”
and validate it. For this purpose, sample of 20 subjects was used. They were asked to associate
the smell and the country and to pretest olfactory stimuli to identify their pleasantness,
familiarity, congruity and intensity (rating the smell on 7-point scales).
The foundation of my study was controlled between-subject experiment, which took
place on the territory of Kassel University campus. This experimental design facilitates
familiarity with the experiment for subjects and minimizes confusion that may arise.
Smell of China Smell of France No special smell
Treatment
group
“think” ۞ ۞
“feel” ۞ ۞
Control group ۞
A convenience sample of 150 subjects was randomly assigned to five independent groups: four
experimental and one control group. The control group was not exposed to the ambient scent.
Four experimental groups were assigned to two odor sessions – “smell of China” (jasmine) and
“smell of France” (lavender). Two treatments were run in each odor session. In the first
treatment (“think “) subjects were directed to pay attention to the ambient scent, whereas in the
second treatment (“feel”) no emphasis on the ambient scent was made.
Subjects were asked to evaluate a product (a toy for children). Subjects rated these
products on the following 7-point scales: bad/good, un- pleasant/pleasant, unfavorable/favorable,
low quality/high quality, unattractive/attractive, and poor value/good value (Spangenberg et al.,
1996).
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 14
Chapter outline
1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Problem discussion
1.3. Purpose
1.4. Research questions
1.5. Definitions
1.6. Limitations
2. Theoretical background
2.1. Choice of the theory
2.2. Scent marketing
2.2.1. Functioning of olfaction system
2.2.2. Processing fluency theory
2.2.2.1. Processing fluency in marketing
2.2.2.2. Olfaction and processing fluency
2.2.3. Ambient scents in marketing
2.3. COO effects
2.3.1. Cognitive nature
2.3.1.1. Halo effect
2.3.1.2. Summary-construct effect
2.3.1.3. Product attribute effect
2.3.1.4. Default-heuristic effect
2.3.2. COO as an extrinsic cue for product quality
2.4. Hypotheses
3. Methodology
3.1. Research approach
3.2. Data collection’
3.2.1. Pre-test (“smell of the country”)
3.2.2. Experiment
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations 15
3.2.2.1. Design of the experiment
3.2.2.2. Pilot experiment
3.2.2.3. Main study
3.2.3. Questionnaire design
3.3. Validity and reliability of the study
3.3.1. Internal validity
3.3.2. Eternal validity
3.4. Data analysis
4. Empirical findings
4.1. Results of the pre-test
4.1.1. Pleasantness, congruity, familiarity and intensity of the smell
4.2. Results of the experiment
4.2.1. Mean values
4.2.2. Relationship between variables
5. Analysis and discussion of the results
5.1. Analysis of the experiment
5.2. Hypothesis testing
6. Future research
7. Conclusion and managerial implications
8. Bibliography
9. Appendices
Plan of Work
August September February
1 - 7 oct8 - 14
oct
15 - 21
oct
22 - 28
oct
29 oct-4
nov
5 - 11
nov
12-18
nov
19-25
nov
26 nov-
2dec
3 - 9
dec
10-16
dec
17 -23
dec
24 - 30
dec
31dec -
6 jan
7 - 13
jan
14-20
jan
21-27
jan
28jan -3
feb4-10 feb
11-17
feb
18-24
feb
25feb -
3 mar
4-10
mar
11-17
mar
18-24
mar
25-31
mar1-7 apr
8-14
apr
15-21
apr
22-28
apr
29 apr-
5 may
6-12
may
13-19
may
20-26
may
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Submission of 3 research proposals
Starting the ThesisTopic approval by tutorsLiterature review Defining the research purpose, oulining hypothesis
Research proposal (expose)AbstractSummary of the literatureFormulation of hypothesesOuline of the thesis
ExperimentDesign of the experimentIdentification of the smell of the countryPreparation of all necessary equipment/ stimuly/
subjects recruitment/qustionnaire designPre-test (validation of the smell of the country)Pilot experimentMain experiment
Writing processIntroduction/BackgroundTheoretical frameworkEmpirical partConclusion
Intermediate reportsubmission of the report
preparation of the presentation
Experiment data analysisanalisys of the results
elaboration of possible implications
Finalisation Finalization and revision Proofreading Preparation of the final presentation
Final presentation of the thesis
April MayOctober November JanuaryDecember March
Bibliography
Bilkey, W., & Nes, E. (1982). Country-of-origin effects on product evaluations.
Journal of international business studies, 13(1), 89–99. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/154256
Bolliger, C. (2011). Assessing Consumers’ Cognitive, Affective and Normative
Associations on Willingness-to-pay for Domestic Foods. Paper prepared for
presentation at the EAAE 2011 Congress Change and Uncertainty. Zurich.
Retrieved from
http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/114259/2/Bolliger_Conradin_670.pdf
Bone, P. F., & Ellen, P. S. (1999). Scents in the marketplace: Explaining a fraction of
olfaction. Journal of Retailing, 75(304), 243–262. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S002243599900007X
Bone, P. F., & Jantrania, S. (1992). Olfaction as a cue for product quality. Marketing
Letters, 3(3), 289–296. doi:10.1007/BF00994136
Bosmans, A. (2006). Scents and sensibility: when do (in) congruent ambient scents
influence product evaluations? Journal of Marketing, 70(3), 32–43. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/30162099
Bradford, K. D., & Desrochers, D. M. (2010). The Use of Scents to Influence
Consumers: The Sense of Using Scents to Make Cents. Journal of Business
Ethics, 90(S2), 141–153. doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0377-5
Buck, L. B. (2005). Unraveling the sense of smell (Nobel lecture). Angewandte
Chemie (International ed. in English), 44(38), 6128–40.
doi:10.1002/anie.200501120
Chebat, J.-C., & Michon, R. (2003). Impact of ambient odors on mall shoppers’
emotions, cognition, and spending. Journal of Business Research, 56(7), 529–
539. doi:10.1016/S0148-2963(01)00247-8
Elliott, G., & Cameron, R. (1994). Consumer perception of product quality and the
country-of-origin effect. Journal of International Marketing, 2(2), 49–62.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/25048542
Gulas, C. S., & Bloch, P. H. (1995). Right under our noses: Ambient scent and
consumer responses. Journal of Business and Psychology, 10(1), 87–98.
doi:10.1007/BF02249272
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations
18
Herrmann, A., Zidansek, M., Sprott, D. E., & Spangenberg, E. R. (2012). The Power
of Simplicity: Processing Fluency and the Effects of Olfactory Cues on Retail
Sales. Journal of Retailing, xxx(xxx), xxx–xxx. doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2012.08.002
Herz, R. S. (2002). Influences of Odor on Mood and Affective Cognition. In C.
Rouby (Ed.), Olfaction, Taste, and Cognition (pp. 160–177). Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.
Hirschman, E., & Holbrook, M. (1982). Hedonic consumption: emerging concepts,
methods and propositions. The Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92–101. Retrieved
from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/1251707
Holbrook, M., & Hirschman, E. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption:
Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of consumer research, 9(2), 132–
140. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2489122
Hultén, B. (2011). Sensory marketing: the multi-sensory brand-experience concept.
European Business Review, 23(3), 256–273. doi:10.1108/09555341111130245
Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a marketing tool. Journal of retailing, 49(4), 48–
64. Retrieved from http://www.hakonswenson.com/publikationer/CFR102
Butiksformat/Kursiva artiklar/Kotler 1973 JR.pdf
Krishna, A. (2010). Sensory marketing: Research on the sensuality of products.
Krishna, A. (2012). An integrative review of sensory marketing: Engaging the senses
to affect perception, judgment and behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology,
22(3), 332–351. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.08.003
Krishna, A., Lwin, M. O., & Morrin, M. (2010). Product Scent and Memory. Journal
of Consumer Research, 37(1), 57–67. doi:10.1086/649909
Lindstrom, M. (2005). Broad sensory branding. Journal of Product & Brand
Management, 14(2), 84–87. doi:10.1108/10610420510592554
Peck, J., & Childers, T. (2008). Sensory factors and consumer behavior. Handbook of
consumer psychology (pp. 193–220). Retrieved from
https://faculty.unt.edu/syllabi/13907_1596_5200_1_syllabus.pdf
Prahalad, C., & Ramaswamy, V. (2000). Co-opting customer competence. Harvard
business review, 78(1), 79–87. Retrieved from
http://www.sld.cu/galerias/pdf/sitios/infodir/coopting_customer_competence.pd
f
Exposé: Investigation of the effects of scent marketing containing COO information on product evaluations
19
Riker, E., Morales, A., & Nowlis, S. (2005). What You Smell Affects What You
Like How Incidental Scents Can Affect Product Preference By Eliciting
Emotion. Advances in Consumer Research, 39(Volume 39).
Rodrigues, C., Hultén, B., & Brito, C. (2011). Sensorial brand strategies for value co-
creation. Innovative Marketing, 7(2), 40–47. Retrieved from
http://www.carlosmelobrito.com/wp-site/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Artigo-
Sensorial-Brand-Strategies-for-Value-Co-Creation-2011.pdf
1. Russell, J. A., & Pratt, G. (1980). A Description of the Affective Quality
Attributed to Environments, 38(2), 311–322.
Sauer, P. L., Young, M. A., & Unnava, R. H. (1991). An experimental investigation
of the process behind the country of origin effect. Journal of International
Consumer Marketing, 3(2), 29–59.
Schmitt, B. (1999). Experiential marketing. Journal of marketing management, 15(1-
3), 53–67. Retrieved from
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1362/026725799784870496
Schwarz, N. (2004). Meta-cognitive Experiences in Consumer Judgment and
Decision Making.
Spangenberg, E. R., Crowley, A. E., & Henderson, P. W. (1996). Improving the
Store Environment: Do Olfactory Cues Affect Evaluations and Behaviors?
Journal of Marketing, 60(2), 67–80. doi:10.2307/1251931
Turley, L. W., & Milliman, R. E. (2000). Atmospheric Effects on Shopping
Behavior: A Review of the Experimental Evidence. Journal of Business
Research, 49, 193–211.
Veale, R. (2006). The role of intrinsic (sensory) cues and the extrinsic cues of
country of origin and price on food product evaluation. … Wine Business and …
(pp. 6–7). Retrieved from http://academyofwinebusiness.com/wp-
content/uploads/2010/05/Veale.rtf.pdf
Verlegh, P. W. J., & Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M. (1999). A review and meta-analysis of
country-of-origin research. Journal of Economic Psychology, 20(5), 521–546.
doi:10.1016/S0167-4870(99)00023-9
Zajonc, R., & Markus, H. (1982). Affective and cognitive factors in preferences.
Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 123–131. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2489121