According to Dennett:According to Dennett:
Aware1-the ability to talk about a fact, wish, proposition (P)
Aware2-behave in a manner that an observer would claim
you were taking P into account
Aware1-the ability to talk about a fact, wish, proposition (P)
Aware2-behave in a manner that an observer would claim
you were taking P into account
The Theory of Repressed MemoryThe Theory of Repressed Memory
Triple Threat
Sheila Krogh-Jespersen Alicia Briganti Victoria Cox
Triple Threat
Sheila Krogh-Jespersen Alicia Briganti Victoria Cox
Outline:Outline:
Repression and Awareness
Negative Views
Inhibition
Repression and Awareness
Negative Views
Inhibition
Repression a.k.a. Motivated ForgettingRepression a.k.a. Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Non-Learning
Motivated Overwriting of Memories
Retrieval Failures
Motivated Non-Learning
Motivated Overwriting of Memories
Retrieval Failures
vehicles
According to Dennett:According to Dennett:
Aware1-the ability to talk about a fact, wish, proposition (P)
Aware2-behave in a manner that an observer would claim
you were taking P into account
Aware1-the ability to talk about a fact, wish, proposition (P)
Aware2-behave in a manner that an observer would claim
you were taking P into account
car
Illustrations:Illustrations:
Automated Driving/Animals/Self-Regulating Machines
Sperling’s (1960) T-scope-presents the difference in perception (aware2) and verbalization (aware1)
Automated Driving/Animals/Self-Regulating Machines
Sperling’s (1960) T-scope-presents the difference in perception (aware2) and verbalization (aware1)
bus
Visual Input:Visual Input:
Weiskrantz (1980)- lack of awareness1 of the visual input, yet could still recognize
pictures
Sakheim et al (1979)-effect of hypnotism
Sperry (1968) and Gazzaniga(1970)-split brain awareness
Weiskrantz (1980)- lack of awareness1 of the visual input, yet could still recognize
pictures
Sakheim et al (1979)-effect of hypnotism
Sperry (1968) and Gazzaniga(1970)-split brain awareness
train
Unconscious Processes:Unconscious Processes:
1. Fast, routine information processing 2. Physiological reflexes 3. “Slip of the tongue” 4. “Tics” 5. Behavior tendencies 6. Changing behaviors/attitudes 7. What influences behavior?
1. Fast, routine information processing 2. Physiological reflexes 3. “Slip of the tongue” 4. “Tics” 5. Behavior tendencies 6. Changing behaviors/attitudes 7. What influences behavior?
airplane
What about Retrieval Failures?What about Retrieval Failures?
“They [memories] are like “responses” waiting for the right “stimulus” to release them”
Free Association and Accuracy Issues
“They [memories] are like “responses” waiting for the right “stimulus” to release them”
Free Association and Accuracy Issues
Bicycle
Posthypnotic Amnesia:Posthypnotic Amnesia:
Have awareness2 without awareness1
Bitterman & Marcuse (1945)-no memory, yet enhanced GSR
Obligatory vs. Optional Memory Performance
Have awareness2 without awareness1
Bitterman & Marcuse (1945)-no memory, yet enhanced GSR
Obligatory vs. Optional Memory Performance
motorcycle
“True Amnesia”:“True Amnesia”:
2/3 of the adult population have no response to posthypnotic amnesia suggestions
Spanos & Bodorik (1977)-about 40- to 60% of suggested amnesia subjects could be broken
What about the 1/6 of the population who show “true amnesia”?
2/3 of the adult population have no response to posthypnotic amnesia suggestions
Spanos & Bodorik (1977)-about 40- to 60% of suggested amnesia subjects could be broken
What about the 1/6 of the population who show “true amnesia”?
boat
Nonrecaller Categories:Nonrecaller Categories:
1. Mouths Locked Shut (conscious)
2. Lack of Motivation (conscious)
3. Distracting Thoughts (conscious)
4. “Really Trying” (????????)
1. Mouths Locked Shut (conscious)
2. Lack of Motivation (conscious)
3. Distracting Thoughts (conscious)
4. “Really Trying” (????????)
Roller skates
Bowers’ Final Thoughts:Bowers’ Final Thoughts:
Post-hypnotic amnesia may not be the best model for repression
Does Gordon Bower Believe in Repression?
Post-hypnotic amnesia may not be the best model for repression
Does Gordon Bower Believe in Repression?
moped
WARNING:WARNING:
“The concept of repression has not been validated with experimental research and its use may be hazardous to the accurate interpretation of clinical behavior.”
“The concept of repression has not been validated with experimental research and its use may be hazardous to the accurate interpretation of clinical behavior.”
Fruits
Holmes’ Take on 60 Years of ResearchHolmes’ Take on 60 Years of Research
Has the role of “critic” at the conference on “Repression, Dissociation, and the Warding off of Conflictual Cognitive Contents”
Claims there is no reliable evidence in support of repression.
(Holmes, 1974)
Has the role of “critic” at the conference on “Repression, Dissociation, and the Warding off of Conflictual Cognitive Contents”
Claims there is no reliable evidence in support of repression.
(Holmes, 1974)
Apple
ELEMENTS OF REPRESSIONELEMENTS OF REPRESSION1. “Repression is the selective forgetting of
materials that cause the individual pain”2. “Repression is not under voluntary
control”3. “Repressed material is not lost but
instead is stored in the unconscious and can be returned to consciousness if the anxiety that is associated with the memory is removed”
(Freud [1915] 1957)
1. “Repression is the selective forgetting of materials that cause the individual pain”
2. “Repression is not under voluntary control”
3. “Repressed material is not lost but instead is stored in the unconscious and can be returned to consciousness if the anxiety that is associated with the memory is removed”
(Freud [1915] 1957)
Kiwi
DIFFERENTIAL RECALL:PLEASANT vs. UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCES
DIFFERENTIAL RECALL:PLEASANT vs. UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCES
Early claim: unpleasant events are less likely to be recalled; therefore, they are being repressed
(Jerslid, 1931; Meltzer, 1931; Stagner, 1931)
Intensity of affect
Alternative explanation: Reduced recall of unpleasant experiences is due to a decline in the affective intensity over time associated with the experience, rather than to repression.
(Holmes, 1970)
Early claim: unpleasant events are less likely to be recalled; therefore, they are being repressed
(Jerslid, 1931; Meltzer, 1931; Stagner, 1931)
Intensity of affect
Alternative explanation: Reduced recall of unpleasant experiences is due to a decline in the affective intensity over time associated with the experience, rather than to repression.
(Holmes, 1970)
Strawberry
DIARY STUDYDIARY STUDY
Measured differential recall and changes in affect for pleasant and unpleasant experiences.
Affective intensity of unpleasant experiences had greater declines than pleasant experiences, and as a consequence, unpleasant experiences were less likely to be recalled.
Why the decline in intensity of unpleasant experiences?
Measured differential recall and changes in affect for pleasant and unpleasant experiences.
Affective intensity of unpleasant experiences had greater declines than pleasant experiences, and as a consequence, unpleasant experiences were less likely to be recalled.
Why the decline in intensity of unpleasant experiences?
Peach
TWO EXPLANATIONSTWO EXPLANATIONS
The experience may not have been as bad as the subject thought at the time of the experience, or it did not result in the severe consequences that were expected.
Since people think more about intense experiences than neutral ones, and repeated exposure results in more positive attitudes toward the experience, attention given to negative experiences results in their becoming less unpleasant and less intense.
The experience may not have been as bad as the subject thought at the time of the experience, or it did not result in the severe consequences that were expected.
Since people think more about intense experiences than neutral ones, and repeated exposure results in more positive attitudes toward the experience, attention given to negative experiences results in their becoming less unpleasant and less intense.
Orange
DIFFERENTIAL RECALL:COMPLETED AND INCOMPLETED TASKS
DIFFERENTIAL RECALL:COMPLETED AND INCOMPLETED TASKS Some tasks completed, some not
Incompleted tasks = high stress
Stress = repression
Evidence for repression?
Some tasks completed, some not
Incompleted tasks = high stress
Stress = repression
Evidence for repression?Cantaloupe
REPRESSING AND UNCOVERING MEMORIESREPRESSING AND UNCOVERING MEMORIES
Claim: Repression follows stress, but repressed material can be returned to consciousness with the removal of stress.
(e.g., Zeller, 1950, 1951; Merrill, 1954)
Alternative explanation: Decreased recall following stress could be due to interference rather than repression.
(Holmes, 1972)
Claim: Repression follows stress, but repressed material can be returned to consciousness with the removal of stress.
(e.g., Zeller, 1950, 1951; Merrill, 1954)
Alternative explanation: Decreased recall following stress could be due to interference rather than repression.
(Holmes, 1972) Pear
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCESINDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
R-S Scale (Byrne, Barry, and Nelson, 1963)
Complete and Incomplete task recall paradigm and the need for achievement
(Coopersmith, 1960; Weiner, 1965)
Social desirability and anxiety (e.g., Davis and Schwartz, 1987; Weinberger, Schwartz, and Davidson, 1979)
R-S Scale (Byrne, Barry, and Nelson, 1963)
Complete and Incomplete task recall paradigm and the need for achievement
(Coopersmith, 1960; Weiner, 1965)
Social desirability and anxiety (e.g., Davis and Schwartz, 1987; Weinberger, Schwartz, and Davidson, 1979)
Grapes
PERCEPTUAL DEFENSEPERCEPTUAL DEFENSE
Primary repression
Stressful vs. non-stressful words (Eriksen and Pierce, 1968)
Primary repression
Stressful vs. non-stressful words (Eriksen and Pierce, 1968)
Banana
Where do we go from here?Where do we go from here?
“Let’s Not Sweep Repression under the Rug”
(Erdelyi and Goldberg, 1979)
“Let’s Now Sweep Repression under the Rug”
(Mischel, 1986 [534])
“Let’s Not Sweep Repression under the Rug”
(Erdelyi and Goldberg, 1979)
“Let’s Now Sweep Repression under the Rug”
(Mischel, 1986 [534])
The Case for InhibitionThe Case for Inhibition
Vehicles
Question and HypothesisQuestion and Hypothesis
What mechanisms permit people to limit awareness of interfering memories?
Executive control mechanisms→
Response-override situations →
Inhibitory processes
(Levy and Anderson 2002)
What mechanisms permit people to limit awareness of interfering memories?
Executive control mechanisms→
Response-override situations →
Inhibitory processes
(Levy and Anderson 2002)Car
Evidence of inhibitory processesEvidence of inhibitory processes
Two memory situations:
Need for selection during retrieval Need to stop retrieval
Two memory situations:
Need for selection during retrieval Need to stop retrieval
Bus
Selective Memory RetrievalSelective Memory Retrieval Inhibitory control might be recruited to
override competition so that a target trace can be retrieved.
Demonstrated by the ‘retrieval practice paradigm’
Inhibitory control might be recruited to override competition so that a target trace can be retrieved.
Demonstrated by the ‘retrieval practice paradigm’
Train
retrieval practice paradigm
retrieval practice paradigm
*percent items recalled correctly on final cued recall test
Airplane
Stopping retrieval: think-no-thinkStopping retrieval: think-no-think Subjects studied pairs of weakly related
words Recall and say aloud the response word Or avoid thinking of the response word
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
Recall of “no-think” words was impaired compared to baseline pairs and was
independent of original vs. novel cue.
Subjects studied pairs of weakly related words
Recall and say aloud the response word Or avoid thinking of the response word
♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦
Recall of “no-think” words was impaired compared to baseline pairs and was
independent of original vs. novel cue.
BicycleAnderson & Green 2001
Hmmm…Hmmm…
Do these results provide a mechanistic basis for the voluntary form of repression proposed by Freud?
Actively inhibited?
What else could be at work other than inhibitory processes?
Do these results provide a mechanistic basis for the voluntary form of repression proposed by Freud?
Actively inhibited?
What else could be at work other than inhibitory processes?
Motorcycle
Kihlstom’s ResponseKihlstom’s Response
Repression operates unconsciously on threatening mental contents.
Repressed material continues to affect the person’s experience
Repressed memories have to be recoverable
(Kihlstrom 2002)
Repression operates unconsciously on threatening mental contents.
Repressed material continues to affect the person’s experience
Repressed memories have to be recoverable
(Kihlstrom 2002)
Boat
Reply from Anderson and LevyReply from Anderson and Levy Evaluation of Freudian theory no our
goal – but Freud did write about repression in terms that sometimes allow for active intentional process.
After only 1 minute of active suppression, subjects were up to 10% worse at recalling these memories
(Anderson & Levy 2002)
Evaluation of Freudian theory no our goal – but Freud did write about repression in terms that sometimes allow for active intentional process.
After only 1 minute of active suppression, subjects were up to 10% worse at recalling these memories
(Anderson & Levy 2002)Roller Skates
Reply…Reply…
With time and repeated effort, trying to keep an unwanted memory out of awareness does render that memory less accessible.
(Anderson & Levy 2002)
With time and repeated effort, trying to keep an unwanted memory out of awareness does render that memory less accessible.
(Anderson & Levy 2002)
Moped
Smith et.al. finds…Smith et.al. finds…
Filler items reduced the recall of critical items as much as 63% on a free recall test
Appropriate cues produced nearly complete recovery on a cued recall test
Forgetting effect does not appear to involve inhibition
Same results for emotional, memorable and distinctive words
Filler items reduced the recall of critical items as much as 63% on a free recall test
Appropriate cues produced nearly complete recovery on a cued recall test
Forgetting effect does not appear to involve inhibition
Same results for emotional, memorable and distinctive words