Personality TIPS! Make sure you learn the specific
definition of personality! Have awareness of the links between
personality and sports performance. It is important to understand the NATURE
(trait) V NURTURE (social learning) and interactionist perspectives of behaviour.
Learn the strengths and weaknesses of each perspective.
Be aware of the problems associated with the use of personality profiling in sport.
Personality
“The sum total of an individuals characteristics which make him
unique” (Hollander).
“Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons
character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique
adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck).
Personality Types
INTROVERTShy, timid,
reserved, aloof, self sufficient
EXTROVERTAdventurous,
confident,Sociable,
Group dependent, enthusiastic
TYPE ‘A’Highly competitive,
Strong desire to succeed,Works fast, likes to control,
Prone to suffer stress
TYPE ‘B’Non-competitive,
Unambitious,Works more slowly,
Does not enjoy controlLess prone to stress
TRAITS NARROW BAND APPROACH, GIRDANO, 1990
Personality Theories
Trait Theory“People are born with
established personality characteristics”
Inherited at birth. Stable Enduring consistent in all situations.
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY
+ve = Can be easily measured through questionnaires
-ve = Does not take into account environmental influences. It is not a true indicator of behaviour.
CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traitsINTROVERT & EXTROVERT
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
“All behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment”
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT
-ve = Does not consider inherited behaviour (traits)
NATURE
V’s
NURTURE
Interactionist Theory“Behaviour occurs from the
interaction between inherited traits and learned experiences”
BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT
Personality TheoriesConcentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967)
The boundary line of each layer gets wider as you get closer to the centre of the model which shows that each layer is harder to enter. As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’ personality begins to surface
Role Related Behaviour – Surface of personality
Typical Response – Your usual response in most situations
The Psychological Core – The ‘real you’
Personality TheoriesPsychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933)
ID Basic Instinct(no conscious
control)
EGO Conscious
link with reality
SUPER EGOMoral Arm
(social conscience)
ID, EGO & SUPER EGO interact to
produce individual patterns of
behaviour in sport.
****THINK OF AGGRESSION AS AN
EXAMPLE!****
Personality is formed from the conflict of SEEKING,
RELEASING and INHIBITING behaviour.
Personality TheoriesEysenck’s Personality Types
INTROVERT
NEUROTIC
(UNSTABLE)
EXTROVERT
STABLE
Personality traits run across 2 continuums:
INTROVERT: unsociable, shy & nervous
EXTROVERT: sociable, outgoing & lively
STABLE: calm, even-tempered, controlled 7 logical
UNSTABLE: anxious, moody, unpredictable & illogical
Personality TestingMethods of Testing1) Observation2) Psychometric methods: self report questionnaires (16
personality factor questionnaire designed by CATTELL)
Problems1) Questionnaires, observations and self-reports are not
reliable as people can fix answers.2) SCEPTICAL APPROACH: Evidence is too general –
personality alone can not predict behaviour.3) CREDULOUS APPROACH: Although there is a link
between personality research and performance in sport, there is lack of evidence to support this.
Attitudes TIPS! Make sure you understand how
attitudes are formed and influenced.
You need to be able to explain how attitudes can be changed.
Try to understand the links between attitude and behaviour in sport.
What is an ATTITUDE?
ATTITUDES – A learned behavioural predisposition. (linked with
personality)
UNSTABLECAN BE
CHANGED/ CONTROLLED
ENDURING EMOTIONAL & BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSE
LEARNED
DIRECTED TOWARDSATTITUDE OBJECTS
Formation of Attitudes
ATTITUDESPARENTS
FRIENDS/ PEERS
COACHES/ TEACHERS
MEDIA
PAST EXPERIENCES
PREDUJICE
Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences.Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other
people.
Triadic Model of Attitudes
COGNI TI VEknow ledge and beliefs
exam ple : fitness trainingkeeps m e fit
AFFECTI VEfeelings and em otions
exam ple : I enjoy training
BEHAVI OURALintended behaviour
exam ple : I attend trainingsessions regularly
ATTI TUD Eto regular exercise
This is known as the information component
This concerns how a person
intends to behave towards
an attitude object
This is known as the emotional
component
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
If a person hold two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other an element of discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called DISSONANCE.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)
To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the conflicting ideas could be lessened and therefore an attitude would change.
Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can change the cognitive component.
Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the affective component.
If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make execution easier, the behavioural component of attitude can be changed.
Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE from AS SKILL
Persuasive Communication Theory
You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading someone to change their attitude.
Would these people persuade you or would they just cause you stress?
Persuasive Communication Theory
PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATIONthe person must
- pay attention - understand
- accept- retainthe message being given
the coach must- be expert- be trustworthy
the message must- be clear- be unambiguous- be balanced between pros and cons
1. The PersuaderSignificant otherwith high status
2. The MessagePositive to initiate
the change
3. The recipientsEasy to changed an attitude if the recipient really wishes to be
changed
4. The situationThe presence ofother persuaders
TASK…………
You are a GCSE PE pupil. How could persuasive
communication change your negative attitude
towards cross country?
ANSWER…………
1. A significant other, e.g. teacher/captain persuades you that cross country has excellent fitness benefits for a GCSE PE pupil. The teacher explains that they can chose cross country as one of their 4 sports.
2. The teacher tells you it will improve your practical grade if you opt for cross country.
3. You understand that this could improve your overall practical grade so you begin to realise the benefits of taking part.
4. Other pupils in your GCSE class share positive experiences of cross country with you and actively encourage you to take part.
TASK…………
How could a physical education teacher change the negative attitude that a pupil may have towards swimming?
ANSWER…..• Educate the pupil about the benefits of swimming
• Use cognitive dissonance theory
• Persuasive communication from a significant other, e.g. teacher
• Set achievable goals to ensure pupil achieves success and experiences enjoyment.
• Offer rewards, e.g. praise, trophies.
• Familiarise with role models from within the sport of swimming.
• Use floats to make execution of some strokes easier.
• Attribution retraining.
To conclude……….
• Attitudes are generally poor predictors of behaviour.
• Social and situational factors influence actual behaviour very strongly.
• “Behavioural intention is the strongest predictor of behaviour (Fishbein, 1974).”
Achievement Motivation TIPS!
You need to understand the meaning of the term ‘achievement motivation’.
Make sure you know the characteristics of the different personality types – TAS and TAF.
You need to be aware of the links between personality and the motive to achieve.
It is important to make links between TAS and TAF and ‘attributions’ for success and failure.
Achievement Motivation
Achievement Motivation is a concept developed by sports psychologists to link
PERSONALITY and COMPETITIVENESS.
The major issue centres on the extent to which an INDIVIDUAL IS MOTIVATED TO
ATTAIN SUCCESS.
Success in sport is measured against some type of COMPETITIVE GOAL.
Types of GoalsAccording to BIDDLE, there are several types of goal
against which success can be judged:
• MASTERY or TASK GOALS: Associated with self-improvement, e.g. trying to achieve a PB in athletics (the same as PROCESS GOALS).
• EGO or ABILITY GOALS: Involve a comparison against ones rivals, e.g. beating everyone else to win the club tennis tournament (the same as OUTCOME GOALS)
• SOCIALLY APPROVED GOALS: Involves seeking social reinforcement as a measure of success, e.g. winning to earn approval from parents or coaches.
THINK BACK TO GOALS FROM AS SKILL!
Atkinson & McClelland (1976) – Interactionist View
Competitive orientation is generated through personality and situational
factors
In any challenging situation, everyone will have both a ‘need to achieve’ and a
‘need to avoid failure’. Whichever feeling is stronger will determine whether the
task is accepted or declined.
Personality Factors
A = TASsomeone with a high need to achieve will probably have a low need to avoid failure and will choose difficult or demanding tasks which are more risky, e.g.the hard route up a rock face
B = TAFsomeone with a high need to avoid
failure will probably have a low need to achieve and will choose tasks which are less risky and more easily achieved, e.g. the easy route up the rock face
TAS = Tendency to APPROACH success
TAF = Tendency to AVOID failure
Situational Factors
A =If the probability of success low (competing against the world champion) you will strive very
hard to win (incentive high). You will be highly chuffed if you win.
B =If the probability of success high (competing in local club match) you don’t need to try as hard to win (incentive low and expect to win easily). It is not so pleasing if
you win.
What can the coach do?
IMPROVE NEED AND MOTIVE TO ACHIEVE (Nach)
• Increase positive reinforcement hence increasing pride and satisfaction• Ensure that goals are achievable• Ensure that at least some situations guarantee successand subsequently gradually increase task difficulty in line with progress• Ensure that tasks are challenging• Ensure that the probability of success is good• Ensure that the incentive value of the success is high (is the race worth winning?)
REDUCE TENDENCY AND MOTIVE TO AVOID FAILURE (NaF)
• Reduce punishment hence lowering the chance of performer worrying about failure• Focus negative feedback on effort rather than ability. This avoids the performer tending to believe that causes of failure are internal (due to lack of ability for example) and reduces the risk of learned helplessness.• Avoid situations where defeat / failure is inevitable (such as performing against a much superior opponent)if this is not possible alter the criteria for success (you will have succeeded if you only lose by 2 goals).
What can the coach do?
Group Dynamics TIPS!
Be able to define the terms ‘group’ and ‘team’. You need to understand Steiner’s model of group
performance. Be able to explain the Ringlemann effect and
social loafing and how they damage the cohesiveness of a team.
Learn the factors affecting the cohesiveness of a group and how any breakdowns can be prevented.
Learn the characteristics of an effective leader. Describe emergent and prescribed leaders. You need to be able to understand the different
perspectives on and theories of leadership.
Groups“Groups are those social aggregates that
involve mutual awareness and the potential for interaction” (McGrath)
GROUPS
(Carron)
A collective identity
A sense of shared purposeA clear structure for communication
Group Cohesion“The extent to which a group sticks
together in pursuit of a common goal.”
TASK COHESIONThe way team members
work together tosuccessfully complete
a task, e.g. a football team setsOut to win by adopting attackingTactics at home & away matches
Vital in INTERACTIVE Sports, e.g. hockey
SOCIAL COHESIONThe personal relationships within a group which relies
on individuals enjoyingsocial interaction, e.g. strong
Bond developed whilst on tour.
Vital in CO-ACTIVE sports, e.g. track and field
Group Dynamics“The social processes operating within the
group between individual members.”
SUB GROUPSSmall groups
contained within the whole group
GROUP DYNAMIC SOCIOGRAM
The best way ofillustrating the
group dynamics ofa team.
TO ACHIEVE COHESION• Break down cliques
and sub groups • Separate pairs
• Integrate isolates
Team sports rely onunits within the team
Working closelytogether
Steiner’s ModelACTUAL= POTENTIAL - LOSSES DUE TO
PRODUCTIVITY PRODUCTIVITY FAULTY PROCESSES
(AP) (PP) (FP)
The team performance at any given time (due to successful
interaction)
The maximum
capability of the group
when cohesiveness is strongest
Factors that go wrong in team performance
which impede/ prevent group
cohesion e.g. co-ordination losses & motivational losses
GROUP COHESION IS THE FORCE THAT BINDS A GROUP TOGETHER, HELPING TO PREVENT FAULTY PROCESSES.
Faulty ProcessesCo-ordination Losseso These occur when the ‘operational effectiveness’ of the group cannot be sustained for the whole match.
o Planned strategies/tactics may go wrong due to positional error or bad timing, e.g. Line out in rugby.A co-ordination loss that leads to a
breakdown in team work is called
the RINGLEMANN EFFECT. Problems with team co-ordination are more likely to increase as the
number of team members increase.
Motivation Losseso This may occur if the task is too difficult.
o Also an individual might suffer loss of motivation causing them to withdraw effort and coast through that part of the game.
A motivation loss that leads to a reduction in effort is called SOCIAL LOAFING. This is called when an individuals efforts go unnoticed or when someone feels like the others on their team are not trying hard enough. People with low SC tend to be loafers.
Group Locomotion
“ The process that explains the reasons why the group has formed. It
symbolises the activity of the team.”
For locomotion to be efficient there must
be a LEADER to ensure the co-
ordination of the team.
****Don’t always assume that good players make good leaders! Make sure
you know the characteristics of a
good leader****
Leadership
What makes a goodLeader?
Good communication
skillsHighly
developed perception
skills
Good at making decisions
Empathy with team members
Understand the needs of
others
Experience Vision
Ambition
Determination
Think of Woody from Toy Story!
Selection of a Leader
EMERGENT LEADERS: Already belongs to the group & selection is
made formally, e.g. by vote or interview.
PRECRIBED LEADERS: Selected from outside of the group and is
known as an external appointment.
Leadership Theories
o TRAIT APPROACH: Leaders are born with the skills necessary to take charge……however, although certain traits may be helpful in leadership, they are not essential, so this theory is NOT A GOOD PREDICTOR OF BEHAVIOUR.
o SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY: The skills of leadership can be acquired by copying others and then developed through experiences. Copying successful role models is called ‘vicarious reinforcement.’ This DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE.
o INTERACTIONIST THEORY: Leaders emerge because of inherited abilities (traits) and learned skills. Interactionist theory gives a MORE REALISTIC EXPLANATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOURS IN SPORT.
IS A LEADER BORN OR MADE?
Styles of LeadershipAutocratic Leaders (task orientated):
• Tend to make all decisions
• Motivated to complete a task as quickly and effectively as possible
• Authoritarian style – they do not take into account the groups
opinions
• Does not share responsibility
• Effective when quick decisions need to be
made
Democratic Leaders
(social/personal orientated):
• Shares decisions and responsibilities
with group
• Interested in developing inter-
personal relationships within
the team
• Effective in co-active sports
Laisser-faire Leaders:
• Leader stands aside and allows
the group to make their own decisions
• Members of this type of group tend to be aggressive
towards one another when
mistakes occurred and they gave up
easily.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
According to Fiedler, the correct style of leadership to adopt depends on the ‘favourableness’ of the situation.
Highly favourable situation Highly unfavourable situation
Leaders position is strong Leaders position is weak
Task is simple with clear structure
Task is complex with vague structure
Warm group and leader relations
Hostile group and leader relations
AUTOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in both the MOST FAVOURABLE and the LEAST FVOURABLE situations.
DEMOCRATIC LEADERS are more effective in MODERATELY FAVOURABLE situations.
Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership
REQUI REDBEHAVI OUR
w hat is expected by teamm anagem ent of the coach
ACTUAL LEADERBEHAVI OUR
the w ay in w hich the coachnorm ally goes about his job
PR EFER R ED LEADERBEHAVI OUR
the w ay in w h ich m em bers prefertheir coach to relate to them
SI TUATI ONCHARACTERI STI CS
MEMBER 'sCHARACTERI STI CS
LEADERCHARACTERI STI CS
perform ance /satisfaction
Multidimensional Model of Sports Leadership
CHELLANDURAI believed that the effectiveness of the group could be judged on:
1. The degree of success accomplished during a task
2. The extent to which the group experienced satisfaction while being led to the goal.
SITUATIONAL, LEADER AND GROUP MEMBER CHARACTERISCS interact to determine the behaviour adopted by the leader (these are ANTECEDENTS)
REQUIRED, ACTUAL AND PREFERRED BEHAVIOUR are 3 types of leader behaviour that would be guided by these antecedents.
If all three of the leader behaviours are CONGRUENT (coincide exactly) then members will be highly satisfied and produce high group performance.
Effective leadership has taken place if the ACTUAL BEHAVIOUR HAS SURPASSED THE SITUATIONAL DEMANDS AND THE STYLE HAS MET WITH THE APPROVAL OF
THE GROUP.
Mental Preparation TIPS! You need to understand the meaning
and links between commitment, self-confidence, concentration and control of emotion.
Be able to explain each term in the context of mental preparation for sport performance.
You must be able to identify and explain the relevant theories associated with each term.
Concentration“A state of mind in which attention is directed towards a specific
aim or activity.”
“Mistakes in top level sport happen not because technique is suspect, but because of attentional errors” (MARTENS)
LINKED WITH
AROUSAL!
When AROUSAL IS LOW the PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS and an excessive number of environmental cues enter into the information
processing system.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS NOT in operation and CONCENTRATION ON RELEVANT INFORMATION IS DIFFICULT.
**********INFORMATION OVERLOAD OCCURS **********
LOW AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD WIDENS LIMITED SELECTIVE ATTENTION = LACK OF CONCENTRATION
Cue Utilisation Theory
This theory predicts ‘THE SELECTION OF THE MOST RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AT THE OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVEL’.
As arousal increases the perceptual field will adjust to the ideal width enabling the performer to focus on the most relevant
cues/information. Selective attention is fully operational and the
potential to concentrate is maximised.
Beyond this optimal threshold (over aroused), the perceptual focus narrows excessively and the relevant cues may be missed. The athlete appears highly agitated and panics. This condition is known as HYPER-VIGILANCE or PANIC.
HIGH AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD NARROWS RELEVANT CUES MISSED = HYPER-VIGILANCE & PANIC
OPTIMAL AROUSAL PERCEPTUAL FIELD AT IDEAL WIDTH SELECTIVE ATTENTIONS IN OPERATION =
CONCENTRATION IS MAXIMISED!
NIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL
STYLESNIDEFFER’S ATTENTIONAL
STYLESBROAD
- a player concentrates on the whole game
- all players’ positions and movements- open skills
NARROW- the player concentrates on one
aspect of the game- the goalkeeper
- closed skillsINTERNAL
- the player decides to concentrate on his own technique
EXTERNAL-the player focuses on the position
of his opposite number
EXTERNAL
INTERNAL
BROAD NARROW
All players have a preferred attentional style. To improve
performance it is necessary to operate successfully in all styles.
Think of the difference
between a C & GA in Netball
Emotional ControlAROUSAL, ANXIETY, STRESS and ACTIVATION all relate to
MOTIVATION. Arousal will improve performance up to an optimal point, however this optimal threshold changes or ‘shifts’ for every
individual and different situation.
Personality
-Extroverts perform best when
arousal is high (seek stimulation
of RAS)
- Introverts perform best at
low arousal (sensitive RAS
system)
Task Type
- Simple/ Gross skills are
performed better in high arousal,
e.g. shot put
- Complex/ fine skills are
performed better in low arousal, e.g.
spin bowling in cricket
Stage of Learning
-Autonomous stage perform better in high
arousal
- Cognitive/ associative phase perform better in
low arousal
Experience
- Experienced performer is best in high
arousal
- Novice performer is best in low arousal
Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)
Athlete A(low ZOF)
Athlete B(moderate ZOF)
Athlete C(high ZOF)
In zone(best performance)
Out of zone
Out of zone In zone(best performance)
Out of zone
Out of zone In zone(best performance)
Increasing Arousal
An athlete will enter the zone when arousal is at an optimum level and the situation matches the athlete’s strongest attentional style.
Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)
Personality
Task Type Stage of Learning
Experience
Low Zone of
Functioning
(low arousal)
INTROVERTSIMPLE/ GROSS SKILLS, E.G. SHOT PUT
COGNITIVE/ ASSOCIATIVE PHASE
NOVICE PERFORMERS
High Zone of
Functioning
(high arousal)
EXTROVERTCOMPLEX/ FINE SKILLS, E.G. SPIN BOWLING
AUTONOMOUS EXPERIENCED PERFORMER
Different people perform better under different (arousal) conditions:
Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (Hanin)………
Teachers and coaches should guide the performer towards their personal ‘optimal threshold’ or ‘individual zone of optimal
functioning’.
IN THEZONE!
EFFORTLESS PERFORMANCETHE
ATHLETE FEELS IN
FULL CONTROL
ATTENTION AND CONCENTRATION
OF THE PERFORMER IS
FOCUSED
EXECUTION OF THE SKILL BRINGS
ENJOYMENT AND SATISFACTION
AnxietyTRAIT ANXIETY: Genetically inherited. These people appear to be
anxious at all times. This tends to be permanent and relatively stable.
STATE ANXIETY: This fluctuates in response to a given situation and is associated with arousal. It is a learned behavioural response, but can be
controlled and manipulated to facilitate optimal performance.
(SPIELBERGER)
SOMATIC (physical) RESPONSE: Follows the inverted U hypothesis and refers to physiological changes. Somatic responses include excesses muscular tension,
heart and respiration rates, resulting in impaired movement. This condition will not allow the performer to enter a ‘peak flow’ state.
COGNITIVE (psychological) RESPONSE: Reflects increasing worry about performance. They could become increasingly apprehensive and develop doubts and negative thoughts. Attentional changes occur which negatively impact on the information processing system. If the athlete experiences worry, he or she will not
attain a ‘peak flow’ state.
Anxiety‘Anxiety occurs when there is a substantial imbalance between the
individual’s perception of their ability and their perception of the demands and importance of the situation.’ (MARTENS)
Perception of the situational Demands.
e.g. I must win my leg of the relay if myteam is to have the chance of winning.
Perception of ability to cope.e.g. I am not as good as my
opponent
Perception of the importance of the situation.e.g. The result of this competition hinges
on this relay race.
ANXIETY
Anxiety Management
IMAGERY
THOUGHT STOPPING
POSITIVE TALK
RATIONAL THINKING
PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR
RELAXTATION
BIOFEEDBACK
COGNITIVE METHODS
SOMATIC METHODS
PEAK FLOWPEAK FLOW: Optimal experience that facilitates best performance and
is intrinsically valuable. (Csikzentmimalyi)
Excitement,happiness
Relaxation, Drowsiness
Anxiety,anger
Boredomfatigue
High somatic arousal
Low somatic arousal
High cognitive
Arousal
anxiety
Low cognitiv
e
Arousal
anxiety
Peak flow occurs when somatic anxiety has reached an appropriate threshold and cognitive anxiety is
low.
flow state is attained when the performer has a balanced
perception of the demands of the situation and his/her ability to cope.
a high incentive value is to be gained from a challenge that is both realistic and attainable.
The focus of attention and concentration is maximised.
there is a self-confident belief that nothing could go wrong.
the situation suits the athlete’s strongest attentional style.
During these rare moments in sport, the athlete assumes control over all internal and
environmental variables and a time of greatest happiness and self-fulfilment is experienced.
Competitive Effects on Sport Performance TIPS!
You need to be able to recognise the difference between aggression, assertion and channelled aggression.
You need to understand the main theories of aggression. Be able to describe how aggressive tendencies can be
limited. Understand the difference between social facilitation and
social inhibition. Describe the major theories of social facilitation and be
able to link them to arousal. Try to understand the homefield advantage phenomenon. Be able to suggest strategies to combat social inhibition.
Aggression“Any behaviour that is intended to harm another individual by physical
or verbal means.” (BULL)
“Any form of behaviour directed toward the goal of harming or injuring another human being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” (BARON)
HOSTILE (OR REACTIVE) AGGRESSION
Main aim is to harm and inflict injury.
Aggressive actions are outside the rules of the
game‘Hostile destructiveness’
(PARENS)Hostile aggression involves
anger.This type of aggression
needs to be eliminated from sport!
INSTRUMENTAL (OR CHANNELLED) AGGRESSION
Actions within the rules of the game.
Although PRIME motive is the successful
execution of the skill, there is still the intention
to harm.Anger is not evident.
Present in many sporting situations.
ASSERTIVE BEHAVIOURNo intention to harm.
Strictly within the rules and spirit of the game.Robust, but functional
play.Primarily focused on completing the skill
successfully.‘Non-hostile self-
protective mastery behaviour’ (PARENS,
1987)
Antecedents of Aggression
AGGRESSION
NATURE OF THE GAME
WIDE DIVISION BETWEEN SCORES
PREVIOUSLY DEVELOPED GRUDGES OR SCORES TO SETTLE
HOSTILE CROWDS
VENUE…AWAY TEAM
FRUSTRATION CAUSED BY POOR PERFORMANCE, OPPOSITION OR
REFS DECISIONS.
HIGH AROUSAL LEVELS
EXTRINSIC REWARDS
Theories of AggressionINSTINCT THEORY (TRAIT PERSPECTIVE)
- Proposed by FRUED but developed but LORENZ in 1966.
- ‘Aggression is genetically inheritedand that trait of violence lies within everyone
due to a basic instinct to dominate.’- ‘Death instinct’ (FREUD)
- ‘Aggressive energy is constantly buildingup and needs to be released’ (LORENZ)
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY- Proposed by BANDURA, 1966 but
developed by LEAKEY.- Aggression is not biologically based
but is nurtured through environmental forces.- Learned by watching and copying
role models and it becomes an excepted mode of behaviour if reinforced.
FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS – INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
- Proposed by DOLLARD.- ‘Frustration develops when goal-directed
behaviour or NACH is blocked.’-It is instinctive to fulfil the need
to release frustration.- Instinct theory – aggression is the goal.
- Aggression = successful = catharsis- Aggression = unsuccessful = more frustration
AGGRESSION CUE HYPOTHESIS (BERKOWITZ, 1969)
– INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE- Builds upon DOLLARD’S work.
-Frustration leads to an increase in arousal which,in some situations will result in aggression.
-Cues = baseball bats, violent acts being witnessed,nature of the game will trigger aggression if
arousal is high. -Best players have the ability/temperament
to control frustration and arousal.
Methods to eliminate aggression
Punish aggressive play. Withdraw violent players from the situation. Stress performance rather than the outcome. Emphasise non-aggressive role models. Make use of cognitive strategies to prevent
aggressive play. Positively reinforce non-aggressive behaviour
and negatively reinforce aggressive behaviour. Change athletes perceptions of the situation. Implement stress management techniques. Lower arousal levels
Social Facilitation/InhibitionSOCIAL FACILITATION: The presence of an audience positively
increases arousal levels and performance is enhanced.
SOCIAL INHIBITION: A negative effect on performance is experienced due to the attendance of an audience.
TRIPLETT (1898) –
1st Sport Psych Experiment:
The presence of others…
-Arouses competitive drive
- Releases energy
- Increases the speed of performance
ZAJONC
- The ‘mere’ presence of others is sufficient to increase
the arousal level of the performer.
-This uses ‘drive theory’ to predict the effect of others on
performance.
- As arousal increases (as would happen when
spectators are present), there is a greater likelihood of the
dominant response occurring.
COTTRELL’S EVALUATION
APPREHENSION
- In some circumstances the
audience can have a calming effect.
- Increases in arousal were only present
when the performer perceived that the
audience was assessing
performance.
Social Facilitation/Inhibition
Homefield Advantage:
-Large supportive home crowds
have a positive effect on
performance.
- Most evident in indoor sports
such as basketball.
- Crowd gets close to the
action, increasing audience
influence. This is called the
‘proximity effect.’
Distraction/ Conflict Theory (Barron, 1986)
-Individuals can only attend to a limited
amount of environmental cues.
- Spectators demand the same attention as
other players, resulting in more competition for
attentional space.
- Complex actions would therefore be impaired in front of
large crowds.
Strategies to Combat Social Inhibition:
- Practice selective attention.
- Use imagery, mental rehearsal to block out audience effects.
- Ensure essential skills are over-learned and grooved.
- introduce evaluative others into practice.
- Raise athletes’ awareness of the zone of optimal functioning.
- Incorporate stress management into training.
- Appropriate use of attribution
Attribution Theory TIPS!
You should be able to identify the reasons for success and failure in sport.
You need to understand ‘Weiner’s Attribution Model’ and be able to relate it to specific sporting situations.
Learn the definitions of ‘mastery orientation’ and ‘learned helplessness’.
Attribution Theory
ability'w e w ere m ore
skilful'
eff ort'w e tried hard'
task diffi culty'the opposition arew orld cham pions'
luck'the court w as
slippy'
I NTER NAL EXTER NAL
LOCUS OF CAUSALI TY
STABLE
UNSTABLE
STABI LI TY
Attribution theory looks at the common reasons coaches and players give for their success or failure in sport.
Weiner’s Attribution Model
LOCUS OF CAUSALITYis the performance outcome caused
by- INTERNAL factors
under the control of the performerability / effort
- EXTERNAL factorsbeyond the control of the performer
task difficulty / luck
STABILITYis the performance outcome caused
by- STABLE factors
fixed factors which don’t change with time
ability / task difficulty- UNSTABLE factors
factors which can vary with timeeffort / luck
Attribution TheoryHIGH ACHIEVERS
attribute success to internal factorsand attribute failure to external
factors
LOW ACHIEVERSattribute success to external factors
and attribute failure to internal factors
HIGH ACHIEVER LOW ACHIEVER
motivation? high motive to achieve success low motive to achieve success low motive to avoid failure high motive to avoid failure
focuses on pride on success focuses on shame and worry about failure
attributions ascribes success to stable ascribes success to unstableinternal and controllable factors external uncontrollable factors
ascribes failure to unstable ascribes failure to stableexternal uncontrollable factors internal controllable factors
goals adopted adopts task oriented goals adopts outcome oriented goals
task choice seeks challenging tasks and avoids challenge, seeks very difficult competitive situations or very easy tasks / competition
performance performs well in front of performs badly in front of evaluative audiences evaluative audiences
Attribution Retraining
The coach changes the usual external attributions for failure into internal, unstable controllable factors.
The athlete has little control over ability, luck or task difficulty but has complete control over EFFORT. Effort is
internal and unstable and can be changed by the performer.
Attributing a lack of success to internal and unstable factors will help to prevent learned helplessness.
LEARNED HELPLESSNESSA belief acquired over time that one has no control over events
and that failure is inevitable. A feeling of ‘hopelessness.’