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Oracle SQL Guide 1
INTRODUCTION
SQL is divided into the following
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Data Retieval Language (DRL)
Tansa!tion Contol Language (TCL)
Data Contol Language (DCL)
DDL "" !eate# alte# dop# tun!ate# ena$e
DML "" inset# update# delete
DRL "" sele!t
TCL "" !o$$it# oll%a! savepoint
DCL "" gant# evo&e
CR'T' TL' S*NT+
Ceate ta%le ,table_name- (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 coln datatypen).
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student (no nu$%e (1)# na$e va!ha (23)# $a&s nu$%e (4)).
INS'RT
This will %e used to inset the e!ods into ta%le56e have two $ethods to inset5
7 value $ethod
7 addess $ethod
a) USIN8 9LU' M'T:OD
S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 . Valuen). '/0
SQL- inset into student values (2# ;sudha;# 233).
SQL- inset into student values (1# ;sa# 133).
To inset a new e!od again 7ou have to t7pe entie inset !o$$and# if thee ae lot of
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Oracle SQL Guide 2
e!ods this will %e diffi!ult5
This will %e avoided %7 using addess $ethod5
%) USIN8 DDR'SS M'T:OD
S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln).
This will po$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve7 inset 7ou have to use fowad slash5
'/0
SQL- inset into student values (agan
'nte value fo $a&s0 433
old 20 inset into student values(
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Oracle SQL Guide 3
d) INS'RTIN8 DT INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 DDR'SS M'T:OD
S7nta/0
inset into ,table_name)(col1, col2, col3 coln) values (&col1, &col2 .&coln);
This will po$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve7 inset 7ou have to use fowad slash5
'/0
SQL- inset into student (no# na$e) values (
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Oracle SQL Guide 4
2 Sudha 233
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
9isu
Rattu
SQL- sele!t no# na$e# $a&s fo$ student.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """""" """""""" 2 Sudha 233
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
9isu
Rattu
SQL- sele!t no# na$e fo$ student.
NO NM'
""" """""""
2 Sudha
1 Sað
2 >agan
1 Naen
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
9isu
Rattu
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Oracle SQL Guide 5
CONDITIONL S'L'CTIONS ND OA'RTORS
6e have two !lauses used in this
6hee
Ode %7
USIN8 6:'R'
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition-.
the following ae the diffeent t7pes of opeatos used in whee !lause5
ith$eti! opeatos
Co$paison opeatos
Logi!al opeatos
ith$eti! opeatos "" highest pe!eden!e
G# "# E# ?
Co$paison opeatos
H# H# -# ,# -H# ,H# ,-
%etween# not %etween
in# not in
null# not null
li&e
Logi!al opeatos
nd
O "" lowest pe!eden!e
not
a) USIN8 H# -# ,# -H# ,H# H# ,-
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Oracle SQL Guide 6
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sað 133
1 Naen @33
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no , 1.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 Sudha 233 2 >agan 433
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no - 1.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu 9isu
Rattu
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no ,H 1.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
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Rattu
%) USIN8 ND
This will gives the output when all the !onditions %e!o$e tue5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition1- and ,condition2- and 55
,conditionn-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1 and $a&s -H 133.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""
1 Sað 133
1 Naen @33
!) USIN8 OR
This will gives the output when eithe of the !onditions %e!o$e tue5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,condition1- and ,condition2- o 55
,conditionn-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no H 1 o $a&s -H 133.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
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Oracle SQL Guide 9
d) USIN8 'T6''N
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its lowe %ound# uppe%ound5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- %etween ,lower bound- and ,upper
bound-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s %etween 133 and @33.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
e) USIN8 NOT 'T6''N
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values ae not in its lowe %ound#
uppe%ound5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- not %etween ,lower bound- and ,upper
bound-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s not %etween 133 and @33.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
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Oracle SQL Guide 10
f) USIN8 IN
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its list of values spe!ified5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- in (value1, value2, value3 valuen).
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no in (2# 1# 4).
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
g) USIN8 NOT IN
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values ae not in the list of
values spe!ified5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- not in (value1, value2, value3 valuen).
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee no not in (2# 1# 4).
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
@ Madhu
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Oracle SQL Guide 11
9isu
Rattu
h) USIN8 NULL
This will gives the output %ased on the null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- is null.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s is null.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
9isu
Rattu
i) USIN8 NOT NULL
This will gives the output %ased on the not null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- is not null.
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s is not null.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
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Oracle SQL Guide 12
1 Naen @33
J) USIN8 LIF'
This will %e used to sea!h though the ows of data%ase !olu$n %ased on the patten
7ou spe!if75
S7nta/0
sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- whee ,col- li&e ,pattern-.
'/0
i) This will give the ows whose $a&s ae 2335
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee $a&s li&e 233.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
ii) This will give the ows whose na$e stat with KS;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =S=.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
1 Sað 133
iii) This will give the ows whose na$e ends with Kh;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =h=.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sað 133
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Oracle SQL Guide 13
4 Ra$esh
i9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette stat with Ka;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =a=.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""
1 Sað 133
2 >agan 433
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu Rattu
9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thid lette stat with Kd;5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =d=.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""" 2 Sudha 233
@ Madhu
9i) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette stat with Kt; fo$ ending5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =t=.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sað 133
Rattu
9ii) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thid lette stat with Ke; fo$ ending5
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Oracle SQL Guide 14
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =e=.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
1 Sað 133
4 Ra$esh
9iii) This will give the ows whose na$e !otains 1 a;s5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student whee na$e li&e =a a =.
NO NM' MRFS """ """"""" """"""""""
2 >agan 433
E *ou have to spe!if7 the pattens in lieusing undes!oe ( )5
USIN8 ORD'R *
This will %e used to odeing the !olu$ns data (as!ending o des!ending)5
S7nta/0
Sele!t E fo$ ,table_name- ode %7 ,col- des!.
7 default oa!le will use as!ending ode5
If 7ou want output in des!ending ode 7ou have to use de!c&e7wod afte the !olu$n5
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student ode %7 no.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
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Oracle SQL Guide 15
1 Sað 133
1 Naen @33
4 Ra$esh
@ Madhu
9isu
Rattu
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student ode %7 no des!.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
Rattu
9isu @ Madhu
4 Ra$esh
1 Sað 133
1 Naen @33
2 Sudha 233
2 >agan 433
USIN8 DML
USIN8 UADT'
This !an %e used to $odif7 the ta%le data5
S7nta/0
Update ,table_name- set ,col1- H value2# ,col2- H value1 whee ,condition-.
'/0
SQL- update student set $a&s H 33.
If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will update entie ta%le5
SQL- update student set $a&s H 33 whee no H 1.
SQL- update student set $a&s H 33# na$e H =9enu= whee no H 2.
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Oracle SQL Guide 16
USIN8 D'L'T'
This !an %e used to delete the ta%le data te$poail75
S7nta/0
Delete ,table_name- whee ,condition-.
'/0
SQL- delete student.
If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will delete entie ta%le5
SQL- delete student whee no H 1.
USIN8 DDL
USIN8 LT'R
This !an %e used to add o e$ove !olu$ns and to $odif7 the pe!ision of the datat7pe5
a) DDIN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- add ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student add sdo% date.
%) R'MO9IN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- dop ,col datatype-.
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Oracle SQL Guide 17
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student dop !olu$n sdo%.
!) INCR'SIN8 OR D'CR'SIN8 AR'CISION OB COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- $odif7 ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student $odif7 $a&s nu$%e().
E To de!ease pe!ision the !olu$n should %e e$pt75
d) MFIN8 COLUMN UNUS'D
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- set unused !olu$n ,col-.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student set unused !olu$n $a&s.
'ven though the !olu$n is unused still it will o!!up7 $e$o75
d) DROAAIN8 UNUS'D COLUMNS
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- dop unused !olu$ns.
'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student dop unused !olu$ns.
E *ou !an not dop individual unused !olu$ns of a ta%le5
e) R'NMIN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0
alte ta%le ,table_name- ena$e !olu$n ,old_col_name- to ,new_col_name-.
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'/0
SQL- alte ta%le student ena$e !olu$n $a&s to s$a&s.
USIN8 TRUNCT'
This !an %e used to delete the entie ta%le data pe$anentl75
S7nta/0
tun!ate ta%le ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL- tun!ate ta%le student.
USIN8 DROA
This will %e used to dop the data%ase o%Je!t.
S7nta/0
Dop ta%le ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL- dop ta%le student.
USIN8 R'NM'
This will %e used to ena$e the data%ase o%Je!t.
S7nta/0
ena$e ,oldtable_name- to ,new_table_name-.
'/0
SQL- ena$e student to stud.
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Oracle SQL Guide 20
O
Roll%a!& o oll%a!& wo&.
E 6hile po!ess is going on# if suddenl7 powe goes then oa!le will oll%a!& the tansa!tion5
USIN8 S9'AOINT
*ou !an use savepoints to oll%a!& potions of 7ou !uent set of tansa!tions5
S7nta/0
Savepoint ,!avepoint_name-.
'/0
SQL- savepoint s2.
SQL- inset into student values(2# Ka;# 233). SQL- savepoint s1.
SQL- inset into student values(1# K%;# 133).
SQL- savepoint s4.
SQL- inset into student values(4# K!;# 433).
SQL- savepoint s@.
SQL- inset into student values(@# Kd;# @33).
efoe oll%a!&
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
@ d @33
SQL- oll%a!& to savepoint s4.
O
SQL- oll%a!& to s4.
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Oracle SQL Guide 21
This will oll%a!& last two e!ods5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """"""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
USIN8 DCL
DCL !o$$ands ae used to ganting and evo&ing the pe$issions5
USIN8 8RNT
This is used to gant the pivileges to othe uses5
S7nta/0
8ant ,privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- to ,u!er_name- with gant option.
'/0
SQL- gant sele!t on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give individual pivilege
SQL- gant sele!t# inset on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give set of pivileges SQL- gant all on student to sudha. "" 7ou !an give all pivileges
The sudha use has to use dot $ethod to a!!ess the o%Je!t5
SQL- sele!t E fo$ sað5student.
The sudha use !an not gant pe$ission on student ta%le to othe uses5 To get this
t7pe of option use the following5
SQL- gant all on student to sudha with gant option.
Now sudha use also gant pe$issions on student ta%le5
USIN8 R'9OF'
This is used to evo&e the pivileges fo$ the uses to whi!h 7ou ganted the pivileges5
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Oracle SQL Guide 23
Inset into ,table1- sele!t E fo$ ,table2-.
'/0
SQL- inset into student2 sele!t E fo$ student.
Inseting data into spe!ified !olu$ns
SQL- inset into student2(no# na$e) sele!t no# na$e fo$ student.
COLUMN LIS'S
S7nta/0
$elect %or"inal_col %alia!_name 'rom %tablena$e-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t no sno fo$ student.
o
SQL- sele!t no Psno fo$ student.
TL' LIS'S
If 7ou ae using ta%le aliases 7ou !an use dot $ethod to the !olu$ns5
S7nta/0
Sele!t ,alia!_name-5,col1-# ,alia!_name-5,col2- ,alia!_name-5,coln- fo$
,table_name- ,alia!_name-.
'/0
SQL- sele!t s5no# s5na$e fo$ student s.
USIN8 M'R8'
M'R8'
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Oracle SQL Guide 24
*ou !an use $ege !o$$and to pefo$ inset and update in a single !o$$and5
'/0
SQL- Mege into student2 s2
Using (sele!t EBo$ student1) s1
On(s25noHs15no)
6hen $at!hed then
Update set $a&s H s15$a&s
6hen not $at!hed then
Inset (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a&s)
9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15$a&s).
In the a%ove the two ta%les ae with the sa$e stu!tue %ut we !an $ege diffeent stu!tued ta%les also
%ut the datat7pe of the !olu$ns should $at!h5
ssu$e that student2 has !olu$ns li&e no#na$e#$a&s and student1 has !olu$ns li&e no#
na$e# hno# !it75
SQL- Mege into student2 s2
Using (sele!t EBo$ student1) s1
On(s25noHs15no)
6hen $at!hed then
Update set $a&s H s15hno
6hen not $at!hed then
Inset (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a&s)
9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15hno).
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Oracle SQL Guide 25
MULTIL' INS'RTS
6e have ta%le !alled D'AT with the following !olu$ns and data
D'ATNO DNM' LOC
"""""""" """""""" """"
23 a!!ounting new 7o&
13 esea!h dallas
43 sales Chi!ago
@3 opeations %oston
a) CR'T' STUD'NT TL'
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s nu$%e(4)).
%) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: LL BI'LDS
SQL- Inset all
Into student values(2#;a;#233)
Into student values(1#;%;#133)
Into student values(4#;!;#433)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH23.
"" This insets 4 ows
!) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: SA'CIBI'D BI'LDS
SQL- inset all
Into student (no#na$e) values(@#;d;)
Into student(na$e#$a&s) values(;e;#@33)
Into student values(4#;!;#433)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH23.
"" This insets 4 ows
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Into student4 values(4#;!;#433)
'lse
Into student values(@#;d;#@33)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptno-23.
"" This insets 4 e!ods %e!ause the else satisfied 4 ti$es
g) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS S'D ND BIRST
SQL- Inset fist
6hen deptno H 13 then
Into student2 values(2#;a;#233)
6hen dna$e H KR'S'RC:; then Into student1 values(1#;%;#133)
6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then
Into student4 values(4#;!;#433)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH13.
"" This insets 2 e!od %e!ause the fist !lause avoid to !he!& the e$aining
!onditions on!e the !ondition is satisfied5
h) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS S'D# BIRST ND 'LS'
SQL- Inset fist
6hen deptno H 43 then
Into student2 values(2#;a;#233)
6hen dna$e H KR; then
Into student1 values(1#;%;#133)
6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then
Into student4 values(4#;!;#433)
'lse
Into student values(@#;d;#@33)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH13.
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"" This insets 2 e!od %e!ause the else !lause satisfied on!e
i) MULTI INS'RT 6IT: MULTIL' TL'S
SQL- Inset all
Into student2 values(2#;a;#233)
Into student1 values(1#;%;#133)
Into student4 values(4#;!;#433)
Sele!t Efo$ dept whee deptnoH23.
"" This insets 4 ows
EE *ou !an use $ulti ta%les with spe!ified fields# with dupli!ate ows# with !onditions#with fist and else !lauses5
BUNCTIONS
Bun!tions !an %e !ategoied as follows5
Single ow fun!tions
8oup fun!tions
SIN8L' RO6 BUNCTIONS
Single ow fun!tions !an %e !ategoied into five5 These will %e applied fo ea!h ow and podu!es
individual output fo ea!h ow5
Nu$ei! fun!tions
Sting fun!tions
Date fun!tions
Mis!ellaneous fun!tions
Convesion fun!tions
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Oracle SQL Guide 29
NUM'RIC BUNCTIONS
%s
Sign
St
Mod
Nvl
Aowe
'/p
Ln
Log
Ceil Bloo
Round
Tun&
itand
8eatest
Least
Coales!e
a) S
%solute value is the $easue of the $agnitude of value5
%solute value is alwa7s a positive nu$%e5
S7nta/0 a%s (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t a%s()# a%s(")# a%s(3)# a%s(null) fo$ dual.
S() S(") S(3) S(NULL)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""""""
" 3
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%) SI8N
Sign gives the sign of a value5
S7nta/0 sign (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t sign()# sign(")# sign(3)# sign(null) fo$ dual.
SI8N() SI8N(") SI8N(3) SI8N(NULL)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""
2 "2 3
!) SQRT
This will give the suae oot of the given value5
S7nta/0 st (value) "" hee value $ust %e positive5
'/0
SQL- sele!t st(@)# st(3)# st(null)# st(2) fo$ dual. SQRT(@) SQRT(3) SQRT(NULL) SQRT(2)
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""""
1 3 2
d) MOD
This will give the e$ainde5
S7nta/0 $od (value, divi!or)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $od(V#@)# $od(2#)# $od(null#null)# $od(3#3)# $od("V#@) fo$ dual.
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MOD(V#@) MOD(2#) MOD(NULL#NULL) MOD(3#3) MOD("V#@)
"""""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""""""
4 2 3 "4
e) N9L
This will su%stitutes the spe!ified value in the pla!e of null values5
S7nta/0 nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
'/0 SQL- sele!t E fo$ student. "" hee fo 4dow $a&s value is null
NO NM' MRFS
""" """"""" """""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 !
SQL- sele!t no# na$e# nvl($a&s#433) fo$ student.
NO NM' N9L(MRFS#433)
""" """"""" """""""""""""""""""""
2 a 233
1 % 133
4 ! 433
SQL- sele!t nvl(2#1)# nvl(1#4)# nvl(@#4)# nvl(#@) fo$ dual.
N9L(2#1) N9L(1#4) N9L(@#4) N9L(#@)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
2 1 @
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SQL- sele!t nvl(3#3)# nvl(2#2)# nvl(null#null)# nvl(@#@) fo$ dual.
N9L(3#3) N9L(2#2) N9L(null#null) N9L(@#@)
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""
3 2 @
f) AO6'R
Aowe is the a%ilit7 to aise a value to a given e/ponent5
S7nta/0 powe (value, eponent)
'/0
SQL- sele!t powe(1#)# powe(3#3)# powe(2#2)# powe(null#null)# powe(1#")
fo$ dual.
AO6'R(1#) AO6'R(3#3) AO6'R(2#2) AO6'R(NULL#NULL) AO6'R(1#")
"""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"" """"""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""
41 2 2 53421
g) '+A
This will aise e value to the give powe5
S7nta/0 e/p (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t e/p(2)# e/p(1)# e/p(3)# e/p(null)# e/p("1) fo$ dual.
'+A(2) '+A(1) '+A(3) '+A(NULL) '+A("1)
"""""""" """"""""" """""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""
15V2W1W2W4 V54W32 2 524441W4
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h) LN
This is %ased on natual o %ase e logaith$5
S7nta/0 ln (value) "" hee value $ust %e geate than eo whi!h is positive onl75
'/0
SQL- sele!t ln(2)# ln(1)# ln(null) fo$ dual.
LN(2) LN(1) LN(NULL)
""""""" """"""" """""""""""" 3 542@V2W2
Ln and '/p ae e!ipo!al to ea!h othe5
'+A (4) H 1353W4
LN (1353W4) H 4
i) LO8
This is %ased on 23 %ased logaith$5
S7nta/0 log (23# value) "" hee value $ust %e geate than eo whi!h is positive onl75
'/0
SQL- sele!t log(23#233)# log(23#1)# log(23#2)# log(23#null) fo$ dual.
LO8(23#233) LO8(23#1) LO8(23#2) LO8(23#NULL)
""""""""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""""" """""""""""""""""
1 543231 3
LN (value) H LO8 ('+A(2)# value)
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SQL- sele!t ln(4)# log(e/p(2)#4) fo$ dual.
LN(4) LO8('+A(2)#4)
""""""" """""""""""""""""
253W211 253W211
J) C'IL
This will podu!e a whole nu$%e that is geate than o eual to the spe!ified value5
S7nta/0 !eil (value)
'/0 SQL- sele!t !eil()# !eil(52)# !eil(")# !eil( "52)# !eil(3)# !eil(null) fo$ dual.
C'IL() C'IL(52) C'IL(") C'IL("52) C'IL(3) C'IL(NULL)
""""""""" """"""""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """""""" """"""""""""""
" " 3
&) BLOOR
This will podu!e a whole nu$%e that is less than o eual to the spe!ified value5
S7nta/0 floo (value)
'/0
SQL- sele!t floo()# floo(52)# floo(")# floo( "52)# floo(3)# floo(null) fo$
dual.
BLOOR() BLOOR(52) BLOOR(") BLOOR("52) BLOOR(3) BLOOR(NULL)
""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""" """"""""""""""""
" " 3
l) ROUND
This will ounds nu$%es to a given nu$%e of digits of pe!ision5
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S7nta/0 ound (value, preci!ion)
'/0
SQL- sele!t ound(214514@)# ound(214514@#1)# ound(214514@#1) fo$ dual.
ROUND(214514@) ROUND(214514@#3) ROUND(214514@#1) ROUND(214514@#1)
""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
214 214 214514 21451@
SQL- sele!t ound(214514@#"2)# ound(214514@#"1)# ound(214514@#"4)#
ound(214514@#"@) fo$ dual.
ROUND(214514@#"2) ROUND(214514@#"1) ROUND(214514@#"4) ROUND(214514@#"@)
"""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 3
SQL- sele!t ound(214#3)# ound(214#2)# ound(214#1) fo$ dual.
ROUND(214#3) ROUND(214#2) ROUND(214#1)
""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" 214 214 214
SQL- sele!t ound("214#3)# ound("214#2)# ound("214#1) fo$ dual.
ROUND("214#3) ROUND("214#2) ROUND("214#1)
"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""
"214 "214 "214
SQL- sele!t ound(214#"2)# ound(214#"1)# ound(214#"4)# ound("214#"2)# ound(
"214#"1)# ound("214#"4) fo$ dual.
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ROUND(214#"2) ROUND(214#"1) ROUND(214#"4) ROUND("214#"2) ROUND("214#"1)
ROUND("214#"4)
""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 "213 "233 3
SQL- sele!t ound(null#null)# ound(3#3)# ound(2#2)# ound("2#"2)# ound("1#"1)
fo$ dual.
ROUND(NULL#NULL) ROUND(3#3) ROUND(2#2) ROUND("2#"2) ROUND("1#"1)
""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
3 2 3 3
$) TRUNC
This will tun!ates o !hops off digits of pe!ision fo$ a nu$%e5
S7nta/0 tun! (value, preci!ion)
'/0 SQL- sele!t tun!(214514@)# tun!(214514@#1)# tun!(214514@#1) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214514@) TRUNC(214514@#1) TRUNC(214514@#1)
""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
214 214514 214514
SQL- sele!t tun!(214514@#"2)# tun!(214514@#"1)# tun!(214514@#"4)#
tun!(214514@#"@) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214514@#"2) TRUNC(214514@#"1) TRUNC(214514@#"4) TRUNC(214514@#"@)
"""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 3
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SQL- sele!t tun!(214#3)# tun!(214#2)# tun!(214#1) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214#3) TRUNC(214#2) TRUNC(214#1)
"""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""
214 214 214
SQL- sele!t tun!("214#3)# tun!("214#2)# tun!("214#1) fo$ dual.
TRUNC("214#3) TRUNC("214#2) TRUNC("214#1)
""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""
"214 "214 "214
SQL- sele!t tun!(214#"2)# tun!(214#"1)# tun!(214#"4)# tun!("214#"2)# tun!(
"214#1)# tun!("214#"4) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(214#"2) TRUNC(214#"1) TRUNC(214#"4) TRUNC("214#"2) TRUNC("214#1) TRUNC("
214#"4)
""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
213 233 3 "213 "214 3
SQL- sele!t tun!(null#null)# tun!(3#3)# tun!(2#2)# tun!("2#"2)# tun!("1#"1) fo$
dual.
TRUNC(NULL#NULL) TRUNC(3#3) TRUNC(2#2) TRUNC("2#"2) TRUNC("1#"1)
""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
3 2 3 3
n) ITND
This will pefo$ %itwise and opeation5
S7nta/0 %itand (value1, value2)
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'/0
SQL- sele!t %itand(1#4)# %itand(3#3)# %itand(2#2)# %itand(null#null)# %itand("1#"4)
fo$ dual.
ITND(1#4) ITND(3#3) ITND(2#2) ITND(NULL#NULL) ITND("1#"4)
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""
1 3 2 "@
o) 8R'T'ST
This will give the geatest nu$%e5
S7nta/0 geatest (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0 SQL- sele!t geatest(2# 1# 4)# geatest("2# "1# "4) fo$ dual.
8R'T'ST(2#1#4) 8R'T'ST("2#"1#"4)
"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
4 "2
If all the values ae eos then it will displa7 eo5
If all the paa$etes ae nulls then it will displa7 nothing5
If an7 of the paa$etes is null it will displa7 nothing5
p) L'ST
This will give the least nu$%e5
S7nta/0 least (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL- sele!t least(2# 1# 4)# least("2# "1# "4) fo$ dual.
L'ST(2#1#4) L'ST("2#"1#"4)
"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
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2 "4
If all the values ae eos then it will displa7 eo5
If all the paa$etes ae nulls then it will displa7 nothing5
If an7 of the paa$etes is null it will displa7 nothing5
) COL'SC'
This will etun fist non"null value5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !oales!e(2#1#4)# !oales!e(null#1#null#) fo$ dual.
COL'SC'(2#1#4) COL'SC'(NULL#1#NULL#)
""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
2 1
STRIN8 BUNCTIONS
Init!ap
Uppe
Lowe
Length
Rpad
Lpad
Lti$
Rti$
Ti$
Tanslate
Repla!e
Sounde/
Con!at ( K XX K Con!atenation opeato)
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s!ii
Ch
Su%st
Inst
De!ode
8eatest
Least
Coales!e
a) INITCA
This will !apitalie the initial lette of the sting5
S7nta/0 init!ap (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t init!ap(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
INITCA
"""""""""""
Co$pute
%) UAA'R
This will !onvet the sting into uppe!ase5
S7nta/0 uppe (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t uppe(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
UAA'R
"""""""""""
COMAUT'R
!) LO6'R
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This will !onvet the sting into lowe!ase5
S7nta/0 lowe (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t lowe(=COMAUT'R=) fo$ dual.
LO6'R
"""""""""""
!o$pute
d) L'N8T:
This will give length of the sting5
S7nta/0 length (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t length(=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
L'N8T:
"""""""""""
W
e) RAD
This will allows 7ou to pad the ight side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !haa!tes5
S7nta/0 pad (!trin", len"t *, paddin"_car+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t pad(=!o$pute=#2#=E=)# pad(=!o$pute=#2#=EY=) fo$ dual.
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RAD(=COMAUT'R= RAD(=COMAUT'R=
"""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""
!o$puteEEEEEEE !o$puteEYEYEYE
"" Default padding !haa!te was %lan& spa!e5
f) LAD
This will allows 7ou to pad the left side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !haa!tes5
S7nta/0 lpad (!trin", len"t *, paddin"_car+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t lpad(=!o$pute=#2#=E=)# lpad(=!o$pute=#2#=EY=) fo$ dual.
LAD(=COMAUT'R= LAD(=COMAUT'R=
""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""
EEEEEEE!o$pute EYEYEYE!o$pute
"" Default padding !haa!te was %lan& spa!e5
g) LTRIM
This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the left end of sting5
S7nta/0 lti$ (!trin" *,unwanted_car!+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t lti$(=!o$pute=#=!o=)# lti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$=) fo$ dual.
LTRIM( LTRIM
"""""""" """""""""
$pute pute
SQL- sele!t lti$(=!o$pute=#=pute=)# lti$(=!o$pute=#=o$pute=) fo$ dual.
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LTRIM(=C LTRIM(=C
"""""""""" """"""""""
!o$pute !o$pute
"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !haa!tes it will displa7 entie sting5
h) RTRIM
This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the ight end of sting5
S7nta/0 ti$ (!trin" *, unwanted_car!+)
'/0 SQL- sele!t ti$(=!o$pute=#=e=)# ti$(=!o$pute=#=te=) fo$ dual.
RTRIM( RTRIM
"""""""" """""""""
!o$put !o$pu
SQL- sele!t ti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$put;)# ti$(=!o$pute=#=!o$pute=) fo$ dual.
RTRIM(=C RTRIM(=C"""""""""" """"""""""
!o$pute !o$pute
"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !haa!tes it will displa7 entie sting5
i) TRIM
This will ti$ off unwanted !haa!tes fo$ the %oth sides of sting5
S7nta/0 ti$ (unwanted_car! fo$!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t ti$( =i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual.
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TRIM(
"""""
ndian
SQL- sele!t ti$( leading=i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual. "" this will wo& as LTRIM
TRIM(L
""""""
ndiani
SQL- sele!t ti$( tailing=i= fo$ =indiani=) fo$ dual. "" this will wo& as RTRIM
TRIM(T
""""""
Indian
J) TRNSLT'
This will epla!e the set of !haa!tes# !haa!te %7 !haa!te5
S7nta/0 tanslate (!trin", old_car!, new_car!)
'/0
SQL- sele!t tanslate(=india=#=in=#=/7=) fo$ dual.
TRNS
""""""""
/7d/a
&) R'ALC'
This will epla!e the set of !haa!tes# sting %7 sting5
S7nta/0 epla!e (!trin", old_car! *, new_car!+)
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'/0
SQL- sele!t epla!e(=india=#=in=#=/7=)# epla!e(Kindia;#;in;) fo$ dual.
R'ALC' R'ALC'
""""""""""" """""""""""
+7dia dia
l) SOUND'+
This will %e used to find wods that sound li&e othe wods# e/!lusivel7 used in whee
!lause5
S7nta/0 sounde/ (!trin")
'/0
SQL- sele!t E fo$ e$p whee sounde/(ena$e) H sounde/(=SMIT=).
'MANO 'NM' >O M8R :IR'DT' SL D'ATNO
"""""""" """""""" """"" """"" """""""""""" """"""""" """"""""""
V4 SMIT: CL'RF V31 2V"D'C"W3 33 13
$) CONCT
This will %e used to !o$%ine two stings onl75
S7nta/0 !on!at (!trin"1, !trin"2)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !on!at(=!o$pute=#= opeato=) fo$ dual.
CONCT(=COMAUT'R=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""
!o$pute opeato
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"""""
a
p) SUSTR
This will %e used to e/ta!t su%stings5
S7nta/0 su%st (!trin", !tart_cr_count *, no_o'_car!+)
'/0
SQL- sele!t su%st(=!o$pute=#1)# su%st(=!o$pute=#1#)# su%st(=!o$pute=#4#V)
fo$ dual.
SUSTR( SUST SUSTR"""""""""" """"""" """"""""o$pute o$put $pute
If no_o'_car!paa$ete is negative then it will displa7 nothing5
If %oth paa$etes e/!ept !trin"ae null o eos then it will displa7 nothing5
If no_o'_car!paa$ete is geate than the length of the sting then it ignoes and
!al!ulates %ased on the oginal sting length5
If !tart_cr_countis negative then it will e/ta!t the su%sting fo$ ight end5
2 1 4 @ V W
C O M A U T ' R
"W "V " " "@ "4 "1 "2
) INSTR
This will allows 7ou fo sea!hing though a sting fo set of !haa!tes5
S7nta/0 inst (!trin", !earc_!tr *, !tart_cr_count *, occurrence+ +)
'/0
SQL- sele!t inst(=info$ation=#=o=#@#2)# inst(=info$ation=#=o=#@#1) fo$ dual.
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INSTR(=INBORMTION=#=O=#@#2) INSTR(=INBORMTION=#=O=#@#1)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
@ 23
If 7ou ae not spe!if7ing !tart_cr_countand occurrencethen it will stat
sea!h fo$ the %eginning and finds fist o!!uen!e onl75
If %oth paa$etes !tart_cr_countand occurrenceae null# it will displa7
nothing5
) D'COD'
De!ode will a!t as value %7 value su%stitution5
Bo eve7 value of field# it will !he!&s fo a $at!h in a seies of if?then tests5
S7nta/0 de!ode (value, i'1, ten1, i'2, ten2, . el!e).
'/0
SQL- sele!t sal# de!ode(sal#33#=Low=#333#=:igh=#=Mediu$=) fo$ e$p.
SL D'COD'
""""" """""""""
33 Low
133 Mediu$
1333 Mediu$
433 Mediu$
4333 Mediu$
333 :igh
@333 Mediu$
333 :igh 2W33 Mediu$
2133 Mediu$
1333 Mediu$
1V33 Mediu$
1133 Mediu$
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4133 Mediu$
SQL- sele!t de!ode(2#2#4)# de!ode(2#1#4#@#@#) fo$ dual.
D'COD'(2#2#4) D'COD'(2#1#4#@#@#)""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" 4
If the nu$%e of paa$etes ae odd and diffeent then de!ode will displa7
nothing5
If the nu$%e of paa$etes ae even and diffeent then de!ode will displa7 last
value5
If all the paa$etes ae null then de!ode will displa7 nothing5
If all the paa$etes ae eos then de!ode will displa7 eo5
s) 8R'T'ST
This will give the geatest sting5
S7nta/0 geatest (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL- sele!t geatest(=a=# =%=# =!=)# geatest(=satish=#=sinu=#=sað=) fo$ dual.
8R'T 8R'T
""""""" """""""
! sinu
If all the paa$etes ae nulls then it will displa7 nothing5
If an7 of the paa$etes is null it will displa7 nothing5
t) L'ST
This will give the least sting5
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S7nta/0 geatest (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL- sele!t least(=a=# =%=# =!=)# least(=satish=#=sinu=#=sað=) fo$ dual.
L'ST L'ST
""""""" """""""
a sað
If all the paa$etes ae nulls then it will displa7 nothing5
If an7 of the paa$etes is null it will displa7 nothing5
u) COL'SC'
This will gives the fist non"null sting5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL- sele!t !oales!e(=a=#=%=#=!=)# !oales!e(null#=a=#null#=%=) fo$ dual.
COL'SC' COL'SC'
""""""""""" """""""""""
a a
DT' BUNCTIONS
S7sdate Cuentdate
Cuentti$esta$p
S7sti$esta$p
Lo!alti$esta$p
D%ti$eone
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'/0
SQL- sele!t !uentdate fo$ dual.
CURR'NTDT'
""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3
!) CURR'NTTIM'STMA
This will etuns the !uent ti$esta$p with the a!tive ti$e one info$ation5
'/0 SQL- sele!t !uentti$esta$p fo$ dual.
CURR'NTTIM'STMA
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3 345@15@254W44 M G3043
d) S*STIM'STMA
This will etuns the s7ste$ date# in!luding fa!tional se!onds and ti$e one of the
data%ase5
'/0
SQL- sele!t s7sti$esta$p fo$ dual.
S*STIM'STMA
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@"D'C"3 345@5425W433 M G3043
e) LOCLTIM'STMA
This will etuns lo!al ti$esta$p in the a!tive ti$e one info$ation# with no ti$e
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one info$ation shown5
'/0
SQL- sele!t lo!alti$esta$p fo$ dual.
LOCLTIM'STMA"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""1@"D'C"3 345@@52W531WV@ M
f) DTIM'ZON'
This will etuns the !uent data%ase ti$e one in UTC fo$at5 (Coodinated Univesal
Ti$e)
'/0
SQL- sele!t d%ti$eone fo$ dual.
DTIM'ZON'""""""""""""""" "3V033
g) S'SSIONTIM'ZON'
This will etuns the value of the !uent session;s ti$e one5
'/0
SQL- sele!t sessionti$eone fo$ dual.
S'SSIONTIM'ZON'
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
G3043
h) TOC:R
This will %e used to e/ta!t vaious date fo$ats5
The availa%le date fo$ats as follows5
S7nta/0 to!ha (date#'ormat)
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5D o 5C "" Displa7s D o C depending upon the date
BM "" Aefi/ to $onth o da7# suppesses padding of $onth o da7
T: "" Suffi/ to a nu$%e
SA "" suffi/ to a nu$%e to %e spelled out
SAT: "" Suffi/ !o$%ination of T: and SA to %e %oth spelled out
T:SA "" sa$e as SAT:
'/0
SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=dd $onth 7777 hh0$i0ss a$ d7=) fo$ dual.
TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DD MONT: ****::0MI
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de!e$%e 133 31034014 p$ sun
SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=dd $onth 7ea=) fo$ dual.
TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DDMONT:*'R=)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/
SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=dd f$$onth 7ea=) fo$ dual.
TOC:R(S*SDT'#=DD BMMONT: *'R=)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/
SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=ddth DDT:=) fo$ dual.
TOC:R(S
""""""""""""
1@th 1@T:
SQL- sele!t to!ha(s7sdate#=ddspth DDSAT:=) fo$ dual.
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DDMONT:S
""""""""""""""""
22">UN"3
SQL- sele!t add$onths(todate(=22"Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# ") fo$ dual.
DDMONT:
"""""""""""""""
22"U8"W
If no_o'_mont!is eo then it will displa7 the sa$e date5
If no_o'_mont!is null then it will displa7 nothing5
&) MONT:S'T6''N
This will give diffeen!e of $onths %etween two dates5
S7nta/0 $onths%etween (date1, date2)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $onths%etween(todate(=22"aug"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# todate(=22"
Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)) fo$ dual.
MONT:S'T6''N(TODT'(=22"U8"23=#=DD"MON"****=)#TODT'(=22">N"
23=#=DD"MON"****=))
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" V
SQL- sele!t $onths%etween(todate(=22"Jan"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)# todate(=22"
aug"23=#=dd"$on"7777=)) fo$ dual.
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MONT:S'T6''N(TODT'(=22">N"23=#=DD"MON"****=)#TODT'(=22"U8"
23=#=DD"MON"****=))
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
"V
l) N'+TD*
This will podu!e ne/t da7 of the given da7 fo$ the spe!ified date5
S7nta/0 ne/tda7 (date, day)
'/0
SQL- sele!t ne/tda7(todate(=1@"de!"133=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) fo$ dual.
N'+TD*("""""""""""""
42"D'C"3
"" If the da7 paa$ete is null then it will displa7 nothing5
$) LSTD*
This will podu!e last da7 of the given date5
S7nta/0 lastda7 (date)
'/0
SQL- sele!t lastda7(todate(=1@"de!"133=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) fo$ dual.
LSTD*(
"""""""""""""
42"D'C"3
n) '+TRCT
This is used to e/ta!t a potion of the date value5
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S7nta/0 e/ta!t ((7ea X $onth X da7 X hou X $inute X se!ond)# date)
'/0
SQL- sele!t e/ta!t(7ea fo$ s7sdate) fo$ dual.
'+TRCT(*'RBROMS*SDT')
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
133
"" *ou !an e/ta!t onl7 one value at a ti$e5
o) 8R'T'ST
This will give the geatest date5
S7nta/0 geatest (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL- sele!t geatest(todate(=22"Jan"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#todate(=22"$a"3=#=dd"
$on"77=)#todate(=22"ap"3=#=dd"$on"77=)) fo$ dual.
8R'T'ST( """""""""""""
22"AR"3
p) L'ST
This will give the least date5
S7nta/0 least (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL- sele!t least(todate(=22"Jan"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#todate(=22"$a"3=#=dd"$on"
77=)#todate(=22"ap"3=#=dd"$on"77=)) fo$ dual.
L'ST(
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"""""""""""""
22">N"3
) ROUND
Round will ounds the date to whi!h it was eual to o geate than the given date5
S7nta/0 ound (date, (da7 X $onth X 7ea))
If the se!ond paa$ete was yearthen ound will !he!&s the $onth of the given date in
the following anges5
>N "" >UN>UL "" D'C
If the $onth falls %etween >N and >UN then it etuns the fist da7 of the !uent 7ea5
If the $onth falls %etween >UL and D'C then it etuns the fist da7 of the ne/t 7ea5
If the se!ond paa$ete was montthen ound will !he!&s the da7 of the given date in
the following anges5
2 "" 2
2 "" 42
If the da7 falls %etween 2 and 2 then it etuns the fist da7 of the !uent $onth5
If the da7 falls %etween 2 and 42 then it etuns the fist da7 of the ne/t $onth5
If the se!ond paa$ete was daythen ound will !he!&s the wee& da7 of the given date
in the following anges5
SUN "" 6'D
T:U "" SUN
If the wee& da7 falls %etween SUN and 6'D then it etuns the pevious sunda75
If the wee&da7 falls %etween T:U and SUN then it etuns the ne/t sunda75
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If the se!ond paa$ete was null then it etuns nothing5
If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then ound will esets the ti$e to the %egining
of the !uent da7 in !ase of use spe!ified date5
If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then ound will esets the ti$e to the %egining
of the ne/t da7 in !ase of s7sdate5
'/0
SQL- sele!t ound(todate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=)# ound(todate(=22"$a"
3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=) fo$ dual.
ROUND(TO ROUND(TO
"""""""""""" """""""""""""""
32">N"3 32">N"3
SQL- sele!t ound(todate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)# ound(todate(=2W"
Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) fo$ dual.
ROUND(TO ROUND(TO
""""""""""""" """""""""""""""
32">N"3@ 32"B'"3@
SQL- sele!t ound(todate(=1"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)# ound(todate(=1"de!"
3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) fo$ dual.
ROUND(TO ROUND(TO
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
1@"D'C"3 42"D'C"3
SQL- sele!t to!ha(ound(todate(=1@"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777
hh0$i0ss a$=) fo$ dual.
TOC:R(ROUND(TODT'(=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133 21033033 a$
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) TRUNC
Tun! will !hops off the date to whi!h it was eual to o less than the given date5
S7nta/0 tun! (date, (da7 X $onth X 7ea))
If the se!ond paa$ete was yearthen it alwa7s etuns the fist da7 of the !uent 7ea5
If the se!ond paa$ete was montthen it alwa7s etuns the fist da7 of the !uent $onth5
If the se!ond paa$ete was daythen it alwa7s etuns the pevious sunda75
If the se!ond paa$ete was null then it etuns nothing5
If the 7ou ae not spe!if7ing the se!ond paa$ete then tun& will esets the ti$e to the %egining
of the !uent da75
'/0
SQL- sele!t tun!(todate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=)# tun!(todate(=22"$a"
3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea=) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(TO TRUNC(TO
""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
32">N"3@ 32">N"3
SQL- sele!t tun!(todate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)# tun!(todate(=2W"Jan"
3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(TO TRUNC(TO
""""""""""""" """""""""""""
32">N"3@ 32">N"3@
SQL- sele!t tun!(todate(=1"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)# tun!(todate(=1"de!"
3=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) fo$ dual.
TRUNC(TO TRUNC(TO
""""""""""""" """"""""""""""
1@"D'C"3 1@"D'C"3
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SQL- sele!t to!ha(tun!(todate(=1@"de!"3=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss
a$=) fo$ dual.
TOC:R(TRUNC(TODT'(=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133 21033033 a$
s) N'6TIM'
This will give the desied ti$eone;s date and ti$e5
S7nta/0 newti$e (date, current_timeone, de!ired_timeone)
vaila%le ti$eones ae as follows5
TIM'ZON'S
ST?DT "" tlanti! standad?da7 light ti$e
ST?DT "" eing standad?da7 light ti$e
CST?CDT "" Cental standad?da7 light ti$e
'ST?'DT "" 'asten standad?da7 light ti$e8MT "" 8eenwi!h $ean ti$e
:ST?:DT "" las&a":awaii standad?da7 light ti$e
MST?MDT "" Mountain standad?da7 light ti$e
NST "" Newfoundland standad ti$e
AST?ADT "" Aa!ifi! standad?da7 light ti$e
*ST?*DT "" *u&on standad?da7 light ti$e
'/0
SQL- sele!t to!ha(newti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=7st=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss a$=) fo$
dual.
TOC:R(N'6TIM'(S*SDT
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
1@ de! 133 3102013 p$
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'/0
SQL- sele!t uid fo$ dual.
UID
""""""""""
42
%) US'R
This will etuns the login;s use na$e5
'/0
SQL- sele!t use fo$ dual.
US'R
""""""""""""""""
SF'T:
!) 9SIZ'
This will etuns the nu$%e of %7tes in the e/pession5
'/0
SQL- sele!t vsie(214)# vsie(=!o$pute=)# vsie(=21"Jan"3=) fo$ dual.
9SIZ'(214) 9SIZ'(=COMAUT'R=) 9SIZ'(=21">N"3=)
""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""
4 W
d) RNF
This will give the non"seuential an&ing5
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'/0
SQL- sele!t ownu$#sal fo$ (sele!t sal fo$ e$p ode %7 sal des!).
RO6NUM SL
"""""""""" """"""""""
2 333
1 4333
4 4333
@ 1V
1W3
1@3
V 233
W 233 2433
23 213
22 213
21 2233
24 2333
2@ 3
2 W33
SQL- sele!t an&(1V) within goup(ode %7 sal des!) fo$ e$p.
RNF(1V)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R*SLD'SC)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
@
d) D'NS'RNF
This will give the seuential an&ing5
'/0
SQL- sele!t densean&(1V) within goup(ode %7 sal des!) fo$ e$p.
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D'NS'RNF(1V)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R*SLD'SC)
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
4
CON9'RSION BUNCTIONS
intonu$
Chatoowid
Rowidto!ha
Tonu$%e
To!ha
Todate
a) INTONUM
This will !onvet the %ina7 value to its nu$ei!al euivalent5
S7nta/0 %intonu$( binary_bit!)
'/0
SQL- sele!t %intonu$(2#2#3) fo$ dual.
INTONUM(2#2#3)
""""""""""""""""""""""""
If all the %its ae eo then it podu!es eo5
If all the %its ae null then it podu!es an eo5
%) C:RTORO6ID
This will !onvet a !haa!te sting to a!t li&e an intenal oa!le ow identifie o owid5
!) RO6IDTOC:R
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This will !onvet an intenal oa!le ow identifie o owid to !haa!te sting5
d) TONUM'R
This will !onvet a !ha o va!ha to nu$%e5
e) TOC:R
This will !onvet a nu$%e o date to !haa!te sting5
f) TODT'
This will !onvet a nu$%e# !ha o va!ha to a date5
8ROUA BUNCTIONS
Su$
vg
Ma/
Min
Count
8oup fun!tions will %e applied on all the ows %ut podu!es single output5
a) SUM
This will give the su$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 su$ (column) '/0
SQL- sele!t su$(sal) fo$ e$p.
SUM(SL)
""""""""""
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4W33
%) 98
This will give the aveage of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 avg (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t avg(sal) fo$ e$p.
98(SL)
"""""""""""""""
1VV52@1W
!) M+
This will give the $a/i$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 $a/ (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $a/(sal) fo$ e$p.
M+(SL)
""""""""""
333
d) MIN
This will give the $ini$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 $in (column)
'/0
SQL- sele!t $in(sal) fo$ e$p.
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MIN(SL)
""""""""""
33
e) COUNT
This will give the !ount of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 !ount (column)
'/0 SQL- sele!t !ount(sal)#!ount(E) fo$ e$p.
COUNT(SL) COUNT(E)
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""
2@ 2@
CONSTRINTS
Constaints ae !ategoied as follows5
Do$ain integit7 !onstaints
Not null
Che!&
'ntit7 integit7 !onstaints
Uniue
Ai$a7 &e7
Refeential integit7 !onstaints
Boeign &e7
Constaints ae alwa7s atta!hed to a !olu$n not a ta%le5
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6e !an add !onstaints in thee wa7s5
Colu$n level "" along with the !olu$n definition
Ta%le level "" afte the ta%le definition
lte level "" using alte !o$$and
6hile adding !onstaints 7ou need not spe!if7 the na$e %ut the t7pe onl7# oa!le will intenall7 na$e the
!onstaint5
If 7ou want to give a na$e to the !onstaint# 7ou have to use the !onstaint !lause5
NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values5
6e !an add this !onstaint in !olu$n level onl75
'/0
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) not null# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint nn not null# na$e va!ha(23)#
$a&s nu$%e(4)).
C:'CF
This is used to inset the values %ased on spe!ified !ondition5
6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4) !he!&
($a&s - 433)).
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SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)
!onstaint !h !he!&($a&s - 433)).
TL' L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)# !he!&
($a&s - 433)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint !h !he!&($a&s - 433)).
LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le student add !he!&($a&s-433).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint !h !he!&($a&s-433).
UNIQU'
This is used to avoid dupli!ates %ut it allow nulls5
6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) uniue# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint un uniue# na$e va!ha(23)#
$a&s nu$%e(4)).
TL' L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
uniue(no)).
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SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint un uniue(no)).
LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le student add uniue(no).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniue(no).
ARIMR* F'*
This is used to avoid dupli!ates and nulls5 This will wo& as !o$%ination of uniue and not null5
Ai$a7 &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the paent ta%le5
6e !an add this !onstaint in all thee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7# na$e va!ha(23)#
$a&s nu$%e(4)).
TL' L'9'L
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
pi$a7 &e7(no)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no)).
LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le student add pi$a7 &e7(no).
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SQL- !eate ta%le e$p(e$pno nu$%e(1)# ena$e va!ha(23)# deptno nu$%e(1)#
pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on delete
!as!ade).
SQL- !eate ta%le e$p(e$pno nu$%e(1)# ena$e va!ha(23)# deptno nu$%e(1)#
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es
dept(deptno) on delete !as!ade).
LT'R L'9'L
SQL- alte ta%le e$p add foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) on delete
!as!ade.
SQL- alte ta%le e$p add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno) efeen!es dept(deptno) ondelete !as!ade.
COMAOSIT' F'*S
!o$posite &e7 !an %e defined on a !o$%ination of !olu$ns5
6e !an define !o$posite &e7s on entit7 integit7 and efeential integit7 !onstaints5
Co$posite &e7 !an %e defined in ta%le and alte levels onl75
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UNIQU' (TL' L'9'L)
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
uniue(no#na$e)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint un uniue(no#na$e)).
UNIQU' (LT'R L'9'L)
SQL- alte ta%le student add uniue(no#na$e).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniue(no#na$e).
ARIMR* F'* (TL' L'9'L)
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SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e)).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) # na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e)).
ARIMR* F'* (LT'R L'9'L)
SQL- alte ta%le student add pi$a7 &e7(no#an$e).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(no#na$e).
BOR'I8N F'* (TL' L'9'L)
SQL- !eate ta%le e$p(e$pno nu$%e(1)# ena$e va!ha(23)# deptno nu$%e(1)#
dna$e va!ha(23)# pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es
dept(deptno#dna$e)).
SQL- !eate ta%le e$p(e$pno nu$%e(1)# ena$e va!ha(23)# deptno nu$%e(1)#
dna$e va!ha(23)# !onstaint p& pi$a7 &e7(e$pno)# !onstaint f& foeign
&e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es dept(deptno#dna$e)).
BOR'I8N F'* (LT'R L'9'L)
SQL- alte ta%le e$p add foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es dept(deptno#dna$e).
SQL- alte ta%le e$p add !onstaint f& foeign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efeen!es
dept(deptno#dna$e).
D'B'RRL' CONSTRINTS
'a!h !onstaint has two additional atti%utes to suppot defeed !he!&ing of !onstaints5
Defeed initiall7 i$$ediate
Defeed initiall7 defeed
Defeed initiall7 i$$ediate !he!&s fo !onstaint violation at the ti$e of inset5
Defeed initiall7 defeed !he!&s fo !onstaint violation at the ti$e of !o$$it5
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SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint un uniue(no) defeed initiall7 i$$ediate).
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)# na$e va!ha(23)# $a&s nu$%e(4)#
!onstaint un uniue(no) defeed initiall7 defeed).
SQL- alte ta%le student add !onstaint un uniue(no) defea%le initiall7 defeed.
SQL- set !onstaints all i$$ediate.
This will ena%le all the !onstaints violations at the ti$e of inseting5
SQL- set !onstaints all defeed.
This will ena%le all the !onstaints violations at the ti$e of !o$$it5
OA'RTIONS 6IT: CONSTRINTS
Aossi%le opeations with !onstaints as follows5
'na%le
Disa%le
'nfo!e
Dop
'NL'
This will ena%le the !onstaint5 efoe ena%le# the !onstaint will !he!& the e/isting data5
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SQL- alte ta%le student ena%le !onstaint un.
DISL'
This will disa%le the !onstaint5
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SQL- alte ta%le student ena%le !onstaint un.
'NBORC'
This will enfo!e the !onstaint athe than ena%le fo futue insets o updates5
This will not !he!& fo e/isting data while enfo!ing data5
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SQL- alte ta%le student enfo!e !onstaint un.
DROA
This will e$ove the !onstaint5
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SQL- alte ta%le student dop !onstaint un.
On!e the ta%le is dopped# !onstaints auto$ati!all7 will dop5
CS' ND D'BULT
CS'
Case is si$ila to de!ode %ut easie to undestand while going though !oding
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SQL- Sele!t sal#
Case sal
6hen 33 then Klow;
6hen 333 then Khigh;
'lse K$ediu$;
'nd !ase
Bo$ e$p.
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SL CS'
""""" """"""""
33 low
133 $ediu$
1333 $ediu$
433 $ediu$
4333 $ediu$
333 high
@333 $ediu$
333 high
2W33 $ediu$
2133 $ediu$
1333 $ediu$ 1V33 $ediu$
1133 $ediu$
4133 $ediu$
D'BULT
-e'ault!an %e !onsideed as a su%stitute %ehavio of not null!onstaint when applied to new ows %eing
enteed into the ta%le5
6hen 7ou define a !olu$n with the de'ault&e7wod followed %7 a value# 7ou ae a!tuall7 telling the
data%ase that# on inset if a ow was not assigned a value fo this !olu$n# use the default value that 7ou
have spe!ified5
Default is applied onl7 duing insetion of new ows5
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SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1) default 22#na$e va!ha(1)).
SQL- inset into student values(2#=a=).
SQL- inset into student(na$e) values(=%=).
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.
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NO NM'
"""""" """""""""
2 a
22 %
SQL- inset into student values(null# K!;).
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.
NO NM'
"""""" """""""""
2 a 22 %
C
"" Default !an not oveide nulls5
STRCT DT T*A'S
So$e ti$es 7ou $a7 want t7pe whi!h holds all t7pes of data in!luding nu$%es# !has and spe!ial
!haa!tes so$ething li&e this5 *ou !an not a!hieve this using pe"defined t7pes5
*ou !an define !usto$ t7pes whi!h holds 7ou desied data5
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Suppose in a ta%le we have addess !olu$n whi!h holds hno and !it7 info$ation5
6e will define a !usto$ t7pe whi!h holds %oth nu$ei! as well as !ha data5
CR'TIN8 DT
SQL- !eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)). ?
CR'TIN8 TL' S'D ON DT
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#addess add).
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INS'RTIN8 DT INTO DT TL'S
SQL- inset into student values(2#=a=#add(222#=h7d=)).
SQL- inset into student values(1#=%=#add(111#=%ang=)).
SQL- inset into student values(4#=!=#add(444#=delhi=)).
S'L'CTIN8 DT BROM DT TL'S
SQL- sele!t E fo$ student.
NO NM' DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*)
""" """"""" """""""""""""""""""""""""
2 a DDR(222# =h7d=) 1 % DDR(111# =%ang=)
4 ! DDR(444# =delhi=)
SQL- sele!t no#na$e#s5addess5hno#s5addess5!it7 fo$ student s.
NO NM' DDR'SS5:NO DDR'SS5CIT*
"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
2 a 222 h7d 1 % 111 %ang
4 ! 444 delhi
UADT' 6IT: DT TL'S
SQL- update student s set s5addess5!it7 H =%o$%a7= whee s5addess5hno H 444.
SQL- sele!t no#na$e#s5addess5hno#s5addess5!it7 fo$ student s.
NO NM' DDR'SS5:NO DDR'SS5CIT*
"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
2 a 222 h7d
1 % 111 %ang
4 ! 444 %o$%a7
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D'L'T' 6IT: DT TL'S
SQL- delete student s whee s5addess5hno H 222.
SQL- sele!t no#na$e#s5addess5hno#s5addess5!it7 fo$ student s.
NO NM' DDR'SS5:NO DDR'SS5CIT*
"""" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
1 % 111 %ang
4 ! 444 %o$%a7
DROAAIN8 DT
SQL- dop t7pe add.
O>'CT 9I'6S ND M'T:ODS
O>'CT 9I'6S
If 7ou want to i$ple$ent o%Je!ts with the e/isting ta%le# o%Je!t views !o$e into pi!tue5
*ou define the o%Je!t and !eate a view whi!h elates this o%Je!t to the e/isting ta%le nothing %ut ob#ect
view5
O%Je!t views ae used to elate the use defined o%Je!ts to the e/isting ta%le5
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2) ssu$e that the ta%le student has alead7 %een !eated with the following !olu$ns
SQL- !eate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#hno nu$%e(4)#!it7
va!ha(23)).
1) Ceate the following t7pes
SQL- !eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(1)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?
SQL- !eate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va!ha(23)#addess add).?
4) Relate the o%Je!ts to the student ta%le %7 !eating the o%Je!t view
SQL- !eate view studentov(no#studinfo) as sele!t no#stud(na$e#add(hno#!it7))
fo$ student.
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@) Now 7ou !an inset data into student ta%le in two wa7s
a) 7 egula inset
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;sudha;#222#;h7d;).
%) 7 using o%Je!t view
SQL- Inset into studentov values(2#stud(Ksudha;#add(222#;h7d;))).
M'T:ODS
*ou !an define $ethods whi!h ae nothing %ut fun!tions in t7pes and appl7 in the ta%les whi!h holds the
t7pes.
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2) Defining $ethods in t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va!ha(23)#$a&s nu$%e(4)#
Me$%e fun!tion $a&sf($a&s in nu$%e) etun nu$%e#
Aag$a esti!tefeen!es($a&sf#wnds#nds#wnps#fnps)).?
1) Defining t7pe %od7
SQL- Ceate t7pe %od7 stud as
Me$%e fun!tion $a&sf($a&s in nu$%e) etun nu$%e is
egin
Retun ($a&sG233).
'nd $a&sf.
'nd.?
4) Ceate a ta%le using stud t7pe
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#info stud).
@) Inset so$e data into student ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#stud(Ksudha;#233)).
) Using $ethod in sele!t
SQL- Sele!t s5info5$a&sf(s5info5$a&s) fo$ student s.
"" :ee we ae using the pag$a esti!tefeen!es to avoid the wites to the
Data%ase5
9RR*S ND N'ST'D TL'S
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9RR*S
va7ing aa7 allows 7ou to stoe epeating atti%utes of a e!od in a single ow %ut with li$it5
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2) 6e !an !eate vaa7s using oa!le t7pes as well as use defined t7pes5
a) 9aa7 using pe"defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe va as vaa7() of va!ha(23).?
%) 9aa7s using use defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?
SQL- Ceate t7pe va as vaa7() of add.?
1) Using vaa7 in ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#addess va). 4) Inseting values into vaa7 ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;sudha;#va(add(222#;h7d;))).
SQL- Inset into student values(1#;Jagan;#va(add(222#;h7d;)#add(111#;%ang;))).
@) Sele!ting data fo$ vaa7 ta%le
SQL- Sele!t E fo$ student.
"" This will displa7 vaa7 !olu$n data along with vaa7 and adt.
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5E fo$ student s2# ta%le(s25addess) s.
"" This will displa7 in geneal fo$at ) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in vaa7
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 fo$ student s2#ta%le(s25addess) s.
"" Update and delete not possi%le in vaa7s5
"" :ee we used ta%le fun!tion whi!h will ta&e the vaa7 !olu$n as input fo podu!ing
output e/!luding vaa7 and t7pes5
N'ST'D TL'S
nested ta%le is# as its na$e i$plies# a ta%le within a ta%le5 In this !ase it is a ta%le that is epesented as
a !olu$n within anothe ta%le5
Nested ta%le has the sa$e effe!t of vaa7s %ut has no li$it5
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2) 6e !an !eate nested ta%les using oa!le t7pes and use defined t7pes whi!h has no
li$it5
a) Nested ta%les using pe"defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe nt as ta%le of va!ha(23).?
%) Nested ta%les using use defined t7pes
SQL- Ceate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e(4)#!it7 va!ha(23)).?
SQL- Ceate t7pe nt as ta%le of add.?
1) Using nested ta%le in ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(23)#addess nt) nested ta%le
addess stoe as studentte$p.
4) Inseting values into ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le SQL- Inset into student values (2#;sudha;#nt(add(222#;h7d;))).
SQL- Inset into student values (1#;Jagan;#nt(add(222#;h7d;)#add(111#;%ang;))).
@) Sele!ting data fo$ ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le
SQL- Sele!t E fo$ student.
"" This will displa7 nested ta%le !olu$n data along with nested ta%le and adt.
SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5E fo$ student s2# ta%le(s25addess) s.
"" This will displa7 in geneal fo$at
) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in nested ta%le SQL- Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 fo$ student s2#ta%le(s25addess) s.
) Inseting nested ta%le data to the e/isting ow
SQL- Inset into ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH2)
values(add(#;!hennai;)).
V) Update in nested ta%les
SQL- Update ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH1) s set s5!it7H;%o$%a7;
whee s5hno H 111.
W) Delete in nested ta%le
SQL- Delete ta%le(sele!t addess fo$ student whee noH4) s whee s5hnoH444.
DT MOD'L
LLCOLLT*A'S
LLT*A'S
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DCOLLT*A'S
DT*A'S
US'RCOLLT*A'S
US'RT*A'S
BLS:CF QU'R*
Used to etieve the data whi!h has %een alead7 !o$$itted with out going fo e!ove75
Blash%a!&s ae of two t7pes
Ti$e %ase flash%a!&
SCN %ased flash%a!& (SCN stands fo S7ste$ Change Nu$%e)
'/0
2) Using ti$e %ased flash%a!&
a) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
"" This will displa7 all the ows
%) SQL- Delete student.
!) SQL- Co$$it. "" this will !o$$it the wo&5
d) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
"" :ee it will displa7 nothing
e) Then e/e!ute the following po!edues
SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5ena%leatti$e(s7sdate"1?2@@3)
f) SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
"" :ee it will displa7 the lost data
"" The lost data will !o$e %ut the !uent s7ste$ ti$e was used
g) SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5disa%le
"" :ee we have to disa%le the flash%a!& to ena%le it again
1) Using SCN %ased flash%a!&
a) De!lae a vaia%le to stoe SCN
SQL- 9aia%le s nu$%e
%) 8et the SCN
SQL- '/e! 0s 0H e/e! d%$sflash%a!&5gets7ste$!hangenu$%e
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!) To see the SCN
SQL- Aint s
d) Then e/e!ute the following po!edues
SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5ena%leats7ste$!hangenu$%e(0s)
SQL- '/e! d%$sflash%a!&5disa%le
'+T'RNL TL'S
*ou !an use e/tenal ta%le featue to a!!ess e/tenal files as if the7 ae ta%les inside the data%ase5
6hen 7ou !eate an e/tenal ta%le# 7ou define its stu!tue and lo!ation with in oa!le5
6hen 7ou ue7 the ta%le# oa!le eads the e/tenal ta%le and etuns the esults Just as if the data had
%een stoed with in the data%ase5
CC'SSIN8 '+T'RNL TL' DT
To a!!ess e/tenal files fo$ within oa!le# 7ou $ust fist use the !eate die!to7 !o$$and to define a
die!to7 o%Je!t pointing to the e/tenal file lo!ation
Uses who will a!!ess the e/tenal files $ust have the ead and wite pivilege on the die!to75
'/0
CR'TIN8 DIR'CTOR* ND OS L'9'L BIL'
SQL- Slplus s7ste$?$anage
SQL- Ceate die!to7 saðdi as K?9isd%?visd%?5153?e/tenal;.
SQL- 8ant all on die!to7 saðdi to sað.
SQL- Conn sað?sað
SQL- Spool dept5lst
SQL- Sele!t deptno XX K#; XX dna$e XX K#; XX lo! fo$ dept.
SQL- Spool off
CR'TIN8 '+T'RNL TL'
SQL- Ceate ta%le depte/t
(deptno nu$%e(1)#
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Dna$e va!ha(2@)#
Lo! va!ha(24))
Oganiation e/tenal ( t7pe oa!leloade
Default die!to7 saðdi
!!ess paa$etes
( e!ods deli$ited %7 newline
Bields te$inated %7 P#
( deptno nu$%e(1)#
Dna$e va!ha(2@)#
Lo! va!ha(24)))
Lo!ation (K?9isd%?visd%?5153?dept5lst;)).
S'L'CTIN8 DT BROM '+T'RNL TL'
SQL- sele!t E fo$ depte/t.
This will ead fo$ dept5lst whi!h is a opeating s7ste$ level file5
LIMITTIONS ON '+T'RNL TL'S
a) *ou !an not pefo$ inset# update# and delete opeations
a) Inde/ing not possi%leb) Constaints not possi%le
'N'BITS OB '+T'RNL TL'S
a) Queies of e/tenal ta%les !o$plete ve7 ui!&l7 even though a full ta%le s!an id euied with
ea!h a!!ess
%) *ou !an Join e/tenal ta%les to ea!h othe o to standad ta%les
R'B D'R'B 9LU'
R'B
The ef fun!tion allows efeen!ing of e/isting ow o%Je!ts5
'a!h of the ow o%Je!ts has an o%Je!t id value assigned to it5
The o%Je!t id assigned !an %e seen %7 using ef fun!tion5
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D'R'B
The deef fun!tion pefo$s opposite a!tion5
It ta&es a efeen!e value of o%Je!t id and etuns the value of the ow o%Je!ts5
9LU'
'ven though the pi$a7 ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le# still it displa7s the ows in geneal fo$at5
To displa7 the entie stu!tue of the o%Je!t# this will %e used5
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2) !eate vendotadt t7pe
SQL- Ceate t7pe vendoadt as o%Je!t (vendo!ode nu$%e(1)# vendona$e
va!ha(1)# vendoaddess va!ha(23)).?
1) !eate o%Je!t ta%les vendos and vendos2
SQL- Ceate ta%le vendos of vendoadt.
SQL- Ceate ta%le vendos2 of vendoadt.
4) inset the data into o%Je!t ta%les
SQL- inset into vendos values(2# Ka;# Kh7d;).
SQL- inset into vendos values(1# K%;# K%ang;).
SQL- inset into vendos2 values(4# K!;# Kdelhi;).
SQL- inset into vendos2 values(@# Kd;# K!hennai;).
@) !eate anothe ta%le odes whi!h holds the vendoadt t7pe also5
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt).
O
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt with
owid).
) inset the data into odes ta%le
The vendoinfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will stoe o%Je!t id of an7 ta%le
whi!h is efeen!ed %7 vendoadt o%Je!t ( %oth vendos and vendos2)5
SQL- inset into odes values(22#(sele!t ef(v) fo$ vendos v whee vendo!ode
H 2)).
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SQL- inset into odes values(21#(sele!t ef(v) fo$ vendos v whee vendo!ode
H 1)).
SQL- inset into odes values(24#(sele!t ef(v2) fo$ vendos2 v2 whee
vendo!ode H 2)).
SQL- inset into odes values(2@#(sele!t ef(v2) fo$ vendos2 v2 whee
vendo!ode H 2)).
) To see the o%Je!t ids of vendo ta%le
SQL- Sele!t ef(9) fo$ vendos v.
V) If 7ou see the vendoinfo of odes it will show onl7 the o%Je!t ids not the values#
to see the values
SQL- Sele!t deef(o5vendoinfo) fo$ odes o.
W) 'ven though the vendos ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le it will not show the adt along with
data# to see the data along with the adt SQL-Sele!t E fo$ vendos.
This will give the data without adt5
SQL-Sele!t value(v) fo$ vendos v.
This will give the !olu$ns data along wih the t7pe5
R'B CONSTRINTS
Ref !an also a!ts as !onstaint5
'ven though vendos2 also holding vendoadt# the odes ta%le will stoe the o%Je!t ids of
vendos onl7 %e!ause it is !onstained to that ta%le onl75
The vendoinfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will stoe o%Je!t ids of vendos onl75
SQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt s!ope is
vendos).
OSQL- Ceate ta%le odes (odeno nu$%e(1)# vendoinfo ef vendoadt !onstaint f&
efeen!es vendos).
O>'CT 9I'6S 6IT: R'B'R'NC'S
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To i$ple$ent the o%Je!ts and the ef !onstaints to the e/isting ta%les# what we !an do[ Si$pl7 dop the
%oth ta%les and e!eate with o%Je!ts and ef !onstains5
ut 7ou !an a!hieve this with out dopping the ta%les and without losing the data %7 !eating o%Je!t
views with efeen!es5
'/0
a) Ceate the following ta%les
SQL- Ceate ta%le student2(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s
nu$%e(4)).
SQL- Ceate ta%le student1(no nu$%e(1) pi$a7 &e7#hno nu$%e(4)#!it7
va!ha(23)#id nu$%e(1)#foeign Fe7(id) efeen!es student2(no)). %) Inset the e!ods into %oth ta%les
SQL- inset into student2(2#;a;#233).
SQL- inset into student2(1#;%;#133).
SQL- inset into student1(22#222#;h7d;#2).
SQL- inset into student1(21#111#;%ang;#1).
SQL- inset into student1(24#444#;%o$%a7;#2).
!) Ceate the t7pe
SQL- !eate o epla!e t7pe stud as o%Je!t(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&snu$%e(4)).?
d) 8eneating OIDs
SQL- Ceate o epla!e view student2ov of stud with o%Je!t identifie(o id) (no) as
Sele!t E fo$ Student2.
e) 8eneating efeen!es
SQL- Ceate o epla!e view student1ov as sele!t no#hno#!it7#
$a&eef(student2ov#id) id fo$ Student1.
d) Que7 the following
SQL- sele!t Efo$ student2ov.
SQL- sele!t ef(s) fo$ student2ov s.
SQL- sele!t values(s) fo$ student2ov.
SQ- sele!t Efo$ student1ov.
SQL- sele!t deef(s5id) fo$ student1ov s.
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a) Ceating ange patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 ange(no)
(patition p2 values less than(23)# patition p1 values less than(13)# patition p4
values less than(43)#patition p@ values less than($a/value)).
EE if 7ou ae using $a/value fo the last patition# 7ou !an not add a patition5
%) Inseting e!ods into ange patitioned ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;). "" this will go to p2
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;%;). "" this will go to p1
SQL- Inset into student values(12#;!;). "" this will go to p4
SQL- Inset into student values(42#;d;). "" this will go to p@
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ ange patitioned ta%le SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(p2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with ange patitions
dd
Dop
Tun!ate
Rena$e
Split
Move
'/!hange
e) dding a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p values less than(@3).
f) Dopping a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student dop patition p@.
g) Rena$ing a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p4 to p.
h) Tun!ate a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p.
i) Splitting a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student split patition p1 at(2) into (patition p12#patition p11).
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J) '/!hanging a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student e/!hange patition p2 with ta%le student1.
&) Moving a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student $ove patition p12 ta%lespa!e saðts.
LIST ARTITIONS
a) Ceating list patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 list(no)
(patition p2 values(2#1#4#@#)# patition p1 values(#V#W##23)#patition p4
values(22#21#24#2@#2)# patition p@ values(2#2V#2W#2#13)).
%) Inseting e!ods into list patitioned ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;). "" this will go to p2 SQL- Inset into student values(#;%;). "" this will go to p1
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;!;). "" this will go to p4
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;d;). "" this will go to p@
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ list patitioned ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(p2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with list patitions
dd
Dop
Tun!ate
Rena$e
Move
'/!hange
e) dding a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p values(12#11#14#1@#1).
f) Dopping a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student dop patition p@.
g) Rena$ing a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p4 to p.
h) Tun!ate a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p.
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i) '/!hanging a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student e/!hange patition p2 with ta%le student1.
J) Moving a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student $ove patition p1 ta%lespa!e saðts.
:S: ARTITIONS
a) Ceating hash patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)) patition %7 hash(no)
patitions .
:ee oa!le auto$ati!all7 gives patition na$es li&e
S*SA2S*SA1
S*SA4
S*SA@
S*SA
%) Inseting e!ods into hash patitioned ta%le
it will inset the e!ods %ased on hash fun!tion !al!ulated %7 ta&ing the patition &e7
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;).
SQL- Inset into student values(#;%;). SQL- Inset into student values(22#;!;).
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;d;).
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ hash patitioned ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(s7sp2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with hash patitions
dd
Tun!ate
Rena$e
Move
'/!hange
e) dding a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p .
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f) Rena$ing a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p to pV.
g) Tun!ate a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition pV.
h) '/!hanging a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student e/!hange patition s7sp2 with ta%le student1.
i) Moving a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student $ove patition s7sp1 ta%lespa!e saðts.
SU"ARTITIONS 6IT: RN8' ND :S:
Su%patitions !lause is used %7 hash onl75 6e !an not !eate su%patitions with list and hash patitions5
a) Ceating su%patitioned ta%le
SQL- Ceate ta%le student(no nu$%e(1)#na$e va!ha(1)#$a&s nu$%e(4))
Aatition %7 ange(no) su%patition %7 hash(na$e) su%patitions 4
(Aatition p2 values less than(23)#patition p1 values less than(13)).
This will !eate two patitions p2 and p1 with thee su%patitions fo ea!h patition
A2 \ S*SSUA2
S*SSUA1
S*SSUA4
A1 \ S*SSUA@
S*SSUA
S*SSUA
EE if 7ou ae using $a/value fo the last patition# 7ou !an not add a patition5
%) Inseting e!ods into su%patitioned ta%le
SQL- Inset into student values(2#;a;). "" this will go to p2
SQL- Inset into student values(22#;%;). "" this will go to p1
!) Retieving e!ods fo$ su%patitioned ta%le
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student.
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student patition(p2).
SQL- Sele!t Efo$ student su%patition(s7ssu%p2).
d) Aossi%le opeations with su%patitions
dd
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Dop
Tun!ate
Rena$e
Split
e) dding a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student add patition p4 values less than(43).
f) Dopping a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student dop patition p4.
g) Rena$ing a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student ena$e patition p1 to p4.
h) Tun!ate a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student tun!ate patition p2.
i) Splitting a patition
SQL- lte ta%le student split patition p4