Download - 2.1 game design

Chapter 2.1Game Design

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Overview Game design as…

full-time occupation is historically new field of practical study – even newer

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Overview Folk games [Costikyan]

“Traditional” games with cultural origins

Examples: Tic-Tac-Toe (Naughts and Crosses) Chess Go Backgammon Poker

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Overview This introduction covers:

Terms Concepts Approach

All from a workaday viewpoint

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Overview There is no one “right” way to

design There are many successful

approaches Specific requirements and constraints

of each project and team determine what works and what does not.

This introduction is but a scratch

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The Language of Games Game development – a young

industry

Standards are still being formulated Theory Practice Terminology

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The Language of Games Debate continues over high-level

views

Lack of standard (concrete) definitions Game Play

High-level concepts tricky to articulate

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The Language of Games Workplace differences usually low-

level Working terminology

Example “actors” instead of “agents” “geo” instead of “model”

Workflow – how things get done Individual responsibilities Processes under which work is performed

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The Language of Games Why do we play?

Not a designer’s problem What is the nature of games?

Not a designer’s problem How is a game formed of parts?

A designer’s problem

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The Language of Games Our simplistic high-level definitions

Easy to modify to fit multiple cultures Practical over metaphysically true

play game aesthetics

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Play and Game Play

Interactions to elicit emotions Game

Object of rule-bound play

General enough to cover everything

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Aesthetics and Frame Aesthetics

Emotional responses during play Naïve practical approach, not classical

Frame The border of a game’s context

Inside the frame is in the game Outside the frame is real life

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Approaching Design Computer games are an art form Game design practices can be taught Technical discipline like music, film,

poetry

The art of making dynamic models

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Approaching Design

Mental/Cognitive Concepts Beliefs Maps

Examples: Locations Relationships

Mathematical Equations Formulas Algorithms

A model represents something

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Approaching Design Abstract model

Conceptual and idealized A tool for investigating specific questions Simplifies thinking to help understand problems May include assumptions thought to be false

Abstract game One rule

The piece is moved to the open square

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A Player-Game Model A model of the player – game

relationship

M e c hanic s Inte r fac e Sys te m

P LAYER G AM E

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A Player-Game Model Mechanics

Things the player does Interface

Communication between player and game

System Underlying structure and behavior

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Control and State Variables Defined by Isaacs in Differential

Games

Control variables Inputs from players

State variables Quantities indicating game state

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Play Mechanics Gameplay

Feelings of playing a particular game Activities engaged in a particular

game (Play/game) Mechanics

Specific to game activities “What the player does”

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Seven Stages of Action

Execution Intention to act Sequence of action Execution of action

sequence

Evaluation Evaluating

interpretations Interpreting

perceptions Perceiving states

P e rc e ivings tate s

Inte rpre t ingpe rc e ptio ns

E valuat inginte rpre tat io ns

E xe c utio n o fac t io n s e que nc e

Se que nc e o fac t io n

Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Seven Stages of Action A goal is formed

Models the desired state The desired result of an action Examples:

Have a glass of water in hand Capture a queen Taste ice cream






Inte nt io nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Goals turned into intentions to act Specific statements of what is to be done






Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Intentions put into an action sequence The order internal commands will be performed






Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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The action sequence is executed The player manipulates control variables






Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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The state of the game is perceived State variables are revealed via the interface






Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Player interprets their perceptions Interpretations based upon a model of the system






Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Player evaluates the interpretations Current states are compared with intentions and

goals






Inte ntio nto ac t

G o als

T H E GA M E

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Donald Norman’s approximate model Actions not often in discrete stages Not all actions progress through all

stages

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Seven Stages of Action Scales to…

…an individual mechanic A “primary element”

Examples: Move Shoot Talk

…an entire game A generalized model of interaction

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Designer and Player Models Systems are built from designer mental

models Design models may only anticipate player

goals

Designer U ser

Us er 'sM o d e l

D es ig nM o d el

S y s tem Im ag e

System

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Designer and Player Models Players build mental models from mechanics

Based upon interactions with the system image The reality of the system in operation

Not from direct communication with designers Player and designer models can differ significantly

D esigner U ser

Us er 'sM o d el

D es ig nM o d el

S y s tem I m ag e

System

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Core Mechanics Typical patterns of action Fundamental mechanics cycled

repeatedly Examples:

Action shooters – run, shoot, and explore Strategy game – explore, expand, exploit,

exterminate referred to as the “four X’s”

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Premise

The metaphors of action and setting

Directs the player experience Provides a context in which mechanics

fit Players map game states to the

premise

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Premise Story is the typical example of

premise Time Place Characters Relationships Motivations Etc.

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Premise Premise may also be abstract

Tetris operates under a metaphor The metaphor: arranging colored shapes

Encompasses all game elements Player discussions use the language

of the premise

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Premise Games are models Activities being modeled form

premise Actions may appear similar in model Usually are fundamentally quite

different Sports games are good examples

Playing video games isn’t like playing the sport

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Premise Goes beyond setting and tone Alters the players mental model

Basis of player understanding and strategy

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Premise Possible

Capable of happening in the real world Plausible

Possible within the unique world of premise

“Makes sense” within the game’s premise Consistent with the premise as understood

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Choice and Outcome Choice

A question asked of the player Outcome

The end result of a given choice Possibility space

Represents the set of possible events A “landscape” of choice and outcome

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Choice and Outcome Consequence or Weight

The significance of an outcome Greater consequences alter the course of

the game more significantly Choices are balanced first by

consequence

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Choice and Outcome Well-designed choice

Often desirable and undesirable effects Should relate to player goals Balanced against neighboring choices

Too much weight to every choice is melodrama

Orthogonal choices – distinct from others Not just “shades of grey”

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Qualities of Choice Terms in which to discuss choices

Hollow – lacking consequence Obvious – leaves no choice to be made Uninformed – arbitrary decision Dramatic – strongly connects to feelings Weighted – good and bad in every choice Immediate – effects are immediate Long-term – effects over extended period Orthogonal – choices distinct from each other

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Goals and Objectives Objectives

Designed tasks players must perform Rigid requirements – formal

Goals An intentional outcome

Notions that direct player action Scales all levels of motivation

From selecting particular strategies… …to basic motor actions (e.g. pressing a button)

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Goals and Objectives

Objectives and goals can differ Players goals reflect their understanding of the game Designers must consider how the game communicates

with players Affordances – the apparent ways something can be used

D esigner U serSystem

F in d s w o r dKill d r ag o nR es c u e p r in c es s

F in d s w o r dR es c u e d r ag o nKill p r in c es s

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Resources Resources

Things used by agents to reach goals To be meaningful, they must be…

Useful – provide some value Limited – in total or rate of supply

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Economies Economies

Systems of supply, distribution, consumption

Questions regarding game economies: What resources exist? How and when will resources be used? How and when will resources be supplied? What are their limits?

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Player Strategy

People usually reason with commonsense A view of linear causation – cause and effect

Complex systems do not behave linearly Players need information to support linear

strategy

Situat io n R e s ul tAc tio n

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Game Theory Game Theory

Branch of economics Studies decision making

Utility A measure of desire associated with an

outcome Payoffs

The utility value for a given outcome Preference

The bias of players towards utility

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Game Theory Rational Players

Abstract model players – not real people

Always try to maximize their potential utility

Solve problems using pure logic Always fully aware of the state of the

game

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Game Theory Games of skill

One-player games Outcomes determined solely by choices

Games of Chance One-player games Outcomes determined in whole or part by nature

(chance) Games of Strategy

Competitions between two or more players

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Game Theory Decision under certainty

Players know the outcome of any decision

Risky decisions Probabilities of nature are known

Decision under uncertainty Probabilities of nature are unknown

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Interface Interface

Input, presentation, and feedback. Input

Player to game Output

Game to player

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Interface Contains both hardware, software, and

performance elements. Hardware such as game pads Software such as engines Performance such as pressing a button

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Interface Graphical user interface (GUI)

A visual paradigm of control

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Interface Typical perspectives:

First-person Over-the-shoulder (OTS) Overhead (top-down) Side Isometric

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Interface General categories of audio

Music Sound effects Dialog

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Interface Music

Powerful tool for establishing mood and theme

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Interface Controls

Physical input devices Control inputs

User manipulations of the controls They are not strategies

Example: a sequence of buttons to perform a combo

Strategies involve deciding when to perform

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Interface Key map or control table

A diagram showing control input, action, and context

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Interface Control diagrams

Show input, action, and contextAction Con tro l Con text

Le ft a llR igh t a llFo rwa rd a llBackwa rd a llSp rin t a llPass O ffenseLob O ffenseShoo t O ffenseStea l De fenseBlock De fenseHit De fense

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Interface Front-end

In application software The visible portion of the application

In games GUI elements not displayed during play

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Interface HUD (Head-Up Display)

Displays during play Shows and other information difficult to

present directly in the game environment Examples

Scores Resource levels Mini Map Chat Alerts Level

2>nee d bac kup!!!>No>...

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Interface Mapping

An understood relationship between two things

Especially the relationship of a model to its subject

Examples

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HCI and Cognitive Ergonomics HCI – Human-Computer Interaction

Study of… Communication between users and computers How people design, build, and use interfaces Better support for cooperative work

Cognitive Ergonomics Analyzes the cognitive representations and

processes involved with performing tasks

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Design of Everyday Things Norman’s five principles of design

Visibility Making the parts visible

Mappings Understandable relationships between controls

and actions Affordances

The perceived uses of an object Constraints

Prevent the user from doing things they shouldn’t Feedback

Reporting what has been done and accomplished

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Systems System

A set of interrelated components Their function and relationships form a whole

Architecture The particular arrangement of system elements

Game systems exist to enable play mechanics

Relationships between components determine how the system works to produce results

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Systems Objects

Pieces of a system Attributes

Properties determining what objects are Behaviors

Actions the objects can perform Relationships

How the behavior and attributes of objects affect each other while the system operates

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Systems Two general approaches to design

Special case Experiences built one scene/level at a time Anticipate states while pre-scripting events Solved by discovering the intentions of the designer

Systemic General behaviors are designed Scenes/Levels are specific configuations Some events may still be pre-scripted Solved by understanding the system

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Systems Emergent complexity

Behaviors that cannot be predicted simply from the rules of a system

Emergence Coined by George Henry Lewes in

1873

See: John Conway’s Game of Life

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Systems Dynamics

The behavior of systems over time

Generalizing dynamic behavior is hard Dynamics determined by a given

architecture

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Systems Cybernetics

Study of communication, control, and regulation

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Systems A basic cybernetic system has:

Sensor – detects a condition Thermometer

Comparator – evaluates the information Switch

Activator – alters the environment when triggered by the comparator

Senso r

C om par ato r

Ac t i vato r

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Systems Feedback

The portion of a system’s output that is returned into the system

Feedback Loop The path taken by the feedback

L e v e l

G o a l

Info rm a tio nA c tio n

R a te

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Systems Positive feedback

Leads to runaway behavior Difficult to make use of

Negative feedback Leads to goal seeking behaviors Most common form in systems

P o s i t ive Fe e dbac k N e gative Fe e dbac k

go al

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Systems Negative feedback

Stabilizes the game Forgives the loser Prolongs the game Magnifies late successes

Positive feedback Destabilizes the game Rewards the winner Can end the game Magnifies early

successes

Marc Leblanc

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Systems System Dynamics

Created by Jay Forrester 1956, MIT A discipline for modeling and

simulation Originally a tool for policy analysis

Applicable to any system

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Constraints Platform

General description of hardware and software

Personal computer – PC, Mac, etc. Console – Game Cube, PlayStation, Xbox, etc. Handheld – DS, Game Boy Advance, PSP, etc. Mobile device – Cel Phones, NGage, PDA, etc. Arcade – custom vending games (e.g. Time Crisis)

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Constraints Game Saves

Save triggers Save-anywhere Save points Coded text saves

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Genres Genre – a category describing

generalities of conventions, style, and content

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Genres Action Adventure Arcade Casual Education Fighting First-person shooter Platform

Racing Rhythm Role-Playing (RPG) Simulation Sports Strategy Puzzle Traditional

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Audiences Target audience

Group of expected consumers Demographics

Study of relevant economic and social statistics about a given population

Demographic variables The relevant factors

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Audiences Market

Demographic segmentation of consumers

Market segments Smaller sub-segment of the market; more tightly

defined Demographic profile

Typical consumer attributes in a market

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Audiences Heavy Users

Those of the numeric minority of potential users responsible for majority of sales of any product

“80/20 rule”

Hardcore gamer Game industry term for heavy video game

users Casual gamer

Game industry term for all other gamers

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Audiences Typically assumptions of the

hardcore: Play games over long sessions Discuss games frequently and at length Knowledgeable about the industry Higher threshold for frustration Desire to modify or extend games creatively Have the latest game systems Engage in competition with themselves, the game,

and others

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Audiences Why We Play Games – Nicole Lazzaro

Internal experience Enjoyment from visceral activities

Hard fun Challenge of strategy and problem solving

Easy fun Intrigue and curiosity – exploration and adventure

Social experience Stimulating social faculties – competition,

teamwork, bonding, and recognition

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Iterating Waterfall method

Development methodology Design and production are broken into

phases

Iterative development Practice of producing things incrementally

Refining and re-refining the product

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Iterating Prototypes

Early working models of the product Used to test ideas and techniques

Physical prototypes Non-electronic models; physical materials

Software prototypes Used regularly during iterative development

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Iterating Software testing

Process of verifying performance and reliability of a software product

Tester Person trained in methods of evaluation

Bug Discrepancy between expected and actual behavior

Problem/Bug report Description of the behavior of the discrepancy

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Iterating Focus test

Testing session using play-testers Testers represent the target audience Lots of feedback at one time Data can be compromised by group

think

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Iterating Tuning

Developing solutions by adjusting systems

Iterations are faster Changes are less dramatic

Balance Equilibrium in a relationship

Player relationships, mechanics, systems, etc.

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Iterating Intransitive relationships

Multiple elements offer weaknesses and strengths relative to each other as a whole

Balanced as a group Example: Rock-Paper-Scissors (RPS)

H e a v yI n f a n t r y

C a v a lr yA r c h e r s

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Creativity

Ability to create Ability to produce an idea, action,

or object considered new and valuable

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Creativity Classic approach - Graham Wallace

Preparation Background research and comprehension

Incubation Mulling things over

Insight Sudden illumination – Eureka!

Evaluation Validating revealed insights

Elaboration Transforming the idea into substance

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Creativity Brainstorming

Generating ideas without discrimination

Evaluation after elaboration Can be unfocused

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Creativity Six Thinking Hats

White Hat – neutral and objective Red Hat – intuition, gut reaction Black Hat – gloomy, naysayer Yellow Hat – Pollyannaish, optimistic Green Hat – growth and creativity Blue Hat – process and control

Symbolize perspective worn by people involved in the creative endeavor

Edward de Bono

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Inspiration Board games

Spatial relationships Card games

Resource management Paper RPGs

Dynamic narratives Books

Fantasy and agency Sports

Team competition

Film Continuity techniques

Television Serialized stories

Music Temporal systems

Martial arts Discipline in action

Children Invention

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Communication Documentation

Methods vary widely Written, descriptive model of the

game Depth varies according to the needs of the game

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Communication Treatment

A brief, general description of the game and the fundamental concepts

May include: Concept statement Goals and objectives Core mechanics and systems Competitive analysis Licensing and IP information Target platform and audience Scope Key features

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Communication Other document types may include:

Preliminary design document Initial Design Document Revised Design Document General Design Document Expanded Design Document Technical Design Document Final Design Document

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Communication Flowcharts

A typical technique for diagramming steps in a process

Most developers are familiar

Star t /E ndP ro c e s s /

Ac tio nD e c is io n

Y/N D e lay

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CommunicationS t art

W and eri n gC i t y

S e a r c h f o rQ u e s tQ u e s t

Q u e s t D e ta il sA c c e p t

G a th e r P C A ll ie s E m b a r k/Sp lit G o to

W ild e r n e s s

C i ty

N o

Y e s

Y e s

N o

Re c r u i ts

R e c r u it

E q u ip

G e a r

G a th e r

S e e k A id

A r t if a c ts A ss is ta n c e

Reg ro u p

En co u n ter

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Communication Associative diagram

Drawing that helps manage and organize information visually Mind Map

A style of associative diagram Key words and figures are placed on branches

we ap o n

fi ghti ng

r a n g e

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Psychology Working Memory

Holds roughly 7 ± 2 items at one time while other cognitive operations on them

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Psychology Attention

Method of enhancing perceptions relative to other stimuli in the same environment

How we focus on important things Limited capacity

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Psychology Classical conditioning

Reaction to stimulus is conditioned by pairing with another stimulus that elicits the desired response naturally

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndi t io ning

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Psychology Unconditioned stimulus – Meat Unconditioned response – Salivation over meat Conditioned stimulus – Tone Conditioned response – Salivation over tone

C o ndit io ning Af te r c o ndit io ning

B e fo re c o ndit io ning

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Psychology Operant conditioning

Learning by encouraging or discouraging Operant

A response; the action in question Example: pressing a button

Reinforcement contingency Consistent relationship between the

operant and a result in the environment

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Psychology Reinforcers

Increase the probability an action will be repeated Positive reinforcement

Positive stimulus that reinforces the behavior Ex. Use umbrella and be dry

Negative reinforcement The removal or prevention of a negative stimulus

Ex. Use umbrella and keep from getting wet Punishment

Reduces the likelihood of a behavior with a stimulus Ex. Being burned by a hot stove

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