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Short polymer
HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond
HO
H2O
H 1 2 3 4
Longer polymer
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer
HO 1 2 3 4 H
H2O Hydrolysis adds a water molecule, breaking a bond
HO H H HO 1 2 3
(b) Hydrolysis of a polymer
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Dihydroxyacetone
Ribulose
Ket
ose
s A
ldo
ses
Fructose
Glyceraldehyde
Ribose Glucose Galactose
Hexoses (C6H12O6) Pentoses (C5H10O5) Trioses (C3H6O3)
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(a) Linear and ring forms (b) Abbreviated ring structure
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(b) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of sucrose
Glucose Fructose Sucrose
Maltose Glucose Glucose
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose
1–4 glycosidic
linkage
1–2 glycosidic
linkage
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(b) Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide
Starch
Glycogen Amylose
Chloroplast
(a) Starch: a plant polysaccharide
Amylopectin
Mitochondria Glycogen granules
0.5 µm
1 µm
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(a) α and β glucose ring structures
α Glucose β Glucose
(b) Starch: 1–4 linkage of α glucose monomers (b) Cellulose: 1–4 linkage of β glucose monomers
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β Glucose monomer
Cellulose molecules
Microfibril
Cellulose microfibrils in a plant cell wall
0.5 µm
10 µm
Cell walls
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The structure of the chitin monomer.
(a) (b) (c) Chitin forms the exoskeleton of arthropods.
Chitin is used to make a strong and flexible surgical thread.
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Fatty acid (palmitic acid)
Glycerol
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a fat
Ester linkage
(b) Fat molecule (triacylglycerol) 10
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Structural formula of a saturated fat molecule
Stearic acid, a saturated fatty acid (a) Saturated fat
Structural formula of an unsaturated fat molecule
Oleic acid, an unsaturated fatty acid
(b) Unsaturated fat
cis double bond causes bending
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(b) Space-filling model (a) (c) Structural formula Phospholipid symbol
Fatty acids
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tails
Choline
Phosphate
Glycerol
Hyd
rop
ho
bic
tai
ls
Hyd
rop
hili
c h
ead
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Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tail WATER
WATER
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Enzyme (sucrase)
Substrate (sucrose)
Fructose
Glucose
OH
H O
H2O
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Amino group
Carboxyl group
α carbon
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Nonpolar
Glycine (Gly or G)
Alanine (Ala or A)
Valine (Val or V)
Leucine (Leu or L)
Isoleucine (Ile or I)
Methionine (Met or M)
Phenylalanine (Phe or F)
Trypotphan (Trp or W)
Proline (Pro or P)
Polar
Serine (Ser or S)
Threonine (Thr or T)
Cysteine (Cys or C)
Tyrosine (Tyr or Y)
Asparagine (Asn or N)
Glutamine (Gln or Q)
Electrically charged
Acidic Basic
Aspartic acid (Asp or D)
Glutamic acid (Glu or E)
Lysine (Lys or K)
Arginine (Arg or R)
Histidine (His or H)
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Peptide bond
Amino end (N-terminus)
Peptide bond
Side chains
Backbone
Carboxyl end (C-terminus)
(a)
(b)
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A ribbon model of lysozyme (a) (b) A space-filling model of lysozyme
Groove Groove
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Antibody protein Protein from flu virus
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Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
β pleated sheet
Examples of amino acid subunits
+H3N Amino end
α helix
Quaternary Structure
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Polypeptide backbone
Hydrophobic interactions and van der Waals interactions
Disulfide bridge
Ionic bond
Hydrogen bond
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Polypeptide chain
β Chains
Heme Iron
α Chains
Collagen Hemoglobin
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Primary structure
Secondary and tertiary structures
Quaternary structure
Normal hemoglobin (top view)
Primary structure
Secondary and tertiary structures
Quaternary structure
Function Function
β subunit
Molecules do not associate with one another; each carries oxygen.
Red blood cell shape
Normal red blood cells are full of individual hemoglobin moledules, each carrying oxygen.
10 µm
Normal hemoglobin
β
β
α
α
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu
Red blood cell shape
β subunit
Exposed hydrophobic region
Sickle-cell hemoglobin
β
α
Molecules interact with one another and crystallize into a fiber; capacity to carry oxygen is greatly reduced.
β
α
Fibers of abnormal hemoglobin deform red blood cell into sickle shape.
10 µm
Sickle-cell hemoglobin Glu Pro Thr Leu His Val Val
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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Normal protein Denatured protein
Denaturation
Renaturation
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Hollow cylinder
Cap
Chaperonin (fully assembled)
Polypeptide
Steps of Chaperonin Action:
An unfolded poly- peptide enters the cylinder from one end.
1
2 3 The cap attaches, causing the cylinder to change shape in such a way that it creates a hydrophilic environment for the folding of the polypeptide.
The cap comes off, and the properly folded protein is released.
Correctly folded protein
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mRNA
Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus
DNA
NUCLEUS
mRNA
CYTOPLASM
Movement of mRNA into cytoplasm via nuclear pore
Ribosome
Amino acids Polypeptide
Synthesis of protein
1
2
3
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5ʹ′ end
Nucleoside
Nitrogenous base
Phosphate group Sugar
(pentose)
(b) Nucleotide
(a) Polynucleotide, or nucleic acid
3ʹ′ end
3ʹ′C
3ʹ′C
5ʹ′C
5ʹ′C
Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
Cytosine (C) Thymine (T, in DNA) Uracil (U, in RNA)
Purines
Adenine (A) Guanine (G)
Sugars
Deoxyribose (in DNA) Ribose (in RNA)
(c) Nucleoside components: sugars
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Sugar-phosphate backbones
3' end
3' end
3' end
3' end
5' end
5' end
5' end
5' end
Base pair (joined by hydrogen bonding)
Old strands
New strands
Nucleotide about to be added to a new strand
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