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1. Molecular & Cellular Biology
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1.1 Chemical Composition of Organisms
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1.2 Cells
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1.3 Enzymes
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1.4 Energy Transformations
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1.5 Cell Division
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1.6 Chemical Nature of the Gene
.
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1.1 Chemical Composition of Organisms
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Chemistry of Biology
1.1.1 Reactions & Bonds
1.1.2 Properties of Water
1.1.3 Organic Molecules
1.1.4 Origin of Life .
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1.1.1 Reactions & Bonds
• matter & elements• atoms• types of bonds• chemical reactions• energy
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1.1.2 Properties of Water
• what makes water special
• acids & bases• the pH scale
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1.1.3 Organic Molecules
• what makes a molecule organic
• carbohydrates• lipids• proteins• nucleic acids
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1.1.4 Origin of Life
• when & where did living things first appear
• what were the first living things• how did life evolve from simple
to complex• evidence for current hypotheses
.
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1.1.1 Simple Chemical Reactions and Bonds
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Matter & Elements
Matter: anything that takes up space & has mass, made of elements
• rocks• gases• kittens
Elements: cannot be broken down to other substances
• Carbon• Oxygen• Hydrogen
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Atom: smallest unit of matter w/ element’s properties
Each element has unique atoms, composed of three types of subatomic particles• neutrons (0)• protons (+)• electrons (-) .
Elements
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An Atom
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Compound: 2+ differentelements combined in fixed ratio
• table salt (NaCl)
Molecule: 2+ same or differentelements combined in fixed ratio
• oxygen gas
Elements
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Electrons found orbiting in shells
Valence shell: outermost shell, “valence electrons”
Only valence electrons interact w/ other atoms
Atoms most reactive if valence shell incomplete .
Electrons
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Attractions that keep atoms close together
Protons & electrons attract like magnets
Chemical Bonds
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Sharing pair of electrons, strong bonds
1. nonpolar: sharing is equal
2. polar: sharing is unequal, creates partial charges (poles)
Chemical Bonds- Covalent
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One atom (anion) steals electron, other atom (cation) loses electron, strong bonds
Chemical Bonds- Ionic
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Form between poles of H and O in water molecules, weak bonds
Chemical Bonds- Hydrogen
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Make and break chemical bonds
Reactants “react” together, start of reaction
Products are “produced,” end of reaction
A + B C
Chemical Reactions
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1st Law of Thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed
2nd Law of Thermodynamics: reactions tend to increase disorder (make enrgy less available for cells)
Endothermic reactions take energy
Exothermic reactions release energy .
Energy
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1.1.2 Properties of Water
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Properties of WaterAll 3 states
Solid less dense than liquid
Adhesion, cohesion, & surface tension
Universal solvent
High specific heat
Evaporative cooling
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Acids: dissolve in water & increase relative H+ ion concentration in the solution
HCl H+ + Cl-
Bases: dissolve in water & decrease the H+ ion concentration in the solution
NH3 + H+ NH4+
Acids & Bases
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pH scale shows relative amount of H+ ion concentration
• smaller # means more acidic
• larger # means more basic
• 7 is neutral
Buffers can be added to bring pH to 7
Acids & Bases
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The pH Scale
.
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1.1.3 Chemical Structure of Organic Molecules
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Any molecule containing carbon is called “organic”
Can contain other molecules-oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen...
Made of building blocks called monomers
Many monomers linked together form polymer (whole molecule)
Organic Molecules
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4 Classes:
1. carbohydrates2. lipids3. proteins4. nucleic acids .
Organic Molecules
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Made only of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen
Monomer name: monosaccharide, example is glucose
Polymer name: polysaccharide, example is starch
Carbohydrates
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Grouped together b/c of hydrophobic properties
Common lipids:• waxes- water barrier• fats- energy storage• phospholipids- cell
membranes• steroids- hormones
Lipids
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Monomer name: amino acid
Polymer name: polypeptide (protein)
Peptide bond: holds amino acids together
Many functions:• most enzymes• defense- antibodies• muscle- fibers
Proteins
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Monomer name: nucleotide
Two types:1. deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)2. ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Primary function: information storage
Nucleic Acids
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Nucleotides are made of:1. 1 Nitrogen base
• adenine (A)• thymine (T, only in
DNA)• uracil (U, only in
RNA)• cytosine (C)• guanine (G)
2. 1 Sugar (deoxyribose or ribose)
3. 1 Phosphate group
Nucleotides
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Nucleotides
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Sugar-phosphate “backbone” forms
Nucleotides paired (called a base pair), so that DNA or RNA strands are complimentary• A-T or A-U• C-G
Base pairs joined in center by hydrogen bonds
Nucleic Acids
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Nucleic Acids
.
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1.1.4 Origin of Life
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When and Where
Fossils suggest life evolved 3.5 million years ago
Bacteria & similar organisms
Likely places:•deep sea vents•hot springs•tide pools .
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From Simple to Complex
Evolution of life happened in steps, each building on those previous
1. simple organic molecules2. some molecules able to
replicate3. membranes, cell division4. metabolism
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First Living Things
Many lines of evidence of common ancestry
•cell membranes•metabolism•DNA•fossils
Tree of life has patterns of evolution from simple to complex .
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1.2 Cells
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The smallest units of life
1.2.1 Structure & Function of Cell Organelles
1.2.2 Properties of Cell Membranes
1.2.3 Comparison of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
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Structure & Function of Cell Organelles• cell basics• cytoplasm & cell membrane• nucleus• ribosomes• endoplasmic reticulum• Golgi apparatus• mitochondria & chloroplasts• cytoskeleton• cell wall
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Properties of Cell Membranes• membrane basics• selective permeability• transport basics• passive transport• active transport
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Comparison of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells• cells basics• prokaryotic cell characteristics• eukaryotic cell characteristics
.
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1.2.1 Structure & Function of Cell Organelles
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Cells
Smallest collection of matter that can be alive
All organisms made of one or more cells
• single-celled• multicellular
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Cytoplasm & Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance in which all organelles are suspended
Cell membrane: lipid layer surrounding cell
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Nucleus
“Command center”
Stores, protects most of DNA
Nucleolus makes RNA & ribosomes
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Ribosomes
Protein factories- use DNA instructions to make proteins
Made of RNA & proteins
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
Functions:
• makes lipids
• detox
• makes secretory proteins & membrane
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Golgi Apparatus
Functions: receiving, sorting, modifying, and shipping center for ER products
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Mitochondria & Chloroplasts
Both have:
• their own DNA & ribosomes
• double-membrane
• somewhat autonomous
Mitochondria: site of cell respiration (converts food to energy molecules)
Chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis (converts sunlight into food)
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Cytoskeleton
Support scaffolding for cells
Duties:
• cell shape, muscle movement, highways, organizing cytoplasm, locomotion
Centrosomes: organizes some of cytoskeleton, & cell division
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Cell Wall
Found in plants, fungi, bacteria
Rigid, structural support
Common components:
• cellulose
• pectin
• chitin
.
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1.2.2 Properties of Cell Membranes
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MembranesBoundary b/w inside of cell & surroundings
Selectively permeable
Phospholipid bilayer w/ proteins, other lipids, hybrid molecules
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Selective Permeability
Membranes regulate cell traffic by only allowing some things to pass freely, transporting others, preventing still others
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Membrane TransportPassive transport: diffusion across membrane; no energy required; sometimes need “doorway” protein (which is in membrane)
Active transport: movement across membrane requiring energy and “doorway” protein
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Passive Transport: Diffusion
Movement of molecules from higher to lower concentrations• each molecule moves
randomly• no energy required;
spontaneous
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Passive Transport: Osmosis
Diffusion of water across membrane from higher to lower concentrations
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Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion w/ help of “doorway” proteins-very specific
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Active Transport
Requires energy and “doorway” protein
Useful for moving molecules against their concentration gradients
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Active Transport: Bulk Transport
Large molecules can’t pass through membrane• Exocytosis: leaving the
cell through vesicles• Endocytosis: entering
cell through vesicles
.
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1.2.3 Comparison of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells
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Two types of cells:
1. Prokaryotic
2. Eukaryotic
All living things are either
prokaryotes or eukaryotes
Cells
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Bacteria & Archaea
Most ancestral living things
Like all cells, they have:
• cell membrane
• cytoplasm
Unlike eukaryotic cells, they have:
• no nucleus
• no organelles
Prokaryotic Cells
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All prokaryotes are unicellular
Some have a cell wall and/or locomotor
structures
Most abundant living things on planet
Some helpful (gut), some harmful
(infection)
Many shapes, all very small
Prokaryotic Cells
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Lyme disease
bacteria
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Eukaryotes
Animals, plants, fungi,
protozoans, etc.
Evolved from prokaryotes
Like all cells, they have:
• cell membrane
• cytoplasm
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Eukaryotes
Unlike prokaryotes, they all have:
• internal organelles like
nucleus, mitochondria, etc.
• DNA in nucleus
Some have:
• cell walls
• locomotor structures
Unlike prokaryotes, they can be
uni- or multicellular
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Eukaryotes
.
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1.3 Enzymes
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Enzymes
1.3.1- Enzyme-Substrate Complex
1.3.2- Roles of Coenzymes
1.3.3- Inorganic Cofactors
1.3.4- Inhibition & Regulation
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Enzyme-Substrate Complex• activation energy• enzymes as catalysts• substrates & active sites
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Roles of Coenzymes• cofactors• coenzymes
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Inorganic Cofactors• cofactors & coenzymes• examples of inorganic
cofactors
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Inhibition & Regulation• molecular inhibitors• environmental inhibition• regulation• methods of regulation
.
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1.3.1 Enzyme- Substrate Complex
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Any reaction has an initial energy barrier, called activation energy (Ea)
• before new bonding can occur, existing chemical bonds must be broken
• rate of reactions determined by Ea
Activation Energy
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Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts, which make reactions happen faster by lowering Ea (without being changed/ used themselves)
Example: lactase and lactose
Enzymes
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Enzymes
The molecule an enzyme interacts with is called a substrate
An enzyme’s active site is the location where it interacts with the substrate
Enzyme and substrate fit together like hand in glove, forming an enzyme-substrate complex
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Enzymes
Some enzymes break substrates into smaller pieces
Other enzymes join two substrates together into one molecule
.
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1.3.2 Roles of Coenzymes
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Coenzymes
Some enzymes need help from other molecules called cofactors
Cofactors can be inorganic (metals) or organic (coenzymes)
These bind to the enzyme’s active site and help form the enzyme-substrate complex
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Coenzymes
Commonly vitamins (Ex: coenzyme Q10, Vitamin B6)
Two types:• Cosubstrates aredetachable• Prostheticgroupsarepermanent
.
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1.3.3InorganicCofactors
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InorganicCofactors• Cofactorsarenon-proteinmoleculesthatarenecessaryforsomeenzymestofunctionproperly
• Organiccofactorsarecalledcoenzymes(seemodule1.3.2)
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Cofactors
• Inorganiccofactorsareusuallymetalions
• Fe2+• Mn2+• Zn2+(Ex:withalcoholdehydrogenase,below)
.
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1.3.4 Inhibition & Regulation
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Inhibition• Inhibitors: molecules that compete
with substrates for enzymes’ active sites
• Sit in the active site, blocking it so enzyme & substrate cannot interact
• Attach to enzyme outside active site, but change shape of active site so it doesn’t work
• Example: a2-antiplasmin (below) stops enzymes from dissolving blood clots, helpful for treating bleeding disorders like hemophilia
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Inhibition• Enzyme activity is also inhibited
when the shape of the enzyme active site is changed by the environment, causing it to stop working
• temperature• pH
• Denaturation: change in enzyme shape that makes it stop working
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Regulation• Regulation: when a cell controls
the action of its own enzymes• Two common methods of enzyme
regulation:• 1. product of reaction inhibits
enzyme• reaction slows as product
increases • Example: production of energy
molecule ATP decreases as its concentration increases
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Regulation• Two common methods of enzyme
regulation:• 2. regulator molecules control
shape of enzyme active site• causes it to fit with substrate or
not, depending on what cell needs
• Example: oxygen is regulator of hemoglobin, changing active site shape when it’s attached
.
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1.4 Energy Transformations
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Energy Transformations
1.4.1- Cellular Respiration
1.4.2- Photosynthesis
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Cellular Respiration• overview• glycolysis• aerobic respiration
§ pyruvate oxidation§ citric acid cycle§ electron transport chain
• anaerobic respiration
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Photosynthesis• overview• light reactions• dark reactions
.
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1.4.1 Cellular Respiration
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Cellular RespirationCells convert ‘food’ (glucose, below) into energy molecule ATP in all organisms
ATP used any time energy needed in organism
Two types:• Aerobic (with oxygen) • Anaerobic (without oxygen)
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Cellular Respiration
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Glycolysis
Glycolysis is first step in all organisms, whether doing aerobic or anaerobic respiration
• same in all organisms• glucose split and used to
make 2 molecules of pyruvate and 2 net ATPs
• Pyruvate (below) goes to Pyruvate Oxidation pathway
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Aerobic Respiration: Pyruvate Oxidation
Pyruvate converted to Acetyl CoA (below), then goes to Citric Acid cycle
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Aerobic Respiration: Citric Acid Cycle
Acetyl CoA converted into different molecules, a little ATP produced (below), other molecules produced that are used in electron transport chain
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Aerobic Respiration: Electron Transport Chain
Electrons and molecules from the citric acid cycle help in the production of ATP
Makes the most ATP of all respiration pathways: about 32
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Anaerobic RespirationConversion of pyruvate (from
glycolysis) to ATP without oxygen
1. Lactic acid fermentation: lactic acid is byproduct (causes muscle burn after hard exercise)
2. Alcoholic fermentation: ethanol is byproduct (important for alcoholic drinks)
Produces very little ATP .
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1.4.2 Photosynthesis
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Photosynthesis OverviewConverts energy from sunlight into glucose that is used in cellular respiration to form ATP
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Photosynthesis
Two processes:1. Light reactions harvest
sunlight2. Dark reactions make
glucose
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Light Reactions OverviewTake place in thylakoid membrane
1. Capture/use light as energy source
2. Produce ATP & other molecules for dark reactions
3. Produce O2 as byproduct
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Dark ReactionsTake place in stroma
• Use ATP from light reactions• Use CO2 from air• Make molecules used
in light reactions• Produce glucose that
is used in cellular respiration
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1.5 Cell Division
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Cell Division
1.5.1- Structure of Chromosomes
1.5.2- Mitosis, Meiosis, Cytokinesis
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Structure of Chromosomes• what are chromosomes?• chromosome terminology• homologous chromosomes• ploidy• karyotypes
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Mitosis, Meiosis, Cytokinesis•cell cycle•stages of mitosis•stages of meiosis
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1.5.1 Structure of Chromosomes
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Chromatin: How DNA exists most of the time, unwound like a pile of yarn
Chromosome: DNA wound up, only happens right before mitosis
• DNA wound around proteins called histones
• each group of histones w/ DNA is called a nucleosome
Chromosomes
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Sister chromatids: copies of each other, made before mitosis
Centromere: visible constriction, holds chromatids together
Chromosome Terms
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Homologous chromosomes • have genes coding for the
same characteristics, in the same locations (loci)
• roughly the same size and shape
• pair up before mitosis
Homologous Chromosomes
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Alleles: variations of the same gene, found on homologous chromosomes.
Example: in a gene coding for hair color, one allele for black hair, another for blonde hair
Homologous Chromosomes
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Denotes number of copies of genes/ chromosomes in organism, abbreviated as a number and the letter “n”
▪ Haploid: 1n, having 1 copy of each gene
▪ Diploid: 2n, having 2 copies of each gene
Ploidy
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From the moment of fertilization, humans are 2n
Only our sperm & eggs are haploid (1n)
Ploidy
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Karyotype: picture of chromosomes
For humans, 2n=46
Sex chromosomes are #23
Karyotype
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1.5.1 Structure of Chromosomes
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Chromatin: How DNA exists most of the time, unwound like a pile of yarn
Chromosome: DNA wound up, only happens right before mitosis
• DNA wound around proteins called histones
• each group of histones w/ DNA is called a nucleosome
Chromosomes
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Sister chromatids: copies of each other, made before mitosis
Centromere: visible constriction, holds chromatids together
Chromosome Terms
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Homologous chromosomes • have genes coding for the
same characteristics, in the same locations (loci)
• roughly the same size and shape
• pair up before mitosis
Homologous Chromosomes
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Alleles: variations of the same gene, found on homologous chromosomes.
Example: in a gene coding for hair color, one allele for black hair, another for blonde hair
Homologous Chromosomes
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Denotes number of copies of genes/ chromosomes in organism, abbreviated as a number and the letter “n”
§ Haploid: 1n, having 1 copy of each gene
§ Diploid: 2n, having 2 copies of each gene
Ploidy
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From the moment of fertilization, humans are 2n
Only our sperm & eggs are haploid (1n)
Ploidy
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Karyotype: picture of chromosomes
For humans, 2n=46
Sex chromosomes are #23
Karyotype
.
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1.5.2 Mitosis, Meiosis, Cytokinesis
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Interphase: 90% of cell’s life, DNA is copied
• G1• S• G2
Mitotic Phase: Parent cell splits into 2 identical daughter cells
Cell Cycle
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Mitosis (PMAT)1. Prophase- chromosomes condense2. Metaphase- chromosomes align on
metaphase plate3. Anaphase- chromosomes pulled to
poles4. Telophase- chromosomes
decondense
Cytokinesis: parent cell splits into 2 identical daughter cells (2n)
Mitotic Phase
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Mitotic Phase
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Forms 4 unique 1n cells, sperm in testes & eggs in ovaries
2 Parts:1. Meiosis I2. Meiosis II
Meiosis
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Meiosis
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Stages in same order, do the same things as in mitosis w/ one difference
• Prophase I• Metaphase I• Anaphase I• Telophase I• Cytokinesis
Important difference: crossing over occurs during Prophase I, new combinations result
Meiosis I
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Meiosis I
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Same as in mitosis & Meiosis I, but chromosomes have been through crossing over
End product is four haploid cells, instead of the 2 that result from mitosis & Meiosis I
Meiosis II
.
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Meiosis II
.
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1.6 Chemical Nature of the Gene
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Genes1.6.1- Watson-Crick Model of Nucleic Acids1.6.2- DNA Replication1.6.3- Mutations1.6.4- Control of Protein Synthesis1.6.5- Structural & Regulatory Genes1.6.6- Transformation1.6.7- Viruses
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Watson-Crick Model of Nucleic Acids• discoveries before Watson &
Crick• the Watson-Crick model
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DNA Replication• DNA as blueprint• each strand a template• process• end product
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Mutations• what are they• causes• types
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Control of Protein Synthesis• genes & protein synthesis• transcription• translation
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Structural & Regulatory Genes• types of genes/ proteins• structural genes/ proteins• regulatory genes/ proteins
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Transformation• bacterial genes• transduction• transformation
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Viruses• are they alive• structure• how they work
.
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1.6.1 Watson-Crick Model of Nucleic Acids
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Friedrich Miescher (1860s): discovered phosphate-rich chemicals in white blood cell nuclei
Discoveries Before Watson & Crick
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Frederick Griffith (1920s): some kind of molecule transformed pneumonia bacteria from harmless to lethal
Discoveries Before Watson & Crick
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Avery, MacLeod, McCarty (1940s): DNA was the transforming molecule
Discoveries Before Watson & Crick
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Chase & Hershey (1950s): DNA (not proteins) the genetic material
Discoveries Before Watson & Crick
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Erwin Chargaff (1950s): A=T and C=G
Discoveries Before Watson & Crick
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Rosalind Franklin (1950s): X-ray crystallography showed helical structure
Discoveries Before Watson & Crick
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James Watson & Francis Crick (1950s): A-T bond was the same length as the C-G bond, leading to double-helix
Watson & Crick published their model in 1953
Watson-Crick model of nucleic acids
.
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1.6.2 DNA Replication
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DNA is the “blueprint” for everything cells make and do
Before mitosis, a cell must copy DNA, so each daughter cell gets an identical copy
DNA replication- making the copy
The Blueprint
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The base pairing rule (A=T and C=G) means each DNA strand can be a template for a new strand
Each Strand a Template
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Steps:1. The enzyme helicase breaks
bonds b/w nucleotides on the two DNA strands, unwinding the double helix
2. The enzyme DNA polymerasereads the sequence of nucleotides on one DNA strand (template strand)
3. Polymerase builds a new strand by matching nucleotides to those on template strand
The Process
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When polymerase is finished, two identical double helices have been formed
The End Product
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1.6.3 Mutations
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Mutations
Ultimatesourceofnewgenes
Canbebeneficialordetrimental
Calledgeneticdisorderifdetrimental(i.e.sickle-celldisease)
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Mutations
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Causes
1. Accidentsduringreplicationortranscription
2. Exposuretocarcinogens(likeradiation)
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Mutation Types
1. Substitutions:whenthewrongnucleotideisused(i.e.AinsteadofC)
2. Frameshifts:anextranucleotideaddedoressentialonedeleted
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1.6.4 Control of Protein Synthesis
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Genes & Protein Synthesis
Gene: segment of DNA that is blueprint for specific protein
Genes control protein synthesis
Two stages:1.Transcription2.Translation
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Transcription
Gene copied from DNA into RNA format (U instead of T)
mRNA- messenger RNA, takes message to cytoplasm for translation
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Translation
Sets of 3 nucleotides on mRNA form codons, which are complimentary to sets of anticodons on transfer RNA (tRNA)
tRNA carries amino acids from cytoplasm to ribosomes
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TranslationRibosomes match anticodons to codons
Attached amino acids are joined to form proteins
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1.6.5 Structural & Regulatory Genes
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Genes code for production of two types of proteins:
1. Structural2. Regulatory
Two Types of Proteins
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Structural genes code for structural proteins, which form things like:• organs• cell walls• cytoskeleton
Structural Genes
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Regulatory genes code for regulatory proteins which do things like:• regulate growth• control development• start or stop transcription
of certain genes
Regulatory Genes
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1.6.6 Transformation
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Remember that bacteria are prokaryotes, no nucleus
DNA can be changed more easily, one reason why they can become resistant to medication quickly
1. Transduction2. Transformation
Bacterial Genes
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A virus can put genes from one bacterium into another
Transduction
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Bacteria can incorporate bits of DNA from environment into their own genes
Transformation
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1.6.7 Viruses
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Scientists disagree• have their own DNA or RNA• can only reproduce in host
cells• no metabolism
A single virus: particle or virion
Are They Alive?
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Much smaller than smallest bacteria
All are composed of: • Capsule• DNA or RNA
Some have enzymes, attachment structures
Structure
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Rabies
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A viral “infection” involves:1. A virus invades a living cell (host)2. Takes control of DNA replication,
sometimes transcription & translation
3. Gets host cell to make more of itself
Some viruses program the host’s immune system to stop working or attack itself
How Do They Work?
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2. Organismal Biology
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Structure & Function in Plants
1- Plant Organs2- Water & Mineral Acquisition3- Food Translocation & Storage
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Plant Reproduction & Development
1- Alternation of Generations2- Gamete Formation & Fertilization3- Growth & Development4- Tropisms & Photoperiodicity
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Structure & Function in Animals
1- Major Systems2- Homeostatic Mechanisms3- Hormones in Homeostasis & Reproduction
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Animal Reproduction & Development
1- Gamete Formation & Fertilization2- Cleavage, Gastrulation, Germ Layers, Organ System Differentiation3- Experimental Analysis of Vertebrate Development4- Extraembryonic Membranes5- Formation & Function of Mammalian Placenta6- Blood Circulation in the Human Embryo
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Principles of Heredity
1- Mendelian Inheritance2- Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance3- Linkage4- Polygenic Inheritance
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2.1 Structure & Function in Plants
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Plant Structure & Function2.1.1- Plant Organs2.1.2- Water & Mineral Acquisition and Transport2.1.3- Food Translocation & Storage
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Plant Organs• shoots• leaves• flowers• fruits• roots
2.1.1
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2.1.2Water & Mineral Acquisition and Transport• vascular plants• vascular tissues• transport
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2.1.3
Food Translocation & Storage• phloem• sugar movement• food storage
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2.1.1 Plant Organs
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Major Plant Organs
Shoots
Leaves
Flowers
Fruits
Roots
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Shoot System
Usually above-ground part of plants
Sometimes has leaves, flowers, fruits
Gathers light & CO2 for photosynthesis
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Leaves
Gather light for photosynthesis
Sometimes modified or absent
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Flowers
Only present in angiosperms
Attract pollinators, release pollen
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Fruits
Mature reproductive organ
Contain seeds, sometimes tasty flesh
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Roots
Absorb water & nutrients from soil
Below-ground organs
Sometimes store energy, water
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2.1.2 Water & Mineral Acquisition and Transport
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Vascular Plants
Non-vascular plants: no transport tissues; small & inconspicuous
Vascular Plants: plants that have transport vessels for water, sugars, & minerals; most conspicuous plants
•grasses•trees•cacti•herbs...
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Vascular Tissues
Specifically for transport
Xylem: transports water & minerals
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TransportWater & minerals diffuse into root cells
Cohesion-tension pulls water & minerals up through plant as water vapor is lost
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2.1.3 Food Translocation & Storage
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Phloem
“Food” is sugars made via photosynthesis
Phloem: food transport tissues, shuttle sugars from leaves to rest of plant
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Sugar Movement
Sugars build up in phloem, water diffuses in, sugar solution (sap) pushed throughout the plant
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Food Storage
Some plants store carbohydrates as starch in stems or roots
• potatoes• beets• turnips
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2.2 Plant Reproduction & Development
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Plant Reproduction & Development
2.2.1- Alternation of Generations2.2.2- Gamete Formation & Fertilization2.2.3- Growth & Development2.2.4- Tropisms & Photoperiodicity
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2.2.1
Alternation of Generations• alternation of phases• diploid & haploid phases
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2.2.2
Gamete Formation & Fertilization• plant gametes• plant sperm• plant eggs• fertilization in plants
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2.2.3Growth & Development• plant hormones• auxins• cytokinins• gibberellins• abscisic acid• ethylene
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2.2.4Tropisms & Photoperiodicity• tropisms• phototropism• gravitropism• thigmotropism• photoperiodicity
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2.2.1 Alternation of Generations
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Alternation of Phases
The plant’s life cycle is an alternation of haploid and diploid phases
Both phases can undergo mitosis
Sporophyte dominant in most plants, but depends on species
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Diploid & Haploid Phases
Sporophyte (ex: pine tree): diploid phase, produces spores via meiosis, which grow into gametophytes via mitosis
Gametophyte (ex: inside pine cones): haploid phase, produces gametes via mitosis, which fuse to form new diploid individual (a sporophyte)
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2.2.2 Gamete Formation & Fertilization
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Plant Gametes
Gametes in plants are named like gametes in animals:
• male gamete: sperm• female gamete: egg• zygote: fused sperm &
egg (fertilized egg)• embryo: growing
zygote (more than a few cells)
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Plant Sperm
Formed by male gametophyte
Produced in large numbers, leave to join eggs
Transmittal depends on species:• swimming in plants from wet
areas• non-swimming & packaged
inside pollen grains in other plants
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Plant Eggs
Formed by female gametophyte
Produced in small numbers, larger
Transmittal uncommon (they stay put)
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Fertilization in Plants
Similar to fertilization in animals- male & female gametes fuse to form zygote
In seed plants (ex: pines, roses) sperm must grow through female plant tissue to reach ovaries w/ eggs
In seedless plants (ex: mosses, liverworts) it’s simpler
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2.2.3 Growth & Development
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Plant Hormones
Function similarly to animal hormones, transported in vascular system
Control most aspects of growth & development
Often several interact
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Auxins
Promote shoot elongation
Produced mostly in shoot tips; transported only from tip to base of shoot
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Cytokinins
Stimulate cytokinesis
Produced in actively growing tissue: roots, embryos, fruits
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Gibberellins
Affect cell division & elongation, fruit growth, seed germination
Young roots & leaves major sites of production
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Abscisic Acid
Slows growth, often antagonizing actions of growth hormones
Ratio of ABA to growth hormones determines whether growth occurs
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Ethylene
Produced in response to stresses...•drought•flood•injury
And as part of normal life cycle•fruit ripening•programmed cell death
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2.2.4 Tropisms & Photoperiodicity
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TropismAny growth response that results in plants growing towards or away from stimuli
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PhototropismResponse to light
Positive: plant organs grow toward light, most often seen in shoots
Negative: plant organs grow away from light, most often seen in roots
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GravitropismResponse to gravity
Roots display positive gravitropism
Shoots display negative gravitropism
Response occurs as soon as seed germinates & organs grow in appropriate direction no matter how seed is oriented when it lands
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ThigmotropismResponse to touch
Comes in several forms•trees in windy habitats grow short & thick•plants that use objects for climbing•plants that close when touched
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PhotoperiodicityPhysiological response to relative lengths of night & day
Affects growth & development
• time of year for growing• time of year for
flowering.
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2.3 Structure & Function in Animals
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Structure & Function in Animals
1- Major Systems2- Homeostatic Mechanisms3- Hormones in Homeostasis & Reproduction
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Major Systems
• the animal body• digestive• respiratory• circulatory• musculoskeletal• nervous• excretory• immune
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Homeostatic Mechanisms
• homeostasis• homeostatic components• feedback mechanisms• thermoregulation
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Hormones in Homeostasis & Reproduction
• endocrine system• what is a hormone?• endocrine glands• hormones as signals• hormones in reproduction
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2.3.1 Major Systems
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The Animal Body
Highly complex “machine” with numerous processes occurring simultaneously & systems cooperating to maintain life
Mostly controlled by hormones, but affected by environment
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Digestive System
Processes ingested food & drink
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Respiratory System
Responsible for intake of essential gases, release of waste gases
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Circulatory System
Moves gases, nutrients, hormones throughout body
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Musculoskeletal System
Muscles & skeleton work together to provide support, stability, movement
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Nervous System
Passes messages between brain & body
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Excretory System
Filters wastes & excess water from blood, releases outside body
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Immune/ Lymphatic System
Defense against invaders (bacteria, viruses, parasites...)
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2.3.2 Homeostatic Mechanisms
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Homeostasis“Steady state,” refers to maintenance of internal balance
Examples:•temperature•ion concentration•blood oxygen•blood glucose
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HomeostasisSet point: animal maintains a variable at or near a particular value
Stimulus: fluctuations in a variable
Sensor: detects stimuli & sends signal to control center
Control center: generates output that triggers a physiological response to stimulus
Hormones are chemicals used as signals, important for homeostasis
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HomeostasisRelies largely on negative feedback cycles, which reduce stimulus
“Negative” feedback because stimulus results in events that decrease it
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Example:1. human body temperature set
point= 98.6oF2. exercise produces heat that
raises your body temperature (stimulus)
3. nervous system (sensor) sends message to control center (brain)
4. brain causes body to sweat (response)
5. Cooling from sweat decreases body temperature & sweating stops
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ThermoregulationEndothermy: internal temperature regulation through heat generated by metabolism; mammals, birds
Ectothermy: internal temperature regulated by external environment; amphibians, reptiles, most fish, most invertebrates
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2.3.3 Hormones in Homeostasis & Reproduction
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Endocrine SystemRegulates body’s ‘set points’-temperature, heart rate, metabolism
Triggers important physiological events- puberty, reproduction
Facilitates cell to cell communication- glucose uptake, antihistamine release
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Hormone
A chemical secreted by an endocrine gland/organ into the blood for transport
Affects growth, metabolism, development, homeostasis
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Endocrine Gland
A ductless gland or single cell that secretes a hormone, which travels through blood
Hormone targets the cells or organs that have receptors for the hormone
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Hormones as SignalsOnce released by the control center (usually the brain), hormones work as signals in one of two ways:
1. diffuse into cells’ cytoplasm and join w/ receptor protein, which causes a response
2. join w/ receptor protein in cell membranes, which causes a response
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Hormones in ReproductionHormones responsible for sexual maturation & cycling:
• development of gonads, which also release hormones
• development of sperm & eggs
• release of eggs• development of embryos
after fertilization• contractions during labor or
egg-laying• lactation and other maternal
behavior
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2.4 Animal Reproduction & Development
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Animal Reproduction & Development1- Gamete Formation & Fertilization2- Cleavage, Gastrulation, Germ Layers, Organ System
Differentiation3- Experimental Analysis of Vertebrate Development4- Extraembryonic Membranes5- Formation & Function of Mammalian Placenta6- Blood Circulation in Human Embryo
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Gamete Formation & Fertilization• reproduction• gametogenesis• spermatogenesis• oogenesis• fertilization
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Cleavage, Gastrulation, Germ Layers, Organ System
Differentiation• the zygote• cleavage• developmental stages• germ layers
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Experimental Analysis of Vertebrate Development• Model Organisms• Zebrafish• Frogs• Chicks• Mice• Fish in Space!
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Extraembryonic Membranes• extraembryonic membranes• chorion• amnion• allantois• yolk sac membrane
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Formation & Function of Mammalian Placenta
• placental formation• placental function
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Blood Circulation in the Human Embryo• embryonic blood vessels• exchange with mother
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2.4.1 Gamete Formation & Fertilization
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Reproduction
Reproduction is complicated for multicellular organisms
Two processes involved1. gametogenesis2. fertilization
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Gametogenesis
“Making gametes”• sperm• eggs
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Spermatogenesis
Formation of sperm
Occurs in spermatogonia- cells in testes1. Primary spermatocytes (2n)
formed2. Secondary spermatocytes (1n)
formed from primary, via Meiosis 1
3. Sperm cells (1n) formed from secondary spermatocytes via Meiosis II
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OogenesisFormation of eggs
Occurs in oogonia- cells in ovaries1. Primary oocyte (2n) present in
ovaries from birth2. Secondary oocytes (1n) formed
from primary, via Meiosis 1; polar body also formed
3. Egg cells and polar bodies (1n) formed from secondary oocytes via Meiosis II
4. Polar bodies recycled
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Meiosis I
Meiosis II
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FertilizationSperm and egg join to form zygote
Meiosis II
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2.4.2 Cleavage, Gastrulation, Germ Layers, Organ System Differentiation
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The Zygote
All sexually-reproducing multicellular organisms start life as a zygote (fertilized egg)
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Cleavage
Zygote divides several times via mitosis, without changing size
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1. Morula- solid ball of cells2. Blastula- hollow sphere of cells3. Gastrula (gastrulation)- hollow
sphere of cells w/ tube through center that forms digestive canal
Developmental Stages
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Layers of tissue in developing organism
1. Endoderm- inside, forms alimentary canal
2. Mesoderm- in middle, forms muscles, bones, circulatory system, reproductive system
3. Ectoderm- outside, forms skin, nervous system
Germ Layers
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2.4.3 Experimental Analysis of Vertebrate
Development
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Model Organisms
Model organisms are used to learn
about generalities in vertebrate
development
The majority of what we know
about development has come from
these models
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Zebrafish
Zebrafish embryos have been used
to explore:
• effects of inhibitors
• effects of alcohol
• stages of development
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Frogs
Frog embryos have been used to
investigate:
• blastula formation
• causes of two-headedness
• control of spinal formation
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Chicks
Chicken embryos are used to learn
about:
• formation of limbs
• signaling molecules
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Mice
Study of mouse embryos have
helped us understand:
• toe formation & separation
• cell fate determinants
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Fish in Space!
The medaka, and Asian relative of
the zebrafish, is being used to
study the effects of low gravity on
vertebrate embryo development
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2.4.4 Extraembryonic Membranes
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Extraembryonic Membranes
Membranes outside the embryo, surrounding embryo during development
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ChorionRegulates water, gases, nutrients, wastes
• In egg-layers, in contact with inner shell surface
• In others, in contact with uterus
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Amnion
Fluid-filled sac around embryo• cushioning• temperature regulation
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Allantois
Comes from developing digestive tract, gas & nutrient exchange• becomes umbilical cord in
non-egg layers• waste storage in egg-layers
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Yolk Sac Membrane
Comes from developing digestive tract, encloses yolk sac that stores nutrients
• becomes part of umbilical cord in non-egg layers
• larger in non-egg layers
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2.4.5 Formation & Function of Mammalian Placenta
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Placental Formation
Formed from outer cells of embryo and inner cells of uterus
Connection between mother & embryo
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Placental Function
Function: transfer nutrients, water, wastes between mother & embryo
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2.4.6 Blood Circulation in Human Embryo
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Human embryos develop their own blood vessels
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Embryo’s blood vessels next to mothers, and molecules exchanged via diffusion:• from mother to embryo-
nutrients, water, oxygen• from embryo to mother- carbon
dioxide & waste
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2.5 Principles of Heredity
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Principles of Heredity
1- Mendelian Inheritance2- Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance3- Linkage4- Polygenic Inheritance
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Mendelian Inheritance
• Gregor Mendel• terminology
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Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
• Mendel’s Laws• probability• Punnett square
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Linkage
• Non-Mendelian genetics• sex linkage• cat coat color• other Linkage
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Polygenic Inheritance
• multiple genes• disease
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2.5.1 Mendelian Inheritance
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Gregor Mendel
Inheritance: characteristics passed from one generation to another, in form of genes
Mendel: Austrian monk who studied pea plant inheritance ~1865
First to quantify genetic tests
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Mendel’s ideas still accurate for simple systems
Mendel coined several terms still used:
1. Allele: alternate form of gene, everyone has 2 alleles for each gene, represented by a letter (R, r)
2. Homozygous: two copies of same allele (RR or rr)
3. Heterozygous: one copy of each allele (Rr)
Terminology
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4. Dominant allele: always expressed when present, shown by capital letter (R, G, N)
5. Recessive allele: masked when dominant allele present, shown by lowercase letter (r, g, n)
Terminology
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6. Genotype: alleles carried by individual
7. Phenotype: appearance of individual
8. Cross: sexual reproduction between different individuals
Terminology
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9. Character: a feature, like hair color or plant height
10. Trait: the genotype or phenotype of an individual for a given character (red hair or dwarf plants)
Terminology
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2.5.2 Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
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Law of Independent Assortment: Every possible combination of alleles is equally likely for each gamete
Mendel’s Laws
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Law of Segregation: Paired genes separate and randomly recombine in gametes, so offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either
Mendel’s Laws
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If independent assortment is occurring, laws of probability predict genotypes of offspring from crosses
Parental generation (P): the parents of a cross b/w two individuals
First Filial generation (F1): offspring of P
Second Filial generation (F2): offspring from cross b/w two F1individuals
Probability
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PP
ppPP
or Pp
Pp
pp
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Method of predicting offspring genotypes, using probability
Use gametes possible from each parent to see predicted offspring genotypes & phenotype ratiosP: Yy x YyF1: ¼ YY, ½ Yy, ¼ yy
Punnett Square
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2.5.3 Linkage
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Since Mendel’s time, we’ve discovered that his Law of Independent Assortment isn’t always true.
• Some genes only on sex chromosomes
• Some genes always inherited together
Non-Mendelian Genetics
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Sex Linkage
Sex-linked genes: those located on either sex chromosome
Y-linked genes usually harmless because so small
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Sex Linkage
X-linked genes are responsible for several human genetic conditions
§color-blindness in men§Duschene muscular dystrophy in men§hemophilia
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Cat Coat ColorTortoiseshell coat coloration the result of X-linked genes
• genes for orange and black coat color are both on the X chromosome
• males (Xy) express the color on their one X
• females (XX) express both colors, causing tortoise-shell patterning if black & orange
• only males with XXy genotype can be tortoiseshell or calico
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Other Linkage
Linkage: autosomal genes inherited together during meiosis if close together
As distance between genes increases, likelihood of linkage decreases
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2.5.4 Polygenic Inheritance
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Polygenic inheritance: two or more genes affect the same phenotypic character
§ Human height§ Human eye & skin color
Multiple Genes
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Polygenic traits hard to predict, but can contribute to many illnesses
• diabetes• heart disease• hypertension
Disease
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3. Population Biology
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Principles of Ecology
1- Energy Flow & Productivity in Ecosystems2- Biogeochemical Cycles3- Population Growth & Regulation4- Community Structure, Growth, Regulation5- Habitat6- Concept of Niche7- Island Biogeography8- Evolutionary Ecology
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Principles of Evolution1- History of Evolutionary Concepts2- Concepts of Natural Selection3- Adaptive Radiation4- Major Features of Plant & Animal Evolution5- Concepts of Homology & Analogy6- Convergence, Extinction, Balanced Polymorphisms, Genetic Drift7- Classification of Living Organisms8- Evolutionary History of Humans
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Principles of Behavior
1- Stereotyped, Learned Social Behavior2- Societies
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Social Biology
1- Human Population Growth2- Human Intervention in Natural World3- Biomedical Progress
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3.1 Principles of Ecology
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Principles of Ecology
1- Energy Flow & Productivity in Ecosystems2- Biogeochemical Cycles3- Population Growth & Regulation4- Community Structure, Growth, Regulation5- Habitat6- Concept of Niche7- Island Biogeography8- Evolutionary Ecology
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Energy Flow & Productivity in Ecosystems
• Energy Flow• Trophic Levels• Trophic Categories• Ecological Roles• Transfer of Energy
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Biogeochemical Cycles• Introduction• Water• Carbon• Nitrogen• Phosphorous
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Population Growth & Regulation• Introduction• Limiting Biotic Factors• Limiting Abiotic Factors• Density• Demography & Growth
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Community Structure, Growth, Regulation• Introduction• Competition• Symbiosis• Succession
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Habitat• Definition & examples
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Concept of Niche• Definition & examples
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Island Biogeography• Introduction• Dispersal• Species Diversity• Immigration & Extinction• Area Effects• Distance Effects• Age Effects
mainland
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Evolutionary Ecology
• Introduction & Example• Interactions• One-way Interactions• Reciprocal Interactions
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3.1.1 Energy Flow & Productivity in Ecosystems
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Also ‘Food Chain’ and ‘Food Web’• represent flow of energy (matter)• show how energy enters & leaves
Energy Cycle
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Producers: make energy accessible to ecosystems via photosynthesis
Consumers: eat producers or other consumers
Trophic Levels
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Autotrophs: self-feeders, producers, make food molecules from sun
Heterotrophs: other-feeders, consumers, get food molecules from eating other
Trophic Categories
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Herbivores: eat plants
Carnivores: eat animals
Omnivores: eat plants & animals
Ecological Roles
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Very inefficient due to heat loss
Each higher level gets 10% of previous
Transfer of Energy1J
10J
100J
1000J
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3.1.2 Biogeochemical Cycles
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Bio: living thingsGeo: sediments/ rocksChemical: moleculesCycles: circular movement
Circular movement of molecules through an ecosystem’s living and non-living things
BiogeochemicalCycle?
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3.1.3 Population Growth & Regulation
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Study of groups of organisms of one species living together (population)
• limiting factors• birth rate• death rate• growth rate
What is it?
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• Dispersal: movement away from center• Competition• Predators• Lack of prey/ food• Parasites
Limiting Biotic Factors
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• Climate• Landscape• Soil• Water salinity• Sunlight
Limiting Abiotic Factors
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Density: # individuals per unit area
Density-dependent regulators:• competition• predation• disease
Density
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Density-independent regulators:• climate• disturbance (fire, flood, etc.)• pollution
Density
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Demography: vital statistics like birth & death rate, age at maturity
Growth rate: how fast is population getting larger or smaller? Rate of growth (r) equals births (b) minus deaths (mortality, m)
r = b - m
Demography & Growth
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3.1.4 Community Structure, Growth, Regulation
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Study of interactions among different species in the same area
• competition• predation• symbiosis• succession
What is it?
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More than one species in community attempts to use the same limited resource
Competition
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Competitive Exclusion Principle: no two species can occupy same niche indefinitely; one will be a better competitor, other will go extinct locally
Niche partitioning allows coexistence
Competition
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Close interaction b/w two species1. Mutualism: both benefit2. Commensalism: one benefits,
other neutral3. Parasitism: one benefits, other
harmed
Symbiosis
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Process through which community recovers from disturbance
1. Primary: no soil (ex: lava flows, glacial moraine)
2. Secondary: soil present (ex: abandoned fields)
Succession
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3.1.5 Habitat
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Species’ physical location, including all biotic & abiotic factors it needs to survive
• pond• forest• river• grassland
Habitat
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3.1.6 Concept of Niche
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Species’ role in community• time of day/ year• parts of habitat• prey size• temperature• trophic level
Ecological Niche
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3.1.7 Island Biogeography
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Study of distribution of organisms in space, historically & currently
Biogeography
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Biogeography specific to islands & their species
• dispersal• species diversity
§ area effects§ distance effects§ age effects
Island Biogeography
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Species reach islands by dispersal methods• flying• blown by wind• floating on water
Dispersal
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Number of species on island determined by:• immigration & extinction rates• size• distance• age
Species Diversity
mainland
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As diversity increases, immigration rate decreases and extinction rate increases
Immigration & Extinction
mainland
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Diversity highest on larger islands
Area Effects
mainland
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Diversity highest on near islands
Distance Effects
mainland
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Diversity is highest on older islands
Age Effects
mainland
younger
older
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3.1.8 Evolutionary Ecology
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Study evolution of interactions between & among species and with their environment
• competitors• mutualists• predators• prey• pathogens
What is it?
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Example: Research on the origin of the mutualism b/w termites and protozoa
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Two types studied:1. with physical environment2. with other species
a. one-wayb. reciprocal
Interactions
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One species affects another, but not vice versa
• commensalism
One-way Interactions
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Two species affect each other• predator-prey• parasite-host• competitors
Reciprocal Interactions
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3.2 Principles of Evolution
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Principles of Evolution
1- History of Evolutionary Concepts2- Concepts of Natural Selection3- Adaptive Radiation4- Major Features of Plant & Animal Evolution5- Concepts of Homology & Analogy6- Convergence, Extinction, Balanced Polymorphisms, Genetic Drift7- Classification of Living Organisms8- Evolutionary History of Humans
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History of Evolutionary Concepts
• Evolution• Carolus Linnaeus• Lamarck
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Concepts of Natural Selection
• Darwinian Concept• Modern Synthesis
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Adaptive Radiation
• Adaptations• Species• Resource Partitioning
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Major Features of Plant & Animal Evolution
• Plant Evolution• Animal Evolution• Explosions
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Concepts of Homology & Analogy
• Homology• Analogy
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Convergence, Extinction, Balanced Polymorphisms, Genetic Drift
• Convergence• Extinction• Balanced Polymorphisms• Genetic Drift
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Classification of Living Organisms
• Taxonomy• Taxa• The Domain• Classification of Domestic
Cat• Eukaryote Kingdoms• Animal Phyla
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Evolutionary History of Humans
• Order Primates• Great Apes• Hominid Fossils• Location
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3.2.1 History of Evolutionary Concepts
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Genetic change in a population over time
Evolution
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Invented binomial nomenclature
Wrote about origins & relationships b/w organisms (1700s)
Carolus Linnaeus
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Proposed that organisms acquire traits throughout lifespan & pass these on (proven false)
Lamarck
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3.2.2 Concepts of Natural Selection
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Natural Selection is driving force behind evolution
• more offspring produced than can survive
• variation in characteristics among individuals of population
• some individuals better competitors
• these have more offspring• frequency of characteristic
increases in population• population smallest unit that
can evolve
Darwinian Concept
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Darwin’s theory still supported, but we know more details now:
• characteristics result from genes• variations in characteristics result
from alleles• evolution can take thousands of
years
Modern Synthesis
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3.2.3 Adaptive Radiation
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Inherited characteristics that provide survival/ reproductive advantages
• speed• camouflage• armour• hearing
Adaptations
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Population of interbreeding individuals, common gene pool, viable offspring, don’t interbreed w/ other populations
A new species forms when two populations no longer interbreed
Species
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Decreases competition b/w species by utilizing more specialized niches
Adaptive radiation occurs as result of resource partitioning:
• alleles that allow individuals to use resources differently are adaptive
• over time, many new species evolve as result of benefits of using new niches
Resource Partitioning
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3.2.4 Major Features of Plant &Animal Evolution
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Endosymbiont Theory explains evolution of autotrophs from heterotrophs
Early plants were aquatic, asexual
Movement to land accompanied by adaptations for water storage, increased gravitational pull
Plant Evolution
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Separate sexes allowed for greater genetic diversity
First land plants didn’t have seeds
Evolution of seeds allowed colonization of more habitats
Evolution of flowers allowed animal attraction for pollination & seed dispersal
Plant Evolution
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First animals were aquatic, unicellular, soft-bodied
Multicellularity & hard structures appeared (spicules, exoskeletons)
Invertebrates first on land
Animal Evolution
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Fish were first w/ backbones
Adaptations for conserving water & dealing with higher gravitational pull appeared with land colonization
Animal Evolution
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Cambrian explosion: rapid increase in multicellular organisms
• aquatic plants appeared
• most major animal phyla appeared
• new niches evident: active hunting, burrowing into sediment, making branching burrows
Explosions
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3.2.5 Concepts of Homology & Analogy
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Similar structures resulting from common ancestry, could have different functions.
Homology
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Similar structures resulting from common function but not common ancestry
Analogy
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3.2.6 Convergence, Extinction, Balanced Polymorphism, Genetic Drift
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Convergent evolution: unrelated species evolve similar characteristics due to similar environments
Convergence
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When a species disappears from planet forever
Permian extinction (250mya): 96% species lost
Extinction
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Polymorphism: genetic diversity within a species for a particular trait
Balanced Polymorphism: natural selection tends to keep number of forms stable; when one is scarce, its fitness increases
Balanced Polymorphism
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Random change in allele frequency for a particular trait in a single population
Ex: Storm randomly causes death of most squirrels carrying alleles for light coat color
Genetic Drift
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3.2.7 Classification of Living Organisms
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Organizes living things into groups based on appearance, genetics, evolutionary history
Carolus Linnaeus invented binomial nomenclature, using genus & species“Scientific name” Borrelia burgdorferi
Taxonomy
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Taxon: level of classification of living things
KingdomPhylumClassOrderFamilyGenusSpecies
Taxa
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Recent addition to taxonomy
3 Domains, encompass all other taxa• Archaea• Eubacteria• Eukaryota
The Domain
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Domain: Eukarya (eukaryotes)Kingdom: Animalia (heterotrophs)Phylum: Chordata (backbones)Class: Mammalia (milk)Order: Carnivora (meat)Family: Felidae (hypercarnivore, claws)Genus: Felis (small)Species: catus (domesticated)
Scientific Name: Felis catus
Classification of Domestic Cat
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1. Animalia- animals
2. Plantae- plants
3. Monera- fungi
4. Protista- unicellular, animal-like or plant-like
Eukaryote Kingdoms
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1. Porifera- sponges2. Cnidaria- jellies3. Platyhelminthes- flatworms4. Nematoda- roundworms5. Mollusca- clams, snails, squid6. Annelida- earthworms7. Arthropoda- crabs, insects, spiders8. Echinodermata- starfish, sea urchins9. Chordata- fish, mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians
Animal Phyla
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3.2.8 Evolutionary History of Humans
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Prosimians: lemurs, lorises
More recent: • tarsiers• new world monkeys• old world monkeys• apes- gorilla, chimpanzee,
orangutan, human
Order Primates
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Humans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans have recent common ancestor
First true hominids 4.5mya, larger brains & bipedal locomotion
Great Apes
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1. Australopithecus afarensis(Lucy)- 4.5mya, head smaller, long arms
2. Homo erectus- first from same genus, 1.8mya, head larger, facial features
3. First Homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon Man)- 100,000 years ago, looked like us
Hominid Fossils
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Oldest human fossils from Africa
Fossils suggest we evolved in Africa 100,000 years ago, migrated throughout Europe, Asia, the Americas
Crossed Bering Land Bridge into North America, then to Central & South America
Location
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3.3 Principles of Behavior
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Principles of Behavior
1- Stereotyped, Learned Social Behavior2- Societies
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Stereotyped, Learned Social Behavior• Stereotyped Behaviors• Fixed Action Patterns• Learned Behaviors• Conditioning• Habituation• Imprinting
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Societies• Society• Insect Societies• Primate Societies
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3.3.1 Stereotyped, Learned Social Behavior
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Instinctive, performed the same way by all individuals of species, in response to a stimulus
1. taxis- directional2. kinesis- speed change3. reflex- automatic
movement of body part4. fixed action pattern-
more complex series of behaviors
Stereotyped Behaviors
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Behavior sequence continues, even when stimulus removed
• courtship behaviors• feeding young• circadian rhythms
Fixed Action Pattern (FAP)
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Not instinctive, must be seen & practiced, can be stopped mid-behavior, based on life experience
• conditioning• habituation• imprinting
Learned Behaviors
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Behavioral response to one stimulus is applied also to different stimulus
• dogs drool when they smell food• ring a bell when food presented• dogs eventually drool BOTH when
they smell food and hear bell
Conditioning
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Response decreases with exposure to stimulus if no positive or negative result
• cat cries at night for attention• you ignore cat, so nothing good
or bad happens• cat eventually stops crying at
night
Habituation
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Attachment to another animal or object during critical period (usually shortly after birth/ hatching)
• crane hatchlings see a person right after hatching, instead of another crane
• hatchlings imprint on person, following around to learn
Imprinting
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3.3.2 Societies
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Organization of individuals in population, tasks divided so group works together
Society
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Bees, ants, some wasps• only queen breeds• workers are her daughters• different jobs, depending on age
§ nursery§ cleaner§ queen care§ guard§ forager
Insect Societies
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Built around concept of dominance• more dominant individuals get
best access to mates, resources• individuals compete for status,
often when sexual maturity reached by young
• altruistic behavior common when members related
Primate Societies
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3.4 Social Biology
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Social Biology
1- Human Population Growth2- Human Intervention in Natural World3- Biomedical Progress
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Human Population Growth
• Human Populations• Life Span• Growth Rate• Demographic Transition
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Human Intervention in Natural World
• Human Population Size• Pollution• Resource Management
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Biomedical Progress
• Nutrition• Medical Advances• Treatments• Other Advances
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3.4.1 Human Population Growth
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Grow by same means as other populations
births – deaths = growth
Complex, b/c we reason around resource limitations, technology, think about reproductive behavior
Human Populations
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Better nutrition & medicine have increased human life span
Infant mortality greatly decreased
Birth rate decreased due to contraception
Life Span
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Over 7 billion people in 2016
Doubling time decreased
Technology increased food production, but starvation happens due to distribution
Growth Rate
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Theory proposes progressive demographic time periods of human population growth
Demographic Transition
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1- At first, birth & death rates equal, population in equilibrium w/ environment
2- Societal developments of medicine & food production allow birth rate to overtake death rate, population increases rapidly
Demographic Transition
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3- Agrarian lifestyles (many children for labor) become less common, children liability in urban society
4- medical advancement decreases infant mortality, urban populations increase rapidly
Demographic Transition
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5- Industrialized countries lower birth rate using contraceptives
6- Increasing population strains environment, resources
Demographic Transition
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3.4.2 Human Intervention in Natural World
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Profound effects on environment
• pollution
• habitat loss
• overharvesting
• introduced species
• climate change
Human Population
Size
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Started as result of ignorance during
Industrial Revolution
Addition of foreign substances to air,
water, soil, etc.
• fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides
• industrial cleaners
• carbon emissions
• trash
Pollution
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Pollution
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We’ve had success repairing
damaged ecosystems
We’ve learned ways to protect
threatened species &
ecosystems
“Reduce, reuse, recycle”
works
Resource Management
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3.4.3 Biomedical Progress
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We’ve learned importance of essential nutrients, allowing healthier, longer lives
Decreases sickness due to malnutrition
• scurvy• goiter• anemia
Nutrition
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Development of antibiotics in 1920s decreased deaths from infection
Vaccines protect from previously lethal diseases (flu, smallpox, rabies, etc.)
Antiviral treatments decrease sickness after viral infection (AIDS)
Medical Advances
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Improvements in managing illness, synthesizing molecules have allowed people to live longer & more comfortably
• heart disease• osteoporosis• arthritis• cancer• diabetes
Treatments
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Genetically Modified Organisms have increased agricultural output
Use bacteria to make:• human insulin• vaccines• cancer treatments
Investigating stem cells for organ transplantation
Other Advances