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NATIONAL FORUM OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION JOURNAL
VOLUME 26, NUMBER 1, 2008-2009
I THINK I CAN: AN ANALYSIS OF THE
INFLUENCE OF TEACHER EFFICACY ON
LEARNER-CENTERED BELIEFS
Karee E. Dunn
University of Arkansas
Glenda C. Rakes
University of Tennessee at Martin
ABSTRACT
For more than ten years, national agencies and educators have advocated for learner-
centered reform in schools (Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support
Consortium, 1992; National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education Unit
Standards, 2006), yet, little change has occurred (Cuban, 2007). As with any educational
innovation or paradigm, a number of intervening variables may exist. The purpose of
this study was to examine the influence teacher efficacy might have on teachers' learner-
centered beliefs. Learner-centered beliefs were used as a proxy for learner-centered
behavior, because beliefs are often the best indicator of future action (Ajzen, 1996, 2002;
Bandura, 1986). Results indicated that teacher efficacy significantly influenced learner-
centered beliefs. These results and their implications are discussed.
Introduction
s students in the United States continue to lag behind theirinternational counterparts, researchers continue to examine a
number of variables that play a role in promoting student
success (Darling-Hammond, 2007). A great deal of valuable research
examines what teachers should do to create successful learningenvironments (i.e., Bacon, 2005; ChanLin, 2007), yet too little
attention is paid to the teachers themselves. In most cases a new
innovation is touted as the great hope for reading, science, or
A
4
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mathematics achievement; then teachers are given a two-day training
session during which large amounts of surface level knowledge is
disseminated (Belzer, 2005). Teachers then return to the classroom go back to their previous routines, and administrators are surprised,
disappointed, and frustrated by the lack of innovation implementation.
However, if more attention were paid to what teachers bring to professional development opportunities and what variables lead to
action in the classroom from the transfer of knowledge about an
innovation, teachers might be more likely to engage in the practicespresented during professional development. This, in turn, may lead to
more pleasant surprises for administrators and policy makers. As
Darling-Hammond (1996) more eloquently stated, If a caringqualified teacher for every child is the most important ingredient in
education reform, then it should no longer be the factor most
frequently overlooked (p. 194).
For more than ten years, national agencies and educators have
advocated for learner-centered reform in schools (Interstate New
Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, 1992; National Councilfor the Accreditation of Teacher Education Unit Standards, 2006).
However, little real change has occurred (Cuban, 2007). Although
teachers are introduced to the foundational learner-centered theories inteacher education preparation programs and learner-centered
innovations throughout in-service professional development, many
teachers still engage in one-size-fits-all teacher-centered practices.
Perhaps one possible explanation for the lack of connection betweentheory and practice can be framed through conceptual change theory.
Conceptual change theory highlights the importance of addressing
both cold facts and hot emotions and beliefs in the learning process(Pintrich, Boyle, & Marx, 1993). Sinatra (2005) describes this as a
warming trend when applied to learning. Perhaps if a warming trend is
applied to teacher professional development, more learner-centeredaction would result.
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Karee E. Dunn & Glenda C. Rakes 6
The purpose of the present study was to examine the warming
influence of teacher efficacy on learner-centered beliefs. Learner-
centered beliefs were selected for the purposes of this study as anindicator of learner-centeredness because we did not have access to the
teachers during the teaching process. The assumption that beliefs mayserve as a proxy for behavior is based on Bandura's (1986) social
cognitive theory as well as a research base that supports the idea thatone's beliefs are the best predictor of future action (i.e., Ajzen, 1996,
2002; Glasman & Albarracn, 2006). Furthermore, the selection of
learner-centered beliefs as a proxy for learner-centered behavior issupported by a body of literature that indicates that learner-centered
beliefs are potent predictors of learner-centered behaviors (Deemer,
2004; Lotter, 2004; McCombs, 2002; Ross, Cousins, & Gadalla, 1996;Zielinski & Preston, 1992).
Learner-Centered Education
To understand learner-centered beliefs, one must first
understand what "learner-centered" means. Learner-centered educationis based on the American Psychological Associations (APA, 1997) 14-
learner-centered principles (see Table 1). Learner-centered education
reflects a paradigm shift from the traditional teacher-centeredclassroom format in which teachers lecture and students sit passively
in rows while taking notes and tests. By comparison, learner-centered
teachers are aware of, responsive to, and respectful of the diverse
needs students present in the classroom (McCombs & Whisler, 1997).From this perspective, teachers incorporate strategies that support
success foralllearners within and beyond the classroom. For example,
learner-centered teachers provide time for critical reflection and allowstudents to have input into the selection of classroom activities. In
learner-centered classrooms, students are encouraged to question not
only the subject matter, but also why they are expected to learn thematerial or how it is taught.
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Table 1
Learner-Centered Psychological Principles1
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
Principle 1: Nature of the learning process.
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is anintentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
Principle 2: Goals of the learning process.The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of
knowledge.
Principle 3: Construction of knowledge.The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.
Principle 4:Strategic thinkingThe successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Principle 5:Thinking about thinkingHigher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Principle 6:Context of learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.
1 APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs (1997,
November). Learner-centered psychological principles: A frameworkfor school reform and redesign. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
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Karee E. Dunn & Glenda C. Rakes 8
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
Principle 7: Motivational and emotional influences on learningWhat and how much is learned is influenced by the learners
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individuals emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits ofthinking.
Principle 8: Intrinsic motivation to learn
The learners creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity allcontribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
and providing for personal choice and control.
Principle 9:Effects of motivation on effortAcquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice. Without learners motivation to
learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS
Principle 10: Developmental influence on learningAs individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities and experience
different constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains
is taken into account.
Principle 11: Social influences on learningLearning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations,
and communication with others.
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INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCESFACTORS
Principle 12: Individual differences in learningLearners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Principle 13: Learning and diversity
Learning is most effective when differences in learners linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
Principle 14: Standards and assessment
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner and learning progressincluding diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessmentare integral parts of the learning process.
In teacher-centered classrooms, the burden of student learning
is placed on the teacher. The teacher must disseminate information forstudents to absorb. Conversely, in learner-centered classrooms the
onus of learning is transferred from the teacher to the learner. The
learner-centered teacher is responsible for creating a learningenvironment that supports the learning process for all students. In
learner-centered classrooms, the student is responsible for learning
material, and the teacher is responsible for attending to the uniquecharacteristics that a student presents as he or she creates effective
learning environments (McCombs & Whisler, 1997).
Thus, learner-centered classrooms have evolved beyond the
one-size-fits-all, teacher-centered, lecture-oriented view of learningand have moved towards custom-built classrooms for optimal
learning. This means that for one year or for one topic, a teacher may
vary lesson plans to incorporate various methodology such as jig-sawgroups, Web Quests, or lecture to better suit the idiosyncrasies of his
or her students (Fogarty, 1995). Although the transfer of learner-
centered theory into practice is challenging (Lohr & Eikleberry, 2007),student benefits make it well worth the effort. In fact, research
indicates that, from kindergarten to graduate school, students in
learner-centered classrooms are more motivated and academically
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Karee E. Dunn & Glenda C. Rakes 10
successful when compared to students in more teacher-centered
classrooms (McCombs & Quiat, 1999).
Although there is a great deal of research that supports the
importance of each individual learner-centered principle and the positive student outcomes that manifest in learner-centered
classrooms, little learner-centered change has occurred over the lastten years (Cuban 2007). Labree (2004) and Vogler (2006) suggest that
the lack of learner-centered school change can be linked to the
preexisting beliefs that many teachers hold that may interfere withlearner-centered action. More specifically, many teachers believe that
teaching is a process of transmitting knowledge and dispensing
information (Pajares, 1992, 1993), which is in staunch contradictionwith learner-centered education. Therefore, it is important to further
explore teachers' beliefs about teaching and what influences those
beliefs.
Teacher Beliefs
For the purposes of this study, teacher beliefs are defined as an
individual's perception of information about a specific object or idea
(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The predictive power of beliefs with regardto specific behaviors has been widely researched and documented (i.e.
Ajzen, 1996, 2002; Glasman & Albarracn, 2006; Huang, 2003).
Although the investigation of beliefs in isolation is valuable, it is also
important to investigate the interplay of teacher beliefs within thecontext of larger belief systems because beliefs do not exist in a
vacuum (Fives & Buehl, 2008). By better understanding the interplay
of beliefs, we may then uncover the nature of the influence such beliefprofiles have on behavior. Therefore, we investigated the influence of
teacher efficacy on learner-centered beliefs.
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Teacher Efficacy Beliefs
Teacher efficacy reflects a teacher's self-reflective appraisal ofhis or her ability to bring about desired student outcomes (Tschannen-
Moran & Hoy, 2001). This deceivingly simple construct has become acornerstone in the investigation of teacher beliefs and behavior (Fives,
2005). Teacher efficacy is based on the social cognitive theory ofBandura (1986, 1997), which espouses that one's cognitive beliefs
affect one's behavior. Thus, if a teacher fails to believe that he or she
possesses the requisite teaching abilities needed to engage in newteaching practices, such as learner-centered instruction, then that
teacher is unlikely to engage in those classroom innovations.
Research links teacher efficacy with a number of outcomes,
such as student achievement (Goddard, Hoy, & Woolfolk Hoy, 2004;
Ross & Cousins, 1993) and the implementation of new teaching ideasthat involve risk, difficulty, and shared student control, all of which areappropriate in describing learner-centered education (Ross, 1998). The
self-reflective cognitive belief of efficacy has also been donned an
excellent indicator of future action (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Dunn(2007) found a small, but significant relationship between cumulative
teacher efficacy and efficacy for student engagement with regard to
learner-centered beliefs in a small sample of urban teachers; however,further investigation is needed to better establish the influence of
teacher efficacy on learner-centered beliefs.
Efficacy is a powerful construct that is important to theclassroom and professional development. Its importance is amplified
by its trainable nature. Efficacy can be addressed through various
types of professional development such as modeling, masteryexperiences, and vicarious learning (Bandura, 1997) as well as peer
coaching (Bruce & Ross, 2008). Before effort is put forth to address
efficacy and well as learner-centered beliefs in professionaldevelopment, it is first important to establish a relationship between
these two constructs in teachers.
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Thus, the authors sought to better understand the influence of
teacher efficacy on teachers' learner-centered beliefs. This study is
important because if learner-centered beliefs predict learner-centeredaction, and teacher efficacy informs learner-centered beliefs and
action, a new view of the dynamic between learner-centered beliefsand teacher efficacy may lead to the development of more effective
teacher professional development.
Statement of the Problem
Because teachers who report higher levels of efficacy are more
attuned to their students needs and characteristics, we hypothesizedthat teachers who report higher-level efficacy beliefs would also report
higher levels of learner-centered beliefs. As a result, our research
question was as follows: Does teacher efficacy for studentengagement, instructional strategies, and classroom managementinfluence their learner-centered beliefs?
Methodology
The convenience sample for this study consisted of 74 graduate
students enrolled in a masters program in education at a public mid-southern university that is accredited by the National Council for the
Accreditation of Teacher Education. All subjects were employed as
PK-12 teachers. A summary of demographic information is presented
in Table 2.
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Table 2
Respondent Demographics
Variable n percent
Sex
Male 11 14.9Female 63 85.1
Grade Taught
5-6 13 17.6
Middle School 18 24.37-9 05 06.8
7-12 14 18.9
10-12 24 32.4
Highest Degree Earned
Bachelors 52 70.3Masters 19 25.7
Specialist 2 2.7
Doctorate 1 1.4
School Location
Urban 7 9.5
Rural 56 75.7
Suburban 11 14.9
Years Teaching Experience
1 year 11 14.92 years 8 10.8
3 years 11 14.9
4 years 9 12.25 years 6 8.1
6 - 10 years 13 17.6
11 - 15 years 7 9.5
16 - 20 years 7 9.521 - 25 years 2 2.8
Note:N=74.
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Procedures
After receiving approval from the Institutional Review Board,subjects were invited to participate via email, provided with the URL
for the survey, and asked to complete the measures along withquestions regarding basic demographic information. Subjects
completed a Web-based version of the Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale(TSES) and the Teacher Beliefs Survey (TBS). All responses were
voluntary and anonymous. No individually identifiable information
was collected from respondents.
Instruments
Teacher Beliefs Survey
The learner-centered beliefs subscale of the TBS was used inthis study to assess learner-centeredness in this sample of teachers.
This measure was selected for the current study for two reasons. First,
it aligns with the definition of learner-centeredness used for this study.Second, it has been extensively used with thousands of teachers. The
learner-centered beliefs subscale of the TBS is based on APAs (1997)
14 learner-centered psychological principles (see Table 1), which provide the framework for learner-centered education. The TBS
employs a four point Likert scale and consists of 14 statements.
Participants respond to each of the 14 statements based on the extent
to which they agree or disagree with each item (McCombs & Whisler,1997). This measure was verified in a validation study with more than
1,707 undergraduate students (McCombs, 2002). The reliability
coefficient for this measure is .86.
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Teacher Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES).
Teacher efficacy was assessed with the TSES developed byTschannen-Moran, Hoy, and Hoy (1998). The TSES was selected for
this study because it aligns with the definition and conceptualization ofteacher efficacy used in this study. This measure was also selected
because it goes beyond the general assessment of teacher efficacy andmeasures efficacy for instructional practices, classroom management,
and student engagement. Teachers respond to each item based on their
opinion about how much they can exert influence a given situation.The nine responses range from nothing, very little, some influence,
quite a bit, or to a great deal.
In this study, the 12-item short form of the TSES was used toprevent participant fatigue and to encourage greater survey completion
rates (Stanton, Sinar, Balzer, & Smith, 2002). In addition, the short
form of the TSES has similar reliability coefficients as the longer 24-item measure (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). The reliabilities of thethree subscales ranged from .81 to .86. The TSES consists of a 9-point
Likert scale measure. Other studies that have examined the reliability
of the TSES have found substantial reliabilities (e.g., Benton-Borghi,2006; Knoblauch, 2004).
Data Analysis
In order to examine the influence of scores on the three TSES
subscales on the learner-centered subscale from the TBS, the data wereanalyzed using multiple regression. The TBS scores were entered as
the dependent variable and the three TSES subscale scores (efficacy
for instructional practices, classroom management, and studentengagement) were entered as the independent or predictor variables.
The significance and size of the coefficient of determination were
examined to determine if the set of independent variables had asignificant influence on teachers learner-centered beliefs. Further, the
magnitude of impact for each independent variable was examined.
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Results
Each measure was reliable. Cronbachs alpha measured theinternal consistency of items on the surveys. The reliability alpha for
the learner-centered beliefs subscale of the TBS was .75. Thereliability alpha for the TSES efficacy for instructional practices,
classroom management, and student engagement subscales were .88,.89, and .91 respectively.
Multiple linear regression was used to determine whetherefficacy for instructional practices, classroom management, and
student engagement influenced teachers learner-centered beliefs. The
independent variables were teacher efficacy for instructional practices,classroom management, and student engagement. The dependent
variable was learner-centered beliefs. The sample size for the analyses
was 74 primarily rural mid-southern teachers. The means, standarddeviations, and correlations are displayed in Table 2.
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Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations for Regression ofEfficacy for Instructional Practices, Classroom Management, and
Student Engagement and Learner-Centered Beliefs
(N = 74)
The three independent variables were entered into the
regression equation simultaneously. Preliminary examination of the
results indicated there was no extreme multicollinearity in the data (all
variance inflation factors were less than 3). Exploratory analysis also
indicated that the assumptions underlying the application of multiplelinear regression (independence, normality, heteroschedasticity, and
linearity) were met. The regression results indicated that the set ofindependent variables significantly influenced 16% of the variance in
learner-centered beliefs (F (3, 70) = 4.44, p < .01). None of the
independent variables had a significant unique influence on learner-centered beliefs.
1 2 3 4
1 L.C. Beliefs 1.00
2 Eff. Stud. Eng. .36 1.00
3 Eff. Ins. Strat. .37 .71 1.00
4 Eff. Class Man. .25 .72 .70 1.00
Mean 3.21 25.53 27.01 28.08Standard Deviation .33 5.36 5.07 5.03
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Discussion
The results of this study supported the hypothesis that teacherefficacy does influence teachers' learner-centered beliefs. More
specifically, the results indicated that collectively, teacher efficacy forinstructional practices, classroom management, and student
engagement significantly influenced learner-centered beliefs. Thisresults differ slightly from Dunns (2007) findings that demonstrated a
small but significant correlation between cumulative teacher efficacy
and efficacy for student engagement with regard to learner-centeredbeliefs in a small sample of urban teachers. For the sample of teachers
who responded to the present study, it appears that the collective
influence of the three teacher efficacy subscales was more potent thanthat of any single scale. The difference in the results may be due to the
nature of the demographics of the two sample populations (e.g., rural
vs. urban).
This finding also supports Ross' (1998) assertion that teachers
with lower efficacy are more resistant to teaching ideas that involve
risk, difficulty, and shared student control, all of which arecharacteristic of learner-centered teaching. This may be a reflection of
their belief that they do not possess the requisite skills needed to
engage in more challenging teaching tasks like those involved inlearner-centered education. The results of the current study support
this position by further substantiating the influence of teacher efficacy
on learner-centered beliefs, which is important in establishing a need
to address these teacher beliefs in professional development aimed atcreating more learner-centered teachers and classrooms.
Limitations
This study was limited in scope due to the nature of the small
sample size. The findings may not be generalized to the greater teachereducation student population due to the lack of standardization in
training practices in teacher education programs and in-service
professional development across the country. In light of these
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limitations, future research should examine this relationship in larger
populations in different areas of the country.
Implications for Future Research
The finding that teacher efficacy significantly influences teacherlearner-centered beliefs is important because efficacy training may be
provided in many forms, with research providing strong support for
peer modeling as a highly effective technique (Bandura, 1997; Bruce& Ross, 2008). Future research should investigate the implementation
of both peer modeling as well as the effects of other interventions on
both teacher efficacy and learner-centered beliefs. As intimated earlier,future research should investigate the effects of incorporating teacher
efficacy training in professional development efforts that focus on the
promotion of learner-centered innovations.
Another avenue for future research could be the development of
an efficacy scale that assesses efficacy specifically for learner-centered
teaching. The TSES used in this study was developed to assess generalaspects of teaching efficacy. In addition, future research should also
investigate other variables that may influence teachers learner-
centered beliefs such as experiences participating in and observinglearner-centered classrooms. Teachers epistemological beliefs may
also provide further insight into misconceptions teachers may hold
about how individuals learn that may interfere with the adoption of
learner-centered beliefs.
By providing those involved in teacher training with a better
understanding of variables that influence learner-centered beliefs,instruments that assess these beliefs (i.e., TSES, TBS), and means of
influencing these beliefs, researchers may find a productive path to
designing effective professional development needed to encourageleaner-centeredness in teachers and promote learner-centered
educational reform.
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Conclusion
The results of this study highlight the importance of furtherinvestigating and addressing teachers efficacy in any attempt to
persuade teachers to adopt learner-centered beliefs. Until teachersadopt learner-centered beliefs, they are unlikely to engage in learner-
centered practices (Deemer, 2004; Lotter, 2004; McCombs, 2002;Ross, Cousins, & Gadalla, 1996; Zielinski & Preston, 1992). This
study also supports research that indicates that unless teachers are
confident in their teaching abilities, they are unlikely to adopt beliefsthat lead to the adoption of challenging new learner-centered teaching
practices. As a result, this study draws attention to the need to be
address teacher efficacy during any inservice professionaldevelopment program designed to encourage more learner-
centeredness in teachers.
To achieve a learner-centered paradigm shift in schools, futureresearch should investigate means of addressing teacher efficacy
through specific training interventions as well as the effects of this
type of training on both teacher efficacy and learner-centered beliefs.As a result, professional development stakeholders may make
noticable progress in their efforts to provide a caring and qualified
learner-centered teacher for every child.
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