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Chapter 4
Early Societies in South Asia
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Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.
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Foundations of Harappan Society The Indus River
Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges
Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 BCE Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of
poultry Decline after 1900 BCE
Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro (mouth of Indus River) 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)
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Mohenjo-Daro Ruins
Population c. 40,000 Regional center
Layout, architecture suggests public purpose Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage
Standardized weights evident throughout region Specialized labor Trade
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Harapan Society and Culture
Evidence of social stratification Dwelling size, decoration
Harappan Civilization: matriarchal? Influence on later Indian culture
Goddesses of fertility Possible east/west distinctions
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Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization Reasons for disappearance unclear
Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil Earthquakes? Flooding?
Evidence of unburied dead
Disappearance by 1500 BCE
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The Aryan “Invasion”
Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of
Harappa Color Bias Socio-Economic Implications Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military
conquest
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The Early Aryans
Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries
later Religious and Literary works: The Vedas
Sanskrit: sacred tongue Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi,
Urdu, Bengali Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda
1,028 hymms to gods
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The Vedic Age
Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”) Aryans fighting Dravidians Also Aryans fighting each other
Chiefdoms: Rajas Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south
Development of iron metallurgy Increasing reliance on agriculture
Tribal connections evolve into political structures
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Varna: The Caste System
Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians Brahmin, Priest Kshatriya, Warrior Vaishya, Merchant Sudra, Commoner Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs”
Jati subsystem of castes Related to urbanization, increasing social and
economic complexity
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Brahmins from Bengal
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Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society “rule of the father” Enforced in the The Lawbook of Manu Overwhelmed Harappan matriarchy? Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line
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Sati (“Suttee”)
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Aryan Religion
Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods
Role of Brahmins important C. 800 BCE some movement away from
sacrificial cults Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians
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Teachings of the Upanishads
Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions
Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections until 13th century CE
Brahman: the Universal Soul Samsara: reincarnation Karma: accounting for incarnations Moksha: mystical ecstacy Relationship to system of Varna