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Dossier module VI

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Module VI

December 2017

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INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 3

READING 1

Cooperative Learning Model ........................................................................................................................ 4

READING 2

Preparing for Differentiation with Ml ..................................................................................................... 25

READING 3

Differentiated Lessons Using Ml .............................................................................................................. 37

READING 4

Catering for students with special needs ............................................................................................. 41

READING 5

Teaching different language aspects and skills to students with special needs ................... 50

READING 6

Inclusive Assessment .................................................................................................................................... 62

READING 7

Differentiating Assessment in an MI Classroom ................................................................................ 65

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................... 73

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We are proud to present “Cooperative Learning and differentiated instruction in

Inclusive Classrooms” as the sixth of eight modules which intends to continue to

strengthen the competences of our Specialists in English Language Teaching. This

training will allow the specialists to master four key areas related to Language

Learning: Didactics, Communication, Training and Self-Training as well as the Use of

New Information Technologies and Assessment Strategies via cross referential

techniques and methodologies.

Specialists in English Language Teaching face challenges in their schools when

working with students with special needs. Therefore, the sessions described in this

document are designed to provide the necessary theoretical support for the specialists

to develop a more inclusive teaching incorporating the cooperative learning model

and strategies oriented to the differentiation of the lessons using the Multiple

Intelligences. The module incorporates areas such as the development of linguistic

competences, understanding of modern language learning approaches and

methodologies, planning of a differentiated session using a multiple intelligences and

cooperative learning framework, as well as, differentiated assessment procedures.

Areas such as ICT and action research are also developed during the implementation

of this module. Participants are encouraged to take innovative actions in their teaching

in order to apply the strategies, knowledge and skills gained from this module, so their

practice is improved and their students benefited.

This dossier will aid participants during their training and provide essential

information in different areas. The first reading comprises the main characteristics and

most relevant information regarding to the Cooperative Learning Model. Reading two

presents information on differentiated cooperative learning for inclusive classrooms.

The third and fourth readings discuss the lesson planning using a Multiple Intelligence

Framework which provides strategies to meet students’ needs. Finally, the fifth reading

provides practical strategies for differentiating assessment in a MI classroom.

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Cooperative Learning Model

Improving Student Learning Using Small Groups

You Will Understand • Cooperative learning offers the opportunity to develop social,

academic, and cognitive skills effectively and efficiently

You Will Know

• There is a profit from learning to work with others

• Problems can be solved together

• Conflicting ideas can be resolved in group settings

• What cooperative learning models look like in K-12 classrooms

You Will Be Able To

• Design, implement. and reflect on cooperative learning models in

your planning and teaching

• Explain to students, parents, and peers the value of cooperative

learning

In the elementary classroom

In Ms. Wright's fourth grade science class the new unit is on clouds and weather. Ms. Wright's

team has been working with the fourth graders on basic cooperative skills. Now they move into

groups well and speak quietly when they are working, taking turns and listening carefully. Polite

behavior has become the norm, although this was not always true at the beginning of the school

year. With this in mind, Ms. Wright has decided on a jigsaw lesson to begin the new unit. She

introduces the jigsaw model to the students carefully. She shares the learning objectives and

composition of the groups and explains the jigsaw process.

MS. WRIGHT: Today we are going to work on learning new information about clouds. People

have been interested in clouds and their relation to weather as long as there have been

people on earth. Why do you think people were interested in clouds?

COOKIE: They are always changing.

LARRY: Yes, but we can tell what kind of weather is coming if you look at the clouds, so there

must be a pattern.

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MS. WRIGHT: We learn a lot about our world by observing it and trying to make sense of what

we see. Watching clouds is one way of trying to figure out some kind of order in our

world. Today, we are going to begin a unit on clouds and weather. You will learn about

five different kinds of clouds, the ways in which clouds form, and the kind of weather that

is associated with specific kinds of clouds. First, we are going to get into our expert

groups. Together you are going to learn about your cloud type.

Ms. Wright projects the groups and tells the students they have 2 minutes to settle into their

groups and read the directions for the activity.

MS. WRIGHT: Elizabeth, please remind us of what we do when we work in jigsaw groups.

ELIZABETH: We stay with our group until all work is completed, we follow our class rules, we

make certain that everyone in our group understands the material before we ask you for

help. The directions say that you are going to assign our cloud types. Can we choose?

MS. WRIGHT: You are going to choose your cloud type out of a hat. The questions that you are

to answer are on the direction sheet. You can use Internet sources, our class library, and

our textbook. Remember that before the end of our expert groups today, you will make

a brochure that describes your cloud type with six different pieces of information, tells

the way that your cloud is formed, and explains the type of weather associated with your

cloud. The brochure will be the basis of your presentation to your learning groups

tomorrow. Be certain that everyone in your group is ready to present to their learning

groups before the end of class. I will make copies of your brochure for you so that there

are enough for everyone in the class.

The expert groups get to work and Ms. Wright circulates around the room, helping groups figure

out how to divide the task so that they can finish in the allotted time. At the end of the period, all

of the groups are ready for the next day's learning groups.

In the secondary classroom

Madame Bonigiraud's overarching objective is to have her students understand that

communication is about sending and receiving messages. Today's lesson will focus on

communicating using appropriate formal and informal phrases in different settings. Madame has

chosen the graffiti model because of the feedback the model will provide her about student

understanding and for the review it will provide the students.

MADAME: We are going to do a graffiti exercise today. We've done this once before. Do you

remember how to do this poster activity?

DENIS: Yes, we had too much time to work on our posters and it got too loud!

MADAME: I remember. Today, we will only have three minutes with each poster and that should

help. Let me remind you of the expectations of this activity.

Madame Bonigiraud reviews the process and behavioral expectations for the students. She asks

students to explain the process again to make certain that everyone will know what to do.

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MADAME: I believe that many of you have accounts on Facebook and know about wall posts and

commenting on other people's posts, right?

MARGUERITE: Oh, yeah! You can also just click "like it" if you agree with what someone has

posted.

NICOLAS: Some posts are private though, so there's no point in commenting you just write

your own note back. It's just between your wall and theirs.

MADAME: Right, you are both describing communication. Sometimes, it goes back and forth a

little until both people have talked through a whole idea. In either case, the original post

should be as clear as possible, if the writer wants to communicate. Today, we will

discuss formal and informal language. Clear communication demands that we know

when to use formal or informal language

ADRIEN: Do you mean we talk in one way in one setting and a different way in another setting?

MATHILDE: Well, I don't use the same words with my grandmother as I do with my friends at

the movies.

MADAME: That is exactly right. Let's see what phrases you would use in the settings on these

posters. I will use this timer to keep us on track.

The group activity begins and continues over the next 15 minutes. Madame Bonigiraud circulates,

responding to questions, correcting misconceptions and inaccuracies, and offering suggestions.

The students are working well together and following the cooperative rules that have been

discussed throughout the school year. The timer keeps the students on track throughout the

activity. They are enthusiastic when they share their group findings with the whole class.

MADAME: Can we make any broad generalizations from the group presentations?

GUSTAVE: There are times when it is appropriate to use formal phrases.

ADRIEN: It is easier to come up with formal than informal phrases.

MATHILDE: I think that's because we used a lot of the phrases from our textbook.

MADAME: How do people learn informal expressions?

ADRIEN: I think we learn the informal expressions by living in the place, from hearing, and by

using the expressions.

The discussion continues until the bell rings.

Basis of Cooperative Learning Models

The age of accountability has many advantages and some disadvantages for teachers-especially

novice teachers. Standards provide guidance for the development of objectives (what students

need to understand, know, and be able to do), but standards often explicate so much content that,

taken at face value, teaching becomes coverage. In addition, there have been continuous calls that

our society and workplace demand more than academic content as the goal of schooling.

Schooling is meant to socialize our children into adult society, demanding attention to character

development and social skills. These pressures can make a teacher's daily planning an

overwhelming process. The models of instruction presented in this reading are designed to help

with everyday instructional decisions. The models allow for the organization of the learning

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environment so that students can both reach content goals and have the opportunity to develop

higher-level thinking. Cooperative learning models also allow pupils the chance to develop

personal and social skills.

Cooperative learning models have been used at all educational levels, including professional

development in business, education, law, and medicine. The concept of group learning is not new

in education. Reading groups, team sports, group science projects, student drama productions,

and school newspapers are a few examples of activities that permeate the American school

experience.

People are used to working in groups both in and out of school-some of these groups are

cooperative, and some of them are not. What makes a group cooperative? Group dynamics was a

much examined topic between the two world wars and into the mid-20th century when a shift to

the study of individuals occurred. Most researchers agree that groups are cooperative when there

is a common or closely related set of goals, equal distribution of labor in meeting the goals, and

close contact as the goals are being pursued. Face-to-face interdependence and individual

accountability are such as the hallmarks of cooperative learning.

Not all groups are cooperative, and not all school tasks should be completed cooperatively.

Cooperative learning models are instructional sequences-a series of processes that structure pupil

interactions in order to accomplish a specific, usually teacher-assigned goal. There is not a single

approach to cooperative learning. In fact, there have been several interpretations of how the power

of groups can be used to help pupils succeed academically and socially. Specific academic and

social skills enhanced by cooperative learning approaches are identified in Figure 1.1 This reading

will examine the support for cooperative learning models and will present a general template of

cooperative learning along with four specific cooperative learning models-jigsaw, graffiti,

academic controversy, and student teams-achievement division (STAD).

Cooperative learning is supported by information processing theories and cognitive theories

of learning. Information processing highlights the encoding process of learners, which is the act

of relating new information to the ideas and concepts stored in long-term memory. Encoding

strategies can be taught directly, but not everyone benefits from the encoding strategies chosen

by a teacher, so more elaborative forms of connection-making can be useful. Teaching students

to self-question as they integrate new information is helpful, as is listening to other students as

they are involved in the same academic task. Learning with others can increase knowledge through

modeling and coaching.

Cognitive theories of learning also support the use of cooperative groups in classrooms.

According to theorists, activity is the center of human learning, and interactions with peers are a

springboard for cognitive development. Cooperative learning models are based on both of these

ideas and provide carefully structured activities in a social environment. Cooperative learning

groups allow students to share cultural experiences and examples that provide an opportunity for

increased learning by all group members. Because most higher-level mental processes are social,

the cooperative group is fertile learning ground. As students act within a group, the group changes

and evolves, leaving a dynamic and opportunistic learning environment. It is natural that children

learn in a social environment in cooperation with peers.

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Figure 1.1 Cooperative Skills

Basic Cooperative Skills: Foundational Skills for Groups to Work in a Classroom Setting

• Moving into groups responsibly

• Speaking quietly

• Taking turns

• Addressing group members by name

• Eliminating put-downs

• Remaining with the group

• Encouraging everyone to participate

• Paying attention to materials

• Looking at the person speaking

Functioning Skills: Managing Group Efforts to Complete the Task and Maintain Productive

Relationships

• Being able to restate the assignment limits

• Offering procedural ideas

• Seeking ideas of others

• Paraphrasing contributions of others in the group

• Describing personal feelings when appropriate

• Setting and calling attention to time

• Supporting peers through eye contact

• Asking or providing help or clarification

• Using humor, enthusiasm to energize

Formulating Skills: Intellectual Skills Needed for Deep Understanding

• Summarizing document or discussion completely without reference to the original document

• Seeking accuracy of processed information

• Seeking elaboration of information by relating it to past knowledge shared by the group

• Developing mnemonics to remember ideas and facts

• Checking for understanding by articulating reasons behind behavior and products

• Providing feedback as to procedures and progress to task completion

Fermenting Skills: Highest Intellectual and Social Skills

• Criticizing ideas, not people

• Integrating a number of different ideas into a single position

• Asking for justification of a peer's position

• Extending another's conclusion by adding further information or implications

• Going beyond first, apparent, or simple answers

• Testing conclusions against reality and group process constraints

Source: Based on information from Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Holubec, E. J. (1994). The new circles of learning:

Cooperation in the classroom and school. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Cooperative Learning Model: The Template

All lessons, curricula, and courses can be designed to include cooperative learning by tailoring

existing materials to include the five key elements of cooperative learning.

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These skills are critically important in almost all work settings. Their value to students beyond the

years of formal schooling can hardly be overestimated.

1. Positive interdependence to ensure that work is equally distributed among all participating

students and no one takes on a disproportionate share of the work

2. Individual accountability, meaning that each student is responsible for his or her own

learning

3. Face-to-face interaction in which students explain to one another how to solve problems,

share information, and connect information to prior knowledge

4. The explicit teaching of social skills

5. Group processing when a discussion ensues about whether the activity met cooperative

learning goals

In addition, consideration must be given to the curriculum, the physical setting, and a diagnosis of

and remediation for problems that pupils might have in working cooperatively. This template model

was adapted from Patricia Blosser's (1991) list of steps that are required to plan for and implement

a cooperative learning lesson. It is a template because it provides guidance to teachers at any

developmental level in any content area and can be adapted by the teacher from previously existing

curriculum materials or lesson activities and units found on the Internet. The teacher is required in

the model to design the cooperative structure of the task and setting. The other models found in

the reading have the key elements of cooperative learning within their organizational structure. The

general model requires that teachers build that structure-providing both opportunity and challenge.

There are three planning steps and seven implementation steps in the template model.

Planning Steps

1. Develop clear instructional goals in the know, understand, and able to do format.

2. Consider and plan the size and composition of groups. Try to keep groups to four. Groups

should be heterogeneous in ways that are applicable to the goals of the lesson (gender,

achievement, ethnicity, prior experiences, and the like). For example, if you want students

to examine a science problem from a variety of perspectives, you want to vary the groups

as much as possible. If, on the other hand, your objective is to provide the opportunity for

students to practice new math skills, you want to group students on the same achievement

level but with different genders and ethnicities.

3. Make certain that the cooperative activity has all of the key elements of cooperative learning-

face-to-face communication for positive interaction, materials and roles that support

interdependence, necessary social skills, positive goal interdependence, and individual

accountability.

Implementation Steps

1. Explain the task. Explain the academic task clearly and succinctly. Remember that clarity is

an important need of learners.

2. Identify the social skills that are critical for the success of the group. Remind students of the

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attributes of the skills and the criteria employed to determine if students used the skills

appropriately. Review a T-chart that shows what the skill sounds like and looks like. For

example, in a lesson on the Vietnam War, the objective is to identify the positions of the

North and South Vietnamese. Your pupils have been assigned to study the position of each

of the groups by looking at newspapers from around the globe. This is a complex task for

your students, and you want to remind them of the importance of supporting each other

during this difficult task. You can ask students what behaviors they will see when a person

is being supportive. Pupils may identify such supportive behaviors as eye contact, praise,

leaning forward, and the like. You also want to ask students what supportive behaviors

sound like. What do your peers say when they are being supportive of your efforts in

completing a difficult task? Specify these desired behaviors and the criteria that will be

used to evaluate whether or not students have been supportive in their groups.

3. Monitor and provide feedback to individual groups as they are working. Use the rules of

providing good feedback. Make certain that feedback is focused on specific pupil

behaviors, that it is descriptive, and that it is provided while the groups are working on the

cooperative task.

4. Ask each group to summarize. Provide closure for the lesson by asking each group to

summarize its work. Summaries can be provided by a student given that role at the outset

of the lesson or by asking students in each group to count off and choosing one of the

students to summarize, allowing for another individual accountability opportunity.

5. Evaluate. Evaluate student work from established criteria. This can be done either during

the lesson or soon after. Students should be involved in the evaluation process, helping to

create the evaluation rubric.

6. Assess group process. Assess group cooperation by evaluating the way in which the groups

performed. Each group member should have the opportunity to comment on the positive

and negative aspects of the group process.

Summary of Cooperative Learning Template Model Steps

Planning

1. Design Know, Understand, Able to Do (KUD) objectives.

2. Plan size and composition of groups.

3. Plan for all key elements of cooperative learning.

Implementation

1. Explain the task.

2. Identify critical social skills.

3. Monitor and provide feedback during group work.

4. Ask each group co summarize.

5. Evaluate.

6. Assess group processes.

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Specific Cooperative Model

Becoming familiar with specific cooperative models helps teachers and students incorporate the

best attributes of cooperative learning into the classroom. Some cooperative structures can be

categorized as strategies and are frequently used in all classroom settings. The graffiti model, the

jigsaw model, the academic controversy model, and student teams-achievement division are

lesson arrangements that can be used in any content area and at any grade level. They vary from

strategies because they have a blueprint for teacher and student behavior that is much more

detailed than teaching strategies that may be used and adapted in many ways.

The Graffiti Model

Graffiti is a cooperative brainstorming process that can be used at any point in a unit of instruction

to check for understanding, to evaluate progress toward objectives, and to do an informal needs

assessment. Pupils work in groups on previously identified questions or topics and simultaneously

record responses on large sheets of paper during a specified period of time. After the time period

has elapsed, either groups or sheets of paper move until each group has answered each available

question. When a group returns to the original question, they read and summarize all of the class's

responses and make several generalizations representing the comments. As in all cooperative

models, preparation should begin with the planning steps of the template model-identifying

objectives and organizing group size and composition.

The graffiti structure ensures positive interdependence and face-to-face interaction. Group

skills should be taught or reviewed prior to the graffiti activity. Individual accountability can be

assured through several means. Students can initial their responses and generalizations.

Numbered heads or letters may be used. And an individual assessment can be administered to

students at the end of the lesson.

Step 1: Prepare the Graffiti Questions and Group Number and Composition

The teacher prepares a series of questions aligned with the instructional objectives of the lesson.

There should be as many questions as groups. Each question should be written on a large sheet

of paper. A topic or prompt may also be used. Questions can be diagnostic-asking students to

share prior knowledge on a new topic or a review of material previously covered in class.

Step 2: Distribute Materials

Depending on the objectives, students may use text materials as they respond to questions. If it is

important to identify which responses are from a particular group, distribute colored markers so

that each team has a different color. This will provide an easy way for each team to keep track of

its own answers.

Step 3: Groups Answer Questions

Each team receives a sheet of paper with a question or topic, and groups are asked to read the

question and spend 30 seconds thinking about a response. (If appropriate, you can give students

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more time as they examine text to find or solidify an answer.) Cue the students after 30 seconds

and give them a set amount of time for writing responses on the sheet of paper. This time period

should be delineated at the beginning of the lesson and should be the same throughout each

question-answering phase. Three- to five-minute periods are usually appropriate.

Step 4: Exchange Questions

At the end of the timed interval, question sheets are exchanged. Or groups can physically move

to the next question. The process continues until all of the groups have had the opportunity to

respond to the prompts or questions on each sheet.

Step 5: Return to the Original Question, Summarize, and Make Generalizations

Each team returns to its original question. Team members review all of the responses on the graffiti

sheet and arrange the responses into categories. Categories are listed on the back of the sheet.

Once all of the possible categories have been listed, students produce generalizations that

encompass all of the categories.

Step 6: Share Information

Each group has the opportunity to share the information from its graffiti sheet with the full class.

To ensure individual accountability, have students number off and call one number to share

information. Students can also be given a quiz at the end of the lesson.

Step 7: Evaluate the Group Process

A teacher-led discussion is held in which the robustness and accuracy of generalizations are

discussed and the graffiti process itself is evaluated.

Summary of Graffiti Model Steps

1. Prepare the graffiti questions and decide on group number and composition.

2. Distribute materials.

3. Groups answer questions.

4. Exchange questions.

5. Return to the original question, summarize, and make generalizations.

6. Share information.

7. Evaluate the group process.

The Jigsaw Model

The jigsaw model by Elliot Aronson and colleagues was developed in the early 1970s as a way to

help students and teachers successfully navigate newly desegregated schools (Aronson et al., 1978).

Instead of providing each student with all of the necessary materials to study independently,

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Aronson assigned students to teams and gave each team member one piece of information. To

reach all of the lesson's objectives, students were forced to fit their individual pieces together as if

they were working on a jigsaw puzzle. The puzzle could not be completed unless each team member

shared his or her piece. Three decades of research support this specific cooperative learning model.

The model presented in this reading is based on the original jigsaw as developed by Aronson and

his team, with some of the adaptations of later researchers such as Robert Slavin (1996).

A jigsaw lesson divides the class up into two different kinds of groups, expert groups and

learning groups. The expert groups all read and study the same materials-they become expert on

the topic and prepare an outline or graphic that summarizes the critical information of their unit.

As a group, they determine how this information will be shared with their peers. After the expert

groups have completed their study, they meet with their learning group composed of a member

of each expert group. Each expert teaches his or her topic to the members of the learning group.

Students may be given a quiz, a graphic organizer, or an exit card to complete at the end of the

learning group to ensure individual accountability.

Step 1: Introduce the Jigsaw

In the first few encounters with the jigsaw model, students should be carefully supported. With

students who have less experience in cooperative learning models, a graphic representation like

the one shown in Figure 1.2 may be helpful. Explain the cooperative process by highlighting the

following points of the lesson in which students will be involved:

• The learning objectives for this lesson

• The composition and size of each group

• The differences between the expert and learning group

• How much time students will have to work in each group

• Access to the required materials

• The expert group task goal

• The learning group task goal

• The method of determining individual accountability

Step 2: Assign Heterogeneously Grouped Students to Expert and Learning Groups

Whenever the lesson objectives and materials warrant, students should be grouped

heterogeneously for cooperative lessons. By controlling team assignments, the teacher may ensure

that teams are balanced in terms of achievement, motivation, gender, ethnicity, and other factors

deemed important. When students are allowed to choose teammates, friendships tend to

determine team membership, and many of the advantages of cooperative learning, especially

achievement and social skills, are lost. Groups can also be formed randomly by pulling names from

a hat, lining up students by height, birth date, number of siblings, or the like, and having students

count off. One of the important principles of group composition is that unless you are using

semester- or year-long cooperative groups, cooperative learning groups should vary across

lessons. And even when base groups are used in classrooms, there should be times when students

are assigned to different groups for particular lessons. This alleviates the concern students have

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about not working with their friends. Students should have the expectation that over time they will

have the opportunity to work with all class members.

Figure 1.2 Jigsaw Expert and Learning Groups

Expert

Groups

Learning

Groups

After the teacher assigns students to expert teams, each team will meet to begin the process. If

this is a jigsaw that will be used over a significant number of class periods or with a new group of

students, allow pupils to choose a group name and make certain that they are familiar with each

member of the group.

Once expert groups have been listed, review the rules that will be in effect while groups are

working. These rules will be specific to the class and the behavioral norms that have been

established but might include the following:

1. No student may leave his or her team area until all students have completed the assigned

work.

2. Each team member is responsible for learning the material and making certain that every

member of the team also has learned the material.

3. If an individual group member is having difficulty understanding any part of the

assignment, all members of the team respond with attempts to assist before the teacher is

asked for help.

Step 3: Explain the Task and Assemble Expert Groups

Students assemble into expert groups. The teacher introduces the lesson objectives and how the

jigsaw will help the students reach these objectives. Students are provided the materials they will

rely on as they become experts and are given the opportunity to have any procedural questions

answered.

The jigsaw task is structured so that a topic is subdivided among the groups. For example, if

pupils were expected to understand the interdependence of community, groups may be assigned

to become experts on different members of that community. Or if pupils were expected to

understand that an ordinary individual can have an impact on history, groups may be assigned to

become experts on some of the individuals who have had a profound effect on important events

in American history. In a general methods education class, a jigsaw on different models of

classroom management can be used.

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Step 4: Allow Expert Groups to Process Information

Expert groups should be provided sufficient time to process the new information. Expert team

members can assist one another with the reading material and making sense of the ideas that are

being studied. These teams can be given guiding questions to help make connections between

new information and background knowledge. Members of expert groups should complete the

questions individually before discussing them as a group. Expert group members should then

decide on what is most important about their topic and how they will convey this information to

their peers in learning groups.

Step 5: Experts Teach in Their Learning Group

When all students master their expert topics, learning teams are assembled, and the experts teach

their topics in turn. A time limit should be given for each presentation, and the time periods should

be monitored. Each expert is responsible for teaching his or her topic, checking for understanding,

and assisting teammates in learning the material. A graphic organizer (such as a matrix, Venn

diagram, or concept map) can be provided to all learning group members so that the most

important ideas can be recorded and retrieved.

Step 6: Hold Individuals Accountable

Individual students are held accountable for their learning though a quiz, participation checklist,

essay, discussion, or other assessment method aligned with the learning objectives for the lesson

or unit.

Step 7: Evaluate the Jigsaw Process

Students are asked to debrief the jigsaw process and their own learning in relation to the lesson

or unit objectives. This can occur in a full-class discussion, within the expert groups, on an exit

card, or in an individual conference with the teacher.

Summary of Jigsaw Model Steps

1. Introduce the jigsaw.

2. Assign heterogeneously grouped students to expert and learning groups.

3. Explain the task and assemble expert groups.

4. Allow expert groups to process information.

5. Experts teach in their learning group.

6. Hold individuals accountable.

7. Evaluate the jigsaw process.

The Academic Controversy Model

An academic controversy is a sophisticated, intellectual cooperative learning structure. Designed

by Johnson and Johnson (1995) to harness the power of conflicts in classrooms, this approach is

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based on the belief that intellectual conflict is healthy and that students need to be trained in how

to discuss controversial topics.

Johnson and Johnson have proposed a theory to explain how controversies can promote

academic learning, productivity, and positive relationships. They believe that individuals at first

categorize and organize information based on prior experiences and knowledge. As their

conclusions are presented to others in the position-building and position-sharing steps of the

model, students deepen their understanding and use higher-level thinking strategies. When

confronted with different viewpoints and conclusions, conceptual conflict and disequilibrium are

aroused. This leads to an active search for more information, more connections, and a path for

resolving this uncertainty. Uncertainty is associated with increased attention and higher-level

thinking-a strong motivator in classrooms. At the end of the process, students accommodate

multiple viewpoints.

Before the academic controversy can begin, a topic must be identified and materials

supporting each side of the issue gathered. Teachers are responsible for deciding on the topic of

the academic controversy and the materials that will be used to provide background. The topic

must be developmentally appropriate for students and should have identifiable pro and con sides.

Materials should be organized into pro and con packets and may include primary source

documents, summaries, graphic organizers, pictures, and the like. Older students may find their

own source materials. Academic controversies can be adapted for younger students by structuring

and adapting the information required for understanding each position. These controversies may

come from community, school, or classroom experiences: Should cookies be served in the

cafeteria? Should there be more time for physical education classes? Should report cards be

abolished? Regardless of the sophistication of the topic, it is important that students be exposed

to the sophisticated process. They also should have the opportunity to practice the individual skills

before they are used in the academic controversy.

It is not only the ideas and understandings that are complex; the process itself requires some

high-level social skills, many of them fermenting skills (see Figure 1.3). Students should be

reminded of what the critical social skills are for this instructional event and have a discussion

about what those skills look like and sound like in the classroom.

Teachers are also, as in all cooperative learning, responsible for determining group

composition and size. Ideally, there should be four students in a cooperative group-two students

assigned to each position. Students are provided with their pro or con packets and given class

time to do the readings on their position or assigned the readings for homework. Younger

students can brainstorm their position with the teacher. Directions for the controversy must be

clear and should be provided orally and in writing. Once these preparations are made, the

academic controversy model begins.

Step 1: Students Prepare Their Positions

Students meet with their same position partner and review their position materials. Together they

determine the theses of their position and arrange the supporting evidence (facts, information,

and experiences) to support their claims. Students need to develop a presentation that leads their

peers to understand and support their argument.

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Step 2: Students Present and Advocate Their Positions

Once the pair has worked out a strong position, they return to the original foursome, and each

pair presents its arguments. It is important that both members of the pair are involved in

presenting their position. The positions should be organized around several points of evidence

that are supported by examples, stories, and personal experiences. As presentations are given, the

opposing pair listens so that a list of arguments can be made and each argument can be evaluated

as weak or strong. If there are particularly muddy points in the presentation, the opposing group

should ask for clarification.

There is no arguing or debating during this step of the model. Students should be learning

the opposing position on which they will better craft their own position and be able to share what

they have learned on an individual accountability measure.

Step 3: Open Discussion and Rebuttals

Once both positions have been argued, the group of four discusses both positions by listing the

arguments and discussing the strength of each. Pairs continue to advocate for their position and

attempt to refute the position of the opposition. Rebuttals should be based on counterarguments,

clarifications, and extensions. Students should ask each other for supporting information,

clarification, and about how reasonable the claim are. In this phase of the model, uncertainty is

building, and students need to be comfortable expressing opinions and being challenged. In turn,

they must be comfortable challenging opinions in a polite and reasonable manner.

Step 4: Reverse Positions

Students reverse positions and present each other's perspectives by first discussing the new

presentation with their partner. It is important that new positions are presented forcefully and

persuasively and, if possible, new facts, information, or evidence is presented. The pro team gives

the argument for the con position, and the con position is presented by the pro team.

Step 5: Synthesize and Integrate the Best Evidence into a Joint Position

Once each member of the team has participated in presenting both sides of the issue, the four

group members drop their advocacy and synthesize in order to integrate what is known into a

joint position on which both sides can agree. To do this, students will need to step back and revisit

the question from a variety of perspectives. Students need to look at the different positions,

summarize them, and then create a new unifying position-a synthesis.

Step 6: Present the Group Synthesis

Students can present their positions to the class by having a single group member present that

position. Students can be asked to describe the new position in a written paragraph or two, or

students can be asked to share their new position in an outline or using presentation software.

18

Individual accountability can also be ensured by giving each student a test on the information that

was embedded in each of the position packets.

Step 7: Group Processing of the Controversy and Participation of Members

The class has a discussion about the positive and negative aspects of the experience and what

were the most successful and least successful aspects of the group experience.

Summary of Academic Controversy Steps

1. Students prepare their positions.

2. Students present and advocate their positions.

3. Open discussion and rebuttals.

4. Reverse positions.

5. Synthesize and integrate the best evidence into a joint position.

6. Present the group synthesis.

7. Group processing of the controversy and participation of members.

The Student Teams-Achievement Division (STAD) Model

The student teams-achievement division (STAD) model was developed at Johns Hopkins University

in the context of research on cooperative learning. STAD is a model used for meeting well-defined

instructional objectives. Students study in four- or five-member learning teams that are

representative of the characteristics of the class as a whole, heterogeneous with respect to students'

ability, race, gender, ethnicity, and so on. The team study typically follows a succinct presentation of

the basic material and objectives by the teacher. The material to be learned centers on specific

information (capitals of the major countries of Europe, data on the major rivers of Africa, spelling

and grammar rules, basic mathematics, biological classification, properties of the planets in our solar

system-anything in the curriculum grounded in single right answers that must be learned). Students

study the material in whatever way makes the best sense to them, using whatever approach to study

and learning they choose. They may take turns quizzing each other, discuss problems as a group,

check Web resources and other texts, and generally use whatever means they wish to master the

material. The participants should also be clear that their task is to learn the concepts, not simply to

fill out worksheets. The goal of every member of the group is to master the material and do whatever

possible to help every member of the team to achieve the same goal.

Step 1: Present a New Concept

STAD is not a model to be used as the basis of all instruction, but is designed for meeting well-

defined instructional objectives. Because of the nature of the content for which STAD is

appropriate, many teachers use a direct instruction model for step 1, the presentation of the new

material. The teacher plays the role of facilitator and coach, a resource that the students can call

on as needed. In the example that follows, the objective is to teach students to apply four rules for

the formation of plural nouns.

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1. Most nouns form their plural by simply adding s to the singular form:

girl, girls tiger, tigers toy, toys

shirt, shirts angel, angels willow, willows

2. Some nouns ending in f or fe form their plural by changing their ending to ve before adding s.

wife, wives leaf, leaves

life, lives self, selves

3. Nouns ending in s, sh, ch, or x form their plural by adding es

fox, foxes kiss, kisses

wish, wishes church, churches

4. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel usually form their plural by adding s, but nouns

ending in o preceded by a consonant usually form their plural by adding es.

radio, radios rodeo, rodeos

zoo, zoos zero, zeroes

hero, heroes tomato, tomatoes

potato, potatoes memento, mementoes,

ratio, ratios or momentos

Step 2: Form Teams for Study and Practice

Divide students into heterogeneously grouped study teams. Each team should have one member

from the high achievement, high average achievement, low average achievement, and low

achievement groups. Teams should also be heterogeneous with respect to characteristics like race

and gender. Once the study teams are formed, resources like worksheets and study guides are

provided for team study. Participants know that their job is not complete until all team members

are convinced that everyone fully understands the material being studied.

Step 3: Test Students on Newly Learned Materials

In the third step, individuals composing the teams are given quizzes to complete independently

for individual scoring and team scoring. Individual scores are totaled for the team score, and teams

are rewarded for improvement over past performance (for example, on pretests).

Step 4: Recognize Winning Teams

Possible means of student recognition include posting the names of top-scoring team members

on the bulletin board, awarding certificates, and sending home notes to parents. Extra recess time,

first in lines, extra time on preferred tasks. or no weekend homework are other ways that academic

accomplishments may be rewarded.

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Summary of STAD Steps

1. Present a new concept.

2. Forms teams for study and practice.

3. Test students on newly learned material and provide scores for individuals and for teams.

4. Recognize winning teams.

Evaluation Learning in the Cooperative Learning Model

Groups are powerful and occur naturally in the classroom and in the school hallways and

playgrounds. In fact, groups are ubiquitous and influential and enhance achievement,

relationships, psychological health, and social skills. It makes sense to incorporate group work into

classroom instruction, and, because instruction and assessments should be aligned and integrated,

it makes sense to occasionally use groups to help with evaluation. Because time for providing

feedback, grading tests, and developing evaluations is always at a premium, student help with

evaluation tasks can be invaluable. Peer review and student grading can take place in cooperative

groups and still be reliable and valid. The key is that the groups must be cooperative and adhere

to the five basic elements of cooperative learning.

Teachers decide when cooperative learning is to be used, with what content, in what

structure, and how the outcomes will be assessed. As the cooperative group works on the teacher-

designed instructional task, students can provide "immediate remediation and enrichment" to

each other as they work together. Practice in how to provide neutral feedback can be provided to

students. As indicated, individual accountability is essential for each group product and can be

determined through the use of multiple-choice, matching, and essay test items and projects. But

the group product should also be evaluated. Students can be involved in establishing criteria and

building a rubric for these products, and they can practice using the rubrics on draft or model

products-helping students as they are developing their own work. The important rule of thumb

with both individual and group assessments is that they are aligned and reasonable for the

identified objectives of the lesson or unit.

Meeting Individual Needs in the Cooperative Learning Model

Cooperative group work easily translates into differentiation opportunities if the key elements of

cooperative learning are in place. Cooperative learning goals and differentiation are both

responsive teaching strategies. Objectives are the key to all differentiation and cooperative

learning decisions. Once the know, understand, and able to do objectives are in place, the teacher

can determine how best to help all students reach the goals. Differentiation can be achieved with

the content or with the task. Jigsaws, for example, are a natural content-differentiation activity and

can be organized by interest or need. Group tasks can also be determined by student learning

profiles-different groups can be formed around intelligence preferences (practical, analytic, or

creative tasks), student interests, or academic, social, or emotional skill needs. It is important to

remember, however, that cooperative learning models have goals that go beyond academic

achievement and that learning from others with a different constellation of characteristics is an

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important cooperative learning attribute. Individual students have a unique set of strengths and

weaknesses and cooperative groups can build on strengths and shore up weaknesses. To do this,

teachers must know a great deal about their students.

For example, Debbie Moss differentiates the regions unit in a number of ways. As previously

discussed, she differentiates through questioning in an integrative lesson. She also differentiates

through student interest in a jigsaw lesson. She provides students the choice of researching the

history of the different regions-Northeast, Midwest, South, and West-and organizes cooperative

groups around these choices. Within the groups, students are also assigned roles based on

Debbie's understanding of her students. Students who are comfortable with text are assigned the

role of summarizer; students who are more analytic may be assigned the role of researcher;

creative students may organize the presentation to the jigsaw learning group, and so on. Debbie

keeps careful records so that students are not always assigned to the same role.

Benefits of the Cooperative Learning Models

In traditional classes, most of students' experience with content is limited to listening and taking

notes. In classrooms organized for cooperative learning, students listen, write, tell, paraphrase,

read, assist others, and interact. When students work cooperatively, they process information by

discussing subject matter with peers rather than acting as passive recipients of information.

Because they are working in small groups, even reticent students tend to enter discussions and

ask clarifying questions.

Many studies have shown that when correctly implemented, cooperative learning improves

information acquisition and retention, higher-level thinking skills, interpersonal and

communication skills, and self-confidence. Beyond the classroom, there are as yet unimagined

advantages to learning in groups. Most of the jobs that today's students will need to fill at

graduation do not even exist today, and almost all of them will require skills of learning and

working with others. Kevin Faughnan, director of IBM's Academic Initiative, has this to say to

students in U.S. classrooms today: "Getting smart about your skills today, which must include a

balance of deep technical skill and an interdisciplinary approach to business, will help you find that

dream job tomorrow" (Faughnan, 2009). Ideas such as these point to the benefits of cooperative

learning models.

Elementary Grades Lesson

COOPERATIVE LEARNING JIGSAW: Clouds

OBJECTIVES Students Will Understand

• Clouds provide pleasure and information

Students Will Know

• The characteristics of five cloud types (stratus, cirrus, cumulus,

cumulonimbus, and fog)

• The ways in which clouds form

• The types of weather associated

Students Will Be Able To

• Summarize information about clouds

• Work together in a cooperative group sign and pamphlet

• Design and execute a pamphlet about a type of cloud

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ASSESSMENTS • Students will develop a pamphlet describing an assigned cloud type that

includes six pieces of information about the cloud, how the cloud is

formed, and the types of weather associated whit the cloud type. The

pamphlet will be evaluated on weather in the information is accurate.

• Students will complete self-evaluation on their team work on this project

including specific contributions made to the project.

PROCEDURES 1. Introduce the jigsaw model. Tell students the lesson's objectives the

composition of expert and learning groups and specific directions for the

task, the resources available for completing the task, and the method for

determining individual accountability.

2. Assign groups to expert and learning groups and review behavioral norms.

3. Assemble expert groups and review the task.

4. Give students the time to complete the task. Circulate to provide assistance

and support to students.

5. Remind students that they will be working in learning groups tomorrow,

but will have time to review with their expert group at the beginning of

the class. Students will take a short quiz about clouds after the learning

group presentations and question/answer sessions are complete.

Middle/Secondary Grades Lesson

COOPERATIVE LEARNING GRAFFITI: Formal and Informal Speech

OBJECTIVES Students Will Understand

• How we speak in different settings demonstrates our cultural awareness

and language fluency

Students Will Know

• When to use formal and informal expressions

• Forms of formal and informal expressions

Students Will Be Able To

• Explain the difference between formal and informal speech

• Distinguish between settings in which formal and informal speech is used

• List a minimum of five phrases that might be used in an assigned setting

ASSESSMENTS Students will be randomly assigned to pictures and asked to create a brief dialogue

(five exchanges) that would be likely in the context of the picture. Students will also

write a description or narration of the episode.

PROCEDURES 1. Prepare questions or posters and groups.

2. Introduce the graffiti model. Share the following directions with the class:

• Once you are in your groups, look at your poster and note the location

about which you will write (e.g., home/family, school/friends,

shopping/ business, hospital/patient, sporting event/friends).

• In your group, think about the setting and with whom you would

interact. Are you expected to use formal or informal language when

speaking with these people? Why? What kinds of phrases are you

likely to say?

• On your poster board, write at least three phrases or expressions that

you would commonly say or hear in the setting listed on the poster.

• Posters will be exchanged in a clockwise pattern and you will add

three additional phrases.

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• When your original poster returns, read all of the phrases and see if

you notice patterns or inaccuracies. Is the language appropriate for

the setting? What did you notice about the kinds of phrases that were

shared? Summarize your findings and make generalizations that will

be shared with the class.

3. Distribute materials-posters, markers.

4. Groups answer questions. Allow 3 minutes for each poster until the last

round and then provide 5 minutes.

5. Exchange posters in a clockwise pattern.

6. Summarize and make generalizations about the original poster.

7. Share information.

8. Discuss the process.

Summary

The cooperative learning models discussed in this reading each promote interdependence of

learners, individual accountability, positive face-to-face interactions, and social skills that foster

group processing. These are the key elements of all cooperative learning. The graffiti model allows

pupils to work in groups to respond to prepared questions and to share answers that lead to

generalizations. The jigsaw model places initial responsibility for learning on groups that each

become "experts" on a topic before splitting into separate groups composed of "experts" on the

various topics, now with the secondary responsibility to teach one another what they have learned

as members of the initial groups. The academic controversy model asks students to research and

prepare a position on a controversial issue, organize and persuasively present that position, refute

the persuasive presentation given by peers on the opposite side of the issue, view the issue from

multiple perspectives, and collectively create a position integrating the opposing views. The

student teams-achievement division (STAD) model is initiated with a direct instruction lesson on a

concept to be studied cooperatively. Following the direct instruction, typically delivered by the

teacher, students form heterogeneous study teams for practice. They then test one another on the

new material, with rewards for high scores, most improved from pretests, and highest group scores

total. Winning teams are acknowledged in various ways.

Extensions

ACTIVITIES

1. Select a chapter from a content area textbook. Choose a specific topic from the chapter.

List four or five important subtopics presented and develop expert question sheets for each

subtopic. Select an appropriate instructional model that can be combined with jigsaw to

provide an introduction to the chapter.

2. Brainstorm with students a list of jobs they might aspire to. Expect these to range from

professional sports to military enlistment. Once you have compiled a list of a dozen or so

professions, ask students to list all the ways they might expect a person in that profession

to engage in cooperative learning and work.

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3. Interview two or three practicing teachers about their use of cooperative learning. Do they

use cooperative models? If not, why? If so, what do they see as the benefits of cooperative

learning? What problems have they encountered? What recommendations do they have

for you as you implement cooperative learning in your classroom?

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. What do you anticipate will be the biggest threat to classroom management as you

implement cooperative learning?

2. What long-term benefits do you feel are associated with cooperative learning? On what

are you basing your hypothesis?

3. How will you teach the different levels of cooperative skills to your students? In what ways

are cooperative skills related to academic skills?

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Preparing for Differentiation with MI

Many teachers are interested in differentiating instruction through Multiple Intelligences. Yet it is

human nature to teach from areas of strength and to ovoid modes that are uncomfortable.

This section of the handbook asks teachers to reflect on their current modes of instruction and to

consider the support they might need to teach in additional modes. I attempt to provide support

for Multiple Intelligences­ based pedagogy by offering a variety of instructional strategies for each

intelligence. Teachers may want to review each list by checking off strategies currently used and

starring those that could be easily incorporated into daily teaching. For each intelligence I also

describe one instructional strategy in greater depth. At the end of this section teachers will find

two hand­outs for students-one on spelling and one on multiplication-that integrate all eight

intelligences into these two essential skill areas.

Contents

• Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory

• Linguistic Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Linguistic Activity: Journal Writing

• Logical-Mathematical Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample logical-Mathematical Activity: a Deductive Reasoning Game

• Kinesthetic Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Kinesthetic Activity: Paper Plates

• Visual-Spatial Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Visual-Spatial Activity: Student-Made Cards

• Musical Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Musical Activity: Curriculum Songs

• Interpersonal Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Interpersonal Activity: Mix-and-Match Grouping

• Intrapersonal Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Intrapersonal Activity: Student Options

26

• Naturalist Strategies to Differentiate

• Sample Naturalist Activity: Creating a Class Garden

• Differentiating Spelling Using MI

• Differentiating Multiplication Using MI

Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory

The inventory is offered to help teachers reflect on how they currently teach. After taking the

inventory, teachers should review it to see which intelligences they normally overlook in their

instruction. They may want to focus on any neglected areas by incorporating instructional

strategies suggested in the following pages of this handbook.

Teacher Self-Reflection Inventory

My primary intelligence strengths are:

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

The content I teach typically engages the following intelligences (Note whether there is any correlation

with primary intelligence strengths listed above. If so, why? If not, why not?):

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

The intelligences I typically teach through include:

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Examples of each intelligence I typically teach through are:

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

One or more intelligences I usually overlook are:

1. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________

The reason for such oversight is:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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I would be willing to teach through the intelligence if:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Resources for doing so would include:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Linguistic Strategies to Differentiate

1. For five minutes students do "quick writes" reacting to lesson information.

2. Students tell stories of how they apply ideas from any discipline to their lives outside of

school.

3. To practice accuracy in communication, pairs of students listen to each other give

directions for an assignment.

4. To learn vocabulary for any topic, students create crossword puzzles.

5. Students debate diverse perspectives on any issue.

6. Students describe in writing the most meaningful content they have studied.

7. In small groups students give impromptu, one-minute presentations to group members

on topics (of teacher's choice) drawn from recent lessons.

8. When reading classroom material, students review each page by creating keywords or

phrases for the content of that page.

9. Students create short talk-show programs for which they pose as junior experts on

classroom topics.

10. Using a word that represents a major concept, such as interdependence, students write a

phrase that begins with each letter of the word to explain its meaning.

Sample linguistic Activity: Journal Writing

Journals can be integrated into any subject area, and students can maintain journals for numerous

purposes: to explain lesson content or problem­ solving approaches, to express feelings about the

content studied, to raise questions about what they don't understand, or to express concerns

directly to the teacher. Before assigning journals, teachers should find out whether students are

writing them in other classes. Several types of journals are described here to add variety to this

worthwhile linguistic strategy:

Learning logs. In learning logs students record the key concepts, supporting details, or problem-

solving processes in their curriculum unit. They can be written in daily, weekly, or on occasion.

Personal Journals. In personal journals students determine the form and content of their own

entries. They record their thoughts and feelings, much like they would in a diary. Some students

28

might choose to write stories or poetry, or about their dreams, fears, or wishes. Some teachers

request that students write in personal journals on a daily basis.

Notebook Journals. Leonardo da Vinci recorded his ideas in notebook journals. Such journals

evolve from the interests of the students and take many forms, such as visual sketchbooks or

statistical charting. Notebook journals are used on a spontaneous basis.

Dialogue Journals. Dialogue journals are generally shared with the teacher or other students. The

student begins a story or narrative, and the teacher or a classmate responds. The response can be

a personal comment or a continuation of the story. While this is time-consuming for teachers, it is

motivating for students. Students usually write in dialogue journals on scheduled days of the week.

Simulation Journals. In simulation journals the student assumes the role of another person: an

author, historical figure, scientist, imaginary character, animal, or inanimate object. These journals

are used to help students understand diverse perspectives and are often assigned at irregular

intervals.

Reading Journals. These journals record students' understanding, interpretation, critique, and

analysis of their readings. Students write in them during and upon comple­tion of assigned readings.

Class Journals. Everyone in the classroom contributes to class journals. A single journal is

maintained on a podium or table for students, teachers, and guests to write entries on specified

or spontaneous topics. These journals motivate students to read and write.

Logical-Mathematical Strategies to Differentiate

1. When given a problem, students plan strategies for ways to solve the problem before

attempting its resolution.

2. Students are asked to discern patterns or relationships in the content of a lesson.

3. When offering solutions to any problem, students must provide a logical, rational support

for their answers.

4. Students create or identify categories for sorting diverse data.

5. To extend classroom learning, students conduct surveys and analyze data on topics that

they or the teacher have selected.

6. Working in pairs, students make up story problems involving the content of lesson.

7. Students engage in discussions that include higher-level thinking skills, such as comparing

and contrasting, providing cause-and­effect answers, analyzing, hypothesizing, and

synthesizing information.

8. As an independent or small-group project, students employ the scientific method to

answer a question they have about a class topic.

9. Students study units focused on themes in math and science, such as probability,

symmetry, randomness, and chaos.

10. Students use a variety of organizers to enhance logical thinking, such as outline charts,

Venn diagrams, flow charts, and webs.

29

Sample logical-Mathematical Activity: A Deductive Reasoning Game

Nearly everyone is familiar with the Jeopardy!™ game show, in which contestants must determine

the appropriate question for each answer given. The same process can be used effectively in the

classroom with any subject area. Jeopardy is a naturally differentiated game usually played with

five tiers or five levels of difficulty. It lends itself well to the differentiated classroom. Teachers can

create the questions but I like to have students generate them. They are more encouraged to play

when they have a chance of selecting one of their own questions.

For years, I played classroom Jeopardy with a pocket chart, but now there are numerous digital

versions of Jeopardy available online. Some are free, some are nicely produced with buzzers and

other extras. The most basic ones are just PowerPoint documents. You can create your own template

and or download one, then make multiple versions of it for different subjects or different units.

The "answers" may be relatively simple: Subject: Geography; Category: Continents for 100;

Question: What is the coldest continent? Or they can be more complex: Subject: Cell Biology;

Category: Mitosis; Question for 400: What is the sequential differentiation and segregation of

replicated chromosomes in a cell nucleus that precedes complete cell division? Or they can involve

higher level thinking skills: Subject: Environmental Science; Category: The Energy Crisis; Question for

300: What has the overuse of earth's energy sources and the increased demand for power created?

Kinesthetic Strategies to Differentiate

1. Students role-play any process such as photosynthesis, making a bill into a law, solving a

quadratic equation, or the earth's orbit around the sun.

2. Working with small blocks, toothpicks, Legos®, or Popsicle® sticks, students build models

of molecular chains, famous bridges, or towns in history or literature.

3. Teachers provide quick exercise breaks with simple calisthenics, tai chi or yoga, an active

game of Simon Says, or even a jog around the playground.

4. In small groups students create large floor games that reinforce important concepts being

studied.

5. Small groups of students represent countries with different resources to trade, or pioneers

addressing the challenges of the frontier.

6. Teachers create scavenger hunts for students to gather information on a particular topic.

7. Regardless of the content, teachers may provide manipulatives for students to use to solve

math problems, create patterns for art work, build replicas of cells or systems, or make

storyboards as starting points for writing activities.

8. To extend classroom learning into the community, students go on field trips.

9. Students learn physical skills like juggling, dancing, balancing, rope jumping, climbing, hula

hooping, bowling, throwing, catching, or working with tools.

10. Students pantomime what they have learned from a day's lesson.

Sample Kinesthetic Activity: Paper Plates

This is a simple, active game that is useful to review any topic. To prepare the game, the teacher

obtains paper plates. Second, the teacher identifies the topic of focus and writes between five and

ten pertinent questions with one­ word answers. Third, the teacher writes the answers to these

30

questions on the plates, with between three and five plates having the same answer. This format

allows any number of students to play.

After scattering the plates, answer side up, around the room, the teacher explains to students

that they will hear a question and must then find the paper plate that correctly answers that

question. When they locate it, they must put a finger or toe on the plate as quickly as possible.

When every student has found a correct answer-plate, the teacher reads another question, and off

students go again.

There are two simple rules for playing games: students cannot touch anyone else

(challenging when several students head for the same plate); students cannot make any noise

(otherwise, they cannot hear the questions being read).

Four examples of paper plate games are shown here.

Visual-Spatial Strategies to Differentiate

1. Students close their eyes and imagine themselves performing well on a test, speaking in

front of the class, or successfully resolving a conflict.

2. Students create a pictorial representation of what they have learned from a unit of study,

such as a chart, drawing, or mindmap.

3. Working independently or with a partner, students create a visual collage to display facts,

concepts, and questions they have about a recent unit of study.

4. With access to computer graphics and page-layout programs, students illustrate their

lessons.

5. Students diagram the structures of interconnected systems, such as body systems,

economic systems, political systems, school systems, or food chains.

6. To communicate their understanding of a topic, students create flow charts, bar graphs, or

pie charts.

7. Working in small groups, students create projects with video or photographs.

8. To work with three-dimensional activities, students design costumes or sets for literature

or social studies; tools or experiments for science; and manipulative or new classroom or

building designs for math.

31

9. Students create mobiles or design bulletin boards.

10. To demonstrate their understanding of a topic, students use color, shape, or rebus-type

images in their papers.

Sample Visual-Spatial Activity: Student-Made Cards

Nearly anything can be learned or reviewed with student-made cards. Students can be creative in

making these flash cards by decorating them with colors, shapes, and designs.

Cards can also be used to make simple games. Rummy, Go Fish, or Old Maid can be adapted

to any subject area. The teacher simply needs to cut up card stock, construction paper, or note

cards and plan the game according to the subject area. Students mark and illustrate the cards. A

rubber stamp gives the cards uniformity on one side. Laminating them will make them durable.

Commercially produced games about authors, artists, scientists, explorers, and inventors are

available through educational-materials catalogues and sup­ply houses. However, the best ones

are those that teachers or students make.

Musical Strategies to Differentiate

1. Teachers play background music to relax students or to focus their attention at various

times of the day.

2. To review information, students compose curriculum songs, replacing the words to well-

known songs with content-related lyrics.

3. Students make their own rhythm instruments for use with curriculum songs or recitations

of arithmetic facts, spelling words, or sets of rules or facts.

4. Students select a song and explain how its lyrics relate to a lesson's content.

5. Students with access to musical software can add rhythmic accompani­ment to multimedia

reports and presentations.

6. Students select appropriate background music for book reports or other oral presentations.

7. To demonstrate patterns in mathematics, nature, and the visual arts, students use musical

selections that are patterned and repetitive.

8. To become more familiar with a subject area, students listen to and ana­lyze pre-recorded

songs about that subject area.

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9. Students analyze music to understand concepts like relationships between parts and

wholes, fractions, repeating patterns, timing, and harmony.

10. Students use musical vocabulary as metaphors, such as crescendo for the climax of a short

story, two-part harmony for interpersonal relations, or cadence for physical exercise.

Sample Musical Activity: Curriculum Songs

In addition to enhancing classroom ambiance, it is important to include music in the curriculum.

Tapes with songs in the content areas are available through educational-materials catalogues for

nearly any subject. Even more effective are teacher-made and student-made songs about topics

being studied. Here is an example of a song about environmental pollution, composed by a group

of third graders after a lesson on the ozone layer. It is sung to the tune of "Jingle Bells."

Jingle bells, garbage smells,

Diapers in the dump.

Styrofoam and CFCs,

They make me scream and jump. Oh

Jingle bells, garbage smells,

Pollution is a drag.

Toxic wastes from factories

Make me want to gag.

Students can be organized in small groups to write an entire song or to contribute a stanza to a

class song. Students should be directed to select a song with a familiar tune. The teacher can also

specify expectations, such as including ten concepts from a recent unit of study or including

questions that the class still wants answered about a topic. Once students have written their songs,

they should have opportunities to sing and teach them to the whole class.

A list of familiar songs follows. These all have simple and recognizable rhythms which can be used

to provide the melody for curriculum songs.

"Michael, Row the Boat Ashore"

"She'll Be Comin' Round the Mountain"

"This Old Man"

"Pop Goes the Weasel"

"Clementine"

"Oh, Susannah"

"The Wheels on the Bus"

"London Bridge"

"We Shall Overcome"

"Jimmy Crack Corn"

"This Land is Your Land"

"When the Saints Go Marching In"

"When Johnny Comes Marching Home"

"Sarasponda"

"The Battle Hymn of the Republic"

"The Old Gray Mare"

"Alouette"

"My Country, 'Tis of Thee"

"Camptown Races"

"I've Been Working on the Railroad"

"Hava Nagila"

"Puff, the Magic Dragon"

"Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star"

"Yankee Doodle"

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Interpersonal Strategies to Differentiate

1. Working in cooperative groups, students teach each other parts of a lesson. Each student

is responsible for teaching only one part, while everyone learns the whole lesson

collaboratively.

2. To develop the ability to resolve disputes and negotiate conflicts, students practice conflict

resolution techniques with either simulated or actual problems.

3. Students practice critiquing one another's work to learn how to give and receive feedback.

4. To build collaborative skills and to share each other's areas of expertise, students work on

group projects together, each assuming a role according to his or her strengths.

5. Students engage in school or community service activities to develop values such as

empathy, respect, altruism, and sharing.

6. To understand others and appreciate differences, students study diverse cultures, including

customs, beliefs, and values.

7. Use the "Think-Pair-Share" technique to engage students in reflecting upon a class topic

and the or the "Turn and Talk" (to a partner) technique for discussing their thoughts with

a partner.

8. To understand differing points of view, students assume various positions and debate a

complex issue.

9. Students interview persons with special talents to learn about their areas of specialty as

well as how to interview others effectively.

10. To learn from the expertise of others, students work as apprentices with community

experts.

Sample Interpersonal Activity: Mix-and-Match Grouping

This grouping activity works well for introducing new material. The teacher organizes students into

groups of four or five and hands out a set of numbered (1-5) fact cards to each group. Each card

in a set should have different information about the subject, and each group's set of cards should

be the same.

Students read their cards then move to new groups with matching numbers. (All the l's get

together; all the 2's get together, etc.) These groups then plan a strategy to teach their original

groups what they have learned from their cards.

When the groups are ready, students return to their original group. Now everyone has a

different piece of the puzzle and a method for teaching it. Individuals take turns sharing their piece

with their group.

Intrapersonal Strategies to Differentiate

1. At the beginning of a course, school year or semester, students establish personal short-

and long-term learning goals.

2. Students maintain portfolios to evaluate their own learning.

3. Using schedules, timelines, and planning strategies, students choose and direct some of

their own learning activities to gain autonomous learning skills.

34

4. Students keep daily learning logs in which they express their emotional reactions to lessons

and share insights they have about the content.

5. Students explain why certain units of study are valuable for them both in and out of school.

6. Students select a particular value, such as kindness or determination, and incorporate that

value into their behavior for a week at a time.

7. To enhance self-esteem, students practice giving and receiving compliments.

8. At least once per quarter, students pursue an independent project of their choice, spanning

between two and three weeks.

9. Students write autobiographies to explain how class content has enhanced their

understanding of themselves.

10. Students use teacher's feedback and self-assessment inventories to reflect on their

individual learning, thinking, and problem-solving strategies.

Sample Intrapersonal Activity: Student Options

One approach to empowering students academically, while developing intrapersonal skills, is to

encourage them to make choices involving their educational experiences. Choices can be open

ended, based on student interests, or they can be provided by the teacher. A few suggestions are

listed below for enabling students to construct their learning experiences:

Students decide how best to organize the classroom's physical layout. Students choose topics

for reading and writing assignments.

Students select from a range of options for independent research projects. Students offer

input for the daily schedule.

Students develop rules and discipline policies for common problems that arise. Students

choose seating arrangement.

Teacher shows students how to set goals for themselves and provides opportunities for them

to complete the goals they have set.

Teacher provides frequent opportunities for self-reflection and self­evaluation.

Teacher supplies students with personal journals and plans a regular journal-writing time.

Students determine the criteria by which their work will be assessed.

Naturalist Strategies to Differentiate

1. Students make collections of rocks, shells, bugs, leaves, feathers or other natural objects;

or of cards, beads, or small figures. They are encouraged to categorize these items by their

characteristics in common.

2. Students are asked to closely observe changes in nature. They can observe a single tree

outside the classroom window, the weather, a park, or life cycles of plants or animals.

3. Teachers ask students to recognize patterns in natural objects: lines, shapes, repetitions, or

cycles.

4. Students are encouraged to use binoculars, telescopes, or microscopes to observe natural

phenomena.

5. Students sort, organize, and categorize rocks, shells, or other natural objects and label the

35

categories.

6. Students reflect on the local or global environment and plan environmentally conscious

activities.

7. Students visit a local animal shelter or find ways to help abandoned pets.

8. Using local flora or fauna, students create a taxonomy, or system by which to categorize

them.

9. Students grow plants from seeds and observe and record their changes over time.

10. Students forecast and track the weather.

11. Students observe the sky, clouds, stars, and space.

12. Students give reports on nature videos or photograph nature.

13. Students go on field trips to natural settings, take nature walks, or hike in natural settings.

Sample Naturalist Activity: Creating a Class Garden

Although most schools do not have garden space available for class projects, there are many

creative ways to design and even create one, including miniature gardens, container gardens, and

hydroponic gardens.

Growing plants in recycled soda bottles is an easy way to create a miniature hydroponics

growing system in the classroom. The plants are watered from a reservoir situated below them.

Several plants can grow in a two-liter­bottle garden. The gardens can be supervised by individual

students or small groups. The following materials are needed:

• One 2-liter soda bottle (one-liter bottle can also be used for a smaller growing system)

• One bottle cap, or aluminum foil and rubber band to cover bottle opening

• A tool for making a hole in the bottle cap, or aluminum foil

• Wicking material-fabric interfacing or cotton string

• Planting medium (a soil-less mixture of approximately one part peat moss and one part

vermiculite)

• Fertilizer: solid pellets added during planting or liquid fertilizer mixed and kept in the water

reservoir throughout the life cycle

• Packet of seeds

• Water

When beginning Multiple Intelligences-based teaching, many teachers select intelligence

strategies listed above and put them together in a work­sheet, so that students have multiple ways

to learn academic content. Two sample worksheets are provided on the following pages: one on

spelling and one on multiplication.

Differentiating Spelling Using MI

The following list provides you with a variety of ways to practice spelling words at school and at

home. Select the strategies that you enjoy most and vary these strategies each week. Try to

determine which approaches best help you learn the spelling words.

36

Logical-mathematical strategy: List your spelling words from shortest to longest or longest

to shortest; from fewest syllables to most syllables or vice versa; in alphabetical or in reverse

alphabetical order; by the number of vowels or consonants; or with acronyms formed from

the first letters of words.

Visual strategy: Write your words using different colors for different letters, for vowels and

consonants, or for different words. Draw or paste pictures next to each word as a visual

reminder.

Linguistic strategy: Make up a story using all your spelling words. Tell the story to another

person, stopping to spell out each spelling word.

Musical strategy: Sing-spell your words to the melody of your favorite song.

Kinesthetic strategy: Create a "body alphabet" of letters and pantomime the letters of each

spelling word.

Interpersonal strategy: With a partner, use the Think-Pair-Share technique or Turn and Talk

technique to practice your spelling words.

Naturalist activity: Create associations between animals, birds, fish, insects, flowers, or trees

and your spelling words. For example, the word yellow could be associated with "yak": a yellow

yak; the word button could be associated with "butterfly": a butterfly button; the word cannot

could be associated with "carrot": I cannot eat a carrot.

Differentiating Multiplication Using MD

The following list provides you with a variety of ways to practice multiplica­tion at school and at

home. Select the strategies that you enjoy the most and vary the strategies each week. Try to

determine which approaches helped you learn multiplication the best.

Visual strategy: With a partner, play the paper-plate game to practice your multiplication

facts. Write answers to the multiplication tables, one per plate, and place the plates on the

floor. Have your partner call out a problem-for example, 6 x 3. You would jump onto the plate

with the correct answer: 18.

Make artistic flash cards for each multiplication fact. For example, you could draw twenty-four

flowers on one side of the card and on the flip side have the statement 6 x 4.

Linguistic strategy: Make up mini-stories with multiplication facts in them. For example, one

story might begin, "There once was a boy who played basketball and scored four points per

basket."

Logical-mathematical strategy: When looking at a chart of the multi­plication facts, find at

least two number patterns in the chart.

Musical strategy: Create a simple, repetitive jingle about multiplication facts; e.g., 6 x 6 is 36,

7 x 7 is 49, etc.

Interpersonal strategy: Interview other people to find out how they memorized the

multiplication tables. Take tips from them that will help you to memorize these math facts.

Intrapersonal intelligence: Keep a daily log to express your feelings about learning the

multiplication tables and to track which facts you learn each day.

Naturalist strategy: Use pebbles, seeds, or other natural objects to make number families; for

example, four rows of pebbles by six rows. How many pebbles are in four columns by six rows?

37

Differentiated Lessons Using Ml

Whenever I do workshops for teachers on differentiated instruction and Multiple Intelligences, I

am frequently asked, "Do you have prepared lesson plans that you could share with me?" This

section of the handbook is filled with lessons for a variety of subject areas.

Contents

• Lesson Format

• Lesson 2: Adjectives

• Lesson 3: Magnetism

• Lesson 4: Adding Fractions

• Lesson 5: Christopher Columbus

• Lesson 6: Whales

• Lesson 7: Ben Franklin

• Lesson 8: The Story about Ping

• Lesson 9: Animal form by George Orwell

• Lesson 10: Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad

• Lesson 11: Weather

• Lesson 12: Spring

• Lesson 13: Pi, Relationship between Circumference and Diameter

• Lesson 14: Comets

• Lesson 15: The Boston Tea Party

• Lesson 16: The Search for Delicious by Natalie Bobbitt

• Lesson 17: Shape and Change-A Lesson on the Volume of a Cylinder

• Lesson 18: An MI Alphabet

• Lesson 19: An MI Literature Lesson on Edgar Allan Poe

• Lesson 20: MI Spelling

38

Lesson Format

These lessons can be taught to students in a number of ways. The students may work in groups at

learning centers or as a whole class. The timeframe can also vary: some lessons may be completed

in one hour, one day, or last one week or one month. The lessons presented here may also serve

as parts of larger units and broader themes. For example, a lesson on Christopher Columbus could

be integrated into a unit on the Age of Exploration.

In addition, lesson sections can be divided into dozens of individual MI activities for the

classroom. The teacher should determine what to teach and when. The sequence of activities

within the lessons, as presented here, does not dictate the order in which they might be taught.

For example, even though the lessons all begin with linguistic activities, the teacher may want to

begin with the kinesthetic or visual activities. In short, teachers should feel free to use any sequence

that they find suitable.

Finally, it is not essential to teach every le on in eight ways. Teachers are encouraged to pick

and choose activities that fit their particular lessons on any given day. However, it is important to

pro\·ide opportunities for stu­dents to engage each of the intelligences for at least some time

during each broad unit of study.

Lesson I: Adjectives

Subject Area: Language Arts

State Standard: Correct Use of Modifiers

Principle-Taught: Written or oral language is enhanced with descrip­tive words.

Unit: Parts of Speech

Grade Level: 3-8

Materials Needed: graph paper, large blank cards, paper and colored markers, five to eight

large sheets of butcher paper, written text with several adjectives for assessment activity

Linguistic Activity

On the blackboard, the teacher lists several adjectives. Incorporating these adjectives, students

write phrases or sentences on a topic suggested by the teacher or by students.

Younger students might be given a written story with blanks. In this variation, the students'

task would be to fill in the blanks with adjectives from a list on the chalkboard or with their own

adjectives.

Logical-Mathematical Activity

Students count the number of adjectives, nouns, and verbs in a given piece of text. The teacher

might ask one of the class's best writers whether there are predictable ratios for parts of speech;

e.g, more nouns than verbs, more adjectives than adverbs. (This activity assumes that students

have previously studied at least some parts of speech.) A sample chart is provided for quantifying

the parts of speech.

39

NUMBER OF NOUNS NUMBER OF VERBS NUMBER OF ADJECTIVE

paragraph 1

paragraph 2

paragraph 3

paragraph 4

paragraph 5

paragraph 6

Next, students might compare the numbers of each part of speech by drawing a bar graph or pie

chart. This can be done on graph paper or on the computer. A sample graph is demonstrated in

the figure below.

Kinesthetic Activity

To prepare this activity, the teacher will need to write several sentences with one word per large,

blank card. When class begins, the teacher distributes sev­eral blank cards to each student and asks

for volunteers to stand in front of the class with the word cards that the teacher has prepared. Each

volunteer should have one card, and the volunteer group should form a sentence to display for the

class. The seated students write adjectives on their word cards that would make fitting substitutions

for the adjective(s) in the displayed sentence. Students raise their hands and, when called on, move

to the front of the class inserting their adjectives into the sentence. Other students may also move

to the front of the classroom, tap an "adjective" on the shoulder, and replace it in the displayed

sentence. The same process could be adapted to individual stu­dent work: students use smaller word

cards at their desks with teacher- or textbook-provided sentences. In some classes, students working

in groups can make their own cards for other groups to use in constructing sentences.

Visual-Spatial Activity

Students create a circle map for describing nouns with adjectives. A circle map is simply a web or

mindmap with one circle in the middle, adjoined by smaller circles containing adjectives.

It is important for students to realize that only adjectives- words that describe-can go in the

circles on a circle map. For visual thinkers, this turns out to be a useful tool for creating mental

images that correspond to written words.

40

Musical Activity

Students choose a song that they all know and change the adjectives in its lyrics. For example,

"Mary had a little lamb. / Its fleece was white as snow." would work well with young children.

Teachers can call on different students to voice replacements for "little" or "white" while students

sing. This can be done in combination with the word cards in the kinesthetic activity above.

Interpersonal Activity

Working in groups of four or five, students choose a mascot, select four or five adjectives to

describe that mascot, and then illustrate the mascot on butcher paper. Each student in the group

is responsible for depicting one of the mas­cot's characteristics based upon the adjectives offered

by each group member.

For example, one group might choose an alien as its mascot and, over the course of the

exercise, become the green, slimy, toothy, ugly, smiley aliens. The group members would then

draw their green, slimy, toothy, ugly, smiley alien, each student coloring in the trait that

corresponds to the adjec­tive individually offered.

Next, each group holds up its picture for the class to see. The other students attempt to

guess the five adjectives used to describe the group's mascot.

Intrapersonal Activity

To increase intrapersonal awareness, students make individual lists of adjectives to describe

themselves, or write stories about themselves.

To extend the lesson one step further, the teacher might ask students each to explain why

they chose the adjectives they did. For example, "I am a sad person. The reason I am sad is my dog

died last week, and I miss her. I am also a responsible person. The reason I am responsible is I like

to do my chores without anyone asking me to."

Naturalist Activity

There are an endless number of natural objects (trees, animals, insects, rocks, plants, bugs, etc.)

that are worthy of description. As an exercise in using adjectives, the teacher puts students in pairs

and assigns each roles A and B. The teacher asks the A person to select an animal, plant, or natural

object and the B person to select an adjective, then asks the pair to put the words together.

41

Catering for Students with Special Needs

1. Introduction

In preparing students for the assessment tasks, teachers need to be aware of the specific learning

needs of individual students in their classes. These could include ESL learners with varying levels of

language, literacy and conceptual understanding, and students with disabilities and impairments

who will have a range of special needs. There are a number of scaffolding strategies that can be

adapted for different learners and which are particularly applicable in the pre-teaching stage.

2. Analyzing the Support Needed to Complete the Tasks

In determining the level and type of support needed for completing the preliminary activities

and the tasks, the following questions may be helpful:

• What general background or cultural knowledge is assumed? Might any elements of

this cause difficulties for ESL learners or special needs students?

• What knowledge and skills does this activity or task build on that some students may

not have been exposed to or may not have mastered?

• What specific topic knowledge is assumed?

• What specialized vocabulary is used in the texts provided?

• Is the language used in the task and student worksheets colloquial or idiomatic and

therefore likely to cause difficulties for an ESL learner or student with special needs?

For example, newspaper headlines.

• What is the level of complexity of the structure of the text? Look at sentence length

and grammatical complexity such as frequency of embedded clauses and the number

of subordinate clauses.

• Will students be able to access the text with support in the pre reading and during

reading stages, or is there a simpler text that could be used with some students?

• Will students be able to complete the task in the requested mode or will alternative

arrangements need to be made for them to demonstrate their knowledge, e.g. use of

a scribe or computer?

42

3. Classroom Organization

Classroom organization that allows for a balance between small groups and the whole class is the

most effective model for meeting special needs.

All students will benefit from a whole class focus on the language requirements of the task and

the stimulation of sharing of ideas by the class. Working in small groups allows the teacher to work

intensively with a small group on explicit teaching of aspects of the task, for example pre-teaching

of vocabulary, deconstructing a sample text or a joint construction. It provides support for students

who may be reluctant to contribute in a larger group.

4. Working in Groups

Some ESL learners may not be familiar with Australian learning styles so it is useful to revisit the

purpose for working in groups and review class rules/procedures for group work. These can be

listed on a chart and displayed. Group roles can be taught and practiced in a small group of

students with similar needs, using a simple task to begin with.

For some activities, ESL and special needs learners may work best in a similar needs group with the

support of the teacher or a teacher aide if one is available. At other times they can benefit by being

placed in small groups or pairs with students who provide strong English language models. The kind

of collaborative and exploratory talk that occurs in small groups has been shown to be beneficial for

students acquiring a second language. Groups of no more than four students seem to work best.

There needs to be a clear role for each student and an expectation that all students have some

information that the others will need. Information gap and problem solving activities work well.

For ESL learners and special needs students, it can be useful to model a group activity using a

fishbowl technique. The activity is demonstrated with a small group of students that you have

prepared beforehand. You then ask the class to comment on how well the group worked together,

what kind of language was used and what would have helped the group to work even more

effectively. It helps to focus on the actual language used to express different functions, e.g. how

to get your turn, how to disagree politely, how to make a suggestion and offer a hypothesis. This

language can be listed on a chart for display.

5. Strategies to Scaffold Learning

The following strategies can be used to scaffold learning in any learning area and can be adapted

to suit different learning needs and preferred learning styles.

6. Teaching of Vocabulary

ESL learners will need specific vocabulary teaching in order to understand a topic or text. Activities

to assist vocabulary acquisition can include the following:

43

• Use a visual to introduce the topic, e.g. a model, flow chart, diagram, cartoon or

photograph. Elicit or teach vocabulary and develop a word bank. Display on a chart

or have students label their own copy of the visual.

• Group vocabulary into teacher-assigned categories or allow students to determine

their own categories. In the follow-up discussion students explain their choices.

• Match a word to its definition, or identify a correct definition from several choices.

• Where appropriate, put words on a continuum, e.g. egg, lava, pupa, caterpillar,

butterfly.

• Develop word webs using associated words.

• Use a cloze passage with new content words deleted.

• Make bi-lingual or multi lingual word charts.

• Encourage students to keep their own personalized dictionaries. These can be very

useful, particularly for the learning of terminology specific to one learning area.

7. Reading

Pre-reading strategies

Pre-reading strategies aid prediction. Teachers could consider selecting from the following

activities to use during the scaffolding part of the task:

• Teach skimming and scanning skills. (Use a text on an overhead projector to make this clear

to students.) Skim the text to get an idea of content and style. Show students how to use

headings, sub- headings and specific text features, e.g. brochure format, to predict the type of

text and the content. Teach the style and function of parts of a text, e.g. headlines, captions.

Teach skim reading for general gist and scanning for the location of specific information. Ask

students to read the first and last paragraph and the first line of each paragraph and to predict

content.

• Build or extend content knowledge. Use visuals and class discussion to build content

knowledge and to make the connection with prior knowledge. Use opportunities to bring in

students’ experiences.

• Do a word splash. List 6–10 key content words on the board, check understanding and ask

students to anticipate the content of the text by writing possible sentences. They check the

accuracy of their predictions after reading the text.

• Do a class or group brainstorm on the topic. The brainstorm can be presented as a list or as

a concept or mind map.

• Prepare an anticipation guide. Write four to six statements of opinion that relate to the

concepts and opinions expressed in the text. Students read the statements and agree or

44

disagree. After reading the text, they can answer the same questions as though they were the

author.

• Do a KWL chart. List what you know about a topic, and questions you would like answered. At

the conclusion of the reading, list what you learnt from the text.

• Help students to understand how texts are organized. A text is chopped up into sections

and students work together to reconstruct it. This activity is best used with texts that have an

identifiable structure or organization such as procedures or newspaper articles.

• Use a graphic outline. Present students with a graphic outline of the text that shows the

hierarchy of ideas and the relationship between ideas.

• Use concept maps. Students make their own concept maps in groups using vocabulary cards

and linking words. This kind of activity could follow a science experiment, a shared experience

or a visual presentation of a topic prior to reading a related text.

While reading strategies

While reading strategies concentrate on helping students gain meaning from the text and on

teaching specific reading strategies used by competent readers. Teachers could select from the

following activities for use during the scaffolding part of the task:

• Read the text aloud to the whole class or to a small group of special needs students

to assist understanding and demonstrate fluent reading. Bring the text to life. With

lower level learners, their comprehension will increase on subsequent readings.

• Demonstrate and practice a particular meaning- making strategy using an enlarged

version of the text for shared reading, such as questioning the text: ‘What does the

writer mean by…?; making connections ‘That reminds me of …’; visualizing ‘I can just

see those stress hormones racing around the body’; synthesizing ‘I think the writer

means that …’.

• Make the function of specific language features explicit, e.g. ‘On the other hand means

the writer is going to talk about an opposing view.’

• Think and jot. Following a prompt, students stop reading and write down a question,

an idea or a connection they made with the text.

• Think pair share. Rather than asking a class question which one person answers, each

student writes a response to the question and shares it with his/her neighbor.

Post-reading activities

After-reading activities will depend on the nature of the text and the purpose of the reading.

Teachers can choose from the following activities, all of which are designed to help

comprehension:

45

• Students retell the gist of a text to a partner.

• Students generate questions about the texts in pairs or groups and then give them

to another group or pair to answer.

• Students complete True/False statements about a text – which could be dictated orally

by the teacher.

• Where a text has a definite sequence, e.g. a procedure text such as a science

experiment, students complete sequencing exercises.

• Specific language activities that help students understand how texts are constructed,

e.g. cloze activities that focus on logical connectives such as however, although,

moreover, whereas, or a pronoun referral activity where students draw a box around

the pronoun and draw a line showing to whom or what the pronoun refers.

• Ask students to identify the main idea and supporting detail by drawing a box around

the main idea and underlining supporting detail.

• Use cloze activities to check content understanding.

• Information transfer activities, e.g. make a mind map of the topic, showing

connections between various aspects. Construct a timeline of events.

8. Writing

Many assessment tasks are dependent on writing skills in a range of genres. Special needs students

and ESL learners, particularly those who have limited literacy in their first language, will benefit

from support at each stage of the writing process.

Make explicit:

• the purpose of the writing

• the audience for the writing

• the kind of text they are writing. Consider providing models for discussion

• the kind of language they will use. Again, provide and discuss models.

For many ESL and special needs learners the differences between spoken and written English and

appropriate registers needs to be specifically taught.

All writing, including the planning and revising stages, should be modelled first on the board or

an overhead so that students see what thinking processes you go through as a writer and how

language choices are made.

For extended pieces of writing, a suggested strategy is:

• Build up the field knowledge and vocabulary needed for the writing task through

various classroom activities, e.g. an experiment, a problem-solving activity, an

excursion, reading a text, research activities, viewing a film.

• Brainstorm ideas and language generated by these activities.

• Present an example of the kind of writing you are looking for, e.g. a brochure, a letter

46

to a newspaper, a report, a PowerPoint presentation.

• Deconstruct the model. Look at how the content is organized and what kind of

language is used, e.g. This is a recipe, therefore you use the imperative of the verb.

Use an overhead transparency of the text, making certain there is room to write in

annotations.

• Model each stage of the writing process including the planning process.

• Do a joint construction of a sample text.

• Allow students time to draft and revise their writing and provide a focus for the

revision. Ideally, the focus (spelling, paragraphing, sentence structure) should be one

which is relevant for the individual.

Other writing scaffolds

• Allow ESL learners to do prewriting and planning in their first language.

• Use writing frames. The following URLs might be useful:

http://www.warwick.ac.uk/staff/D.J.Wray/Ideas/f rames.html

• Provide a graphic organizer to help planning,

• e.g. an expository essay planner would have a wide box for the central thesis, two

columns for supporting arguments or evidence to support, and a box for the

conclusion.

• Model using other graphic organizers as planning tools, e.g. Venn diagram, concept

map. An Internet search for ‘graphic organizers’ will yield many examples.

• Students dictate to the teacher or another student or onto a tape recorder.

• Allow students to write in pairs or groups.

• Practice correct word order by unjumbling sentences.

• Use a variety of cloze exercises to focus on specific language items, e.g. use the correct

form of the verb.

• Use a computer for all stages of the writing process.

• Self-assessment checklists also provide scaffolding, e.g. Have I included _____________?

Wording of writing tasks

ESL learners in particular, but also many native speakers, have difficulty understanding the wording

of writing tasks. Instruction words may not be clearly understood by the learner. For example,

discuss means different things to different subject teachers. To a biology teacher it means to

describe or explain, but to a SOSE teacher it can mean look at an issue from different points of view

and come to a conclusion. Students benefit from clear explanation of tasks and being taught the

range of question forms that are used to request different kinds of writing.

9. Research Skills

• Students with low levels of literacy can be taught to research a topic using a data

chart to guide their research and note taking, provided the text sources are simple. A

data chart is a table with research questions heading the vertical columns and two or

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more sources of information heading the horizontal columns. The first column lists

what the student knows already about the research questions. The advantages of data

charts are that they build on what students already know, they help organize

information, they prevent large amounts of copying and they provide a framework

for the final written task. (See the SOSE Years 5 and 6 task on this site for another

example of a data chart.)

• Note taking needs to be modelled. Don’t just assume that students will know how to

do it. Use an overhead projector.

• Graphic organizers can be used to scaffold note taking.

10. Role-play

In participating in role plays, students are learning and practicing language in a realistic and

supportive context as well as developing decision- making, communication and assertiveness skills.

They are confidence building and help prepare students for the performance demands of oral

presentations. They can be used across the curriculum, e.g. to present different sides of an issue

or the effects of an environmental problem.

Suggestions for special needs students and ESL learners

• Pre-teach the language of making suggestions and negotiation; for example:

Why don’t we ... How about we ...

I think we should ... We could ...

I could ... You could ...

This would be better That’s a great idea Good thinking.

Assessment for Learning 7/8

• Pre-teach language of appreciation and criticism; for example:

I liked the way X did Y

You could hear everything clearly

They were really listening to each other X’s body language was very good

I thought X was funny when ...

• Group size depends on the task, but should be no bigger than four students.

• Provide clear instructions for the task and support in the planning stage.

• Allow time for preparation and practice, and monitor participation.

• Role plays can be presented simultaneously if you feel that students will be less

inhibited by not performing to the whole class.

• Allow time for whole class appreciation and discussion of the role plays and for time

to debrief with the players. Discuss feelings and attitudes. You can ask questions like,

‘How did it feel to be the bully/the mother?’ Give them time to talk about their

responses and reactions to other players.

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11. Oral Presentations

ESL learners and special needs students need considerable scaffolding to prepare for oral

presentations. The notion of purpose, audience and context need explanation and practice.

Students will need assistance in planning and practice in presentation. ESL learners may have

pronunciation difficulties that will inhibit their presentation.

Strategies for scaffolding oral presentations

• The notion of audience can be illustrated by giving a short boring talk with lots of

detail and jargon on a topic that no-one is likely to be interested in.

• The importance of appropriate register can be illustrated by giving a talk filled with

informal and inappropriate colloquial expressions. (The students will love it!)

• Brainstorm the criteria for a good talk. Draw up a criteria sheet. Model a poor talk by

breaking all the rules – mumble, read from notes, avoid eye contact, use minute visual

aids, don’t have an introduction or a conclusion. Students use the criteria sheet to

comment on the presentation. Be careful to emphasize that grammatical accuracy

and clear pronunciation are not part of the criteria for a successful talk.

• Provide sample talk scenarios. Students decide the purpose of the talk (to inform, to

explain, to persuade, etc.), the audience, and suggest ideas and aids that would be

useful.

• If possible, use a video of a past talk (a good one) as a sample text to deconstruct. A

past student might oblige as a guest speaker.

• Students prepare and present 30-second talks on themselves as preparation. Provide

pronunciation practice for ESL students focusing on clear articulation of consonants,

particularly final consonants.

• Consider collaborative presentations where students plan together and present

different aspects of the topic.

• Provide practice time with a buddy or small group.

• Present to a small group rather than the whole class.

12. Visual Aids to Learning

Visual learning is a preferred learning style for many students; for ESL and special needs learners,

visual aids such as pictures, diagrams, flow charts, timelines, graphs, charts and graphic organizers

provide invaluable support for conceptual and linguistic development.

13. Concept Maps and Mind Maps

Concept and mind mapping are suggested as a means of presenting information visually so that

relationships between ideas can be clearly seen.

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Concept mapping organizes ideas in a hierarchy from the most general to the most specific.

Concepts are written in boxes or circles which are joined with lines or arrows. Linking words are

written on or near the line linking the concepts and show the meaning relationship between

concepts.

Uses:

• Organize information after brainstorming.

• Present ideas found in a text.

• As a prompt for spoken language on a topic.

A mind map consists of a central word or picture with five or more associated ideas branching off

from the central word/concept. Each one of these ideas can then have its own branches.

Uses:

• It is a useful tool for brainstorming as it encourages students to make associations

and helps to organize ideas for an oral or written presentation.

• It can be used to plan writing.

• It can be used to present ideas found in a reading, listening or viewed text.

14. Review

Now, think about the following questions:

1. How can language teachers determine the type and level of support that students

might need in the language class?

2. What are the activities and/or strategies that can help with vocabulary acquisition?

3. How can teachers help students with specific language needs to read properly?

4. How can role-playing help special needs students to acquire the English language?

5. What are 'mind maps' and 'concept maps'? And how can they be used with students

to facilitate language learning for them?

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Teaching different language aspects and

skills to students with special needs

1. Introduction

Today, almost every classroom includes a number of students who are dealing with a

disability…either physical, educational, emotional, or a combination of all. As a teacher, you

probably find yourself looking for information and resources that will help you effectively teach

those students and help them learn successfully.

2. Teaching Spelling to Students with Special Needs

One of the greatest challenges of most students with special learning needs is written language in

general, and spelling in particular. To generalize weakness in spelling skills within the population

of children with disabilities may not be completely accurate; however, it is certainly among the

high incidence skill deficits. Spelling accurately not only enables a child to be a more proficient

reader and writer, but also enhances that child's self-concept. Conversely, a child who has difficulty

spelling also usually experiences difficulty reading and writing, and may perceive himself as " not

smart". Spelling, fact, has little, if any, correlation with intelligence. Spelling is, however, a

developmental cognitive process. When we observe the spelling of children with, for instance,

learning disabilities, we usually notice that they are using early stage spelling skills. Spelling

problems occur in children who, for whatever reason, have weak visual memory skills and delayed

or poor sound-symbol correspondence skills. Inability to read words correlates highly with inability

to write those same words when dictated. To assist children in their spelling growth, teachers of

children with special needs use many of the following techniques:

Examples:

Reading and writing: Children will learn to spell by reading and writing. When they are exposed

to words over and over- especially in a context- their recall of word spellings is generally improved.

Children with learning disabilities need the same opportunity, although their acquisition of

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accurate spellings, as seen in their spontaneous of writing, often takes longer to master, and there

truly are some words that some children in this population may never master. However, frequent

interaction with words is key, and in a meaningful context is preferred. We all recognize that there

are so many words in our language that do not follow the rules for spelling. Children with learning

disabilities in visual processing and memory have a particular difficult time memorizing those

words, many of which we refer to as "sight words." Repetition of visual input is essential to the

acquisition of those words. This can be accomplished in many ways, and some of those ways are

detailed below. While the drill method (affectionately called "Drill and Kill" by many teachers) does

nothing to contextualize those words, it does provide an opportunity for additional exposure and

practice for commonly misspelled words. It has its place in the 'big picture,' but should never be

used as the only method of teaching sight words. Drill is often done using flashcards of individual

words. Expand the use of flashcards, and trace over each with some glue! This will provide a tactile

input, as well.

Language Experience Approach: Just as the child's own language becomes his beginning

reading material, it also becomes his vehicle for acquiring proficiency in spelling and writing. Skills

are taught in a context created by the child, which, as we know, is very likely to engage the child's

attention and interest in doing his best work. In this approach, a child dictates a story as the teacher

scribes. The teacher encourages the child to participate in the writing by prompting the child with

questions such as, "What letter would that word begin with?" and "Does this look like the way I

should spell (dog)?" Eventually, the child will assume more responsibility for the writing of his own

stories, filling in letters, whole words, punctuation, and finally, the entire text. The completed text

can be used further to improve spelling skills. For example, the child or the teacher could cut apart

the story into sentence strips to be arranged in sequence to reinforce reading, and consequently,

spelling. Cutting sentences into individual words, and then, perhaps cutting some words into

isolated parts (such as onsets and rimes, or blends, digraphs, root words with plural endings, etc.)

continues to provide students with the opportunity to practice reading. Always using the context

is key. Putting letters, words or sentences back together, rereading frequently, and self- monitoring

and self-correcting leads to further skill improvement.

Teaching through familiar names and words: This is a popular and useful approach to

reinforcing spelling of phonics generalizations, such as short and long vowels, and consonant

sounds. In this approach, the teacher would emphasize, for example, a vowel sound within a child's

name, such as the short /e/ in Debby. When attention is called to the sound made by that vowel

in Debby's name, Debby would be able to use a familiar name (her own) to assist her in recalling

which vowel makes that sound when she needs to spell other words with the same sound. The

teacher would prompt her by saying, for example, "How is that word (ten) like your name?"

"Words I Can Write "books: Students will be encouraged by their own progress in spelling when

they can see how quickly their "Words I Can Write" book grows during the school year. As a child

masters a new spelling, he adds those words to his personal book, which is organized

alphabetically. This student-made resource can then also be used to assist the child in independent

proofreading, too.

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The 'Word Wall' and the Print- Rich Environment: Structuring the classroom for success in a

sign of an effective teacher. Students who have difficulty spelling will use their environment to

assist them in their reading, writing and spelling. A room filled with written language (labels, book

titles, bulletin boards, a word wall, captions, maps, charts, etc.) will provide students with the

confidence to take writing and spelling risks more often.

Predictable Texts: "I can…" and "I like…" books created by students will give them the repetition

and practice they need to support their growth in spelling. So, too, will allow students to self-select

reading books, and reading quality literature books over and over again to them as they fellow

along. Using these books, as well as wordless picture books and others, to create their own text, is

highly motivating to students of all ages and abilities.

Writing Aloud: This non-threatening technique involves the teacher in writing in such a way that

the students are listening to his/her decision- making as s/he spells/writes on the board. For

example, the teacher writes: "We will not have music today." As s/he writes each word, s/he makes

comments such as, "I will begin my first word with a capital, because it is the first word in the

sentence.

The Mini-Lesson: Individualized mini-lessons are provided by the teacher as children's own

written products, such as journals, are reviewed in writing conferences. For example, if a child omit

the final /e/ in words such as 'hope' or 'take', the teacher seizes the opportunity to address the

'silent /e/' issue, using the students' own writings and further modeling.

Mnemonics or, "Tricky Ways to Remember Stuff!": Most of us learned something in our

schooling using mnemonics, and for children for special learning needs, this is a very effective way

to facilitate their learning. The limitations of mnemonics are only defined by the level of creativity

of the teacher.

3. Teaching Writing to Students with Special needs

A student with a learning disability struggles when expressing oneself verbally, organizing

thoughts, learning to read and therefore struggles to learn to write. Writing is a vehicle to express

thoughts and relay information and for a student with a learning disability, the inability to express

information can lead to lack of self-esteem. Usually, a student with a learning disability is intelligent

and has an average or above average intellect but may have difficulty processing information. With

the proper support and teaching method, a student with a learning disability can learn to write.

Instructions:

• Expand expressive language skills. A student with a learning disability usually has

difficulty with expressive language and this can lead to difficulty with writing.

Activities that can help with expressive language include expanding a sentence, story-

telling and introducing the types of sentences. Without expressive language, it will be

difficult to put thoughts and ideas into writing.

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• Develop organizational and planning skills. A student with a learning disability must

learn to plan what they want to write, to whom, why they are writing, what they know

and how they will organize their thoughts. A thinking sheet can help the student with

answering these questions as they prepare to write.

• Create a rough draft from information on the thinking sheet. The rough draft will help

with developing a plan of action for the student and teacher or parent to discuss the

content and structure of the draft and make necessary changes.

• Revise and edit the rough draft. This is a very important part of the writing process

and will help the student deliver what is on the thinking sheet.

• Teach text structure for writing. This will also provide a plan of action for writing. Each

type of writing has steps and will dictate how text should be structured. For example,

an essay contains a thesis and supporting statements while a narrative contains

character development and a story highpoint.

• Provide feedback. Provide the student with a learning disability with frequent

feedback on their writing. This will help student with determining the quality of their

writing, identify any missing elements and pinpoint strengths.

• Practice to reinforce skills learned. This will continue to develop writing skills.

Tips & Warnings

• Have patience.

• Provide instruction in a workshop method or resource room.

• Some students with a learning disability may have issues with fine motor skills such

as handwriting. This makes it difficult to translate thoughts to paper and discourage

student from wanting to write. Practice letter formations and copying words to

develop handwriting skills.

4. Teaching Reading to Students with Special Needs

Teaching reading to children with special needs even when they do not demonstrate 'reading

readiness' opens up a whole new world of information and communication for them. Encouraging

our sons and daughters to become readers at home should always be an enjoyable enterprise for

both parent and child, because our relationship with our children is more important than any

accomplishment or goal we can set for them. Teachers have been surprised to discover that

including children with developmental disabilities like Down syndrome in mainstream classrooms

can lead to early success in reading.

Sometimes a student with a disability will learn to read when given the opportunity, after failing to

accomplish pre-reading goals on an IEP. Many students who have speech therapy needs will speak

more clearly, including all the sounds and syllables in a word, when they learn the visual

representations of the sounds. Some families turn on the 'close caption' function when their child is

learning to read to help them to understand the relationship between the written and spoken word.

Others discover that their son or daughter has had difficulty in speech due to undiagnosed hearing

problems when they suddenly start communicating differently after learning to read and spell.

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Teachers may employ big books, word and sentence boards, children's software programs, DVDs

or educational television shows to help children learn to decode words, use phonics, and count

out syllables. Some innovative programs use music and physical movements. 'Talking books' and

computer software that reads aloud to children can entertain them as well as build their skills in

sight reading. Being among readers who enjoy books and magazines can inspire children to put

more effort into learning to read and so does learning to associate reading with comfort and

companionship.

Some students have to be taught to read at home to prove to educational experts that they have

that potential. Remember that teachers and staff are doing their best according to what they have

been taught and the experiences they have had before meeting each child. It can be difficult for

them to believe two contradictory facts, and they may reject the one that has the most evidence

if they believe strongly enough in the one that doesn't - just like the rest of us. They may have

never met a child with your son or daughter's diagnosis that can read, and may not have read the

most recent research on supporting students with special learning needs to build literacy skills.

One thing is for certain - children need many opportunities to learn to read, and no matter how

soon or late they become readers, whole new worlds can open up for them. Children with

developmental disabilities or other special needs should have access to books before they learn

to read for themselves, just like their mainstream peers. Just as expressive and receptive language

skills may vary greatly in some children, reading skills and the capacity to understand higher level

books may not match up. Each of us may have individual interests that we want to follow and we

also may respond differently while reading the same book. Our children will find their favorite

authors or stories only when they have access to a wide variety of literature and formats.

Books on tape and DVD are great alternatives to the printed page. Many children who struggle

with the written word can still be enthralled by the stories found between classic book covers and

the latest best sellers. The Library for the Blind may have resources that are real treasures for

children with developmental disabilities and 'late bloomers' or those who need a slower pace

reading on tape.

If you have found that your children enjoy listening to books on audio as they thumb through

their storybooks, and if they love to have you read to them, do encourage their interests by

scheduling that kind of 'down time'. It might foster a lifelong love of learning, or just be a comfort

in times of transition or stress for you both.

5. Reading Comprehension for Special Needs

Children with reading disabilities will have trouble with comprehension. This article will provide

ways of improving reading comprehension in kids with special needs. In order for children to

perform their best in school, they must learn to understand what they are reading. But for kids

with reading disabilities, reading comprehension does not come easily. Children must master the

art of phonics, and develop reading fluency before they can even hope to understand the meaning

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of a sentence, paragraph, or story. Once a child has a good grasp of phonics and reads more

fluently, improving comprehension will be easier.

Reading Comprehension Problems in Children with Special Needs: If a child with special needs

displays symptoms of a reading disability relating to phonemic awareness, phonics, or reading

fluency, then these issues must be addressed before expecting the child to have good reading

comprehension.

Sometimes a child with a reading disability will have no difficulties with reading mechanics at all,

but still will not understand the ideas and themes in a sentence, paragraph, or story. When reading

aloud, there may be incorrect pauses in the middle of a sentence, or no pauses at the end of

sentences. Reading is done in a monotone voice with little or no expression. Vocabulary skills may

be weak. Also, the child will not be able to summarize what was just read.

Strategies and Tips for Teaching Reading Comprehension: If a child with a reading disability is

having difficulty with reading comprehension, a teacher may want to try the following strategies

and accommodations in the classroom to improve understanding:

1. Review what the story is about before reading it. This can teach students the right

way to summarize a story.

2. When reading to the students, pause and ask questions frequently about what was

just read.

3. Teach students to ask themselves questions during their reading time. This can be

done by preparing a reading questionnaire and marking when to pause in the story

and review each question.

4. Have the students list what they think the main ideas of a reading passage are. Do

this often as an exercise in class, as a group and individually.

5. Read stories that are related to a subject the child with special needs already knows

or is interested in.

6. Teach a child who doesn’t understand something that was read to raise his or her

hand and ask for help.

7. Provide dictionaries so that kids can look up words they don’t know (see vocabulary

strategies below).

8. Important reading (for instance instructions for a test or activity) should be read to

the students until reading comprehension improves.

Vocabulary Word Strategies: It is important to provide students will a list of vocabulary words

before they are required to read a story containing them. This step will augment a student’s

comprehension of the passage, and will also help with word recognition and pronunciation. Also,

try providing pictures of the unknown words along with the reading material.

Helping children who struggle with reading in the regular classroom can be challenging for

teachers. However, children with reading disabilities will struggle in all areas of learning until their

issues can be addressed. Therefore, teachers need to apply some of these strategies and tips to

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improve reading comprehension. When children with special needs begin to comprehend what

they are reading, a whole new world of possibilities becomes open to them, both academically

and personally.

6. Teaching Vocabulary to ESL & Special Education Students

Vocabulary instruction needs to focus on the tools that students need in order to deal with new

vocabulary as they read. Because vocabulary knowledge is closely related to reading

comprehension, introducing new vocabulary through context yields better results than teaching

new vocabulary one word at a time. The teacher's task is to enable students to develop

independent strategies for recognizing new vocabulary words and their meanings. It is also critical

to guide children in their choices of which words are worth worrying about while they read. As

readers themselves, teachers realize that a proper name of a person or place, for example, may

not always be essential to be able to pronounce and recall, whereas a concept or thing may be.

Teachers must also help children learn how words are used in text, and encourage their interest in

discovering meanings.

Oftentimes, children with special learning needs that affect their comprehension skills have an

auditory-oral system (hearing and speaking) that is insufficient. This may be true, for example, in

cases of children who have hearing loss and children with specific learning disabilities.

Communication disorders are also typical in children who are mentally retarded, autistic, or have

acquired language disorders caused, for example, by a traumatic brain injury. We refer to some of

these difficulties as receptive and expressive language disorders, aphasia, or dysnomia.

EXAMPLES:

Keeping in mind the 'layering' concept discussed in the Concepts in Print section, the individual

recommendations that follow should also be considered as part of a more holistic approach.

Teaching vocabulary using a multisensory approach is also more dynamic, more fun and more

effective, for example, than rote memorization of isolated vocabulary words. Enthusiasm and

movement, rhythm and music, and activities with props, or realia, can bring about very positive

results in vocabulary teaching and learning, too! Vocabulary development occurs best through the

use of meaningful contexts. When we support those contexts with scaffolding techniques,

experiences and opportunities for authentic use, progress in vocabulary development is inevitable.

Tell It In Your Own Words: Retellings give teachers a great deal of insight into how well children

understand text. Comprehension of text includes the awareness of vocabulary meaning. Without

knowing what important vocabulary words mean, children will not be able to accurately retell what

they have read.

A variation of this strategy is for you, the teacher, to retell the story in your own words. In that way

you are demonstrating the meaning of new vocabulary, and by modelling retelling for them in this

way, they are more apt to use this strategy themselves.

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The Book Introduction - Natural Vocabulary: Struggling readers who are introduced to new

vocabulary through the actual context of a book introduction will be better prepared to

comprehend the new vocabulary when they confront it in the text. By introducing a book, and by

using new vocabulary in the introduction, you are giving the students some background

experience that will scaffold their learning. When the new vocabulary is crucial to understanding a

context, this pre-reading experience will support their vocabulary development and

comprehension.

Vocabulary Prediction Activities: Prior to reading, choose a certain amount of words (3-6) from

the text to be read that are new to most of the students. Write the words on the board, and leave

space for students to write or tell definitions of these words. Complete the spaces prior to reading,

and then direct the children to read the selections that include those words. Following the reading,

redirect the students to the words and definitions, and ask them if, among their guesses, there

were definitions that fit the meanings of the words they found in the story. (Teacher asks, “What

does the word mean as it is used in the story?”) For words that they have not included accurate

definitions, prompt them with their prior knowledge, building on their guesses, and finally giving

them the word in a context that aligns with the story.

Multiple Meanings: There are so many words in English that have multiple meanings, and for

children with special needs, this can often be very confusing. Common words with multiple

meanings are: tied, run, act, step, arm, hand, type, and so on. (There are hundreds.)

Multiple meanings can be taught explicitly, and there are activities that your Speech Therapist may

be able to suggest as well. One such activity involves students brainstorming the meanings of

words that are given by you (ones that have multiple meanings), and then locating the words in

the text and deciding which meaning makes the most sense. They can do this as a pre-reading

activity, discover while they are reading, or do this after they have read.

Conceptually Grounded Vocabulary: When students develop and share already known

statements and questions about a given topic, they may use new vocabulary that not all students

know. When this is the case, the teacher should ask for explanation or elaboration (“What did you

mean by __?” “Could you tell me more about __?”). As this activity (sharing statements and

questions) becomes a consistent part of your pre-reading lessons, the students, and not the

teacher, will begin to ask those questions.

Categorizing Vocabulary (w/K-W-L Charts): A variation of the Conceptually Grounded

Vocabulary activity is to draw up a K-W-L (What I Know, What I Want to Know, What I Have

Learned) chart for categorizing words found in their reading. When students have some

knowledge about categories of words, such as “kinds of transportation” or “emotions”, they may

realize common attributes of other words that belong in those categories. They will engage in

further thinking and discussion of the words' meanings and uses. Keeping a word category journal

or vocabulary journal for a reference would complement this activity nicely. For struggling readers,

activating knowledge in this pre-reading activity can be helpful in predicting word and sentence

meanings while reading.

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Use of Realia: What better way to bring words to life than to have an actual, concrete

representation of those words available to your students? There may be limited opportunity for

children to go to the beach, for example. Bringing in seashells, starfish, driftwood, and seaweed to

look at and touch while reading about habitats, land forms, or literature that is set around a beach

will facilitate comprehension and vocabulary development. Engage the children in realia searches,

too. Many of them have collections of plastic dinosaurs, insects, seashells, rocks, etc. that can add

to lessons you teach.

The semantic map may be done prior to, during, or after reading. In this activity, the teacher may

choose a central idea, and will invite the students to build the map by giving related words. This

type of graphic organizer is very useful in reinforcing vocabulary. Children may develop their own

maps, or they may develop them within small cooperative groups. Students with special learning

needs often respond quite favorably to this approach.

NON-EXAMPLES:

Pre-Reading Vocabulary Lists: One of the most commonly used class activities aimed at

enhancing vocabulary development and reading comprehension is to provide students with a list

of vocabulary prior to a reading activity. The assumption is that if a child knows the meanings of

words prior to reading, then the child will have better comprehension while reading. It is not

uncommon to see teacher's manuals for basal readers including this activity routinely.

There are several examples of why this is not an effective strategy to improve vocabulary. In a

typical math book, children are introduced to familiar words arranged in new contextual patterns

that no longer have clear meaning to the children. Syntactic cues are often sufficient to assist

children in answering questions about most given contexts. A child's experience with English (using

and listening to it) helps her/him respond to questions about the context. Knowing word endings

and word-ordering rules in one's own language, however, can mislead teachers to believe that

children understand what they have read, when in fact they are only knowledgeable about how

their language works.

Introduction of New Vocabulary Prior to Text Reading: When new vocabulary is introduced

out of context, there is less likelihood that children will retain meanings of new vocabulary during

or following reading. The assumption that preview of vocabulary, as mentioned in the previous

section, will improve comprehension, is weak and not well founded in research. Supplementing

the introduction of new vocabulary prior to reading with realia, concrete experiences, discussion,

semantic maps, etc. will improve the chances. However, the best chance for successful acquisition

of new vocabulary comes with its use in meaningful contexts.

Pre-Reading Dictionary Word Search: This activity borders on (or is) busy work that has little

value other than locating words in a dictionary. Children copy definitions without actually reading

and understanding definitions. The lack of interaction between the children and the teacher, or

their peers, further diminishes the potential for actual vocabulary development. Children with

special learning needs need this interaction.

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Single Non-Relevant Sentence Reading Prior to Text Reading: Putting new vocabulary words

in a sentence (either supplied by the teacher, or created by the student) that is not related to the

context of the actual reading selection in which the word is found, has little impact on how the

same new vocabulary word will be understood, and how it will affect comprehension. This activity

needs serious scrutinizing, because it has been used for years, and continues to be used without

sufficient evidence that it actually works.

7. How to Teach Academic Vocabularies to Children with Learning Disabilities

Words used often in a particular content area or subject are known as academic vocabulary.

Students must first understand the meaning of these words before they can fully grasp the

concepts being taught in a particular subject such as science or math. Understanding academic

vocabulary is important for completing class assignments and for understanding the questions on

standardized tests. Students with learning disabilities can struggle with academic vocabulary. To

help them learn, teachers should provide interactive and repetitive vocabulary instruction.

Instructions:

1. Teach vocabulary in context. Providing students with a list of words to define and

memorize is not ideal in any subject. Though it might be beneficial to review

vocabulary words in subjects such as reading and social studies before embarking on

a new unit, the same is not always true for technical vocabulary for subjects such as

science and math. Vocabulary should be taught as the terms become relevant during

instruction; otherwise, the words have no real meaning to students.

2. Provide examples and explain meaning before giving students a formal definition.

Students with learning disabilities often have difficulty comprehending grade-level

material, especially when reading it on their own. Students often do not comprehend

the definition, so they do not understand the meaning of the word. First explain to

students the meaning, repeating the word often during instruction. Use the word in

multiple contexts and ask students questions as you do, reiterating the definition.

3. Allow students to write their own definitions. Though providing the formal definition

can be helpful, it can also prompt students to memorize a group of words instead of

understanding the new vocabulary word. When a student creates her own definition,

she makes the word meaningful to her.

4. Use the Frayer Model for vocabulary instruction. The Frayer Model is a graphic

organizer designed to help students deepen their understanding of academic

vocabulary. It includes sections for students to list their definition of the word,

examples or synonyms, non-examples or antonyms, and characteristics. The

vocabulary term is listed in the center. The model can be changed if necessary to meet

the needs of students with learning disabilities. At times the non- example section is

replaced with a drawing by the student.

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8. Teaching Grammar to ESL & Special Education Students

Grammar leads very quickly into abstraction. For example, verb tense and time do not always

correspond, as in the present tense/future time meaning in a conditional clause such as, "If it rains

tomorrow, I will bring my umbrella." ESL and special needs educators have developed approaches

which emphasize evidence-based inductive grammar instruction and multisensory learning. The

two methodologies combine to create an approach to grammar teaching suitable for mixed

groups of ESL and special education students.

Instructions:

1. Write the following sentences on the board, with all words in one color:

I have lived in California. I have eaten sushi.

Yes, I have. No, I haven't.

Have you lived in California? Have you eaten sushi?

Ask students to read the sentences out loud to each other in groups.

2. Students working in group of two or three copy the sentences onto their whiteboards.

Ask students to use the same color for words that are the same or similar. Ask each

group to share their color-coding scheme and, as a class, determine a color-coding

scheme that will be the new standard for the whole class. You might end up with

something like this:

Nouns = green

Pronouns = blue

Verbs = red

Prepositions = orange

…and so on.

3. Point out to students that in statements, green or blue comes first, whereas in

questions, red comes first. Invite students to create their own statements and

questions with the same tense.

4. Write the student-generated questions on the board. Ask students to copy these

questions onto index cards, using the color-coding convention. Invite students to

circulate around the classroom, asking each other these questions. Instruct students

to write the name of anyone who answers yes onto the appropriate index card.

5. Ask students to write a few sentences about their classmates, preserving the class's

color- coding scheme.

9. Teaching Communication Skills to Students with Special Needs

Parents and educators can use special tools and techniques to teach kids with special needs to

communicate effectively with each other as well as with others. Each technique focuses a child's

attention on a task or social situation, giving him experience and insight on social expectations

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and his own perspectives about those situations. You can change the techniques to fit the

development of your child or to address other social issues as they become apparent.

Instructions:

1. Prepare social scripts for kids and take turns reading them repetitively. Write a story,

from the child's point of view; highlighting the steps to complete a task, the possible

emotions and feelings he will face during the task, and the method he can use to

address the task. For instance, you can write a simple story about how to ask a parent

for dinner, starting with feelings of hunger and demonstrating a healthy and

appropriate way to express those feelings.

2. Use role-playing to give kids experience handling social situations and establishing

healthy communication. Describe a situation to the child that places her in the

position to communicate something to you, her parent or another child. Instruct the

children to play out the situation in your classroom. Assess her performance and offer

positive feedback and advice. For example, if you want to teach your students how to

make a new friend, present them with the conditions under which they could make a

new friend and watch them play out the scenario.

3. Make your classroom a comfort zone where you can provide social organization to

your students' lives. Spend time in class regularly instructing your students to get to

know each other, play together and form friendships in an environment where you

are present and can help. Make friends with children who show signs of shyness or

social anxiety. Inspire your students to think of their classmates as a unified group,

and encourage them to continue the group outside of class -- at lunch, recess or after

school.

4. Get parents involved with your work. Send communication assignments home with

your students, instructing them to carry out specific communicative tasks in their

home, such as talking to their parents about their school day. Invite your students'

parents into your classroom to participate in class and use it as an opportunity to

introduce parents to each other. Encourage your students' parents to organize time

outside of class for their children to meet in a social setting and play.

10. Review

Now, think of answers to the following questions:

1. How can we teach reading comprehension to students with special needs?

2. What are 'vocabulary prediction activities'?

3. How can we teach academic vocabularies to children with learning disabilities?

4. What are the techniques used for teaching grammar to special education students?

5. What is the importance of using 'realia' while teaching new vocabulary to students with

special educational needs?

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Inclusive Assessment

Overview

Higher Education (HE) expansion has resulted in greater student diversity. Rather than focusing on

specific target groups or dimensions of diversity such as disabled students or cultural groups, an

inclusive approach aims to make HE accessible, relevant and engaging for all (Thomas and May,

2010). Underpinning this concept are values of equity and fairness, where HE considers and values

students’ differences within the mainstream curriculum, pedagogy and assessment (Hockings,

2010). This is informed by the simple but challenging maxim that “students don’t want to stand

out as different yet want to be recognized as individuals” (ibid).

Inclusive assessment was endorsed at Plymouth University in 2006 through the Staff-Student

Partnership for Assessment Change and Evaluation (SPACE) project (Waterfield and West 2006).

The project suggested an inclusive approach would meet the needs of the diverse student

population. Inclusive assessment does not compromise academic standards. It instead improves

the chances for all students to demonstrate their ability to meet the learning outcomes. It is more

time-effective and equitable to consider the inclusiveness of the assessment at the programme or

module design phase, rather than making individual adjustments later in the programme

(Hockings, 2010). In addition, inclusive assessment helps to avoid the assumption that certain

groups of students have a particular way of learning, when in reality students with disabilities “fall

along a continuum of learner differences and share similar challenges and difficulties that all

students face in higher education” (Healey et al., 2006, p. 41).

This ‘7 steps’ offers practical guidance and tips to incorporating inclusive assessment into modules

and programmes, so that assessment enables rather than hinders students’ learning.

1. Underpin your assessment with good assessment design principles

Inclusive assessment is not about changing or ‘dumbing down’ your assessment to benefit certain

groups of students. As Waterfield and West (2006, p. 219) explain, inclusive assessment should

“benefit most learners without losing the requirement that assessment should aid learning and

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should demonstrate the acquisition of the module or course learning outcomes.” In other words,

principles of good assessment design such as constructive alignment, clear and transparent criteria,

and timely and constructive feedback (See 7 Steps on Giving Effective Feedback), are still part of the

design equation for inclusive assessment (Francis, 2008; Craddock & Mathias, 2009). Gibbs &

Simpson (2004) and Nicol (2008) provide excellent examinations of good assessment principles.

PedRIO and Educational Development provide workshops on assessment and feedback and you can

also explore PU’s Teaching and Learning website for information on assessment at: http://

www1.plymouth.ac.uk/ ouruniversity/teachlearn/guidanceresources/Pages/Assessment.aspx.

2. Use a variety of assessment methods within your module/programme

Rather than relying chiefly on one or two assessment methods, consider increasing the diversity

of assessment methods. For example, the use of in-class tests; multiple-choice questions; group

presentations; viva voce; self and peer assessment; creation of audio-visual material; performance;

reflective diaries or laboratory work (Please see PU’s Teaching and Learning website for a list of

different assessment methods - http://www1.plymouth.ac.uk/ ouruniversity/teachlearn/

guidanceresources/ Pages/ Assessment.aspx ). A diverse ‘mix’ of assessment methods will ensure

that specific students are not disadvantaged by specific forms of assessment, varying assessment

activities will also help develop a broader range of personal and employability skills (Brown and

Glasner, 2003).

3. Incorporate choice to your assessment

Introducing assessment choice can empower students to take responsibility for their learning and

in a number of cases assessment choice has been shown to eliminate the need for modified

assessment provision (MAP) (Francis, 2008). When developing assessment choice, consider

activities that simulate real-life contexts, even if it is just an abstraction of real professional practice.

For example, students may be asked to write a report on current news events associated with an

aspect of their discipline. Real-life contexts are likely to improve student engagement with

assessment (Lombardi, 2007). However, choice should be used with caution. It is also important

not to overwhelm students with too much choice (O’Neill et al., 2010). Prepare your students by

discussing the differences between the given assessment choices. It will also be helpful to provide

examples of the choice along with clear assessment criteria to help students understand the

difference. For certain assessment methods that are essential to the course (e.g. field work or lab

work), some reasonable adjustment might be required, but consideration should first be made to

design inclusive assessment which does not require modified provision.

4. Design inclusive exams

For subjects where examination is an essential requirement by the professional body, consideration

should be made to design inclusive exams. Ways of making exams more inclusive include:

scheduling, i.e. time of exams; choice of exam method (open or closed book, take home exam);

length of exam; weighting of the exam; the structure of exam questions (open or closed questions,

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multiple choice questions); enabling all students to type exams; and providing opportunities for

students to practice exam. Further detail on developing inclusive can be found at:

http://www1.plymouth.ac.uk/ouruniversity/ teachlearn/guidanceresources/Pages/ Assessment.aspx

5. Consider how technology can assist

Technologies have the potential to enhance assessment practices by creating more diverse

assessment methods and choice (Ball, 2009). A range of technologies are available that can support

the submission of coursework, improve feedback processes and reduce the risk of plagiarism (Bull

and McKenna, 2004). For example, assessment materials to be made available on the DLE can

improve access and offer students the opportunity to submit their work electronically. Consider

the use of e-portfolio, Question Mark Perception, podcast, online/ typed exams rather than

handwritten exams (Mogey, 2008) and audio or video feedback. Learning technologists within your

faculty can provide you with further support. It is important to arrange appropriate induction and

training to ensure all students are able to access and utilize the technology.

6. Prepare, engage and support students in the assessment process

Students might resist innovative and different assessment approaches because they are concerned

about how it might affect their performance (McDowell, 2001). It is important to prepare students

and develop their assessment literacy in the first few weeks before assessment takes place (Price

et al., 2012). Students should be given adequate information on the assessment criteria, marking

schemes, required standard and, where possible, examples of assignments using different

assessment methods. For example, consider setting aside tutorials where students can discuss with

each other and try out different assessment methods; or give students previous work (both good

and poor examples) to assess, grade and discuss in order to help clarify the standard required. In

addition, students should be given the opportunity to practice and rehearse any new assessment

methods (Price et al., 2012) through early assessment with smaller weightings.

7. Monitor, review, and share practice

Inclusive assessment needs to be part of a wider consideration of all assessment practice, rather than

a modular or ad hoc issue. This can inform current and new course developments and provide a

forum to discuss the resource implications and the staff development requirements (Waterfield and

West, 2006). Student involvement in programme and assessment reviews, will help monitor inclusive

practice. Assessment audits can also be incorporated as part of a programme team meeting, away

day, or workshop, to enable the team to carry out and share good practice. An audit map is available

from the Teaching and Learning website: http:// www1.plymouth.ac.uk/ouruniversity/teachlearn/

Documents/ Assessment%20%20gap% 20analysis%20%20A3%20size.docx

In addition, staff are encouraged to share good practice and engage in dialogue with Educational

Development, Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL) team, Disability Assist and Student

Representatives in order to support inclusive assessment.

65

Differentiating Assessment in an MI

Classroom

In my own classroom, I have found it necessary to design alternative assessment processes

that reflect the MI work of my students. I have learned that it is valuable to engage in

"collaborative assessment conferences" with my students, so that they can discuss the

criteria by which their work is assessed. I have developed portfolio processes, evaluation

forms, self-reflection sheets, and MI-report cards to record students' progress. Such

methods of assessment are included in this section.

I would also like to point out that, just as we can teach in multiple ways, we can also assess in

multiple ways. MI assessments can take a variety of forms. Students can demonstrate their learning

through original songs, essays, group presentations, and project presentations, or through visuals,

such as charts, diagrams, or timelines. In addition, a teacher's assessment repertoire should include

peer- and self-assessment processes. The assessment sections of each lesson plan in this book

contain examples of assessment ideas.

Whenever I assess my students, I also remind myself that assessment serves many purposes.

First, it documents a student's progress and provides a way to communicate with students and

others about that progress. Second, assessment is an important feedback tool-not just concerning

student progress but also my effectiveness as a teacher. It encourages me to reflect on what works

in my teaching and what needs to improve. Third, assessment gives me insight into the strengths

and challenges of each student and asks me to identify appropriate interventions. In my mind,

assessment is an ongoing dialogue, not a final. summative event.

Contents

• An MI Aubrie

• The Collaborative Assessment Conference

• MI Portfolios to Differentiate Assessment

• Personal Reflection Sheets

• Peer-Assessment: The Appreciation Sandwich

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• Assessment of Student Projects

• A Multiple Intelligences Report Card

An MI Rubric

Teachers often create both teaching and assessment materials for each curriculum unit they cover.

I have found it convenient at times to have a generic rubric ready for quick adaptation to any

lesson I teach. I've developed the following rubric for just such a purpose. It can be completed by

teacher, students, or both. It can also serve as a cover sheet for a portfolio item.

Student Name: ______________________________________________________________________________________

Assignment: _________________________________________________________________________________________

Date: _________________________________________________________________________________________________

OUTSTANDING GOOD FAIR NEEDS WORK

Content

Demonstrated understanding of

important concepts

Provided examples of important

concepts

Addressed state standards

Skills

Showed evidence of research skills

Effectively communicated content

to audience

Used at least three intelligences in

presentation

Articulated challenges in

completing assignment

The Collaborative Assessment Conference

The collaborative assessment conference, originally designed for Arts PROPEL at Harvard's Project

Zero, is a dialogue between student and teacher about important student work. It democratizes

the assessment process by giving those who are being assessed an opportunity to say what the

assessment should look like and, upon completion of their work, how they think that they met that

criteria. The assumption of this conference is that serious work deserves serious attention and

response. Collaborative assessment conferences have two aspects: the first is to determine criteria

for assessing student work, and the second is to reflect, in depth, on the effectiveness of that work.

Establishing Assessment Criteria

Before students tackle an important assignment or major project, the teacher and students should

hold an assessment conference. This will require between ten and thirty minutes of discussion. The

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purpose of the conference is to establish the criteria for assessing students' work. While the class

discusses what an assessment should consist of, the teacher should list the criteria upon the board.

It is important that these criteria address both content and skill development. For example, one

requirement might be that the completed assignment reveals a clear understanding of an

important concept; a second requirement might be that the concept is effectively presented in a

graph, chart, or diagram; a third requirement might be that the concept is applied to a real-world

situation.

By establishing their own criteria in advance, students have familiar guidelines for their work.

They no longer need to guess what the teacher expects from them, and they know exactly what

their responsibilities entail. It is also helpful if teachers have examples of prior students' work to

share as models. By seeing what others have done, students are in a better position to make

decisions about what they might do. Rather than encouraging copying, examples encourage

students to build on the ideas of others and to forge their own problem-solving approaches.

Presenting previous projects often increases the quality of students' efforts and products

significantly.

Assessing Student Work

Upon completion of an important assignment, the second collaborative assessment conference is

scheduled. The purpose of this conference is to provide feedback about the quality of the student's

work, about how well the student met the criteria, and about how the teacher can help the student

succeed further. Occasionally, other participants, such as teachers, specialists, parents, or other

students, may also be included in this conference. The teacher can conduct these conferences with

individual students or with the entire class observing and participating in the individual

assessment. Before the assessment conference begins, it is critical that the teacher reads or

examines the student's final work in order to be prepared to discuss it. During the conference, it

is important that the student who completes the work also discusses the project.

I have suggested some topics below that may be helpful to the teacher in conducting an

assessment conference:

1. In the simplest terms and without judgment, the teacher describes what the student has

created.

2. The teacher shares an opinion about the most striking aspect of this project. The focus here

should be on description and not on why the student completed the work in a particular

manner.

3. The teacher poses questions about the work and the student's work process.

4. The teacher evaluates how well the work addresses the criteria.

During the conference, the student and any conference participants should be encouraged to

discuss the work. The teacher can facilitate discussion with questions that encourage students to

respond to the teacher's feedback: "Have any of my comments about the project surprised you,

given the criteria?"; "Do you have any observations you would like to add?"; "Are there aspects of

your work that I have not taken into account when assessing the project?"

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To conclude a collaborative assessment conference, the teacher should suggest subsequent

steps in the student's learning. Even though the student has a finished product, one of the

important concepts to communicate is that learning is an ongoing and unending process. Some

suggested comments and questions follow:

1. I believe this work demonstrates that you have a strength in ________________________________

that you can apply to other work.

2. Do you have additional interests that you would like to pursue because of this project?

3. Now that you have completed this assignment, what aspects of it do you think could be

strengthened?

4. What encourages you to do high-quality work in the future?

5. What goals can you set for your future work?

In closing the conference, the teacher will find it worthwhile to discuss the conference itself:

How did it benefit everyone involved? How could it be improved? Finally, it is important to end on

a positive note. Comments like "I can see that you learned a lot from creating your chart" are

helpful in encouraging ongoing effort.

MI Portfolios to Differentiate Assessment

Portfolios of students' work are becoming increasingly popular with both elementary and

secondary teachers. I have experimented with portfolio systems that consisted of a collection

folder, which included each student's work, and a showcase portfolio, which contained only

selected pieces. When selecting pieces for placement in a portfolio, the teacher must maintain a

balanced ratio of teacher-chosen work to student-chosen work.

I have also experimented with different categories of portfolios, depending on the subject

area. At times I have asked my students to maintain a single subject or topic portfolio, such as a

science portfolio or a writing portfolio. At other times I have worked with comprehensive portfolios

that incorporate work from all content areas. In any case, the portfolio can cover the work of one

term, an entire year, or it can follow the student from year to year.

Depending upon the anticipated size of my students' portfolios, they are stored in either a

folder or box. My students' portfolios typically contain not only their work but assessment records

for selected items, such as Personal Reflection Sheets and rubrics that evaluate the chosen pieces.

I like to use portfolios because they are not only folders of students' work and processes but

are also valuable assessment tools. They can chart students' progress in a limited way-over the

course of one assignment-or they can reveal comprehensive growth by showing students' work

over the course of the school year or term. For example, with some writing assignments, I ask my

students to include their rough drafts, edited copies, and final copies, thus revealing the steps used

to complete an assignment.

While I use portfolios for assessment purposes, students look at their portfolios for feedback

on ways to improve their work. In this way, students acquire a sense of ownership of the ongoing

learning process. Other forms of assessment often fail to incorporate this form of reflection.

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In my classroom, I try to ensure that portfolios incorporate evidence of work from several

intelligences. Over the years I have assigned the following portfolio entries. This list might present

possibilities for your students' portfolios as well:

• All forms of written work including drafts, peer-edited versions, teacher edited versions

and final copies of creative writing, research papers, poetry, and reports

• Math assignments, including calculations and problem-solving

• Paintings, drawings, designs

• Charts, graphs, diagrams

• Photographs of sculptures, constructions, sewing, etc.

• Musical scores

• Audiotapes of musical performances

• Videotapes of plays, dances, interviews, presentations

• Learning logs

• Personal reflection sheets

• Rubrics and other evaluation forms

• Project contracts

• Statements of personal goals

• Checklists for classroom tasks

• Research notes

• Computer-generated work (spreadsheets, databases, graphics, etc.)

• Peer- or parent-feedback forms

Personal Reflection Sheets

One of the most important aspects of differentiated assessment in an MI classroom is teaching

students how to assess their own work. Even very young students can develop reflective skills when

trained to do so. Reflection helps students develop editorial skills, identify the strengths and

weaknesses of their work, and manage their individual learning. I have used the following two

forms-the Personal Reflection Sheet and the Self­ Assessment Sheet-with my students when I want

them to reflect on work that is to be included in their portfolios, or when I want them to evaluate

the quality of work produced for a specific assignment.

Personal Reflection Sheet

(Use for work to be included in your portfolio.)

Name: _________________________________________________________ Date: ____________________________

Title of piece: _____________________________________________________________________________________

1. Description of piece:

2. What did you learn from working on this assignment?

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3. What did you learn about yourself from working on this piece?

4. What could be done to enhance your work?

5. What challenges or problems did you encounter?

6. Does this work meet the specified criteria? Why or why not?

7. In what ways does this work encourage you to study more about this topic?

Student Self-Assessment Sheet

(Use to assess your work on designated assignments.)

Name: __________________________________________________________ Date: ___________________________

Assignment: ______________________________________________________________________________________

1. What was your goal for this assignment?

2. How well did you accomplish your goal?

3. What is the best part of your work on this assignment?

4. What part(s) of your work might need improvement?

5. What was your least favorite activity when working on this assignment?

6. What did you learn about yourself while working on this?

7. If you did the assignment over, how would it be different?

8. How does this assignment connect with work in this or other classes?

9. Based on the criteria, what score or grade do you think this work deserves? Why?

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Peer-Assessment: The Appreciation Sandwich

After class presentations, I always invite my students to critique each other. Students can be taught

to provide constructive feedback with tact and diplomacy. In my classroom, feedback is built into

daily activities. At the completion of time in the learning centers, students volunteer to share the

products they have created that day. Individuals and groups informally share their reading, writing,

art work, skits, models, and songs. After the sharing is completed, the rest of the class comments

on strong and weak points in the various presentations.

A second and more formal opportunity for feedback occurs when students present their

independent projects. Each student receives constructive criticism. Toe presenter 's classmates and

I offer criticism based on the criteria established for that assignment. One technique my students

use to critique each other is the appreciation sandwich. In an appreciation sandwich a critical

comment is sandwiched between two positive comments. Por example, if one of my students,

Kristi, were presenting on Medieval castles, I might give her the following appreciation sandwich

about her presentation:

Kristi, I enjoyed your presentation on Medieval castles. It was an interesting topic for me because I

never knew how they lived in those castles. Your eye contact needs work. You kept looking down at

the floor, and I wanted you to look up at me. Your visuals were great; in particular, the chart that

showed the insides of castles. That helped me understand how the people got around and how they

lived.

Human nature being what it is, Kristi will remember the criticism, but she will also-hopefully-

remember the positive input as well.

During my years of teaching, I have observed that appreciation sandwiches are as effective

as any assessment in encouraging change in students' work. Consistently, students follow through

with each other's recommendations, as well as continue to build upon their identified strengths.

Assessment of Student Projects

Since my students are required to do several major projects during each school year, I wanted to

determine whether the quality of each student's projects had improved over time. I became

curious about whether students had consistently relied on one or two intelligences to

communicate their learning, whether their research skills had improved, and whether their projects

had grown more sophisticated.

To secure such information, I developed the following rubric. On cardstock, I photocopy one

rubric per student and use it as one assessment device for monthly project presentations. The

cardstock is sturdy enough to last the entire school year. I maintain these records for the students

to use, so that they, too, can track their progress from project to project, over the course of the

school year. The students themselves have input into categories on the rubric.

72

Project Evaluation Sheet

Name: _______________________________________________________________________________________________

PROJECT COMMENTS

CRITERIA 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Began with effective introduction

Was well organized

Did effective research

Understood major concepts

Provided good supporting data

Offered good examples and elaboration of

content

Had a strong closing

Used effective presentation skills

Included visual aids

Included music

Included a kinesthetic component

Included interpersonal elements

Included intrapersonal elements

Included logical-mathematical components

Included effective linguistic components

A Multiple Intelligences Report Card

Not only have some of my daily assessment processes changed, so has my report card. Once I

started my MI classroom model, I soon realized that the traditional report card failed to assess the

work my students were actually doing. To better reflect our classroom efforts, I created the

following report card. This report attempts to portray the developmental level of each student in

all eight intelligences, through a bar-graph format. I use a different color for each of the four

marking periods, and I attempt to show whether a student is developmentally a novice, an

apprentice, a practitioner, or a scholar for each criterion. Naturally, the categories can be changed.

In the event that a student does not progress in an area between marking periods, I draw a

vertical line to represent static development in that criterion. Most students, however, continue to

grow in each of the areas over the course of a school year. Sometimes I make brief narrative

comments below each bar if appropriate. A section is designated at the end for follow-up

suggestions. Here I recommend what parents may do to enhance the strengths of their child and

to remediate any apparent weaknesses.

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Reading: Cooperative Language Learning and Foreign Language Learning and Teaching

Link: https://goo.gl/nbr5jh

Summary: This paper is divided into four parts: The characteristics of cooperative language

learning, comparison between traditional language teaching and cooperative language

learning, the benefits of cooperative language learning, and its conclusions on the advantages

of the implementation of cooperative language learning on foreign language learning and

teaching. This paper is relevant to language teachers as there is a gap in the research for this

field regarding to cooperative learning. This highlights the benefits they can obtain in their

particular subject.

Reading: Cooperative Learning in Inclusive Education

Link: https://goo.gl/BYG8dw

Summary: This paper discusses the reasoning behind the implementation of inclusive

education in Indonesia. It highlights the benefits of cooperative learning for students with or

without special needs in an inclusive classroom: 1) positive interdependence, 2) individual and

group accountability, 3) interpersonal and small group skills, 4) face-to-face promotive

interaction, 4) group processing. It provides practical activities to implement cooperative

learning in the classrooms.

Reading: Using Cooperative/Collaborative Learning to Support the Successful Inclusion of

Students with Mild Disabilities/Exceptionalities in Middle School Mathematics Lessons.

Link: https://goo.gl/4C3ofw

Summary: This study investigates the implementation of cooperative learning in adolescent

students with MLD, Mild Learning Disabilities, (such as ADHD, Asperger’s Syndrome, NLD- Non-

Verbal Learning Disability, EBD- Emotional & Behavioral Difficulties, and Gifted/Exceptional

learners). In this research, the difference between Cooperative learning (CL) and collaborative

learning (CLL) is stated and their methods established. It sets the required theoretical

background for building inclusive classrooms for adolescent students with MLD.

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Reading: Gifted education and cooperative learning: a miss or a match?

Link: https://goo.gl/qcGi2n

Summary: This article presents how some forms of cooperative work might seem unfair for

gifted students. The author explains cooperative learning from a different perspective and tries

to create a balance by providing ideas on how to make gifted students feel they are progressing

in their lessons. Having all members actually working towards a project generates team

cohesion and reinforces the power of teamwork because students see in action the value of

multiple viewpoints and ideas.

Reading: How to Observe Cooperative Learning Classrooms.

Link: https://goo.gl/Gfc4iZ

Summary: This article provides a framework for administrators to use when observing teachers

who use cooperative learning. It provides program characteristics for popular cooperative

learning models.

Reading: Effects of Cooperative Learning On the Social Acceptance of Mainstreamed Academically

Handicapped Students

Link: https://goo.gl/LJAdr1

Summary: Children with learning problems suffer from isolation within the schools.

Implementing cooperative learning can help promote positive relationships among peers. This

paper reports the findings from 6 classrooms enrolling academically handicapped and normal-

progress children in a mathematical classroom using cooperative learning and traditional

structure. Some of the findings reveal that academic achievement gains and increases in self-

esteem were found.

Additional readings on students with Learning Disabilities and Disorders

Reading: Autistic Spectrum Disorders and Learning Foreign Languages

Link: https://goo.gl/CyVwUR

Summary: This article starts by presenting three common impairments in social interaction that

children with ASD have and can affect language learning. It also presents different strategies to

implement in the classrooms: Strategies to help the learner with autism access the curriculum,

strategies for helping young people with ASD in social interaction, strategies to help the pupil

with ASD in social communication, and strategies for working with lack of flexibility. It is

important that language teachers are able to identify the strengths of students with ASD and

draw from there to build their skills.

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Reading: Using Effective Strategies for the Elementary English Language Learner with Autism

Spectrum Disorder: A Curriculum Project

Link: https://goo.gl/KJwrpx

Summary: This Master’s Project synthesizes current research on the two subjects: students with

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and English Language Learners (ELLs). The purpose is to

identify the best effective strategies that are aligned between these two fields.

Reading: Learning Disabilities and Foreign Language Learning

Link: https://goo.gl/rBXSox

Summary: This article comprises some important strategies that are aimed to help foreign

language learners. Many factors seemed to be blamed for students’ failure, such as lack of

effort, lack of motivation and anxiety. However, this article emphasizes the need of identifying

the real reasons behind students’ difficulties while learning a language and provides useful

strategies to improve learning.