Case study Dominica - geographic isolation and tourism prospects Dominica is a small Caribbean Island nation seeking to diversify its economy at least in part through encouragement of ‘eco-tourism’. There is no reason why this should not be accomplished. However, tourism is no panacea for economic ills. If Dominica is going to succeed in developing tourism, it must avoid the temptation to assume that problems will take care of themselves as develop- ment proceeds. G. W. Burnett and Muzaffer Uysal of the Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management at Clemson University explore the nature of Dominica’s tourism industry and the geographic factors which affect its organization and future.

Today, many nations struggling to de- velop their economies regard large- scale tourism development as a cornerstone of economic growth.’ According to Boissevain, tourism is viewed as a relatively easy way to improve a standard of living.2 The nature and characteristics of a tourism destination, whether it be a region, country or island, has dominated the types of tourism research that have been undertaken to deal with tourism issues and concerns, eg as Pearce pointed out, research on the nature of tourism on islands has largely been confined to case studies.3 This analysis of Dominica’s tourism industry is a further contribution to the tradition.

The Commonwealth of Dominica is a small Caribbean island nation in the Windward chain of islands (see Figure 1). A nation of rugged mountains, it lacks extensive beaches or coral reefs, but possesses much of the remaining forest in the Caribbean. Seeking an improved living for its 88 000 resi- dents, Dominica is attempting to ex- pand an incipient tourism industry based on resources unusual to the Caribbean. This article explores the nature of Dominica’s tourism industry and the geographic factors which affect its organization and future.

Country background

Located between French Guadeloupe and Marie Galante to the north and Martinique to the south, Dominica is about 290 m2 extending 31 miles from north to south and having a maximum

breadth of 16 miles. Discovered by Columbus on Sunday, 3 November 1493 from which event the island re- ceives its modern name, Dominica served as an equivocally neutral sanc- tuary for European fleets and was

otherwise neglected for the next 200 years.4 French colonization began in 1632 although in 1748 the French and British agreed to treat the island as neutral Carib territory. However, by 1756, Dominica was drawn into the European and North American wars, attracting the mercantilist interests of America and Prussia and otherwise alternating between British and French ownership with amazing frequency.5

By 1805, Dominica was thoroughly assimilated into the British Empire, but after more than 100 years of Brit- t ish rule, Dominica was described as the arrant failure of British colonial policy, limping along economically with a dwindling population.6 On 3 November 1978 Dominica became fully independent. On 29 August 1979 Hurricane David devastated the is-

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Figure 1. Locational map of Dominica.

TOURISM MANAGEMENT June 1991 141

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land, killing 37, injuring more than 5000, leaving more than one-quarter of the population homeless and totally destroying the economy. The new country has not yet recovered from the disaster.

Geographical factors

Dominica’s history reveals several in- terrelated geographic themes - inter- nal isolation, the search for economic prosperity, and international isolation - pertinent to Dominica’s tourism in-‘ dustry. Internal isolation is topo- graphically imposed. A mosaic of 15 volcanoes, Dominica’s long axis is a ridge with distinct peaks, many approaching and several exceeding 4500 feet.’ Heavy rains have carved from this central ridge hundreds of watersheds centred on rivers varying from ephemeral to permanent and im- pressive .

Dominica’s best farmland is the del- taic plains of -these streams. Often consisting of no more than 400 arable acres, villages formed adjacent to the farmland, each culturally distinct and isolated from its nearest neighbours.8 From these villages, canoes would send the trade products, items capable of withstanding concentration and rough transport, to market, generally in Roseau but sometimes Portsmouth. From the villages on the east coast, more dispersed and remote than those on the west, produce was carried by humans and .sometimes donkeys to west coast markets. The interior in- itially only attracted escaped slaves and eventually a limited number of freed men and planters.’

The practical limit of settlement has been the ZOOO-foot contour in the west and the lOOO-foot contour in the east. Settlement is restricted below these elevations for several reasons. Most obviously, rainfall, mist, cloud and reduced temperatures at higher eleva- tions make agriculture difficult and unproductive. The soils above these limits are slippery, bright red clay latosols, difficult to work and relative- ly unproductive.‘” The rainforest is hard to clear and keep cleared and accessibility to the coast from the in- terior makes commercial agriculture economically hazardous.”

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Dominica is a nation of isolated pockets of settlement peripheral to a vast wilderness. Contact between indi- vidual settlements has been vexing and many ambitious Dominicans have preferred emigration to seeking their fortunes in the wilderness.12

Search for prosperity

Dominicans have also had to face the problem of earning a living from the land. While a wide variety of produce has been experimented with, Domini- ca, typical of the Caribbean, has been a single crop economy with several short periods of prosperity inter- spersed over five centuries with stagnation. Those crops associated with periods of prosperity are coffee, sugar, cacao, limes and now, bananas.13 Neither has the prosperity created by these crops always com- pared well with that produced in other areas of the Caribbean. Topography prohibited Dominica’s full participa- tion in the Caribbean sugar boom which, fortunately for Dominicans, also spared them the full social and environmental consequences of sugar production. In 1935, for example, only one-third of Dominica was cultivated compared to more than 90% of Barba- dos, and Dominica, twice as large as Barbados, had only one-quarter of the population. Land shortages, constant in Barbados, have not been a problem in Dominica and anti-plantation vio- lence has been only sporadic.‘4

The temporary nature of Domini- ca’s periods of prosperity have been variously caused. Hurricanes, plant diseases, changing international trade policies and economic conditions, and unreliable protectionist and mercantil- ist trade partners have all played a role. At the moment, bananas are produced at internationally uncom- petitive prices so that Dominica re- quires a preferential market in which to sell its crop. l5 The UK has provided this protection, but will stop in 1992 with the advent of the EC single mar- ket. Dominica is facing another reces- sion if it cannot rapidly diversify its economy. It has hoped that tourism will help to achieve this. Nonetheless, Dominica’s reliance on uncompetitive bananas in a single market continues to increase. l6

International isolation

A consequence of Dominica’s boom or bust economy is international isola- tion. Unable to participate in interna- tional trade, there has been little reason to invest in elaborate transport facilities. Dominica’s best harbour at Portsmouth is backed by wetlands and was therefore plagued by disease and considered a graveyard until after the second world war. ” Roseau, a lesser site, has consequently developed as Dominica’s main commercial port and urban centre. Neither port is large. Dominica needs no more than one ship a week in order to export its banana crop and Roseau’s harbour may remain essentially empty for several days at a time. Portsmouth is busier, though its traffic is mostly re- creational rather than commercial.

Regular air service by sea plane began in 1950. Airport facilities were completed at Melville Hall on the northeast coast in 1961 and the two- hour taxi drive across the island’s main ridge to the nearest hotel became legendary in the Caribbean. In 1981, a smaller airport was completed near Roseau and it quickly became the main passenger airport despite strong crosswinds and occasional landing difficulties. t8 Dominica is now served by LIAT, Air BVI, Air Guadeloupe, Air Martinique, Nature Island Ex- press and Caribbe,an Express.

There is a suitable site on the island for an airfield capable of taking larger jets and periodic speculation that it will be developed. However, Domini- ca’s present problem is that it remains the most obscure and difficult to reach of the major Caribbean islands. Rout- ing to Dominica from North America and most of Europe involves a transfer in either Puerto Rico, Antigua or Bar- bados and for most North American passengers, another transfer at Miami. The journey from the last transfer hub to Dominica involves considerable is- land hopping on small, cramped and crowded aircraft not intended to pam- per the timid. Scheduling requires considerable care and even then con- siderable risk that either the passenger or baggage will diverge appreciably from the planned itinerary. An over- night stay involving a late arrival at an intermediary stop is almost unavoid-

TOURISM MANAGEMENT June 1991

able and fares are one-third to twice as great as many transatlantic fares. The intervening opportunities for most passengers are considerable and appealing. While fast ferry service be- tween the islands of the West Indies is experimental, for mass tourism, no realistic alternative to the airplane ex- ists at present.

Eco-tourism resources

In 1935, Harrison suggested that Dominica could make some profit by servicing tourists, presumably recrea- tion yachters. I9 While he did not think of Dominica as a tourist destination in its own right, Dominica’s government has come to think of tourism as a potential source of earnings sup- plemental to, and possibly replacing, those from agriculture. Although Dominica’s share of the tourist market in the Caribbean Basin is small (less than l%), total visitor expenditure in fiscal year 1987 reached $12.8 million, an increase of 14% over the previous years. Table 1 shows the distribution of major tourist markets for Domini- ca. The Caribbean Basin originates the highest level of visitation, account- ing for about 42% followed by North America and Europe at 23.12% and 23.03%, respectively.

Realizing expanding income from tourism is, however, a difficult matter. Travellers must surmount the friction of distance and numerous intervening opportunities only to arrive at a place which is in many ways the antithesis of the Caribbean’s stereotype image. Beaches of any substantial quality are absent and none is large. Cliffs plunge directly to the water and where there is shore, it is probably boulders or black sand. Dominica’s topography

continues underwater, so drop-offs are sudden and the undertow power- ful. Unprotected by coral reef, the windward side of the island is ruggedly beautiful, but unsafe for any re- creational pursuits.

Without beaches, the ‘surf, sand, sun and sex’ tourism generally associ- ated with the Caribbean has not de- veloped and is not likely to. Alterna- tively, Dominica appeals, and hopes increasingly to appeal, to supposed ‘eco-tourists’ attracted by tropical natural history. In 1935, Harrison de- scribed Dominica as an unexplored wilderness and the same description would apply today.*’ Interior Domini- ca is a highland tropical rain forest which is all the more impenetrable for the periodic hurricanes which damage the upper canopy and allow light to penetrate to the forest floor. Much of the forest remains unvisited and the job of describing its species or the forests’ ecological structure and func- tion remains incomplete.*’ To its advantage, Dominica’s forests lack both the threatening fauna and dis- eases generally associated with the tropics.

Deforestation resulting from for- eign timber operations as well as inter- national demands for conservation of the Caribbean misty forest resulted in Dominica setting aside 17 000 acres as Morne Trois Pitons National Park in 1975.** The park includes several miles of trail to major points that include the highest peaks, two lakes and a zone of geothermal activity.

The park is intended to serve as the central focus on the tourism industry but it is not Dominica’s only resource. A second national park has been established on the Cabrits Peninsula which forms part of the harbour at

Table 1. Changes of visitor arrivals by major tourist generating region 1978-1987.

Generating region 1978 1987’ Difference % Rank % Rank

North America 23.11 3 23.12 1 +0.01 French West Indies 11.25 4 21.90 3 +10.65 The Caribbean 29.18 2 20.87 4 -8.31 Other Americas 0.31 6 9.84 5 +9.53 Europe 35.42 1 23.03 2 -12.17 Other 0.73 5 1.24 6 +0.51

Total arrivals 27 944 20 154 +210

Source: Authors’ calculations from Commonwealth of Dominica, Ministry of Finance, Statistics Division, Quarterly Bulletin of Tourism Stalistics, Fourth Quarter, 1987.

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Portsmouth. A deciduous forest with a distinct dry season and a complex fauna and flora, the Cabrits’ main attraction is the remains of Fort Shir- ley and other fortifications dating to 1771 and now being restored.23 Though limited in area, diving in the coral at Soufriere Bay is some of the best in the Caribbean, and Dominica’s native, exotic and feral tropical plants and its rich bird life are further attrac- tions. Dominicans are determined to preserve something of the physical and behavioural aspects of their cul- ture for nationalistic reasons that have nothing to do with tourism, however, the interest accords well with Domini- ca’s sought after eco-tourism.*“ Re- moteness and lack of economic de- velopment left Dominica with cultural remnants and artifacts that have long ago disappeared from other areas of the Caribbean. These include house types and architectural styles from domestic to industrial and religious. In addition, isolation diversified folk lore, dress, dance, music, theatre and art which contribute substantially to the tourist experience.

Prospects

The infrastructure supporting Domini- ca’s modest tourist industry is based on limited capitalization and labour intensity among petty entrepreneurs in a market that is small, specialized and seasonal to the point of being periodic. The combination has lent Dominica’s hospitality industry an atmosphere that is quaint, unique and marginal.

Dominica faces several constraints in developing its tourism industry. Among them is coordinating increased visitation with expanded accommoda- tion. Table 2 presents the composition of accommodation distribution over the past 13 years. The growth rate of accommodation has been steady, with a 10.6% increase from 480 rooms in 1977 to 531 rooms in 1990.

Marginal operators cannot afford capital expansion without an assured supply of new visitors and little is known about the proposed market from which Dominica will draw new visitors. Is there a group of ‘eco- tourists’ potentially interested enough

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Table 2. Dominican accommodation.

Twe 1990’ 1977” Rooms/ 9/o

Number Rooms establishment Rooms change

Hotels 12 335 28 303 - Guest-houses 14 120 9 108 Apartmenffcottages 13 76 6 69 -

Total 39 531 400 10.6

Source: aAuthors’ calculations from Commonwealth of Dominica, Division of Tourism, Dominica 1990 Rate Sheet for Hotels, Guest Houses and Apartments/Cottages. bAuthors’ calculations based on Michael Peters, ‘The potential of the less-developed Caribbean countries’, Tourism Management, Vol 1, No 1, 1980, pp 13-21.

in Dominica to furnish an expanded tourist industry? How can this market be differentiated from other elements of similar markets and how can it be contacted? Can Dominica distance it- self sufficiently from the stereotype view of other Caribbean destinations to intrigue the ‘eco-tourist’ market if it even exists? Nationalists are tempted to answer these questions with a sim-

ple, ‘Obviously’. However, the answers are by no means obvious par- ticularly to lenders, and Dominica’s small population and economy can ill-afford even minor mistakes in de- velopment

Among the problems of attracting more tourists is that Dominica’s air- ports and the type of aircraft servicing them are near their limits. There is simply little remaining landing space even if aircraft were available and addition of night landing facilities would add considerable stress to air- craft and crews and add considerably to the danger of Dominica’s airports. Adding a major jet facility would re- quire more passengers than Dominica could accommodate and again avail- able market information does not assure the availability of more visitors. Regular ferry services from the nearby French West Indies should increase visitation and there is considerable interest in expanding cruise ship visits. To this end, harbour renewal is under- way at both Roseau and Portsmouth.

Furthermore, Dominicans need to assess carefully the number of visitors they can tolerate. Presently, Domini- cans are a modest, honest and almost innocent people and their visitors tend to be much the same. ‘Eco-tourism’ is attractive to Dominica because it will presumably involve more of the same type of visitors with whom Domini-

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cans are already comfortable. This assumption is by no means certain and in any event a great increase in visita- tion is likely to exceed carrying capac- ity even if the nature of the tourist does not change. Questions of cultural impact and accommodation limits aside, the natural resources base upon which Dominica proposes to build its tourism industry is small and has a narrow tolerance of use. The diving area, for example, is only small while trails in the national parks require heavy maintenance, frequent repair and are easily damaged to the point of erosion -they become dangerous even at present use levels, during and after heavy rains which can be expected at almost any time.

The present season of low visitation in Dominica makes little sense and is one area in which action to increase visitation could be profitably pursued without much risk. Heavy orographic rainfall and the prospects of hurri- canes does practically restrict visita- tion to Dominica and the Caribbean generally to July to September inclu- sive. However, reduced visitation in the Caribbean in April to June is related to the reproductive behaviour of jellyfish which make the best beaches uncomfortable and unsafe. This fact is hardly relevant to Domini- ca, where the quality of the beaches is largely beside the point. The April to June period is probably the best time to visit the rainforest because it is the driest period when incidental streams are at their lowest and trails are driest and therefore stable, safe and least prone to damage.

Conclusions

Dominica is seeking to diversify its

economy at least in part through en- couragement of tourism. There is no reason why this should not be accom- plished although tourism is no panacea for economic ills. Dominica is a nation characterized by a history of geographic internal and international isolation resulting from limited econo- mic development. That technologies now exist to eliminate these barriers does not mean that the technologies can be easily applied without grave consequences. If Dominica is going to succeed in developing tourism, it must not be assumed that problems will take care of themselves as develop- ment proceeds.

The most difficult problem before Dominica is to identify its market, determine its extent and viability, and then develop a long-term working re- lationship with that market. A prob- lem closely related to market develop- ment is to differentiate Dominica from the stereotypic Caribbean destination. At the same time Dominica must iden- tify its carrying capacity both in terms of the physical and cultural limits of acceptable visitation. Unfortunately, Dominica’s difficult financial situation tends to create the view that all tourist revenue is good. Undoubtedly true today, uncontrolled market develop- ment could quickly sour the harvest. In any event increased visitation is likely to affect the visitors and their experience as much as Dominica’s cultural and physical welfare. Last, Dominica’s small economy dictates that expansion of visitation must be carefully coordinated with expansion of facilities supporting visitation. The successful melding of tourism and natural resources will involve the com- plicated integration of public policy and private enterprise. Investors must experience a return on their invest- ment quickly or they are Iikely to be out of business. Without careful plan- ning, therefore, tourism promises as much of a ‘boom and bust’ effect on the economy as agriculture has had.

G. W. Burnett, Professor and Muzaffer lJy.sal, Associate Professor

Clemson University Department of Parks, Recreation

and Tourism Management 263 Lehotsky Hall

Clemson, SC 29634- 1005, USA

TOURISM MANAGEMENT June 1991

Notes

We would like to acknowledge the re- search cooperation and assistance of the following individuals: Miss Norma Rolle, Promotion Officer, Division of Tourism; Mr W. Ken Alleyne, General Manager of National Development Corporation; Miss Linda Harris, President of Hotel/Motel Association and Managing Director of the Castaways Beach Hotel; and Mrs Anne Baptiste of Papillote Wilderness Retreat, Commonwealth of Dominica, West Indies. We would also like to thank the manager and personnel of Archbold Tropical Re- search Center of Clemson University for their gracious hospitality and assistance to us during our stay in Dominica.

‘M. Reime and C. Hawkins, ‘Tourism de- velopment: a model for growth’, Cornell H.R.A. Quarterly, Vol 20, May 1979, pp 67-74; M. Uysal and F. Topuzlu, ‘Trends in international tourism to Turkey’, Journal of Turkish Economy and Tourism, Vol 3, No 15, 1985, pp 19-23; and P.F. Wilkin- son, ‘Tourism in small island nations: a fragile dependence’, Leisure Studies, Vol 6, No 2, 1987, pp 127-141. 2J. Boissevain, ‘The impact of tourism on a dependent island: Gozp, Malta’, Anna/s of Tourism Research, Vol 4, No 1, 1979, pp 76-90; see also S. Holder ‘Buying time with tourism in the Caribbean’, Tourism Management, Vol 1, No 2,1980, pp 7fj-83; and R.K. Hope, ‘The Caribbean tourism sector: recent performance and trends’, Tourism Management, Vol 1, No 3, 1980, pp 175-i 83. 3D. Pearce, Tourism Today: A Geographic Analysis, Longman, London, UK, 1987; Tourism Management, March 1985, spe-

Reports

cial issue on island tourism; see also H. Latimer, ‘Developing island economies - tourism versus agriculture’, Tourism Man- agement, Vol 6, No 1, 1985, pp 32-42; J.H. Momsen. ‘Tourism and development in the Caribbean’, Mainzer Geographical Studies, Vol 26, 1985, pp 25-36; and P.F. Wilkinson ‘Strategies for tourism in island microstates’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 16, No 2, 1989, pp 153-177. 4L. Honeychurch, The Dominica Story.’ A History of the /s/and, The Dominica Insti- tute, Roseau, Dominica, 1984; and N. Har- riqan, ‘The Legacy of Caribbean history and tourism’, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol 2. No 1. 1974. DD 13-25. %J. Holzinger, .“Stephen Sayre and Frederick the Great: a proposal for a Prus- sian protectorate for Dominica’, William and Mary Quarterly, Vol37,1980, pp 302- 311. 6L.C. Harrison, ‘Dominica: a west tropical human habitat’, Economic Geography, Vol 11, 1935, pp 62-76. 7L. Honeychurch, Our /s/and Culture, Dominican National Cultural Council, Dominica, 1988. %Op cit. Ref 6; and ibid. ‘B.A. Marshall, ‘Maronage in slave planta- tion societies: a case study of Dominica, 1785-l 815’, Caribbean Quarterly, Vol 22, Nos 2-3, 1976, pp 26-32. ‘OS. McConaghy, ‘The soils of Dominica’, Proceedings of the Fifth West Indian Agri- cultural Economies Conference, Roseau, Dominica, 5-l 1 April 1970, pp 27-32; and W.H. Hodge, ‘The vegetation of Dominica’, The Geographic Review, Vol 33, 1943, pp 349-375. “A.D. McQuillan, ‘Accessibility and the development of export agriculture in Domi- nica’, Caribbean Geography, 1983, Vol 1, pp 149-163.

Cast studylRepom

‘20p c/t, Ref 6; and R.A. Myers, ‘Post- emancipation migrations and population change in Dominica: 1834-l 950, Revista tnteramericana, Vol 11, 1981, pp 87-l 09. 130p tit Ref & and R. Thompson, Green Gold: bananas and Dependency in the Eastern Caribbean, Latin America Bureau (Research and Action) Ltd, London, UK, 1987. “‘Op tit, Ref 6; P.L. Gomes, ‘Plantation dominance and rural dependence in Domi- nica’, in P.I. Gomes, ed, Rural Develop- ment in the Caribbean, C. Hurst, London, UK, 1985, pp 60-75; and op tit, Ref 4 15J.M. Marie, ‘Agricultural diversification in a small island economy: the case of Domi- nica’, tnstitute of Social and Economic Research Occasional Paper, No 10, University of West Indies, Cave Hill (Barbados), 1979. 16R Thompson, op cit. Ref 13. 17A: James, Freshwater Swamps and Mangrove Species in Dominica, Roseau: Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Commonwealth of Dominica, 1980. ‘60p tit, Ref 4. lgOp tit, Ref 6. 2oOp tit, Ref 6. “D.J. Dunn, M-Jose Edwards and D. Wil- liams, Vegetation of the Morne Trois Pitons National Park, Roseau: Department of Forestry and Wildlife, Commonwealth of Dominica, 1979. 22R.M. Wright, ‘Morne Trois Pitons Nation- al Park in Dominica: a case study in park establishment in the developing world’, Ecology Law Quarterly, Vol 12, 1985, pp 747-778. 23A. James, Flora and Fauna of the Cab&s Peninsula, Roseau: Forestry and Wildlife Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Common- wealth of Dominica, 1988. 240p tit, Ref 6.

Tourism policy in the new Germany The reunification of Germany presents challenges in many spheres - not least tourism. But it also offers opportunities to the new federal states formerly comprising the GDR. There is currently a great need for modernization and a better infrastructure. Travel and hospitality enterprises must adapt to a market economy and services be more closely geared to the wishes of the customer.

Professor Dr Armin Godau, Head of the Institute for Tourism Economy and the Friedrich List Hochschule in Dresden discusses how this might be brought about and looks at the prospects for tourism in Germany as a whole.

Even in the 1990s international tour- fication and democracy in Eastern ism enjoys the potential for real Europe. growth. For travel agents and tour The European Community (EC) is operators in particular, three things the most important area of competi- are likely to be top of the list: the tion for German tourists as a whole. European community, German reuni- Although no European tourism policy

yet exists, the competition created by the regulatory system is becoming ever clearer. The effects of deregula- tion in Europe are not just positive, they are going to create a truly free market. How will - how must - Ger- man travel agents, tour operators and distributors react, in order successfully to seek their chances in this market? for a long time, military vocabulary has been used and the talk has been of closing ranks and market strength. Fiercer price competition will be in- creasingly represented in terms of cost. Is there any alternative to the mega-carriers, mega-groups or mega- reservations systems? Perhaps. What should be clear is that technology is no substitute for marketing. Ultimately

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