Doing Sociology:Doing Sociology:Research MethodsResearch Methods

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Explain the steps in the sociological research process.Explain the steps in the sociological research process. Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the various research Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the various research

designs.designs. Know what independent and dependent variables are.Know what independent and dependent variables are. Know what sampling is and how to create a representative Know what sampling is and how to create a representative

sample.sample. Recognize researcher bias and how it can invalidate a study.Recognize researcher bias and how it can invalidate a study. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the various measures Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the various measures

of central tendency.of central tendency. Read and understand the contents of a table.Read and understand the contents of a table. Explain the concepts of reliability and validity.Explain the concepts of reliability and validity. Understand the problems of objectivity and ethical issues that Understand the problems of objectivity and ethical issues that

arise in sociological research.arise in sociological research.

  

The Primary Goals of ResearchThe Primary Goals of Research

Describe in detail particular characteristics Describe in detail particular characteristics and eventsand eventsPropose and test theories that help us Propose and test theories that help us understand these characteristics and eventsunderstand these characteristics and events

Research ProcessResearch Process

Define a problemDefine a problem Review previous research on the topicReview previous research on the topic Develop one or more hypothesesDevelop one or more hypotheses Determine the research designDetermine the research design Define the sample and collecting dataDefine the sample and collecting data Analyze and interpreting dataAnalyze and interpreting data Prepare the research reportPrepare the research report

Step 1: Define the ProblemStep 1: Define the Problem

Two types of Two types of questions that questions that will assist with will assist with defining the defining the problem:problem:

EmpiricalEmpirical

Ex: How do we measure Ex: How do we measure the existence of love?the existence of love?

OperationalOperational

Ex: What are some Ex: What are some features of love?features of love?

Empirical QuestionEmpirical Question Can be answered by observing and Can be answered by observing and

analyzing the world as it is knownanalyzing the world as it is known

Operational definitionOperational definition A definition of an abstract concept in terms A definition of an abstract concept in terms

of the of the observable featuresobservable features that describe that describe the thing being investigatedthe thing being investigated

Step 2:Step 2:Review Previous ResearchReview Previous Research

Examine all possible data sources to assure Examine all possible data sources to assure familiarity with all prior research.familiarity with all prior research.

Avoid duplicating a previous study Avoid duplicating a previous study Build on contributions others have madeBuild on contributions others have made

Step 3:Step 3:Develop One or More Develop One or More

HypothesesHypotheses

HypothesisHypothesis

A A testabletestable statement about the statement about the relationship relationship between two or more between two or more variables.variables.• Variable: Anything that can change (vary).Variable: Anything that can change (vary).

Examples: income; death rateExamples: income; death rate

Two Types of VariablesTwo Types of Variables

Independent Independent Causes or changes another variableCauses or changes another variable

DependentDependent Is influenced by the independent variableIs influenced by the independent variable

Example : Men who live in Example : Men who live in citiescities (location = (location = independent variable) are more likely to marry independent variable) are more likely to marry youngyoung (age = dependent variable) than are men (age = dependent variable) than are men who live in the country.who live in the country.

Two Hypothesis StatementsTwo Hypothesis Statements

1.1. Statement of causalityStatement of causality• Something brings about, influences, or changes something Something brings about, influences, or changes something

else.else. Ex: Love between man and woman always produces Ex: Love between man and woman always produces

marriage.marriage.

2.2. Statement of associationStatement of association• Changes in one thing are related to changes in Changes in one thing are related to changes in

another but one does not necessarily cause the another but one does not necessarily cause the other.other. Ex: If we propose that “the greater the love relationship Ex: If we propose that “the greater the love relationship

between a man and a woman, then the more likely it is they between a man and a woman, then the more likely it is they will marry,” we are making a statement of association. We are will marry,” we are making a statement of association. We are noting a connection between love and marriage, but also that noting a connection between love and marriage, but also that one does not necessarily cause the other.one does not necessarily cause the other.

Step 4:Step 4:Determine the research designDetermine the research design

Four primary methods of research used Four primary methods of research used by sociologists:by sociologists:

SurveySurvey Participant observationParticipant observation ExperimentExperiment Secondary analysisSecondary analysis

Survey ResearchSurvey Research

A method in which a population, or a A method in which a population, or a portion thereof, is questioned to reveal portion thereof, is questioned to reveal specific facts about itselfspecific facts about itself Surveys can be used to conduct two type of Surveys can be used to conduct two type of

studies:studies:• Cross-sectional study: Research across a Cross-sectional study: Research across a

population population at a given timeat a given time..• Longitudinal research: Research that investigates Longitudinal research: Research that investigates

a population a population over a period of time.over a period of time.

Types of SurveysTypes of Surveys

Objective QuestionsObjective Questions Seeking responses to specific, closed-ended questionsSeeking responses to specific, closed-ended questions

InterviewsInterviews Conversations between two or more individuals in which one Conversations between two or more individuals in which one

party attempts to gain information from the other by asking open-party attempts to gain information from the other by asking open-ended questions.ended questions.

Can beCan be StructuredStructured

• A research interview entirely predetermined by questionnaire that A research interview entirely predetermined by questionnaire that is followed rigidly is followed rigidly

Semi-structuredSemi-structured• In which the investigator asks a list of questions but is free to vary In which the investigator asks a list of questions but is free to vary

them or even to make up new questions on topics that can take them or even to make up new questions on topics that can take importance in the course of the interview.importance in the course of the interview.

Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

Researchers enter into a group’s activities Researchers enter into a group’s activities and observe the activities and actions of and observe the activities and actions of group members.group members.

ExperimentExperiment

An investigation in which the variables An investigation in which the variables being studied are controlled and the being studied are controlled and the researcher obtains the results through researcher obtains the results through precise observation and measurement.precise observation and measurement.

Secondary AnalysisSecondary Analysis

The process of making use of data that The process of making use of data that has been collected by others. has been collected by others. New studyNew study Further advancement of prior studyFurther advancement of prior study

Step 5:Step 5:Define Sample and Collect Define Sample and Collect

DataData Sampling: A research technique through Sampling: A research technique through

which investigators study a manageable which investigators study a manageable number of people, known as the sample, number of people, known as the sample, selected from a larger population or group. selected from a larger population or group. Sample must be representative of larger Sample must be representative of larger

population or there is possible population or there is possible sampling sampling error.error.

Types of SamplesTypes of Samples

RandomRandom Subjects selected so that each individual in Subjects selected so that each individual in

the population has an equal chance of being the population has an equal chance of being chosen. chosen.

Stratified Stratified Selection from groups to assure certain Selection from groups to assure certain

groups are not under- or overrepresented. groups are not under- or overrepresented.

Potential Problem?Potential Problem?

Research BiasResearch Bias The tendency for researchers to select data The tendency for researchers to select data

that support, and to ignore data that seem to that support, and to ignore data that seem to go against, their hypotheses.go against, their hypotheses.

Bias PreventionBias Prevention

Blind Investigators Blind Investigators do not know whether a do not know whether a specific subject belongs to the group of actual specific subject belongs to the group of actual cases being investigated or to a comparison cases being investigated or to a comparison group. group.

Double-blind investigators Double-blind investigators are kept are kept uninformed not only of the kinds of subjects uninformed not only of the kinds of subjects (case subjects or comparison group subjects) (case subjects or comparison group subjects) they are studying but also of the hypotheses they are studying but also of the hypotheses being tested. being tested.

Step 6:Step 6:Data Analysis and ConclusionData Analysis and Conclusion

Analysis Analysis The process through which large and The process through which large and

complicated collections of scientific data are complicated collections of scientific data are organized so that comparisons can be made organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn.and conclusions drawn.

Objective: Determine central tendency or Objective: Determine central tendency or mean mean

Central TendencyCentral Tendency

Three measures of central tendencyThree measures of central tendency

1.1. Mean = AverageMean = Average

2.2. Median = Midway in the series of numbersMedian = Midway in the series of numbers

3.3. Mode = The number that occurs often in the dataMode = The number that occurs often in the data

Objective of ConclusionObjective of Conclusion

ValidityValidity The study must actually test what it was The study must actually test what it was

intended to test.intended to test.• < .05 (margin of error)< .05 (margin of error)

ReliabilityReliability The findings of the study must be repeatable. The findings of the study must be repeatable.

Step 7: Prepare the Research Step 7: Prepare the Research ReportReport

Probable PublicationProbable Publication

Scientific JournalsScientific Journals• Peer ReviewPeer Review

Popular and semi-scientific periodicalsPopular and semi-scientific periodicals• Potential for misuse and/or distortionPotential for misuse and/or distortion

Research ObjectivityResearch Objectivity

Three influential factors that assist with Three influential factors that assist with imposing value on research: imposing value on research:

1.1. The scientific tradition within which the scientist is The scientific tradition within which the scientist is educated; educated;

2.2. The cultural, social, economic, and political The cultural, social, economic, and political environment within which the scientist is trained and environment within which the scientist is trained and engages in researchengages in research

3.3. The scientist’s own temperament, inclinations, The scientist’s own temperament, inclinations, interests, concerns, and experiences. interests, concerns, and experiences.

Gunnar Myrdal (1969)Gunnar Myrdal (1969)

Research EthicsResearch Ethics

Fundamental Questions:Fundamental Questions:

Whose interests are served?Whose interests are served? Who will benefit? Who will benefit? How might people be hurt?How might people be hurt? To what degree do subjects have the right to be fully To what degree do subjects have the right to be fully

informed?informed? Who should have access to and control over research Who should have access to and control over research

data after a study is completed be granted? data after a study is completed be granted? Should research subjects have the right to participate Should research subjects have the right to participate

in the planning of projects? in the planning of projects?

Research DilemmasResearch Dilemmas

Three potential dilemmas Three potential dilemmas

1.1. Degree of “permissible risk, pain, or harm”Degree of “permissible risk, pain, or harm”

2.2. Extent to which subjects should be deceived Extent to which subjects should be deceived in a study in a study

3.3. ““Disclosure of confidential or personally Disclosure of confidential or personally harmful informationharmful information””

Herbert Herbert GansGans

The Contribution of Research…The Contribution of Research…

……and the promise of sociologyand the promise of sociology

Promoting an understanding of individuals Promoting an understanding of individuals and the social world they inhabit and the social world they inhabit

Providing social planners with Providing social planners with scientific scientific informationinformation with which well-founded with which well-founded decisions can be made and sound plans for decisions can be made and sound plans for future development adoptedfuture development adopted