doi: 10.1590/permusi20163402listening and sensitively interacting with the viola and the violão in...

CASTRO,RenatoMoreiraVaronide.PerformanceandAutoethnographyinHistoricalEthnomusicology:DifferentiatingtheViolaandtheViolão.PerMusi.Ed.byFaustoBorém,EduardoRosseandDéboraBorburema.BeloHorizonte:UFMG,n.34,p.35‐61.

35

DOI:10.1590/permusi20163402

SCIENTIFICARTICLE

PerformanceandAutoethnographyinHistoricalEthnomusicology:DifferentiatingtheViolaandtheViolão

Performanceeautoetnografiaemetnomusicologiahistórica:diferenciandoaviolaeoviolão

RenatoMoreiraVaronideCastroQueen’sUniversityBelfast,NorthernIreland,[email protected]

Abstract:Thisarticleproposesthecombinationofperformanceandautoethnographyasalternativemethodstomakeuseofmusicalscoresconcerningtheviola(five‐courseguitar) and theviolão (six‐course guitar) inhistorical ethnomusicology.The authorperformsandrecordsthesamesetofsongsontheviolaandtheviolão,andbasedonthe multidimensionality of the interaction performer/instrument, writes anautoethnographydifferentiatinghisexperiencesinplayingatbothchordophones.Thisapproachstrivesforovercomingthedualitybody/mindinacademicmusicalresearchand comprises the embodied knowledge that arises from experience as acomplementary epistemology to the corpus of knowledge about these instruments.Moreover,itisaddedtheprofessionalviewpointofthevirtuosoviolaplayerIvanVilelawho, interviewed by the author, gives his impressions about the differences inergonomicsandplayingtechnicsbetweenthosechordophones.Keywords: viola and violão; embodied musical knowledge; autoethnography;historicalethnomusicology;IvanVilela.Resumo:Este artigo propõe a combinação de performance e autoetnografia comométodos alternativos para utilizar partituras musicais referentes à viola (de cincoordens de cordas duplas) e ao violão (de seis ordens de cordas simples) emetnomusicologiahistórica.Oautorexecutaegravasonoramenteomesmoconjuntodecanções na viola e no violão e, baseado‐se na multidimensionalidade da interaçãoinstrumentista/instrumento, escreve uma autoetnografia diferenciando suasexperiências em tocar ambos cordofones.Tal abordagemesforça‐se para superar adualidade corpo/mente em investigação musical acadêmica, valorizando oconhecimentovivenciadonocorpocomoepistemologiacomplementaraoconjuntodeconhecimentoshistóricossobreosreferidosinstrumentosmusicais.Ademais,inclui‐seopontodevistaprofissionaldovirtuosovioleiroIvanVilelaque,entrevistadopeloautor,apontadiferençasergonômicasetécnicasentreessescordofones.


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Palavras‐chave:violaeviolão;conhecimentomusicalvivenciadonocorpo;autoetnografia;etnomusicologiahistórica;IvanVilela.

Dataderecebimento:03/02/2016

Datadeaprovaçãofinal:04/04/2016

1‐Introduction

Inthisarticle,1Iapproachhistoricalmusicalsourcesconcerningtheviola(five‐course

guitar: Figure 1) 2 and the violão (six‐course guitar: Figure 2) 3 through musical

performance.Insteadofstructurallyorformallyanalyzingthemusicalscoresforthe

instruments,Ioptedforplayingsongsinscribedinsheetmusic,soundrecordingthem,

andthenwritinganautoethnographyofmyexperienceofplayingthesamesetofsongs

on theviolaand theviolão. I establisha comparisonbetween these instrumentsby

becomingawareofthesounds,techniques,embodiedsensationsandanyimpressions

that arise from the performances. I proceed by performing a repertoire which is

commontobothinstrumentsinturn,andpayingattentiontothewaysinwhichthe

experienceofperformancediffers.Myobjectiveisnottoelicitanhistoricallyinformed

performance using period instruments in the tradition of historical musicology or

‘earlymusic’ performance. Rather, assuming amulti‐dimensional interaction of the

performerwiththemusicalinstruments,Iinvestigatemyownexperienceofplaying,

1ThispaperhasbeensupportedbyFAPEMA(FundaçãodeAmparoàPesquisaeDesenvolvimentoCientíficodoMaranhão).2ThetermviolainPortugueselanguagehasbeenusedtodesignateamyriadoforganologicallydifferentchordophones.However,inBrazil,violarefers,mostly,toaneightshaped,five‐coursed,doublemetallicstringspluckedchordophonefromthelutefamily.Thereisalsotheviolafromtheviolinfamily,butthisisnottheobjectofstudyofthisarticle.3Violãomeans literally big viola in Portuguese language. It is a six‐stringed single coursed pluckedchordophonefromthelutefamily.ThesameinstrumentthatisknowninFrenchbyguitare;inGermanbygitarre;Italianbychitarra;andSpanishbyguitarra(TURNBULLandSPARKS,2014).Thesix‐stringguitarwasnotsimplynamedguitarrainPortugalfortworeasons:Firstly,therehadbeenaverypopulareight‐shaped plucked chordophone called viola in existence from at least the sixteenth century.Secondly, inPortugal therewas already an instrument called guitaror ‘Portuguese guitar’ (guitarraportuguesa)thatwasapear‐shaped,flatback,pluckedchordophone.Itisimportanttohighlightthatthesix‐courseguitarinPortugalisdistinguishedbyregion,beingreferredtoasviolãointhenorth,andviolainthesouthofthecountrywheretheviolasdisappeared(OLIVEIRA,2000).


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listeningandsensitively interactingwith theviola and theviolão inperformance to

grasphowtheydifferfromoneanother.

Figure1:Viola(five‐courseguitar).Source,Modinha:RaízesdaMúsicadoPovo,1985.

Figure2:Violão,GuitarraorGuitar(six‐courseguitar).AntoniodeTorresJurado1859‐ Seville. Museu de la música de Barcelona. Source: MIMO ‐ musical instrumentmuseumsonline.


38

Inaddition,IinterviewIvanVILELA,oneofthemostacclaimedvioleiros(violaplayers)

inBrazil,andfocusuponhisimpressionsofthedifferencesbetweenplayingtheviola

andtheviolão.BothVILELAandIhadfirstlearnedtoplaytheviolãoandlatertheviola.

VILELA became a renowned professor, composer, arranger and virtuoso of the

instrument.Whilemyinterestinlearningtheviolawasmethodological,itwasatoolto

becomeacquaintedwiththeinstrumentandmakesenseoftheextenttowhichitdiffers

from theviolão. Being informedby the subjectivity of bothmusic‐makingpractices

enabledmetoaddapracticalembodiedperspectivetothecorpusofknowledgeabout

theseinstrumentsinBrazil.

Learninghowtoplayaninstrumentisnotanewmethodologyinethnomusicology.It

hasbeendiscussedandappliedbymanyauthors suchasHOOD(1960),BLACKING

(1973), BERLINER (1993), BAILY (2001, 2008) and others. In their works they

emphasize the importance of the performance as a means of improving their

knowledgeaboutmusic,cultureandsociety.Inthisarticle,however,Iintendtoshow

thatplayinganinstrumentcanbepartofpredominantlyarchivalmusicalresearch:it

isawayof‘experiencing’thearchiveorthedocumentcollectedandgaininginsights

duringtheprocess.Inthisapproach,reflectionsuponplayingandmusicalexperiences

will be combined in an autoethnographic process, as I consider the intersections

betweentext,musicalityandembodiment.

Inthefirstpartofthisarticle,Idiscussperformanceasatoolforgainingknowledgeof

a musical culture. From the analysis of performance in fieldwork, I derive the

interactionofhuman/instrumentandthe‘ergonomics’ofmusic,assuggestedbyBAILY

(2001,2008)asaperformativeroutetowardshistoricalawarenessoftheviolaandthe

violão. This perspective draws attention to the embodied knowledge provided by

musicalexperience,whichaddslayersofcomprehensiontothemusicalphenomena,

overcoming the traditional dichotomy of body and mind in a musical analysis

(FINNEGAN, 2012). In the second section, I examine the ways in which

autoethnography has been conceptualized, focusing on the work of Carolyn ELLIS

(2004,2011).AutoethnographyforELLISassumesthescholarlytextasaliteraryform

andopensthepossibilityfortheresearchertoinvestigateandvalorizehisorherown


39

experienceintheworldinrelationtobroadersocialandculturalissues,byproducing

aformoftextthatissimultaneouslypersonalandsocial.Inthethirdsegment,Idiscuss

the criteria adopted to perform the songs found in manuscripts from the past.

AfterwardsIprovideanautoethnographicnarrativeofmyexperienceofplayingboth

instrumentsandfinally,IcontemplateVILELA’smultidimensionalperceptionsabout

thedifferencesbetweentheviolaandtheviolãogivingabalancedassessmentofmy

experienceofplayinginrelationtoVILELA’sperspectivesofthedifferencesbetween

theviolaandtheviolão.

2‐Performanceasmethodology

HOOD (1960) defended the importance of learning to perform with a musical

instrumentasascholarlytoolforgainingknowledgeofamusicalculture.Heargued

that the student should face the process which he called “the challenge of bi‐

musicality.”ForHOOD,ascholartrainedinaparticularmusicaltraditionisconditioned

bylongpracticewithinthosemusicalconventions,inwayswhichmaycreatebarriers

fortheunderstandingofothertraditions.Inaddition,whilstEasternershavebecome

proficientinWesterntraditions,suchasEuropeanClassicalmusic,manyWesterners

interested in other musical cultures act more as passive observers of a different

musicalcultureratherthanactuallybecomingproficientinthatmusicaltradition.Yet

HOODcontendedthatthedegreeoffamiliarityofaresearcherwithamusicaltradition

isrelatedtohisorherdedicationtothepracticeofthatmusicalculture.“Ifhisdesire

is to comprehend a particular...musical expression so that his observations and

analysisasamusicologistdonotprovetobeembarrassing,hewillhavetopersistin

practical studies until his basic musicianship is secure” (HOOD, 1960, p.58).

Nonetheless,HOODrecognizedthatthetermbi‐musicalityaswellas“tri‐musicality”

or“quadri‐musicality,”waspossiblynotthemostappropriatetodescribewhatinfact

wouldbeonlyanenlarged“Musicality.”

InformedbyHOOD’sassertionofperforming,orlearningtoplayamusicalinstrument,

as a valid ethnomusicological methodology during the 1960’s and wanting to use


40

performanceasaresearchtechniqueinhisstudyofAfghanmusicduringthe1970’s,

JohnBAILYwrotealettertoBLACKINGaskingwhetherthatideawasstillvalidatthat

time(1972).BLACKINGreplied:“Farfrombeingout‐of‐date,learningtoperformand

playmusicisabasicfieldtechniqueinethnomusicology.Wearestilltryingtoestablish

itasanecessarymethodologicaltool,becauseseveralfieldstudiesarebeingcarried

out without it even today” (BLACKING, 1972, cited in BAILY, 2001: 88). However,

BLACKING (1973)contendedthatperformancecannotbeanend in itself, rather it

shouldbeamethodofunderstandingmusicalconceptsandpotentially,therelations

betweenmusicandsociety.Hearguedthatinordertodiscoverthemusicalprinciples

ofagenre“onlyalimitedamountoftimecanbespentonperformance,enoughtoget

thefeelofthemusicandtheproblemsinvolvedinplayingit”(BLACKING,1973b:215,

citedinBAILY,2008:120).

FollowingBLACKING’sguidance,andhavinglearnttoplaysomeAfghanchordophones,

BAILY (2001) contends that the researcher should have a clear conception ofwhy

performanceisavalidmethodformusicalstudy,andthewaysthatitcontributesto

the interpretationofmusical cultures.Heexplains that striving to learn theAfghan

dutâr and the rubâb gave him many insights in Afghan music. He realized how

characteristicsoftherepertoireforeachinstrumentweremodifiedbytheirrespective

morphology. “Thetechnicalproblemsthatariseby learningtoperformmayalsobe

very revealing about the ‘ergonomics’ of themusic, showing how it fits the human

sensor‐motorsystemandtheinstrument’smorphology”(BAILY,2001,p.94). Inthis

matter, BAILY (2008, p.123) adds that the ways in which the human/musical

instrumentinterfaceinteractallowmanypossibilitiesofsoundmakingfor,“Amusical

instrument is a type of transducer, converting patterns of body movement into

patternsofsound.”Headdsthatthelearningprocessallowedhimtounderstandhow

people learnt toplaythe instruments in thatcultureandgavehimapositioninthe

societythathecouldnothaveaccessedbeforebecomingaperformer.Furthermore,

learning to play the chordophones transformed him in to a ‘live archive’ for that

musicalculture(BAILY,2001).


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In a more recent publication, BAILY (2008) foresees a more performative

ethnomusicologyinthefuture,oranethnomusicologythatgivesmoreimportanceto

technicallycompetentinstrumentalproficiencyinacertainmusicalculture,andwhich

would,tosomeextent,convergewithmusicologicalinterestsinperformance.BAILY

argues that alongside writing, multimedia, or documented recordings; a high

performance proficiency can be a way of deepening musical knowledge and the

communication of musical understanding in ethnomusicology. He proposes an

alternative name for HOOD’s bi‐musicality, suggesting the term “Intermusability”

instead,where “inter” stands for “more than one,”while “musability” refers to the

contractionoftheterm“musical”and“ability”(BAILY,2008,p.132).

Myownapproachdoesnotassertthathighlyskilledmusicalproficiencyisnecessary

forthehistoricalinterpretationofmusicalscores,butIdocontendthatanyinteraction

withtheinstrument,independentoftheproficiencylevel,can‘open’theperceptionof

theresearchertothepossibilitiesofacertaininstrumentandperhapstothemusical

cultureofwhichitisapart.Iarguethatperformanceisavalidmethodevenwhenone

doesnothaveaccesstoearlymusicalinstrumentsbutnotethatthereareparticular

constraints to these methods. I recognize that interaction with instruments is

constrainedbytheimpossibilityofknowingthe‘actual’techniqueusedtoplaythem

andthattheimprecisionorincompletenessofthescoresmayalsonotallowadetailed

interpretationofthemusic.Nevertheless,theproceduresofperformingandcomparing

differencesbetweentheviolaandtheviolãocanbeinformativeforrevealingaspects

‘hidden’inperformance.Throughtheawarenessofmultidimensionalsensationsand

feelings, this approach accords with the ideas of musical experience as a form of

knowledge.AsFINNEGAN(2012,p.362)says:“Wedonothavetoaccepttheoldbody‐

mindpolaritiestorecognizethatsoundresonatesinthebody,andthattheexperience

ofmusic includesitscorporealengagements”,addingthatthemusicalexperiencein

the body is often “multimodal” and that “these complexmultimodalities deserve a

central rather than amarginal place in our experience‐ful analyses ofmusic.” This

approachisusefulinethnomusicologicallyormusicologically‐orientedresearch,since

notplayingthe instrumentsbeingstudiedcannotbemore informativethanplaying

them.


42

Whilst, on the one hand, an awareness of the interaction of human/instrument in

performancecanberevealing,ontheotherhand,thewaysinwhichtheanalysisand

interpretationsarerendered,thatis,thewaysthetextisconstructed,canalsoinfluence

the knowledge produced. When ‘authentic’ musical reconstruction is not possible

eitherduetoalackofmusicexamplestofolloworbecauseofthefragilityorrarityof

instruments which can no longer be played, it is understandable that sonic

representationmaybeabsent.However,Iwishtoprovideacorrectivetothisproblem

and show how sonic engagement can be achieved from the encounter of two

approaches:performanceexperienceandautoethnographicanalysis.

3‐Autoethnography

Ethnomusicologistshaverecognizedtheimportanceofperformanceorlearninghow

toplayamusical instrumentasaprivilegedmethodforgraspingmanyaspectsofa

musicalculture.Thispractice,though,allowsnotone,butmanypossibilitiesofwhat

andhowtoobserve,analyze,interpretandrepresent.Inotherwords,asimportantas

thefocusoftheperformanceis,itishowtheethnographer’sexperienceisrendered

andmediatedthatiskey.

CarolynELLIS(2004,p.xix)definesautoethnographyas:“research,writing,story,and

method that connects the autobiographical andpersonal to the cultural, social, and

political”.Itcanbeunderstoodasakindofethnographywhichseekstograspcultural

phenomenaby focusingupon the experience of thenarrator. It assumes that if the

investigatorispartofcultureandsociety,hisstorywillrelatetobroaderissuesinthat

society being reflected in his/her “multiple layers of consciousness” (ELLIS and

BOCHNER,2000,p.739).Autoethnographycanbeconsideredaprocess,aswellasa

productofinvestigationthatinspiteofusinganyavailableevidenceintheconductof

research,radicallyassumesthevoiceofthewriterintotheacademictextembracing

the author’s subjectivity and accepting completely the literary form of scholarly

writing(ELLIS,2004).Autoethnographydemandsawarenessofone’sown“physical


43

feelings, thoughts and emotions.” It could be defined as a “systematic sociological

introspection” and “emotional recall” (ELLIS, 2004, p.xvii) to understand the

experienceonehasundergone.

Sheila TRAHAR (2009) contends that autoethnography, as explained by ELLIS and

BOCHNER(2000),isconvergentwiththeprinciplesof‘narrativeinquiry’foradmitting

thatthestoryofthenarratorisinherenttotheresearch.Givingageneralexplanation

ofhowautoethnographerswork,ELLIS(2004)says:

[Autoethnographers] lookthroughanethnographicwideangle lens,focusing outward on social and cultural aspects of their personalexperiences;then,theylookinward,exposingavulnerableselfthatismoved by and moves through, refracts, and resists culturalinterpretations.As theyzoombackwardsand forwards, inwardandoutward,distinctionsbetweenthepersonalandtheculturalbecomeblurred, sometimes beyond distinct recognition (ELLIS, 2004,p.37,38).

Inthisactionofouterandinnercontextualizedinspection,autoethnographycontests

thedualismbetweenbodyandmindthatiswidespreadinconventionalacademictexts.

Theawarenessofthebodyortheembodiedknowledgeoftheethnographerplaysan

important role in autoethnography, and it is especially interesting in research

concerned with music‐making due to the obvious use of the body to make music

(BARTLEETandELLIS,2009).

Another concern of autoethnographic and musical enquiry is the difficulty of

expressing or communicating lived events, for in both areas the “experiences are

always dynamic, relational, embodied and highly subjective,” and it is particularly

troublingwhenmusicratherthanwords,actsasthemainmediaoftransmission.For

ELLIS,autoethnographywithitsrootsinsystematicalethnographicmethods“reaches

forfeeling,evocationandembodimentinitsnarrativepresentation...thoughitcanpave

theway”foramusicenquiryconcernedwiththesameelements.“Autoethnography

freesmusiciansfromthenecessityofwritingdrydescriptionsandreportsofmusical

experiences.Rather,thisapproachencouragesthemtoconveythemeaningsofvibrant

musicalexperiencesevocatively”(BARTLEETandELLIS,2009,p.9).


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4‐Selectingthesongs

Consideringthelackofmusicalscoresfortheviolaandtheviolão inthefirsthalfof

nineteenthcenturyBrazil, ifIwantedtoplaymusicwrittenfortheinstruments,the

possibilitiescomprisedfivePortuguesehistoricalsourceswithmusicfortheviolaor

other plucked chordophones. Three of them, the ‘Coimbra codex’, the ‘Gulbenkian

codex’,andthe‘CondedeRedondocodex’,wereestimatedtohavebeenwritteninthe

lateseventeenthcenturyandearlyeighteenthcentury(BUDASZ,2001).Althoughthey

couldhavebeenuseful,Ididnotchoosethemfortheywereissuedinaperiodwhen

thesix‐courseguitarortheviolãohadnotyetbeenfullydevelopedandthereforewere

notthebestcollectionsforcomparingperformancesontheseinstruments.4

A ‘fourth’optionwas themanuscriptMS1596named ‘ModinhasdoBrasil,’ foundby

GerardBÉHAGUEinthe1960sintheLibraryofAjudainPortugal.Thismanuscriptis

undatedbutisbelievedtohavebeenpublishedin1793.5Itscontent,ofthirtyBrazilian

modinhas6, for continuo and two sopranos, has a strong Brazilian character in the

melodyandlyrics.7Thereisnoindication,however,oftheinstrumentthatshouldbe

usedforaccompaniment.ForBÉHAGUE,thepiecesaretobeaccompaniedbytheviola,

whichhereferstoastheguitar.BÉHAGUEjustifieshisinterpretationinthewaythe

musiciswrittenin“broken‐chordfigures[and]occasionalfiguredbass”whatforhim

wouldbeakindofaccompanimentmoresuitabletotheviola(BÉHAGUE,1968,p.59).

Inadifferentinterpretationofthesamemanuscript,EdilsondeLIMA(2001)argues

that,dependingonthesongselected,themanuscriptsuggestsadifferentinstrument

4Thesix‐coursesingle‐stringedguitarwasconsolidatedasthe‘classicalguitar’or,‘guitar’,only,inthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyinEurope.Theinstrumentgrewinsizeandreacheditsclassicalformin the second half of the nineteenth centurywith new techniques of construction employed by theSpanishLuthierAntoniodeTorresJurado(1817‐1892)(HENRIQUE,2002;TURNBULLandSPARKS,2014).5SeeBÉHAGUE(1968).6Modinhaisaderivation(diminutive)oftheword“mote”ormotif,ageneraltermtodenominatesong.Themodinhacrossedcenturieskeepingitslyricandsentimentalcharacterandaccompaniedsong(inPortugalandBrazil),buthadnotdefinedform.AlongsidethelunduitcanbeconsideredsomeofthefirstmusicalexpressionsofaBraziliansocietyandsometimesthe‘sentimental’modinhaandthe‘sensual’lunduhadnotclearstylisticdifference.(OLIVEIRA,2001).7Moreanalysis,concerningtheBraziliancharacterofthesongsinthemanuscriptMS1596,canbefoundinBÉHAGUE(1968)andSANDRONI(2001).


45

togiveharmonicsupportforthemodinhas.Heidentifiesthepossibleuseoftheviola,

violão,andkeyboardaccompaniments.Despitehavingnoindicationofthecomposer,

thelyricsofatleasttwomodinhasinthemanuscript,numbers‘6’and‘16’,arebelieved

to have beenwritten by themulatto Carioca priest, poet, composer and performer

DomingosCaldasBarbosa(1740‐1800)(TINHORÃO,2004).

The last choiceofamusical scorearguablywritten forviola accompaniment,wasa

codexcalled‘MúzicaescolhidadaVioladeLereno’datingfrom1799.ThisPortuguese

manuscripthas forty‐onemodinhas andromances arranged for theviola,violão and

otherchordophones(MORAIS,2003).ThenameLereno,orLerenoSelinuntino,was

the nickname of the Carioca priest Caldas Barbosa (previously mentioned), who

achievedsuccessinPortugal,andwhoby1780hadbecomefamousinthecourtofD.

MariaIforhisperformancesoftheso‐calledBrazilianmodinhasandlundus8withviola

accompaniment (TINHORÃO, 2004). In addition to the codexes mentioned above,

anothermusicalsourcefortheviolaistheviolatutor,ANovaArtedeViola(TheNew

ArtoftheViola),from1789.Thebookhasmusicalexamplesproposedbytheauthor

asexercisesintheinstructionofhowtoplaytheviola.Themusicinthebookcomprises

threeminuetsandonemodinha,forstudentstopractice.

Afterpreliminaryreadingandperformanceofthesongsfromthecodices,Modinhasdo

Brasil,theMuzicaEscolhidadaVioladeLereno,andthebookAnovaArtedeViola,my

decision aboutwhich songs, and the number of songs to play’ and recordwas not

straightforward.IcouldnotfindanyspecificcriteriaastohowImightchoosefromthe

seventy‐fivesongsavailableinthosemanuscripts.AsIpreferredsometunesmorethan

others, IdecidedthatmycriteriawouldbetowriteaboutthesongsImostenjoyed

playing.IfIcouldperformandrecordthewholerepertoireavailablefortheviolainthe

codexesandbooks, thiswould seem tobe themost comprehensivemethodological

strategy,butIsoonrealizedthatitwouldtakealongtimetobecomefluentinthislarge

8Lundusorlunduisoneofthethreeprimarydancegenresdeveloped(alongsidethefofaandthefado)bywithesandmestizoBraziliansundertheinfluenceoftherhythmandchoreographyofAfricanandCreolebatuques.Fromthelundudancewasdevelopedthelundu‐canção(lundusong)accompaniedattheviola(TINHORÃO,2008).


46

repertoire, resulting ultimately in a different work, one devoted exclusively to the

performanceofthatmusic.Theuncertaintyremainedforawhile,andIwondered,ifI

would be better able to compare the two practices from the perspective of a

professionalperformer.Thiswasnottobestraightforward,however.Mybackground

as a performer was in playing the violão, electric guitar, percussion, and singing

Brazilianpopularmusic.Therefore,learninghowtoplaytheviolareasonablywellwas

enoughachallengingmethodologicaltoolfortakingadvantageofthedataavailable.

Sincemymainobjectivewastoexperiencethedifferencesbetweenplayingtheviola

andtheviolão,therewasnojustificationforspendingagreatamountoftimelearning

toplayasmanysongsaspossible,atleastnotwithinthescopeofthisstudy.Itwasnot

justthenumberofsongsperformedthatwoulddeterminedifferencesbetweenboth

instruments,butmyawarenessoftheexperienceofplayingthem.Duringtheprocess

oflearningtherepertoire,Iplayedmanysongswithdifferingdegreesofproficiency

butrecordedonlyfiveofthem,makingatotaloftentracks,fiveontheviolaandthe

same five on the violão. This limited number of songs was due to the challenging

experience of recording that changedmy relationshipwith the instrument and the

musicIwasplaying.Toperforminformally,orevenformallyasamethodologicaltool

and then to write about the consequent impressions, has a different weight and

meaningwhencomparedwithaperformance thatwillbesound‐recorded. Inother

words,thinkingthatIwasgoingtogivearenditionthatwouldbecomeapermanent

recordmadeevery‘imprecision’or‘inaccuracy’ofthesoundamajorconcern.Iwanted

therenditiontobe‘right,’‘clean‘andwithouttheslightest‘mistake.’Butitwasdifficult

todecidewhatthemusicalcriteriawouldbetoachievethebestorrightrendition.

I sought to record theperformancesbecausehavingaccess to the songs allows the

interestedonestoperceivenuancesthatImightheardifferentlyorthereadermaybe

inspiredtotrytoplaythesamesongsandcomparetheirversionswithmyrenditions.9

Finally,thedecisiontorecordthesongsontheviolaandviolãowasamethodological

9Thesongswillbeavailableforthosewhocontactthisauthor.


47

onewhichdemonstrates thatmystudyof thedifferencesof these instrumentswas

groundedinactualperformances.

Allsongsselectedfromthecodexeswerecopied,revised,andtranscribedintomodern

musicalnotationby contemporaryauthors. Scholars suchasBUDASZ (2001), LIMA

(2001),andMORAIS(2003),havedevotedentirebookstothereconstructionandre‐

editingofthatmusic,makingtheirworksahelpfulreferenceforthemodernplayerof

that repertoire.10The originalmanuscripts, aswell as those published in facsimile,

generatemanyambiguitiesregardingthepositionofthenotesonthescore,andthe

rhythmicfigures.11Usingthemoderneditionstoperformthesongs,Ifirsttriedtoplay

theaccompanimentasitwaswritten,butsometimestheharmonypartdidnotclearly

showtherhythmicpattern,insteadthescoreseitherdisplayedthebassofthechordin

eachtempoofthemeasure,oronlyone longbassnoteforthewholemeasure.This

notationdidnotmeanthatoneshouldplayexactlythewayitwaswritten,rather,it

was a convention to indicate the chord and/or the inversion of the chord (LIMA,

2001).12

Anotheraspectofthemusicisthatitwaswrittenmostlytobesungbytwosopranos

inparallel,eventhoughbeingasalongenremanypeoplesangitinchoruswhenthey

wereperforminginsocialevents(TINHORÃO,2004).Icouldonlysingthefirstvoiceof

themelodyandIrealizedthattherewasnopointinplayingexactlywhatwaswritten

sinceIassumedthatthemusicalscorewasonlyapossibleinscriptionfromamusical

practicethatwasmostlybasedinoralpractice.Ialsogeneratedanaccompanimentfor

theviolaandtheviolãothatsometimesdifferedandsometimescoincidedonthetwo

instruments(asexplainedbelow).Myintentionwasneithertocreateanentirelynew

harmonyandharmonicrhythm,nortomakethemmorecomplexor‘sophisticated’by

10Intheseauthors’publicationstheprocessofreconstructionofthemusicalmanuscriptsisdiscussedindetail.11My inspection of themanuscripts,MuizicaEscolhidadaVioladeLereno (1799) and theCondedeRedondoCodexinthePortugueseNationalLibraryinLisbon(2010),attesttotheirvagueness.12TerELLINGSONdiscussestheuseofwrittennotationtorepresentthesoundofmusic.Theauthorargues that “the search for an understanding of notations requires a consideration of the musicalpracticestowhichtheyreferandtotheconceptsandintentionsoftheirusers...”(ELLINGSON,1992,p.156).FormorediscussionsontheroleofmusicalscoresindifferentmusicalculturesseeNETTL(1983,2005).


48

addingchordsandnotestotheharmonyindicated.Rather,Iusedthewrittenharmonic

progressionasageneralguidelineforthesongs’cadences,andbasedonthisframe,

and always respecting the inversion of the chords indicated, created a rhythmic

harmonicaccompanimentthatIfeltwasappropriateforthesongs.

Oneoftheinterestingaspectsofthosemodinhas,astheywereinscribedinthecodices,

istheshortlengthofthemelodyandlyrics.ForsomemusicologistssuchasMORAIS

(2003),thereasonsforthisarethatthesongshadastrongimprovisatorycharacter

and short strophes could serve as themes to be expanded in the performance

depending upon the inspiration of the singer and repeatedmany times during the

sessions, facilitating improvisation and encouraging participation. From the book

MuzicaEscolhidadaVioladeLereno(MORAIS,2003)Ihavechosenthemusicalscores

offoursongs:Basta,Pensamento,Basta(Figure3);QuandonoCampoVivia(Figure4);

Amor, Eu Venho Pedir‐te (Figure 5) and A DeosNynfas Bellas (Figure 6). From As


49

ModinhasdoBrasil (LIMA, 2001) I have chosen the songCupidoTirano (Figure 7).

Figure3:MyreplicationfromMORAIS(2003,p.150)


50

Figure4:MyreplicationfromMORAIS(2003,p.130).



51


Figure7:MyreplicationfromLIMA(2001,p.189).


52

5‐Differentiatingexperiencesinplayingtheviolaandthe

violão

Inplayingtechniquethevioladiffersgreatlyfromtheviolãoasitsshapeisgenerally

smallerandshallower.Myownchordophonesareverydifferentinstrumentsbutthey

have the general qualities of typical instruments in their respective organological

families,13as follows: I have a five‐course double string: ‘ViolaCaipiraProfessional’

fromthebrandRozini,manufacturedinBrazilin2010.Onthemanufacturer’swebsite

there are twenty‐five different sizes and shapes of violas displayed. All of them,

however,havethesamenumberofstrings(ten),thesamequantityofcourses(five),

andthesamequalityofthestrings(wireorsteelstrings).TheviolãoIusedtoperform

andrecordwasanYamahamodelNCX900Relectro‐acousticinstrument,withsixnylon

strings,madeinChinain2011.

Thetuningoftheseinstrumentsisverydissimilar.Thiscontrastalonecreatesmany

differencesintheexperienceofplaying,fortheformationofchordsontheneckofthe

violão is different to that on the viola. The violão has a more standardized tuning

system,fromwhichIbasedmytuning,fromthefirsttothesixthstring(e/b/g/D/

A/E).Theviolaisnormallyplayedinagreatvarietyoftunings.BUDASZ(2001)lists

twotuningsfortheviolainBrazilandoneinPortugalthatherelatestooldertunings

forthefive‐courseguitarfoundinEurope.14VILELA(2010)notesthatthereareatleast

twenty different ways of tuning the viola in Brazil. Many varieties are based on

PortuguesetuningswhilstothersdevelopedwithinBrazil.Inthesamevein,CORRÊA

(2000)identifiesamultitudeoftuningsfortheviolainBrazil.Themostpopularviola

tuninginruralareasinBrazilisarguablythecebolãoinDorinE.Thetermcebolão,

literally,‘bigonion’alludestotheprofessionalactivity(agriculturalworkers)ofmany

13Despitetheirhistoricalvariability,theviolaandtheviolãomaintainthegeneralcharacteristicsfromtheir roots. See Oliveira (2000), VILELA (2011) and CASTRO (2007; 2014) for more organologicalanalysisoftheviolasandviolõesinBrazilandinPortugal.14SeeBUDASZ(2001,p.14).


53

violaplayersinruralareasofthecountry.ThecebolãotuninginDthatIusedonthe

viola formyrecordingisfromthefirsttothefifthcourse:(ddaaF#f#DdAa).After

tryingmanytunings,Idecidedtousethisarrangement,forifItunedtheviolabasedon

theclassicalviolãotuning,assuggestedbyRIBEIRO(1789),15whichatfirstseemedan

easier performance option since chord formation would be the same on both

instruments, itmade thestringsunbearably tight,giving the impressionthatatany

momenttheycouldsnap,andtheinstrumentdidnotsoundasgoodaswhenretuned

tocebolãoD.

Asaviolãoandelectricguitarplayer,Ibelievedthatasmallerinstrumentinsomesense

wouldnotchallengemyperformancecapacities.Ofcourse,Iknewthattheviolahas

beenplayedbyhighly‐skilledplayersperformingtechnicallydifficultrepertoires.Ivan

Vilela, Roberto Corrêa, Almir Sater, RenatoAndrade, TavinhoMoura, or Pereira da

Viola’scompositionsandrenditionsarenotableexamples.16Nevertheless, Ibelieved

thatplayingarepertoireofmodinhas,wouldnotbedifficult,sinceitwouldbeonlya

matterofadaptingfromtheviolãototheviola.Iwasgreatlymistaken,andthedelusion

concerningthesimplicityoftheviolaendedwhenIfinallydecidedtoplayanentireset

ofsongsandsingatthesametimeaccompanyingmyselfontheinstrument.Whatwas

arelativelysimpletaskwhenIwasplayingtheviolãorevealedanewrealityinvolving

anotheruniverseofmusicalpossibilities.

Somemusicologists tendto traceanevolutionary line fromthemostbasic formsof

musical instruments to the most advanced, as if older instruments were

underdeveloped modern ones. The viola, when mentioned, is normally seen as a

‘primitive’chordophoneinanevolutionaryhistoryoftheclassicalguitar(violão).17I

contendthatthiskindofperspectiveisunawareof,orfailstoincludeinitshistorical

construction,theperformers’perspectivesregardingtheseinstruments.Anapparently

15Inhisviolatutor,ManueldaPaixãoRibeirosuggestedthetuning(ee/bd/Gg/Dd/Aa)fortheviola,whatissimilartotheclassicalguitartuning.16TheseareacclaimedcontemporaryviolaplayersandcomposersinBrazil.17Onecanfindevolutionaryapproachestothehistoryoftheguitarintheworksof:TYLERandSPARKS(2002);GRUNFELD(1969);EVANSandEVANS(1977)and,TURNBULL(1974).


54

‘simple’taskcanrevealagreatdealaboutthedifferencesoftheinstrumentsandallow

complementaryinterpretationsofthehistoricaltracesavailable.

Theviolafeelsmoreresponsivethantheviolão.Whichmeansthatwhenonestrikes

thestringsoftheviola itseemsthatthesoundproducedreachestheearsquickerif

comparedwith theviolão.For instance,withoutpressinganynoteon thescale, the

slightest stroke on the strings or any impact on the body of the instrument

(deliberatelyoraccidentally)makethestringspromptlyvibrateinafullchordsound,

providingtheinstrumentistunedincebolão(DorE),oranyothertuningsystemthat

issettosoundachordwiththeopenstrings.Incontrast,whenIstrikethebodyofthe

violão or its strings unintentionally, the sound is not as responsive. Another stark

contrastistheeffectcausedbythewaythatthethird,fourth,andfifth,double‐string

coursesaretunedandplacedontheviola.Theyaretunedtothesamepitchbutwith

anoctaveintervalbetweenthestringsinthesamecourse.Yetthetreblestringsare

placed above the bass strings in the pairs of the mentioned courses.18 The sound

producedbythisarrangementsubvertsmydispositionasaviolãoplayer;forwhenI

hitthefifthorfourthcourseoftheviolaexpectingtolistentoabassnote,aswouldbe

thecasewhileplayingtheviolão, thetreblestringplacedalongsidethebassgivesa

different character to the sound of the instrument. I perceive the sound as if it is

simultaneouslymelodicandharmonic.Thiscreatesanambiguoussonorityas if the

viola‘sings’evenintheaccompaniment.Ontheviolão,thetemperamentofthestrings

makesitclearthatthebassnoteswillbeonthethreeuppercourseswhilethe‘singing’

melodic linewill be on the lower three.Whilst it is technicallypossible to sounda

melody inany rangeofpitches, thebassnoteson theviolão areprimarilyused for

definingharmonyontheinstrument.

AsIgrewupinurbancentersinBrazil,Iunderstoodthattheviolaalwaysreferenced

musicbelongingtothedomainsoftheruralandthefolk.Ihavebeenunabletoavoid

this inference when hearing the sound of the instrument or playing it, until this

research.Itsoundsmetallic,asitshould,asaresultofthematerialqualityofthestrings,

18Thethird,fourthandfifthcoursesoftheviolaareusuallyatreblestringpairedwithabassstring.


55

butitisdifferentfromaviolãosetwithsteelstrings;anddivergessignificantlyfrom

thesix‐coursedoublesteelstringsviolãosound.Everythingfeelsdifferent.Thefingers

ofbothhandshavelessroomtomoveonthebodyoftheviola.Theshorterneckand

thenarrowerscalealongsidethesetoftenstringsrequiresgreateraccuracyfromthe

lefthandrequiringmetoarchthathandmoreandplacethefingersclosetoaninety

degreeangle to theneck.On the righthand, Ihada similarproblemcausedby the

narrownessofthescaleandtheproximityofthestrings.Ihadtofindtherightangleof

actiontostrikethestringskeepinginmindthatthereweretwostringstobeplucked

witheachstrike.Mybodily contactwith thematerialbodiesof theviola andof the

violãoalsogaveadifferentsenseofrelationshipwhileplayingor justholdingthem.

The viola is skinny and feels portable and neat, while the violão feels robust and

impracticalbycomparison.Ihaveknownthemanywaysinwhichtheviolãofitsonmy

bodyforalongperiodoftime,butasfortheviola,Iamstillgoingthroughaprocessof

finding the best postures to play the instrument. It has clearly been a process of

adaptation, the more I play, the more familiar it becomes. But this requires time.

Nonetheless,theviolaandtheviolãoarebothsuitablefortheaccompanimentofthe

songsselected.

6‐Aprofessionalviewoftheviola:IvanVilela

IvanVILELAteachesviolaintheBMUSoftheinstrumentintheUniversityofSãoPaulo

(USP), composes and arranges for this chordophone and is a highly sought after

performer.However,Iconsiderhisunderstandingoftheviola,notjustbecauseheis

oneofthemostaccomplishedviolaplayersandresearchersoftheinstrumentinBrazil,

butalsobecausehewasanaccomplishedviolãoplayerbeforebecomingavirtuosoof

theviola.Ashewashighlyskilledonbothinstruments,hisdualexpertisefacilitateda

complementaryanalysisofthetechnicalvariationsinperformancebetweenthem.Ina

televisionprogram,IhadcomeacrossontheInternet,dedicatedtohiscareer,VILELA

noted that the viola was an extension of his arms and that it was his voice.19The

19TVCâmarawebsite.


56

corporealmetaphorindicatedthesensorialawarenessIsoughttoexploremorefully

fromaprofessionalplayer’srelationshipwithhisinstruments.

Inseekingtounderstandsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentheviolaandtheviolão

VILELAexplainedthattheonlysimilaritiesthetwoinstrumentssharedarethefactthat

they are plucked chordophones with a neck. In talking to his fellow teachers and

professorsinBrazil,hehadreachedtheconclusionthatthereisnoinstrumentthatcan

causemore injury to one’s hands than theviolão. In contrast, theviola has smaller

dimensions and lighter strings, as he noted, “you do not see viola performerswith

tendinitisintheirhands.”20

HehadstudiedtheviolãowithgreatteachersatcollegeinBrazilandhaddevelopeda

synovialcystthathadpreventedhimofplayingtheinstrumentforatime.Whenhe

returnedtopractice,hehadtoreeducatehismuscularconditioningtoavoidfurther

injury.He toldmehewas lucky, forhis teacher at that time,EvertonGloeden, had

studiedviolãoinEnglandwiththerenownedguitarplayerJulianBream.21According

to VILELA, influenced by Bream’s ideas, Gloeden emphasized a deep corporeal

awarenessoftheperformerwiththeinstrumentasaprimalconditionforplayingthe

violão.Applyingthisidea,VILELAspentaboutoneandahalfyearsonlypracticingthe

basicstorelearnhowtoplaytheviolãowithamajorawarenessoftherelationshipof

hisbodywiththeinstrument.Yet,duringthistime,hestartedlearninghowtoplaythe

viola by himself, an instrument which, he observed, today still does not have any

systematicmethodofstudy.Byreprogramminghistoricalbodycoordinationinmusic

making, together with an awareness of his interaction with the instrument, he

generatedrapprochementwiththeviolãoandstarteddevelopinghisowntechniques

forplaying theviola.VILELAcame tounderstandhowbodyconsciousnessmakesa

greatdifferencetoplayingamusicalinstrument,fortheviolaandtheviolãodemanded

twodifferentapproaches.Thosedistinctionshadbecomeevenclearerforhimrecently,

20ThequotesorinterpretationsofVILELA’sideas,expressedinthisarticle,aremytranslationsfromPortugueseofmyinterviewwithVILELAon24October2013.21Englishguitaristandlutenist.


57

when he started playing the violão again to record his old compositions for the

instrument:

IspentthisweekendinMinasGerais,playingtheviolão,andIarrivedhere[SãoPaulo]withaterriblepaininmyneck,whichInoticedwasduetothesizeoftheinstrument.IstartedplayingviolãothinkingofhowIwouldhaveplayeditasifIwereplayingtheviola.ThenIstoppedandaskedmyself,buthowshouldIplaytheviolão?Itooktheviolão,then,thinkingaboutthemechanicsoftheinstrument,ofmybodywithit,andthepainstopped(VILELA,2013,interview).

Adaptinghisplayingtechniquefromtheviolãototheviola,andthenfromtheviolato

the violão, taught VILELA how different the styles were and the body mechanics

requiredforbothinstruments.Headdedthattheviolãohasaharmonicstructurebased

ontuningsinfourthsthatareplayedinblocs(chords),butthisisnotdonefrequently

ontheviolaasitstuningisinthirds.Ratheroneplaysnotebynoteasifyou“unraveled”

thesechords.It isatuningthatreferstotherenaissanceandbaroquecounterpoint.

The musical aspects to which VILELA drew attention, and the different corporeal

awarenessrequiredtoplaytheviolaandtheviolão,weresignificantinsheddinglight

on the differences between these instruments. As I wanted to grasp more

comparatively embodied and imagined aspects between the chordophones, I was

concernedtoknowhowVILELAreflectedupontheirdifferences.Heexplainedthathe

feltthat:

Theviolaandtheviolãoarebothgreat‘interpreters,’22equallygreat,but the violão is a gentlemen in frock coats 23 who has an entireprocedurethatmustbefollowed.Andtheviolaisnot.Theviolaismoreshamelessas it ismoresimplistic, it ismorepopularculture, really.Theviolãorequiresamoreformalapproachtomyfeelings,perhapsbecause there are defined methodologies and a more consolidatedschoolwhichisnotthecasewiththeviola.Itisfreerinthissense.Inmy imagination, then, the viola is wilder and freer (VILELA, 2013,interview).

ThetermsusedbyVILELAtodescribehisfeelingsandimaginationoftheviolãosuch

as: “a gentleman in frock coats,” “formal procedure,” “defined methodologies” and

“consolidatedschool”wereclearlydifferentfromtheexpressionsheusedtodescribe

22VILELAmeantthatbothinstrumentsareequallysuitableforplayingmanymusicalstyles.23Itisaman'sdouble‐breasted,long‐skirtedcoat,nowwornchieflyonformaloccasions.(OxfordEnglishdictionary2011).


58

theviola: “moreshameless,” “moresimplistic,” “morepopularandprovocative.”His

ideas suggest two different social status for these chordophones, reflecting and

projectingtheirsymbolicpotential forsocialandculturalmeaningmakinginBrazil.

VILELA’s observations, are mostly grounded in his own experience as a student,

performerand teacher,yet theyrevealhow thesechordophonesdiffer inacoustics,

ergonomics,musicalityandassymbolsofdiversesocialandculturalrealitiesinBrazil.

7‐Conclusion

Themethodsusedinthisarticletoexaminethedifferencesbetweentheviolaandthe

violãohaveprovidedinsightsintoissuesoflearningtoperform,assessingsoundsand

becomingawareofthemulti‐sensorialinteractionwiththeinstruments.Theseareall

elementsofknowledgeaboutthesechordophonesthatonecouldnothaveaccessedby

anyothermeans.Irealizedthattheviolarequiredaverydifferentplayingtechniqueto

thatoftheviolão,andthatthedifferencesintechniquewererelatedtotheirgeneral

morphology,thetuning,thequalityofstringsandtheirscoringarrangements.Further

asIhavenoted,theviolaismoreresponsivethantheviolãoandyetisamorecompact

and portable instrument. This knowledge hidden in performance practice was a

revelation.

MyexperienceandVILELA’sprofessionalperformanceknowledgeshowthatboththe

violaandtheviolãoarenotonlydissimilarbutrequireattentiontotheirspecificmodes

ofperformance.Theviolaandtheviolãoincitetheimaginationindifferentdirections.

Myownlearningprocessofhowtoplaytheviolaandtherepertoirerecordedshowed

me how the viola sounded better for the accompaniment of the Brazilian songs

selected. Even being used to the violão, while playing a song at the viola and

immediatelyfollowingperformingthesamesongontheviolãorevealedasignificant

impoverishmentofmymusicalexperience.Attheviolãotheaccompanimentdecreased

insoundanditsdimensionsfeltlesspracticaltoperform.


59

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Notasobreoautor

Renato Castro concluiu doutorado pleno (PhD) em Etnomusicologia na Queen’sUniversityBelfast(QUB,2014)combolsa integraldaCAPES,obteveomestradoemMusicologiaHistóricapelaUniversidadeFederaldoRiode Janeiro(UFRJ,2007)eoBachareladoemMúsicaPopularBrasileirapelaUniversidadeFederaldoEstadodoRiodeJaneiro(UNIRIO,2004).Temexperiêncianaáreademúsicapopularbrasileiracomomúsico, professor e pesquisador. Interessa‐se tanto pela pesquisa etnográfica dasmúsicasdetradiçãooraleauralnoBrasil,assimcomopeloestudohistórico‐culturalda música popular brasileira. Atualmente é professor de música na UniversidadeFederaldoMaranhão.

doi: 10.1590/permusi20163402listening and sensitively interacting with the viola and the violão in...

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