Identification of Local Solutions for Specific Biodiversity
Conservation and Climate Change Adaptation
Submitted to
@ PRASHANTPAUDEL
Disclaimer: This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people
through the United States Agency of International Development (USAID). The contents of this
report are the responsibility of Vijay B Kunwar and Prashant Paudel and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the USAID or the United States Government.
iii
Climate Change Adaptation
Produced by Vijay B Kunwar
Prashant Paudel
Baluwatar, Kathmandu Nepal
Project Support Team Shree Hari Bhattarai, NawarajPokhrel, Tara P Shiwakoti
Review Team Sunil Sakya, Shalu Adhikari
Version Preliminary Draft
Copyright 2017 © Hariyo Ban Program, WWF Nepal
Citation Kunwar V. B. and P. Paudel, 2017. Documentation of Indigenous
Knowledge and Identification of Local Solutions for Specific
Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Change Adaptation in
TAL and CHAL area, WWF Nepal (Hariyo ban Programme),
Kathmandu Nepal.
Indigenous and traditional knowledge and practices have been recorded being applied by
local people for reducing human wildlife conflict, conserving soil and water resources and
adapting to climate change. Proper documentation of such knowledge of locally applied
solutions and stocktaking of replicable practices are supposed to contribute to
biodiversity conservation and also achieving the overall goal of the Hariyo Ban Program.
An assessment of indigenous knowledge and traditional practices (IKTP) was undertaken
along three locations of Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan Annapurna Landscape
(CHAL). Bardia Nation Park (BNP) and its buffer zone was selected to document
knowledge and practices in reducing human wildlife conflict (HWC). Bhirkot VDC of
Tanahu district was chosen for documenting soil and water conservation practices.
Likewise, Lete VDC of Mustang district was selected for recording indigenous knowledge
and traditional practices regarding climate change adaptation.
Indigenous people have learnt the art of adapting to stemming changes in existing
environment. The legacy of such knowledge or skill can help the present generation to
fight against environmental stresses. Indigenous knowledge and traditional practices are
important in various levels from personal to societal and national to universal. It is a
diversified knowledge system, having unique tools and approaches practiced to adapt
with the changing environment. Some of the practices documented along the study
locations are most effective and their effectiveness has led to develop modern medicinal
technologies. The continuous evolution in IKTP has led to the discovery of new techniques.
These techniques have significantly contributed in biodiversity conservation.
The report identifies a number of IKTP and their effectiveness based on application for
specific purposes at local and site level. This report is based on identified measures
adapted at local level and analysis of case studies of four different sectors of biodiversity
conservation – i.e. reduction in HWC, soil and water conservation, climate change
adaptation and ethnobotany. The cases are selected (presented in report) on the basis of:
a) traditional practices; b) relevance of these practices for specific purposes; and c)
potential for replication/ scaling up. Primary data and information for the study were
collected through consultation workshop, focused group discussion key informant
interviews, and direct field observation. Secondary information was collected through an
extensive literature review.
The lifestyle and livelihood of Nepali people is considered as nature based and most
people have a practice of living close to nature. Nepal is rich in biological, ethnic and social
diversity, which has contributed to development of specific skills and practices at local
level for livelihoods. The traditional practices, evolved through generations and modified
by testing and learning, are helping many communities cope with and adapt against
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growing challenges posed by natural and anthropogenic activities. Issue- wise accounts of
notable knowledges and location –specific solutions can be summarized as under:
Human wildlife conflict: Human-wildlife conflict in BNP area is causing many social,
economic and ecological problems. Crop and property damage and livestock depredation
are common occurrences throughout the study area. Mainly large carnivores and
herbivores requiring extensively large habitat frequently cross over to farmlands thus
destroying agriculture crops, livestock, housing and even causing human casualties. These
incidents sometimes undermine conservation needs and question the rationale of political
support for wildlife conservation.
There are various tools and approaches used by different agencies to reduce HWC evolved
in recent years, But local communities of the BNP area were found adapting various
solutions against HWC since long . According to local communities all of the currently
applied measures were not effective. However, the people did not have other alternative
measures to fight against the damages done by wildlife. Measures like house fencing,
change in cropping pattern, replacing traditional cereal crops with medicinal and aromatic
plants (MAPs) were recorded as the best possible alternatives. However, chasing wild
animals with fire, producing sound and guarding the farms from over the vantage points
were not as effective as in the beginning of its invention. These measures were sometimes
incurring casualties and even loss of human life.
Climate change adaptation: Both Lete (Manang) and Bhirkot (Tanahu) VDCs were
affected by climate change impacts, where water scarcity, flood and soil erosion due to
erratic rainfalls was very common. Local communities were not aware about climate
change and its impacts and possible adaptation tools. The people were on their own
practicing various approaches like agroforestry, plantation around water sources,
plantation in slopy land, protection of forest, etc.. Even though these measures were
traditionally practiced and found effective to combat climate change impacts, importance
of such practices at local level was mostly for ornamental or livelihood purposes.
Soil conservation: Small landslides in and around agriculture lands were very common in
Lete VDC. Washing out of nutrients from agriculture land was a serious issue. Local
communities were planting Salix spp. Lahare pipal etc. in eroded lands as traditional
practices. Local community believed washout of nutrients can be minimized if more
mulching was done in upward slopes. However, after implementation of terrace
improvement program by Nepal government agriculture practices had been easier and
efficient. Awareness about benefit of terrace farming and continuing terrace improving
with plantation in dikes can be efficient to reduce soil erosion due to sloppy agriculture.
Various NTFPs/Maps are available in Lete VDC of Manang, which are of high economic
importance as well as of high medicinal value. NTFPs like Ghuchi Chayu, Rato Chyau, etc.
were traditionally utilized by Thakali communities and methods of using these products
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are indigenous to those communities. Local communities especially women were more
active in biodiversity conservation. Peoples’ participation in forest resources conservation
can be efficient for sustainable utilization of available biological resources. Traditional
knowledge and practices are not only important at local level but validating them with
scientific experiments can lead to further development..
Ethnobotany: The people of Lete VDC in Manang were recorded making additional use of
the locally available herbs, NTFPs and MAPs. Seabuckthorn, a multipurpose shrub, bearing
berry- like fruits was being used as green manure. Some varieties of mushrooms locally
termed as “rato chyau” and “gcuchi chyau” were found being used for medicinal purposes.
Likewise, mahua, a wild fruit was recorded being used for liquor making among the Tharu
communities. These practices can be termed as ethnobotanical activities that have been
directly contributing to biodiversity conservation.
Conclusion and recommendations: Over the years, local people have developed various
skills for minimizing HWC, promoting biodiversity conservation and adapting coping
measures against the adverse impacts of climate change to their livelihoods. Local
solutions may differ according to the locations and intensity of any specific problem in
question. Unique cases and responses/ coping methods were recorded along all of the
three locations, where the assessment was undertaken. The local people were found
having rich knowledge and applying location specific solutions to the problems arise out
of either HWC and or soil erosion or climate change.
The successful solutions listed above can be replicated elsewhere so that the best
practices documented through the assessment could serve as appropriate measures in
reducing HWC, promoting biodiversity conservation, coping with the adverse impacts of
climate change on peoples’ livelihoods and contributing to sustainable biodiversity
========
2.2 APPROACHES ....................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.3 STUDY METHODS (DATA COLLECTION) ................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.1 Cataloguing Existing Information ............................................................................................................... 7 2.3.2 Consultation meeting / workshop ................................................................................................................ 7 2.3.3 Key Informant Interviews (Personal interviews/interactions) ..................................................................... 7 2.3.4 Focus Group Discussion ............................................................................................................................. 8 2.3.5 Direct field observation ............................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS .................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.1 Measure Adapted ...................................................................................................................................... 15 3.2.1.1 Case studies ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
3.3 SOIL CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES .................................................................................................................... 18 3.3.1 Case Studies ........................................................................................................................................................... 20
3.4 ETHNOBOTANY .................................................................................................................................................. 21 3.4.1 Case Studies ........................................................................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .......................................................................... 23
ANNEXES .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
1.1 Background
The Hariyo Ban Program-II, is funded by USAID and implemented by four consortium partners
- WWF, CARE, National Trust for Nature Conservation and the Federation of Community
Forestry Users in Nepal. It aims to increase ecological and community resilience in two
landscapes - Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) and Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (CHAL). The
program has two major thematic components: biodiversity conservation and climate change
adaptation as well as two cross-cutting themes (governance; and gender and social inclusion).
The objective of improving the conservation and management of the CHAL and TAL works
under three result areas; 1. Threat to target species reduced with special focus on “combating
poaching and illegal wildlife trafficking”, 2. Threat to target landscape reduced, 3. Market-based
livelihood alternatives developed and promoted. The program is focused on three sub-basins
(Seti, Marsyangdi and Daraudi) in CHAL and core areas of Chitwan, Banke, Bardia and
Sukhaphanta Parks and their buffer zones as well as critical forest corridors (Barandhabhar,
Kamdi, Karnali and Brahmadev).
Climate change and biodiversity conservation has become the most critical issue in Nepal to such
an extent that these issues are considered as gravest challenges for the humanity in this century.
Adaptation to global warming is a response to climate change that seeks to reduce the
vulnerability of social and biological systems to climate change effects (Kumar, 2014). Climate
change adaptation is especially important in developing countries like Nepal since those
countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of climate change. People have developed
special skills to cope with the occasional natural flurries. In addition, these skills of creating
harmony between power of nature and human greed are known as Traditional Knowledge (TK)
or Indigenous knowledge (IK). Research on indigenous environmental knowledge has been
undertaken in many countries, often in the context of understanding local oral histories and
cultural attachment to place and local tools and activities done against many natural disasters
(IPCC, 2007). Although nascent in climate science, indigenous knowledge has been widely
recognized in agroforestry, traditional medicine, biodiversity conservation, soil and water
management, customary resource management, applied anthropology, impact assessment, and
natural disaster preparedness and response (Ajani, Mgbenka and Okeke, 2013).
In this pursuit, the study was designed to collect knowledge and local practices in water sources
management, soil conservation, human wildlife conflict, and climate induced disaster risk
reduction which will help to promote biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation to
achieve the overall goal of Hariyo Ban Program.
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Indigenous Knowledge is defined as the accumulated knowledge and traditional skills and
technology of a people, culture and sub-culture (Brokensha, Warren & Warner 1980). ILO
Convention on Indigenous Knowledge and Tribal People, 1989 (No.169) provides linkages
between indigenous knowledge and natural resources management. These people conserve,
manage and utilize their natural resources with their indigenous knowledge and technologies.
Also contributing to these practices are their numerous social, cultural beliefs, taboos and
religion that are indirectly associated with conserving, managing and utilizing these natural
resources.
Indigenous knowledge was acknowledged in the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as ‘an invaluable basis for developing
adaptation and natural resource management strategies in response to environmental and other
forms of change’ (IPCC, 2007). This recognition was reaffirmed at IPCC’s 32nd Session (IPCC,
2010) and consideration of traditional and indigenous knowledge was included as a guiding
principle for the Cancun Adaptation Framework (CAF) that was adopted by Parties at the 2010
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conference in Cancun
(UNFCCC, 2010).
Indigenous practices provide invaluable knowledge and add value in making best use of natural
resource base and its conservation minimizing potential adverse impacts from climate change.
But with the advancement and newly introduced technologies, the local knowledges and
solutions are gradually diminishing. Moreover, local knowledge and solutions are not blended
with new technologies.
In the working landscape of Hariyo Ban Program, various indigenous knowledge and local
solutions are being adopted by local communities to conserve natural resources and cope with
climate change. However, these efforts have not been well documented. Assessment has
documented indigenous knowledge and practices in water resource management, soil
conservation, NTFP harvest, human wildlife conflict mitigation, and climate induced disaster
risk reduction etc. and also cultural norms and practices in all the mentioned sectors.
1.3 Objective
The main objective of this assignment is to assess the indigenous knowledge and practices for
biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation. Specifically, following objectives are
the focus of this study.
• To document indigenous knowledge and local solutions/practices in biodiversity
conservation and climate change adaptation
• To recommend local solutions relevant to contribute in achieving Hariyo Ban
Program’s objectives
This report documents existing practices for biodiversity conservation especially faunal species
and HWC mitigation measures in Bardia National Park. It also documents soil and water
conservation, climate change adaptation and biodiversity conservation practices in Tanahu and
Mustang (lower). It provides an overview of IK based on primary information collected from
fieldwork. Identified cases from specific locations for specific purpose reflecting IK/TP that can
be recorded in other location as well. This study reorganizes that example of TK presented are
only sub-set of much larger range of practices within context and country.Hence, this report
should be treated as case sensitive and may not be considered comprehensive enough.
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2.1 Study area
This study was conducted in three different locations for three different purposes.
• Bardia National Park (BNP) and its Buffer Zone
Bardia National Park is one of the core areas of TAL where Hariyo Ban Program is operational.
BNP was established in 1988. It has total area of 968km2 where 507 km2is declared as Buffer
Zone (Map 1). The BNP is a part of the Nepalese lowland, or the “Arc of Terai”, which consists
of three ecological zones in the southern flank of the Himalayas: (1) the Siwalik Hills, and
adjoining (2) Bhabar area and (3) Terai plains. BNP is a prime habitat of Royal Bengal Tiger,
alternative home to Rhino and supports as the habitat of many more rare and endangered species
of global importance.
In BNP, human wildlife conflict has impacted the conservation activities sometime leading to
negative outcomes. However, most of the people are active in conservation of biodiversity and
protecting those rare and endangered species. People are adopting various traditional measures to
cope with conflict arising due to wildlife existence. Dalla, Karmala, Bhurigaunand Patabhar
were selected as case area for the study.
• Bhirkot VDC, Tanahun District:
This VDC lies on Northwest of Baidi with steep mountain top overlooking a deep valley in
which Kali River passes through. According to Central Bureau of Statistics (2011) there are 1146
HHS residing in the VDC. Total population of the VDC was recorded as 5,014 with 2851 female
and 2163 male. Majority of area in this VDC is under agriculture land where majority of people
are involved in agriculture activities. NAPA (2011) has documented various hazards, risks and
exposure of high categories. Soil erosion due to steep slope, unplanned cultivation and erratic
rainfall is one of the major problems in this VDC. There are several local level initiatives to
address these natural disasters, which were found effective in some cases. For this study three
different location of the VDC were visited namely Gumlek CFUG, Bhirkot-4, Chandithan
CFUG, Bhirkot-6 and Lamdanda Maitighar CFUG, Bhirkot-3,5.
• Lete VDC,Mustang district:
Altitude of Mustang district stretches over 3,573 SQM and ranges between altitude from 2,000
masl to the top of the world’s 7th and 10th highest mountains: Dhaulagiri and Annapurna—
8,137 and 8,168 masl above sea level (see Fig. 3). It hosts the world’s 7th highest peak of Mount
Dhaulagiri (8,137masl) and 10th highest peak of Mount Annapurna (8,168masl). Mustang is
located in the rain shadow of the Himalayan range and on average receives on average less
5
than200 mm rain. The southern part of the district receives, however, comparatively more rain
than other areas. A defining feature of Mustang is the deeply incised valley of the Kali Gandaki
River with its arid valley bottom and characteristic of diurnal wind system.
Lete VDC lies within the Jomsom Unit Conservation Office (UCO) of the Lower Mustang which
is a transition between the Trans-Himalaya and the Inner Himalaya. The VDC receives 1,545
mm annum rainfall (ACAP, 2009). It consists of deep gorges made by the Kaligandaki River.
The altitudinal range varies from 1,372 masl to 8,167masl representing subtropical, temperate
and alpine types of climate (Ranapal, 2009). Climate precipitation data of Mustang district shows
inter-annual variability with overall increasing trends over 53 years.Whereas temperature data
are slightly decreasing. As a result, frequency of flashfloods during wet season and drought
during dry season is increasing. Frequent landslide and flash floods have caused loss of soil
fertility as well as destruction in irrigation canals. Likewise, water sources are decreasing which
significantly impacts the biodiversity of the area. For this study three different locations of Lete
VDC were visited namely Dhampu (ward no 3), Lete (ward no 3) and Ghansa (ward no 4).
Fig 1: Map of study area showing selected location
2.2 Approaches
The study was conducted by using the best techniques of documenting traditional knowledge and
practices. Following are the approaches that were applied for the study especially during
consultation, assessment discussion and observation;
i. Participatory and Inclusive
Participatory, multi-stakeholder, multi-ethnic and multi-class representation process was adopted
by the study team to gain realistic as well as most relevant information of the study area.This
approach helped in meaningful participation of the community people especially marginalized
and disadvantages groups. This approach was considered especially during interviews of
community people and also during various level of consultation with related stakeholders.
ii. Effective communication
Open communication with a variety of stakeholders through prior consents, planned meetings
and briefings was maintained to collect required information and exchange opinions, information
and ideas. Regular communication and sharing of drafts and incorporation of comments to revise
the draft was maintained with stakeholders.
iii. Disclosure and verification
Disclosure and verification was done to ensure transparency and accountability of the findings.
The methods of briefing, debriefing and field level consultation were applied to discuss and
share the findings of the study. During this process confidentiality was maintained and was not
disclosed without the full consent of the concerned stakeholders.
iv. Facilitative Approach
The consultant facilitated the discussion and interactions in identifying local adaptation measures
and share with stakeholders for further improvement. The final product of this study
(identification of indigenous knowledge/practices and recommending local solutions relevant to
contribute in achieving for Hariyo Ban Program’s objectives) required facilitative roles.
Nagoya protocol
This study complies Nagoya protocol. It strengthens the tenets of CBD 1992 and encourages conservation of biological
diversity, sustainable use of the resources and creates a transparent and legal entity for sharing the benefits and caring
the knowledge holders. The interrelationship between resources and traditional knowledge is inseparable, the diversity
of circumstances in which traditional knowledge is owned or held (including by countries), the identification of the
rightful holders of traditional knowledge, the rights of indigenous peoples, etc. are important considerations. The protocol
further helps set the common understanding and mutual agreements between service providers and users through prior
informed consents, sharing benefits both monetary and nonmonetary in fair and equitable ways, research findings,
awareness raising, developing education materials, acknowledgements, etc.
Prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms Assessed and collected information will be made subject to prior information consent of the party for any traditional or indigenous knowledge. This will be only done if party is unwilling to provide information for authentication issues. The Mutual agreed terms between party providing information and researcher will remove illusion for potential reader (users) on following means
• Authorization of information
• Control their subsequent use
• Establish the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from sequent use
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2.3 Study Methods (data collection)
The overall methodology of the assignment is based on cataloguing existing information,
personal interviews (key informant interviews), field observation, consultative meeting/
workshops, focus group discussion etc. in three different locations.
2.3.1 Cataloguing Existing Information
action plans, periodic plans programs and activities incorporated documents) were thoroughly
reviewed. Other documents like NAPA, LAPA, district profile, BNP management plan and
buffer zone management plan wereextensivelyassessed. Data and information from District Soil
Conservation Office, National Trust for Nature Conservation, Department of National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation and WWF Nepal especially Hariyo Ban Program were the primary
guiding documents for this study. Additional resources relevant and useful for the study were
also carefully reviewed.
2.3.2 Consultation meeting / workshop
Site level (one in each site) consultation meeting/ workshop were organized for collecting
information about local knowledge and practices. The consultation meeting provided guidelines
particularly for identification of sites for data collection (indigenous community, people and
practices).
2.3.3 Key Informant Interviews (personal interviews/interactions)
Wide range of people with local knowledge and information were personally interviewed for
aquiring realistic and accurate information. Since key informant interview was one of the main
sources of information for documenting traditional practices and their effectiveness in particular
Consultation meeting at Bhirkot, Tanahu
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locality; elderly people, traditional healers, people from ethnic community, teachers, women
groups and local political leaders etc. were chosen as the key informants for the interview. A set
of open ended semi-structured questionnaire was developed for KIIs. Ten KIIs were done in each
site (in total 30 KIIs) for completion of this task. Annex 2 provides checklist for KIIs.
2.3.4 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Locations for FGD were
mentioned in section 2.3.2).
FGDs were conducted with
executive committee of buffer
Similarly voice of marginalized and disadvantaged groups was recorded with special care. A set
of checklist was developed for guiding this meeting. In each location at least three FGD were
conducted. Annex 3 provides checklist applied during the focus group discussion.
2.3.5 Direct field observation
examine the status and
Field Observation at Karmala, Bardia
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3.1.1 Status
Around BNP majority of the villagers live in a subsistence economy in which land and livestock
holdings are the principle economic assets. Paddy (Oryza sativa), Maize (Zea mays), Wheat
(Tricticumaestivum), Lentil (Lens culinaris), and Mustard (Brassica campestris), are the
principle crops and are mostly grown for domestic consumption. Livestock is economically
important as a source of milk, manure, draft-power, and cash income.
Human wildlife conflicts (HWC) are common phenomena from the past and have significant
impacts on livelihood of local community of BNP. HWC arises as they share a common limited
resources in limited land. Human-wildlife conflicts in this area is causing many social, economic
and ecological consequences. Crop and property damage and livestock depredation are common
effects resulting in huge economic losses. Sometimes these effects undermine the political
support for conservation and call for eradication of problem animals.
HWC is not a rare incident in and around BNP, mainly large carnivores and herbivores which
require extensively large habitat frequently visit farmland. As large carnivorous, human and their
livestock have been coexisting for years but in recent decade a dramatic increase in frequency of
human wildlife conflict resulting, primarily, from the exponential growth of human population
and increase in effort to conserve wildlife populations. In BNP, main species causing conflict
incidents include large herbivores (elephants, blue bull/ cow), large mammalian carnivores
(leopard) and wild boar. Following table shows the major conflicting animals, problems and
severity of damage.
Table 1 : Name of conflicting animals and trends of conflicting
Main problematic animals Problems Severity of
damage
Trend
and houses, human
Leopard
Nilgai (blue bull/cow) Destruction of agricultural products Medium Increasing
Elephants are particularly attached to cereal crops because they are more palatable, more
nutritious and have lower secondary defenses than wild plants. In general, paddy is reported as
most preferred crop of elephants followed by maize, wheat, lentils etc. Other animals are less
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3.1.2 Measures adapted
Human wildlife conflict can be managed through prevention strategies at initial stage and take
action towards addressing its root causes. Aprotection strategy has to be implemented when
conflict is certain to happen or has already occurred and mitigation measures attempt to reduce
the level of impacts. Local communities are using different traditional methods along with
various measures from park authorities. It was found that one technique is not sufficient to
mitigate HWC in BNP. The buffer zone management committee of BNP is allocating some
amount of money to compensate livestock depredation and human casualties. According to local
communities process is very slow and not efficient in many cases. In this scenario local
communities believed that HWC situation in BNP is different from other locations.
Local communities also believed that HWC scenario in BNP is different from other locations.
Measures adopted by BNP park authorities such as trench, solar fencing (electric fencing), hedge
rows plantation are not effective to control damages by elephants. It was found that various local
adaptation techniques are adapted by local communities, which are very effective in many cases
but their sustainability depends on wild animal’s adaptive capacity of adapted measures.
Following table shows the types of measures taken to reduce HWC in study sites and source of
knowledge.
Table 2: Measures taken to reduce HWC in Bardia and source of knowledge
Types of measures Case Condition Relevance / effectiveness
of Measures
Source of
compound
was congested
of Measures
Source of
point from where
elephant movement can
day and night while
disseminate the
information about
elephants entering
agriculture field.
sheet
produce sound with
(middle of night).
Initially hitting material
Traditionally
balances harvesting
(tube/ kerosene)
practiced (initiated
by Tharu
community) and
of Measures
Source of
Key Observations
• Measures adapted to reduce/mitigate HWC are gradually evolving and people are trying
to make efficient from best available resources. Mainly measures are traditionally
practiced which are transferred from generations.
• Chasing with fire has created many problems; animals are aggressive toward this
mechanism resulting in loss of life. This method needs to sop with alternative solution
like where animals do not show aggressive behavior.
• Producing sound (by hitting zinc sheet or drum) is not effective but has been
psychological advantage to local community. Promoting this measure may not be much
effective to reduce crop depredation by wildlife.
• Change in cropping pattern is effective in few locations, if unpalatable species can be
planted in highly conflicting area HWC conflict can be reduced. Sometimes buffering
with highly palatable species like maize in paddy field can be effective.
• Fencing house with barbed wire are costly but has given psychological advantage to local
community and their traditional housing structure can be preserved; otherwise they will
be forced to construct concrete houses which will ultimately result in loss of original
culture of Tharu community.
• Improved cattle-shed program will insure local community in getting maximum return
from livestock but at the same time stall feeding practice need to be promoted to reduce
livestock depredation because of grazing in forest.
3.1.2.1 Case studies
were regularly damaged by wild
elephants. So, people strated fencing
house and its compound (distance to
fence was at away from reach of
elephant). Interestingly, these houses
the poles supporting the fences were also
covered by the barbed wires.This
techinque seemed very effective as it
prevents the elephant to cross the wire/throw ploes as their trunk is very sensitive.The study
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found that effectivieness of electric fencing was decreasing since learning capacity and
behaviour response of elephants was high.
Relevance/ effectiveness to reduce HWC conflict: This measure has proved to be very
effective even in highly impacted areas since it helps to minimizethe damage caused by elephant
in a remarkable amount. Local community believes that if current solar fence wire can be
replaced by this barbed wire with electric current impacts of animals can be significantly reduced
(since curent pole used in solar fencing are negative to current). It makes this measure more
effective if poles (sopporting wire) are also covered by barbed wire and regular maintenance is
done.
Case 2: Elephant House (Karmala)
Case condition: Housing condition of poor families is basically very fragile and can be easily
destroyed by elephants. Due to elephant attack, local poor people are constantly suffering from
loss of grains (stored food destroyed at times).
In this regards,buffer zone management
committee has established a rice storage house
for poor people (18 families have benefitted
from it) in 2015.This technique has become a
good way to handle the wild elephants attack
and save the stored agricultural products, so
that the local people would not suffer food
scarcity even if the houses were damaged/
destroyed. This house was constructed from
aid of various donors and managed by buffer zone management committee.
Relevance/ effectiveness of measures: This measure has proved to be a very effective to reduce
loss/ damage of stored grains of poor families and the attitude towards the existence of wildlife is
also changing.
Case Condition: The local people have used
the zinc sheet to produce sound to chase the
wild animals (especially elephants and wild
boars) as these animals are very sensitive to
high frequency of sound. They normally feel
uneasy with the noise and tend to run away.
Initially hitting material was of. wood >
Nowadays it has been replaced by iron rod.
This method has been practiced for generation
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but people want alternative which will be effective and easy one.
Relevance/ effectiveness of the measures: During the field study, it was found that the wild
animals were being used to the noise produced and currently showing no response to the noise
thus created. Instead, they have become more aggressive when people showed fire to chase them.
Thus this measure is becoming less effective and local communities are looking for alternative
method.
3.2 Climate Change Adaptation
The impacts of climate change are still open to a high degree of uncertainty and depend on
understanding capacity. However, some of the impacts are visible in terms of raised temperature,
uncertain and extreme rainfall events, floods, landslides, drought and disease and pest. These
impacts can be discussed and correlated with past experience and current observation and
understanding. Tanahu and Mustang districts fall under hilly and mountainous districts which
are ecologically fragile, geologically unstable and environmentally vulnerable. In recent years
climate change has exacerbated these vulnerabilities resulting in migration and huge loss of
property. Population of these districts lack minimal access to drinking water, irrigation, road
infrastructure. The people, whose livelihood depends on agriculture, are migrating to India for
wage earning. hotel business, ecosystem services like NTFP trading. The weak social support
network and nature- based livelihoods are most likely to be impacted highly by climatic impacts.
These districts have been experiencing extreme monsoon rainfall, prolonged dry winter season,
reduced amount of precipitation, devastating floods, decrease in agriculture productivity leading
to loss of life, property and livelihoods.
Table 3: Impacts of climate change identified in the studied sites
Location Impacts Trends Remarks
Flood Fluctuating
Late (Mustang)
Increasing Less
Reduced amount of snow fall Increasing
Shift in snow fall season Fluctuating
Shift in raining season -
production
few number
(not in usual location)
Nowadays Salix species is used as habitat by insects which are affecting oat production, so
people started cutting Salix species that were near to farmland.
3.2.1 Measures Adopted
Adaptation to climate change seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological system,
where climate change and its effects will last for many years, and adaptation will be necessary.
Climate change adaptation is especially important in hills and mountain areas like Tanahu and
Mustang since these areas are predicted to bear the brunt of the effect of climate change. Local
communities are making adjustments to human, ecological or physical systems in response to
perceived climatic impacts.The capacity and potential of local community to adapt is unevenly
distributed and varies according to locations. Adaptive capacity is closely linked to educational
and economic development of particular ecosystem. The measures adopted to adjust system
ranges from pure technical solutions to social and political changes in particular locality. Local
people have developed several skills to cope with climatic extremes and initiated various
measures that address adaptation measures of climate change in the studied areas.
Table 4: Measures adapted for Climate change adaptation
Types of measures Case Condition Relevance /
effectiveness of
decreases
high hills
Traditional measures
16
effectiveness of
use of water
Agroforestry system and practices hold promise for meeting the various agricultural and
ecological problems, which has been very effective in carbon sequestration and climate change
adaptation. It is one of the rational land-use systems, which tries to find some balance by raising
food crops and forest crops together. Agroforestry system has been practiced in Nepal from
millennia, which has multidimensional function. It was found that agroforestry system has been
mainly practiced in mid-hills of Nepal that varies with physiographic zones. The main
determining biophysical factors of existence of agroforestry system are altitude where significant
variation occurs due to aspects and local needs. In Tanahu, farmers have traditionally practiced
many types of agroforestry systems based on strategies to manage forest and arable land
simultaneously, and in an integrated fashion, to obtain essential items of food, shelter and other
economic returns.
storied agroforestry systems
vegetables are arranged in
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village contain banana, citrus species and Turmeric, Ginger, Kutmiro, Kavro etc. The existence
of home garden system is for owner’s subsistence needs, aesthetic and ornamental values rather
than for climatic change adaptation.
Relevance/ effectiveness of the measures: Home garden with agroforestry system was
practiced in this locality for years. However, knowledge on their importance to climate change
adaption is very limited to local communities. This system is effective not only to adapt against
climate change impacts but also efficient source of income for local communities.
Case 2: Agri-silviculture
and steep topography majority
of rainfed terrace agriculture
species are planted or natural
regeneration is promoted. In
timber trees are commonly
Kavro (Ficus lacor) and
timber species like Chilaune (Schima wallichhi), Sal (Shorea robusta) etc. has been done.
Whereas in Lete VDC, Mustang species like Bais (Salix species), Walnut (Juglas regia), Prunus
(Prunus cerasoides) are mostly grown in farmland. The number of trees per farm varies with size
of land. Most of the trees are multipurpose species used for fodder, fuelwood, and timber.
Relevance/ effectiveness of the measures: Even though, plantation or promotion of natural
regeneration in this location was not initiated in recent times. Primarily this system exists for
slope stabilization, soil conservation, ornamental purpose, but this system can be linked to
climate change adaptation. This traditionally practiced method need to be promoted not only for
climate change adaptation but also for alternative source of income for livelihood diversification.
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3.3 Soil Conservation Techniques
Soil erosion control is the practice of preventing washing away of soil in any topography or the land use system. Even though soil
erosion is natural process and is partly impossible to stop, local communities are adopting various means to control soil washing.
Table 5 : Measures adapted for soil conservation
Types of measures Case Condition Relevance / effectiveness
of Measures
terrace
terracing
functions.
Manuring in upper slope As an indigenous practice Traditional practice, Indigenous to Lete
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of Measures
to balance distribution of
slope made as a part of
terrace improvement
technique existed for many years. In the past,
the steep slopes are cultivated by manuring the
upper slope with more proportion of manures
than that of the lower slopes. This is because
the soil in the steep slope is more erodible than
that of normal slope. That is why, the soil in
the upper slope is eroded by different agents
and is deposited in lower slope and organic
matter accumulation in lower slope is
maximum due to which the crops raised in lower/outward slope prefer more merismatic
development, develop rapidly, and become tall. Such plants are more sensitive to external agents
like wind, water, animal interference and are less shock and stress bearer due to which these
plants fail to complete their life cycle and decrease productivity.
Government of Nepal had launched and implemented Terrace Improvement Programmes in
steep slopes and hills including of Mustang. Keeping this cultivating technique the same, sloping
lands are supported by loose stone walls with hedges in edge and planting tree species like salix
and prunus to prevent soil erosion and are modified into small terraces where an equal
proportion of manure could be added in both upper and lower slopes. These terraces later go on
developing into large terraces and apply terrace farming and improve agricultural production.
Though the technique has been improved, people practice the same manuring behavior, cnd
cultivate on outward sloping lands. This method is more effective in preventing soil erosion,
improve fertility of soil and increase land productivity.
Case 2: Wooden Check dam/stone check dam
Due to the steep and southward sloping
terrain, the use of wood or stone check dam
is prominent in agricultural lands. The steep
slopes sloping outward are supported by wall
of either stone or wood to check soil erosion,
by controlling runoff and conserving soil
moisture. This technique makes the
cultivating land more flat and prevents from
slides and mass wasting. Normal/flat slopes
are less hazardous and good for agricultural
production. By constructing this sort of
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checkdam, steep and outward sloping lands are improved and flattened or converted into normal.
This method is useful in controlling erosion and improving soil fertility.
These practices are especially effective for soil and water conservation, reducing runoff, and
conserving organic contents in soil, increase fertility and productivity as a whole.
3.4 Ethnobotany
Nepal, a mountainous country having diversified topographic and climatic conditions, gives rise
to a wide range of flora and fauna. In villages ethnic people, including Tharu and Thakali highly
depend on medicinal plants for their primary healthcare and as a source of food. Healing with
local plants and traditional healers (Baidya) using traditional knowledge and skills is
ethnobotany. The ingredients or metabolites contained in a plant are directly or indirectly used
for curing the ailments . Local people possess traditional knowledge based on plants and their
use passing from generation to generation. Though the techniques of using pants are not
scientific, the use of the plants are made accurate.
Table: Locally collected and used medicinal plants and NTFPs
Name of spp Use Description Remarks
Raktamul /Chunetroghas
(Geranium nepalense)
and root
Traditionally practiced
Guchi Chyau
(Morchella esculenta)
Pain killer
fire
Hard
Paha
Bardia)
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Case 1: Role of Mukhiya in Biodiversity Conservation
In Mustang district since ancient times Mukhiya system was practiced and was continuing till
early 2010’s. Elected (by public voice) Mukhiya were considered as local government authorities
and every decision and development works were done in the direct supervision of Mukhiyas. In
this context, forest and water resources were under control of Mukhiyas. There was a payment
system to collect timber from forest and severe punishment mechanism to those who did not
obey this rule. This system was very effective to preserve forest and biodiversity. There is need
of documenting this system as measures to preserve and manage forest and biodiversity in
Mustang district.
However, nowadays this system is not in practice but Mukhiyas are more ceremonial and have
religious and cultural values. Those forests under supervision of Mukhiyas are now under
Annapurna Conservation Area and local forest communities have been formed for protection and
sustainable utilization of forest products. This Mukhiya
Identification of poisonous mushroom
Thakali community of Mustang VDC has been utilizing various types of NTFPs available in their
localities since ancient times. They have their own indigenous knowledge and traditional practices
to identify edible (non- poisonous) mushroom types. These knowledges have been transferred
from generation to generation and origins of this knowledge is credited to the forefathers of this
community. According to Thakali community, if mushroom is with ring in its steam it will be
poisonous. Simialrly, if mushroom produces white foam while salt is added to it, this kind of
mushroom should not be eaten. They believe that wild mushrooms are poisonous in different form
and their poisonous content can be reduced by adding pepper and garlic while cooking. This
knowledge needs further scientific research for using as a tool to identify mushroom types.
Dried Guchi Chyau in Mustang
Lete
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Chapter 4: Conclusion and Recommendation
4.1 Conclusion This study collected indigenous knowledge and local solution for specific biodiversity
conservation, local practices in human wildlife conflict reduction, soil and water conservation
and climate change adaptation which will help to promote biodiversity conservation and climate
change adaptation to achieve the overall goal of Hariyo Ban Program. This study was conducted
in three different locations for site specific purpose. Human wildlife conflict reduction measures
in BNP, soil conservation and climate change adaptation measures in Tanahu and climate change
adaptation and soil conservation measures in Late VDC were collected and documented.
The study in BNP concluded that HWC is resulting in many social, economic and ecological
consequences. Crop and property damage and livestock depredation are common effects
resulting in huge economic losses. Large carnivorous or herbivores which require extensively
large habitat have been frequently encroaching on farmlands or depredating livestock. There has
been various efforts at local as well as national level to reduce increasing trend of HWC.
However, these initiatives are newly developed and flourishing slowly. Local communities are
living with those wildlife for generations and are using various measures to cope with wildlife
existence. Measures like producing sound with various materials (wood, drum, zinc sheet),
chasing with flames etc. are traditional practices. There have been continuous evolution in those
approaches and measures as wild animals get used to with it. Recently, local communities
initiated fencing of houses with barbed wires, improving cattle sheds etc. Effectiveness of the
adopted measures depends on animal’s adaptation capacity where measures like house fencing,
improved cow shed construction separate concrete house to store grains were found to be
effective in the localities.
Lete (Mustang) and Bhirkot VDC (Tanahu) are facing various impacts of climate change like
drought, flood, disease and pest in agriculture land. Impacts of invasive species on agriculture
land is increasing in Lete VDC. Even though farmers are facing various impacts of climate
change but very few are aware about the extent of possible damage and basic knowledge about
climate change. Existing practices such as agroforestry, plantation around water sources are
related to climate change are found effective to adapt against climate change impacts.
Due to steep slope and irregular terrain soil erosion is one of the major issues in slopy
agriculture land of Lete VDC. Agriculture practices in slopy land resulted in loss of manure
every year and more nutrients is available to crops in outward slopes. To eliminate the chance of
over fertilization in outward slopy cropland, people are manuring more amount in upward slope.
But after government initiation to improve terrace this system is more efficient to improve
terrace. Similarly, practices like plantation of Salix spp. in eroded land, check dam constriction
by locally available materials are efficient measures adopted by local communities.
In Lete VDC before 10 years Mukhiya System was effective. Mukhiya were considered as local
government and were responsible for protection of all natural resources. Payment to fill tree or
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hard punishment for illegal felling of tress was effective to preserve forest and biodiversity in
this condition.
Various NTFPs/MAPs area available in Lete VDC where local communities are using them for
generations. Species like Guchi Chyau, Rato Chyau are not only of medicinal importance but of
high economic value. Practices of not allowing other communities to enter their district easily
and severe punishment mechanism had been one of the indigenous measures to protect
biodiversity of this locality. Similarly, in BNP Tharu communities used to collect Mauwa for
preparing alcohol. But nowadays, they are planting in their own land or in yards since this specie
of fruits are consumed by wildlife. This measure not only promotes biodiversity conservation but
also is helping to reduce HWC in BNP.
4.2 Recommendation Though the techniques in practice are not scientifically proven, the reasons of practicing behind
them resemble to be scientific. Traditional knowledge passing with cultures and rituals is
important to carry on because this knowledge is the pioneer of new scientific invention. Role
played by indigenous knowledge and traditional practices in biodiversity conservation, soil
conservation and climate change adaptation is magnificient . Using these tools and approaches,
conservation and adaptation to changing environment has led to develop newere policies and
strategies to adaptation. All the practices are not recommended to continue and some of them are
very effective and need to find their scientific base for further expansion.
Among seven different local techniques adapted to reduce HWC, measures like improved cattle
shed, change in crop production pattern, change in crop varieties, promotion of MAPs or cash
crops need further support. However, techniques like producing sound, chasing with flames etc.
is not recommended to stop using. Furthermore, in area where destruction of houses by wild
elephants is very high, fencing of houses with barbed wire and having alternative house for
storing grains need to be promoted.
Improving knowledge and enhancing skills about climate change and their impacts will help to
develop effective and efficient adaptation measures against climate change induced hazards. The
study areas have some measures which are practiced traditionally for ornamental or economic
purpose but they are indirectly contributing to adapt against climate change impacts. Importance
of measures like agroforestry (home garden and agri-silviculture) practices, plantation in open or
fallow land, forest conservation need to be promoted and more efforts are required to enhance
their role in soil and water conservation.
More depth understanding regarding importance of valuable MAPs/NTFPs, discouraging
cultivation in slopy land, selecting local or improved climate resilient species is very essential to
farmers of hills and mid hills to conserve soil and biodiversity.
25
Participants list Date:
Human Wildlife conflict (Bardia NP)
1. Biodiversity status of the study area with major faunal species (for verification)
Study area Major tree species Major fauna species
(Location)
3. Majorproblematicanimals
Major problematic
tons/NRs per annum
Conflicting animals Major problems Methods used before Methods used now
5. Effectiveness of Local measures
6. Animals response on these measures
26
7. Present relation between animals and human after mitigation measures
8. Role of protected areas in harmonizing the relation between human and animal (Bardiya NP)
9. Awareness level of local people in the existence of wild animals and their importance
10. Record of any changes in farming and harvesting time of crops
Plant species protection/ Biodiversity conservation (for all three different location)
1. Plants used of treatment / used as medicinal purpose
Conservation activities done?
2. Edible plans species collected from forest
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as edible
Reason behind using this species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
Cause of increase or decrease
Do you plant them in private land?
Do you conserve them in forest?
3. Species collected/ extracted for commercial purpose / livelihood purpose/ income generation
activities
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as edible
Reason behind selecting those species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
27
Do you plant them in private land?
Do you conserve them in forest?
4. Species used in religious purpose ( record caste wise)
Plantation of those religiously important species
Conservation activities done to conserve those species
5. Species used for agriculture tools
6. Change in forest species composition in last 50 years
if yes ?
7. Impacts of grazing on biodiversity
8.
9. Planation activities done in your location in last 50 years
Activities that can be done to preserve/ conserve / protect economically/ religiously/ medicinally
importance species for future generation
Climate Change / Soil Conservation
11. Awareness about climate change and its impacts
12. Major changes/ impacts in last 10 years of period B
a. Changes occurs in species composition
b. Problem of invasive species
c. Record of natural calamities of study areas in last 10 years
i. Drought
ii. Flood
iii. Landslides
e. Food security/productivity
g. Availability and abundance of NTFPs before and now-a-days
h. Human Health
j. Pease on Agriculture land
k. Soil loss due to heavy/ erratic rainfall
l. Loss/Reduction of plant / animas in lase 10 years
m. Other …………………..
n. Other ………………………………
a. Drought
b. Flood
c. Landslides
d. Hailstorm
15. Water scarcity and water borne diseases
Water scarcity Water born diseases
16. Approaches used for soil conservation
17. Activities under taken to conserve loss of plant / animals due to climate changes in last 10 years
18. Methods used by people to maintain the fertility of land (control soil erosion/ landslide/
desertification of agriculture land)
20. Effectiveness of those measure
21. Women involvement in the adaptation process
22. How effective is the adaptation measures for poor and marginalized people of the community?
(participation and benefit from the measures)
29
Name of interviewee: Date:
2. Did you feel/experience of impact of CC?
3. What are the major climatic changes that happens based on your experience?
4. What are the major impacts of climate change in your locality?
5. What are those natural calamities that are frequent in your locality?
6. How often the natural calamities happen and how do you (or your community) cope with
such situations?
7. Did you experience any changes in the tree species and animals before and now?
8. Did you change the crop or change the cropping pattern and harvesting time over time?
9. Measures used to cope with climate change effects
CC effect Measure Tools Inherent/Learnt
Change on rainfall
Low temperature
10. List out the most effective measures that you felt
measures Effectiveness Reason of them being
effective
How fertile is the land and how about the productivity?
How effective are the methods that you (or your community people) adopt?
Do you like to learn new techniques for combating cc?
Human Wildlife conflict (Bardia NP)
23. Biodiversity status of the study area with major faunal species
Study area Major tree species Major fauna species
(Location)
25. Major problematic animals
tons/NRs per annum
Conflicting animals Major problems Methods used before Methods used now
27. Effectiveness of Local measures
28. Animals response on these measures
29. Present relation between animals and human after mitigation measures
Biodiversity Conservation
1. Do you know about biodiversity and its importance, if yes, please give some examples?
2. Plants used of treatment / used as medicinal purpose and their conservation activities
Source of knowledge of using those fauna as medicine
3. Edible plans species collected from forest and their conservation activities
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as edible
Reason behind using this species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
Cause of increase or decrease
4. Species collected/ extracted for commercial purpose / livelihood purpose/ income generation
activities
Since when/ Source of knowledge of using those fauna as edible and conservation activities
Reason behind selecting those species
Are those species increasing or decreasing?
Cause of increase or decrease
32
5. Species used in religious purpose ( record caste wise) and their conservation activities
Plantation of those religiously important species
6. Species used for agriculture tools
7. Change in forest species composition in last 50 years and conservation activities
if yes ?
8. Impacts of grazing on biodiversity
9. Planation activities done in your location in last 50 years
10. Vulnerability status of male and female
11. Involvement of female in adaptation activities
12. Activities that can be done to preserve/ conserve / protect economically/ religiously/ medicinally
importance species for future generation
1. Have you ever get involved in biodiversity conservation activities? Can you please give some
examples?
33
Place: Date:
Name of
a.
b.
2. Activities performed by local people to combat the negative effect of climate change
Activities Tools Effectiveness Source of Knowledge
3. List of measures on the basis of cost efficiency and environmental friendly
List of measures Affordable Effect on environment Effectiveness
4. Did you feel loss of any biodiversity/species(plant and animal) in last 10 years due to climate
change?
Cause of change
6. Soil conservation techniques practiced by community people and district soil conservation
office
8. Do community people have harvesting NTFPs in sustainable way?