us-china education review 2016 (4b)

US-China

Education Review

B

Volume 6, Number 4, April 2016 (Serial Number 59)

David

David Publishing Company

www.davidpublisher.com

PublishingDavid

Publication Information: US-China Education Review B (Earlier title: Journal of US-China Education Review, ISSN 1548-6613) is published monthly in hard copy (ISSN 2161-6248) by David Publishing Company located at 616 Corporate Way, Suite 2-4876, Valley Cottage, NY 10989, USA Aims and Scope: US-China Education Review B, a monthly professional academic journal, covers all sorts of education-theory researches on Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. Editorial Board Members: Asst. Prof. Dr. Güner Tural Associate Prof. Rosalinda Hernandez Prof. Aaron W. Hughey Prof. Alexandro Escudero Prof. Cameron Scott White Prof. Deonarain Brijlall Prof. Diane Schwartz Prof. Ghazi M. Ghaith Prof. Gil-Garcia, Ana Prof. Gordana Jovanovic Dolecek Prof. Grigorios Karafillis Prof. James L. Morrison Prof. Käthe Schneider Prof. Lihshing Leigh Wang Prof. Mercedes Ruiz Lozano Prof. Michael Eskay Prof. Okechukwu Sunday Abonyi Prof. Peter Hills Prof. Smirnov Eugeny Prof. Yea-Ling Tsao Manuscripts and correspondence are invited for publication. You can submit your papers via Web submission, or E-mail to [email protected] or [email protected]. Submission guidelines and Web submission system are available at http://www.davidpublisher.com. Editorial Office: 616 Corporate Way, Suite 2-4876, Valley Cottage, NY 10989, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; or [email protected]. Copyright©2016 by David Publishing Company and individual contributors. All rights reserved. David Publishing Company holds the exclusive copyright of all the contents of this journal. In accordance with the international convention, no part of this journal may be reproduced or transmitted by any media or publishing organs (including various Websites) without the written permission of the copyright holder. Otherwise, any conduct would be considered as the violation of the copyright. The contents of this journal are available for any citation. However, all the citations should be clearly indicated with the title of this journal, serial number and the name of the author. Abstracted/Indexed in:Database of EBSCO, Massachusetts,

USA Chinese Database of CEPS, American Federal Computer Library center (OCLC), USA Chinese Scientific Journals Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. NSD (Norwegian Social Science Data Service), Database for Statistics on Higher Education (DBH), Norway Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd

(UDLSB), Malaysia

Excellent papers in ERIC Summon Serials Solutions Polish Scholarly Bibliography (PBN) Turkish Education Index Google Scholar CNKI J-GATE Scribd Digital Library Airiti Academic Key Electronic Journals Library (EZB) CiteFactor, USA

SJournal Index Scientific Indexing Services New Jour Pubicon Science Sherpa Romeo Scholarsteer WorldCat Infobase Index Free Libs Pubget CrossRef

Subscription Information: Price (per year): Print $600 David Publishing Company 616 Corporate Way, Suite 2-4876, Valley Cottage, NY 10989, USA Tel: 1-323-984-7526, 323-410-1082 Fax: 1-323-984-7374, 323-908-0457 E-mail: [email protected]

David Publishing Companywww.davidpublisher.com

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

US-China Education Review

B Volume 6, Number 4, April 2016 (Serial Number 59)

Contents Teacher Education

An Investigation of Elementary School Teachers’ Sense of Number 205

Zübeyde ER, Perihan DİNÇ ARTUT

Education Economics and Management

Moving From the Knowledge Economy to the Human Economy 218

Cheryle Tewarie, Angela Escalante

A Study of the Application Strategies of Mobile Social Media—the LINE Official

Account in University and College Marketing and Public Relations 233

Chi-Hu Tien, Chia-Sung Yen

Sociology of Education

Code-Switching Makes Sense, LO? Factors Involved in Code-Switching in a

Multilingual Society 241

Orit Berlinsky-Shay

Educational Psychology

Longitudinal Research on the Development of Speech of People With Mild

Mental Retardation 249

Jacek J. Błeszyński

Primary Education

Junior Primary Music Education in Nigeria 257

Young-Sook Onyiuke

Language and Education

Retrospection and Expectation: A Review on Studies of China English 268

Wu Jihong

US-China Education Review B, April 2016, Vol. 6, No. 4, 205-217 doi: 10.17265/2161-6248/2016.04.001

An Investigation of Elementary School Teachers’

Sense of Number

Zübeyde ER, Perihan DİNÇ ARTUT

Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey

This research primarily investigates elementary school teachers’ sense of number. This is a descriptive research

with a survey model. The participants of the study were 155 primary school teachers teaching in state schools in

Adana, in the South of Turkey. As a data collection tool, a test of sense of number was used. This test was

composed of 50 items, prepared according to the five components of sense of number. The data was analysed

through quantitative methods. The results show that the elementary school teachers’ sense of number is at the

mid-level. In line with the findings of the study, suggestions are given to develop primary school teachers’ sense of

number.

Keywords: sense of number, primary school teachers, mathematics education

Introductıon

A qualified teacher should be equipped with strong subject knowledge and pedagogic domain knowledge.

Pedagogic domain knowledge implies teaching approaches used to make a concept or a topic more

comprehensible for others; whereas, subject knowledge is the amount and organization of knowledge in a

teacher’s mind (Shulman, 1986).

Even (1990) claimed that a teacher with strong mathematics knowledge can help his students get

meaningful learnings. He added that subject knowledge is an important component in teacher training. This

component has a significant place in understanding, planning, and teaching mathematics.

Sense of number is vital in terms of the subject knowledge types that a teacher should have, so it is needed

to explain the position and importance of this concept in mathematics. One of the best ways of achieving this is

to focus on the skills of a student with a good sense of number. Making mathematical operaions, a student with

a good sense of number can find out his own methods, can express a number in a way that fits into the situation

and can make transitions between quantities in the real world and the numbers in the world of mathematics

(Case, 1998, as cited in Şengül & Dede, 2014). While busy with operations in their mind, students with sense

of number can make planning and control, can be flexible and can decide if the results are reasonable or not

(Mohamed & Johnny, 2010). In short, a student equipped with a good sense of number can use daily life and

school mathematics in a flexible way and in a way that makes his/her life easy.

It is possible for students to acquire sense of number through mathematics courses. In line with this,

teachers responsible for giving these courses should put forward their skills which are related to this concept.

Zübeyde ER, math teacher, Department of Elementary School Education, Faculty of Education, Çukurova University. Perihan DİNÇ ARTUT, assoçiate professor, Department of Elementary School Education, Faculty of Education, Çukurova

University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

AN INVESTİGATİON OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ SENSE OF NUMBER

206

Teachers can contribute into the acquisition of this concept by means of the classroom atmosphere they

organize, teaching methods they use, and activities they implement (Tsao & Lin, 2011), so teachers’ schemata

about sense of number are important.

Literature Review

In a general perspective, sense of number means making logical calculations about various uses, realizing

mathematical faults and number patterns and making decision on the most effective calculation way (Hope,

1989, as cited in Altay, 2010). According to Altay (2010), sense of number is defined as:

Using numbers flexibly, practical thinking in operations with numbers, choosing the most effective and practical solution, in some situations creating non-standard ways that do not go in line with the situation, using comparison (reference) point in facilitating problems, and using conceptual thinking and different ways of showing in fractions.

As sense of number is a difficult concept to define, it has caused controversies among mathematical

trainers (teachers, programme developers, and researchers) and cognitive psychologists (McIntosh, Reys, &

Reys, 1992). These arguments have also been observed in revealing the components of sense of number.

In their study on the classifications of sense of number components, Şengül and Dede (2013),

mentioned that there was no common classification regarding the components of sense of number in the

related literature. They concluded that the most comprehensive classification was done by McIntosh et al.

(1992). They thought that it derived from the fact that there were no certain borders of the concept of sense of

number.

Following the classification by McIntosh et al. (1992), Sighn (2009) grouped the components of sense of

number as understanding number concept, using multiple representations, understanding the effect of the

operation, using equivalent presentations and calculation, and using counting strategies. In this present research,

the components that Sighn (2009) formulated were used. In line with the explanations in the related literature,

these components were considered as in the following manner:

Understanding Number Concepts

This component is about understanding the value that the number represented and the size that the number

indicated. They understand and use the numbers and relationships completely (Harç, 2010). For example, the

skill of knowing that there are indefinite decimal number between 0.5 and 0.6 is a sign of this component.

Using Multiple Representations

This is related to knowing different representations of the number or the value the number represented. For

example, finding the number which best represents a dredged area in a whole is a sign of this component.

Understanding the Effect of Operations

This is related to realise how the result can be affected when a number or the value of the operation is

changed in an operation. In short, a person who is capable of understanding the effect of the operation can

know how four operations can affect the numbers (Yang, Reys, & Reys, 2009). In other words, it means to

know that the multiplication does not always make the numbers higher and the division does not always make

the numbers lower (Graeber & Tirosh, 1990; Greer, 1987; McIntosh et al., 1992). For example, realising that

when 30 is multiplied by 0.09, the result will be lower than 30 is a sign of this component.

Using Equivalent Expression

This is related to knowing the numbers in different expressions, that is, their equivalences. For example,


207

understanding that two out of five can also be represented by an equivalence or understanding that 70 x 0.5 and

70:2 are equivalent symbolize this component (İymen, 2012).

Using Counting and Computation Strategies

This is related to knowing the result of the operation without using pen and pencil. In the related literature,

it has been seen that there are studies about sense of number with elementary school students (Altay, 2010;

Altay & Umay, 2011; Aunio, Lim, Hautamaki, & Van Luit, 2004; İymen, 2012; Markovits & Pang, 2007;

Markovits & Sowder, 1994; Pike & Forrester, 1997; Reys, Kim, & Bay, 1999; Sengul & Gulbagci, 2012;

Zaslavsky, 2001) and with teacher candidates (Altay & Umay, 2011; Clarke, 2012; Şengül, 2013; Şengül &

Dede, 2014; Yaman, 2014; Yaman, 2015; Yang, 2007; Yang, Reys, & Reys, 2009). No studies have been found

with elementary school teachers

These examples given above reveal that strong content knowledge is a must for an effective mathematics

education. Also, it has been thought that it is important to investigate the teachers’ skills related to sense of

number as it is one of the skills that elementary school students should be equipped with. In addition, following

the idea that sense of number can be developed (Olkun, 2012; Şengül & Dede, 2014; Tsao, 2012), it has been

aimed to investigate whether teachers’ experience with numbers during their teaching career is influential on

the development of their sense of number. Considering all these explanations, it has been thought that this study

contributes into the related literature and it is possible to make recommendations for the training of elementary

school teachers. The research questions of the study are as below:

1. Is there a difference in elementary school teachers’ sense of number performances in terms of

gender?

2. How is elementary school teachers’ sense of number performances?

3. Is there a difference in elementary school teachers’ sense of number performances in terms of

teaching experience period?

4. What is elementary school teachers’ performances about the components of sense of humor in terms

of teaching experience period?

5. Is there a difference in elementary school teachers’ performances about the components of sense of

number in terms of teaching experience period?

Method

This is a descriptive research with a survey model, investigating elementary school teachers’ sense of

number.

Participants

The participants of the study were chosen through convenience sampling. One hundred and fifty-five

elementary school teachers working in state schools in Adana, a city in the South of Turkey participated in the

study. Table 1 gives information about the participants’ gender and teaching experience period.

As seen in Table 1, ouf ot 155 elementary school teachers, 97 of them are female and 58 of them are male.

It has been seen that nearly 13.5 % of the participants have the teaching experience period of 1-5, 16.1 % of

them have been teaching for 6-10 year, 18.7 % of them have been teaching for 11-15 year, 38.7 % have been

teaching for 16-20 year, and 12.9 % of them have been teaching for 21 year and more.


208

Table 1

Elementary School Teachers in Terms of Teaching Experience Period and Gender

Gender 1-5 year 6-10 year 11-15 year 16-20 year 21-25 year Total

Female 13 21 18 36 9 97(62.6%)

Male 8 4 11 24 11 58(34.4%)

Total 21(13.5%) 25(16.1%) 29(18.7%) 60(38.7%) 20(12.9%) 155

Data Collection Tool

As a data collection tool, the test of sense of number (SNT) adapted by Sing (2009) by following

McIntosh, Reys, Reys, Bana, and Farrell (1997) was translated into Turkish by the researchers. The translated

form was presented to three English language teachers and two mathematics teachers, specialized in teaching

mathematics. The form was revised in line with feedback received. Then, the test was administered to piloted

with three elementary school teachers in order to see whether the SNT items were clear enough or not. The

reliability coefficient was found as 0.812.

In the SNT test, there are five components with 50 items. They are understanding the number concept,

using the multiple representations, understanding the effect of the operation, using equivalences and

calculations, and using counting strategies. Table 2 shows the components of the SNT test and the distribution

of the questions in line with these components.

Table 2 Components of the Sense of Number Test and the Disribution of These Questions in Line With the Components and Sample Items

Components Items Example item

Understanding number concepts

Number of items: 14 Item no: 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 25, 29, 36, 39

Item 3: How many different decimal are there between 1.52 and 1.53? Circle your answer and then fill in the blank. A. None. Why? B. One. What is it? C. A few. Give two examples. D. Many. Give two examples.

Using multiple representations

Number of items: 7 Item no: 7, 8, 13,14, 30, 31, 40

Item 8:

Circle the decimal which best represents the amount of the box shaded. (A) 0.018 (B) 0.15 (C) 0.4 (D) 0.801 (E) 0.52

Understanding the effect of the operation

Number of items: 10 Item no: 16,17, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 38, 48, 49

Item 16: Without calculating the exact answer, circle the best estimate for: 9 x 0.98A. More than 9 B. Less than 9 C. Impossible to tell without working it out

Using equivalent expression

Number of items: 8 Item no: 11, 23, 26, 32, 33, 34,37, 45

Item 11: 0.5 x 840 is the same as: A. 840 ÷ 2 B. 840 + 2 C. 5 x 8400 E. 0.50 x 84 D. 5 x 840

Using calculation and counting strategies

Number of items: 11 Item no: 2, 5, 12, 35, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 50

Item 2: Ten bottles of orange juice cost a total of Turkish Lira (TL) 7.95 at K shop. I can get 5 bottles of the same juice for a total of TL 4.15 at L shop.Where is a bottle of orange juice cheaper? A. At K shop B. At L shop Tell how you decided:

Total 50 items


209

Data Collection

The SNT test was administered to the teachers individually. They were instructed to leave 30-45 seconds

to each item in the test, so they were guided to make use of their sense of number but not calculating.

Data Analysis

Before the data was analysed, all items in the test were checked if they were answered in line with the

instructios and if there were any items left unaswered.

The data analysis was done through the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPPS) 15.0

programme. Following the aim of the research, the frequency analysis (f), the percentage (%), and the mean (X)

were calculated regarding the components of sense of number. The correct answers were evaluated as “1” and

incorrect answers “0.” The independent t-test was computed in order to test the significance of the participants’

SNT scores regarding gender. Next, one-way ANOVA was computed to see if there were significant

differences in the participants’ sense of number test scores for irrelevant measures with respect to teaching

experience period. Also, MANOVA was used to test if the participants’ scores in the test differed significantly

regarding sense of number test.

Findings

In this section, the findings were given and they were interpreted in line with the research questions.

Findings and Interpretations of the Elementary School Teachers’ Sense of Number Scores in Terms of

Gender

The indepedendent groups t-test was used to test the significance of the elementary school teachers’ SNT

scores regarding gender. The results were given in Table 3.

Table 3

Elementary School Teachers’ t-Test Results Based on the Test of Sense of Number in Terms of Gender

Gender N SS Sd t P

Female 97 36.22 6.64

153 1.82 0.69 Male 58 38.01 4.36

Total 155

As seen in Table 3, the mean of the female participants’ sense of number test scores was 36.22 and that of

male participants was 38.01. Also, the standard deviation of the male participants has found to be higher than

that of female participants. It implied that the male teachers had a more homogen structure; whereas, the female

teachers were heterogenous. Independent groups t-test was computed to see if the differences was significant or

not in terms of gender and no significant difference was found (t(153) = 1.82 p > 0.01).

Findings Related to the Elementary School Teachers’ Sense of Number Performances Regarding

Teaching Experience Period

Table 4 points out the mean and the standard deviation of the elementary school teachers’ sense of number

performances in terms of teaching experience period.

According to Table 4, the teachers with 11-15 teaching experience period had the highest mean (37.96)

and the teachers with the teaching experience of 21 year had the lowest mean (34.90). Keeping in mind that the

highest score to be taken from the SNT was 50, it was possible to say that the elementary school teachers’ sense


210

of number performances was low. Referring to all information given above, then, one-way ANOVA was

computed to see if there was a significant difference in the elementary school teachers’ sense of number test for

irrelevant sampling regarding teaching experience period. Table 5 illustrates the ANOVA results.

Table 4

Elementary School Teachers’ Sense of Number Performances Regarding Teaching Experience Period

Teaching experience (Max. 50) SS

1-5 year 36.33 7.65 6-10 year 37.64 5.00 11-15 year 37.96 5.82 16-20 year 36.93 5.04 21 and more 34.90 7.53 Mean 36.89 5.94

Tablo 5 ANOVA Results of Elementary School Teachers’ Sense of Number Test Scores Regarding Teaching Experience Period Source of variation The sum of squares Sd The mean of squares F P

Between group 133.423 4 33.356

0.943 0.441 Within group 5,304.926 150 35.366

Total 5,438.348 154

No significant difference was observed in the elementary school teachers’ sense of number test scores with

respect to their teaching experience period (F(4,150) = 0.943, p > 0.01).

Findings and Interpretations Related to the Elementary School Teachers’ Components of the Sense of

Number in Terms of Teaching Experience Period

Findings and interpretations about understanding the concept of number compoent. Table 6 points

out the frequency of correct answers regarding this component.

Table 6 Elementary School Teacher’ Percentage Distribution Related to the Component of Understanding the Number Concept in Terms of Teaching Experience Period Item no 1-5 year 6-10 year 11-15 year 16-20 year 21-25 year Mean

1 90.5 88.0 89.7 86.7 90.0 88.4 3 66.7 60.0 69.0 55.0 60.0 60.6

4 95.2 100. 100 98.3 85.0 96.0 6 71.4 56.0 62.1 48.3 40.0 54.2 9 61.9 40.0 20.7 46.7 40.0 41.9

10 90.5 92.0 89.7 85.0 75.0 86.5 15 85.7 76.0 93.1 83.3 80.0 83.9 18 47.6 64.0 69.0 61.7 50.0 60.0

19 47.6 60.0 58.6 48.3 30.0 49.7 22 76.2 80 89.7 88.3 85.0 85.2 25 90.5 80.0 79.8 83.3 80.0 81.9 29 85.7 92.0 79.3 78.3 90.0 83.2 36 85.7 96.0 93.1 80.0 80.0 85.8 39 38.1 52.0 31.0 35.0 55.0 40.0 Mean 73.80 62.85 73.2 69.87 67.14 71.23


211

According to Table 6, the percentage mean of the correct answer of the elementary school teachers’

understanding of the concept of number component was 71.23%. The highest score belonged to the teachers

with 1-2 teaching experience period as seen in Table 6. It was seen that the teachers with the teaching

experience of 6-10 year had the lowest score. Regarding all teaching experience period category, the lowest

score was observed in the 9th item (41.9 %) and in the 39th item (40%). In the 39th item, it was expected that

the integer part consisted of a number with four digits and the comma would be in the appropriate place.

However, the research findings showed that the teachers did not realise this point.

Item 39

715.347 + 589.200 + 4.553

The answer to the problem consists of the number 13,091. where it (,) should be to be correct

answer?

Answer : .................

Findings related to the component of using multiple representations. Table 7 illustrates the percentage

distribution of the correct answers related to the component of using multiple representations.

Table 7 The Percentage Distribution of the Component of Using Multiple Representations Regarding the Teachers’ Teaching Experience Period

Item no 1-5 year 6-10 year 11-15 year 16-20 year 21-25 year Mean

7 85.7 76.0 93.1 88.3 65.0 83.9

8 76.2 68.0 89.7 76.7 75 77.4

13 28.6 44.0 48.3 40.0 35.0 40.0

14 28.6 32.0 41.4 28.3 30.0 31.6

30 76.2 84.0 89.7 86.7 90.0 85.8

31 76.2 88.0 79.3 86.7 80.0 83.2

40 81.0 80.0 86.2 85.0 90.0 84.5

Mean 64.64 67.42 75.38 70.24 66.42 69.48

As seen in Table 7, the percentage of correct answers of the elementary school teachers’ using multiple

representations was 69.48%. The highest percentage belonged the the participants with 11-15 year of teaching

experience and the lowest percentage belonged to the participants with 21-25 year of teaching experience.

Regarding all teaching experience periods, the lowest achievement was observed in the 14th item (31.6%) and

13th item (40.0%). It was seen that the elementary school teachers had difficulty in finding the value that the

number represented on the number line and in expressing the number in a fraction where the numerator was

nearly twice the denominator.

Item 14

Which letter in the number line above shows a fraction where the numerator is nearly twice the

denominator?

Answer: ……………………


212

Findings and ınterpretations about the component of understanding the effect of operation. This

component is related to the abiliy of realising how the results changes when a number or the value of the

operation changes in calculations. Table 8 illustrates the the percentage distribution of correct answers that the

elementary teachers give to this component.

Table 8 The Frequency Distribution of the Elementary School Teachers’ Correct Answers About Understanding the Effect of the Operation in Terms of Teaching Experience Period


16 85.7 96.0 96.6 93.3 75.0 91.0

17 76.2 92.0 96.6 93.3 75.0 89.0

20 9.50 8.00 17.2 15.0 10.0 12.9

21 61.9 68.0 62.1 68.3 50.0 63.9

24 23.8 24.0 17.2 21.7 35.0 23.2

27 71.4 72.0 86.2 76.7 75.0 76.8

28 81.0 84.0 89.7 71.7 65.0 77.4

38 95.2 100 100 98.3 90.0 97.4

48 85.7 88.0 96.6 91.7 95.0 91.6

49 71.4 72.0 72.4 83.3 60.0 74.8

Mean 66.18 70.4 73.46 71.33 63.0 69.8

According to Table 8, it was seen that the mean of correct answers about the component of understanding

the effect of the operation was 69.8%. The highest score was observed with the teachers who had 11-15

teaching experience period and the lowest score belonged to the teachers with 21-25 year of teachnig

experience. With respect to all teaching experience periods, the lowest score was seen in the 20th item (12.9%).

Item 20

Without calculating the exact answer circle the best estimate for:

87 x 0.09

A. Very much less than 87 B. A little less than 87

C. A little more than 87 D. Very much more than 87

When the 20th item was considered, it was seen that some elementary school teachers who gave incorrect

answer perceived the operation as a multiplication of two numbers. They thought that the answer would be

more than 87 and chose the wornd answer. It was thought that they did not consider that the value of the

multiplication decreased as one of the numbers was a decimal number.

Findings and interpretations about the component of using equivalences. In using equivalences, the

elementary school teachers were expected to find the equivalence of the results of the operation and to use the

appropriate symbol, such as equal sign, greater or lesser signs. The percentage distribution of correct answers

the elementary school teacher give is shown in Table 9.

According to Table 9, the percentage mean of correct answer about using the equivalences is 79.2%. The

elementary school teachers with the teaching experience of 11-12 year had the highest achievement percentage

and the teachers with the teaching experience of 21-25 year had the lowest achievement percentage. Regarding

all teaching experience periods, the lowest achievement was observed in the 23th item (49%).


213

Table 9 The Percentage Distribution of the Correct Answers of the Elementary School Teachers’ Using Equivalences in Terms of Teaching Experience Period


11 81.0 88.0 89.7 88.3 85.0 87.1 23 42.9 60.0 55.2 45.0 45.0 49.0 26 66.7 84.0 75.9 81.7 55.0 75.5 32 100 92.0 96.6 91.7 95.0 94.2 33 61.9 72.0 72.4 48.3 45.0 58.1 34 71.4 76.0 86.2 75.0 70.0 76.1 37 100 96 100 95.0 95.0 96.8 45 100 100 96.6 96.7 90.0 96.8 Mean 77.98 83.5 84.07 77.71 72.5 79.2

Item 23

Write “ is greater than,” “is equal to,” or “ is less than” to make this a true statement:

5 712

… … . 3512

In this item, the teachers were expected to use the symbol of “<”. But, the teachers thought that the results

was equal and they used the symbol of “=”, instead of “<”.

Findings and interpretations about the component of calculating and using counting strategies.

Table 10 shows the percentage distribution of correct asnwers about the component of the elementary school

teachers’ use of calculating and counting strategies.

Table 10 The Percentage Distribution of Correct Answers Given to Using Calculation and Counting Strategies by the Elementary School Teachers in Terms of Teaching Experience Period


2 85.7 96.0 89.7 96.7 90.0 92.9

5 76.2 80.0 79.3 73.3 85.0 77.4 12 76.2 76.0 75.9 85.0 65.0 78.1 35 81.0 92.0 69.0 86.7 70.0 81.3

41 90.5 96.0 96.6 93.3 100 94.8 42 95.2 92.0 96.6 93.3 100 94.8 43 4.80 4.00 3.40 10.0 15.0 7.7

44 90.5 84.0 93.1 78.3 95.0 85.8 46 90.5 96.0 96.6 90.0 100 93.5 47 81.0 72.0 55.2 86.7 75.0 76.1

50 90.5 96.0 86.2 95.0 80.0 91.0 Mean 78.3 80.36 67.72 80.75 79.54 79.4

According to Table 10, the mean of correct answers about using calculating and counting strategies by the

elementary school teachers is 79.4%. For this component, the highest achievement score belonged to the

teachers with the teaching experience period of 6-10 year; whereas, the lowest score was by the elementary

school teachers with the teaching experience period of 11-15 year. With respect to all teaching experience

periods, the lowest achievement was observed in the 43th item (7.7%).


214

Then, MANOVA was calculated to see whether the SNT sense of number components score significantly

changed regarding teaching experience period. Table 11 points out he MANOVA results. It was seen that

the sense of number components had no effect on teachers’ experience period (Wilks Lambda () = 0.795,

F(1.734) = , p > 0.01).

Table 11

The SNT Components Mean, Standard Deviations and One-Way Variance Analysis Results in Terms of

Teaching Experience Peripd Components of sense of number

Teaching experience SS Sd F P

Understanding the concept of number

1-5 10.33 2.61

4-150 0.901 0.465

6-10 10.36 1.62

11-15 10.20 2.09

16-20 9.78 1.96

21-25 9.40 2.77

Total 9.98 2.15

Using multiple Representations

1-5 4.52 1.74

4-150 0.924 0.452

6-10 4.72 1.67

11-15 5.27 1.19

16-20 4.91 1.44

21-25 4.65 1.95

Total 4.86 1.55

Understanding the effect of the operation

1-5 6.61 1.46

4-150 2.565 0.41

6-10 7.04 1.27

11-15 7.34 1.26

16-20 7.13 1.19

21-25 6.30 1.49

Total 6.98 1.32

Using equivalences

1-5- 6.23 1.37

4-150 2.186 0.73

6-10 6.68 1.14

11-15 6.72 1.25

16-20 6.21 1.30

21-25 5.80 1.23

Total 6.33 1.29

Calculating aplama and using sayma stra counting strategies

1-5 8.61 1.93

4-150 0.492 0.741

6-10 8.84 1.31

11-15 8.41 1.63

16-20 8.88 1.43

21-25 8.75 1.74

Total 8.73 1.56

Discussion, Result, and Suggestions

Investigating elementary school teachers’ sense of number skills, this study was based on the data

collected with 155 elementary school teachers.

In this study, the sense of number was analysed in terms of gender and teaching experience period. It was

seen that the elementary school teachers’ sense of number performances were low and this profile did not

change with regard to gender and teaching experience period. Also, the sense of number component on which


215

the elementary school teachers gave the most correct answers were calculating and using counting strategies.

The percentage of correct answers in this component was 79.4% and the percentage mean of correct answers in

the component of using equivalences was 79.2%.

In their study, Altay and Umar (2011) investigated the elementary school teachers’ calculating skills and

the relationship between this and sense of number regarding grades. They found out that the elementary school

teachers’ sense of number was low. Similarly, Yang (2007) carried out a study focusing on elementary school

candidate teachers’ strategies use in the sense of number problems. Yang concluded that most of the elementary

school candidae teachers preferred written calculation ways in solving problems. According to Yang (2007),

this results was an evidence of teacher candidates’ low performance of sense of number skills. In addition to

this, Yang, Reys, and Reys (2009) did a study on Taiwanese elementary school candidate teachers’ use of

strategies in solving the real life problems. In their study, they found that the teacher candidates mostly used

rule-based strategies. They added that this derived from the fact that their sense of number was low. Yaman

(2014) also presented similar findings from her study focusing on the elementary school candidate teachers’

sense of number skills with respect to grade, so the results of this present research can be said to be compatible

with the findings in the related literature (Altay & Umay, 2011; Yang, 2007; Yang, Reys, & Reys, 2009;

Yaman, 2014).

In different studies with a focus on the sense of number at the level of elementary school. Parallel findings

were observed (Harç, 2010; Altay, 2010; Şengül & Gülbağcı, 2012). Considering both the studies in Turkey

and abroad, it was seen that the skill of sense of number was not high with both students and teachers. Şengün

(2013) claimed that this profile is a good support and example in Turkey for a perspective proposed by Alamı

and Reys (2007), and Reys, Kim, and Bay (1999) in the related literature. Alamı and Reys (2007), and Reys et

al. (1999) said that the children and teachers in the countries shared the same problems.

This study showed that teaching experience period had no effect on the sense of number performances. In

liene with this, Yaman (2014) presented parallel findings to this study, emphasizing the low sense of number

skills at teacher candidates.

All in all, it was concluded that the elementary school teachers’ sense of number performances were found

to be low and this was not changed regarding gender and teaching experience period. Moreover, it was found

that the sense of number component that the the most correct answers were observed was calculating and use of

of counting strategies.

As a suggestion, it can be proposed that the teacher should be trained in a way that they realize the

importance of sense of number. Also, elementary school teachers should be aware of their students’ sense of

number and they should attend training programmes about how they can improve their students’ sense of

number skills and what kind of activities can be implemented and what kind of lesson plans should be prepared

for this. Furthermore, training should be given to elementary school teachers to develop their mental calculation

skills and prediction skills, so students’ sense of number are developed.

References Altay, M. K. (2010). An investigation of middle grade students number sense in terms of grade level, gender and components of

number sense (Doctoral thesis, Hacettepe University, Social Sciences Institute, Ankara, Turkey). Altay, M. K., & Umay, A. (2013). The development of number sense scale towards middle grade students. Egitim ve Bilim,

38(167), 241-255.


216

Altay, M. K., & Umay, A. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between calculation ability and number sense of prospective elementary teachers. e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, 6(1), 1277-1283.

Alajmi, A., & Reys, R. (2007). Reasonable and reasonableness of answers: Kuwaiti middle school teachers’ perspectives. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 65(5), 77-94.

Aunio, P., Ee, J., Lim, S. E. A., Hautamaki, J., & ve Van Luit, J. E. H. (2004). Young children’s number sense in Finland, Hong Kong and Singapore. International Journal of Early Years Education, 12(3), 195-216.

Courtney-Clarke, M. A. E. (2012). Exploring the number sense of final year primary preservice teachers (Master’s thesis, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch).

Even, R. (1990). Subject matter knowledge for teaching and the case of functions. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21, 521-554.

Graeber, A. O., & Tirosh, D. (1990). Insights fourth and fifth grades bring to multiplication and division with decimals. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 21, 565-588.

Greer, B. (1987). Nonconservation of multiplication and division involving decimals. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 18, 37-45.

Harç, S. (2010). Analysis of the current situation of the 6th grade students in term ofnumber sense concept (Mater’s thesis, Marmara University, İstanbul).

İymen, E. (2012). Analysis of 8th grade students’ number sense related to the exponents interms of sense components (Mater’s thesis, Pamukkale University, Denizli).

Kılıç, Ç. (2011). Number sense in the elementary mathematics curriculum (1-5) and NCTM principles. In 1st International Conference on Curriculum and Instruction, IEskişehir.

Markovits, Z., & Pang, J. (2007, July). The ability of 6th grade students in Korea and Israel to cope with number sense tasks. In Proceedings of the 31st Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol.3, pp. 241-248).

Markovits, Z., & Sowder, J. (1994). Developing number sense: An intervention study in Grade 7. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 25, 4-29.

McIntosh, A., Reys, B. J., & Reys, R. E. (1992). A proposed framework for examining basic number sense. For the Learning of Mathematics, 12(3), 2-8.

McIntosh, A., Reys, B. J., Reys, R. E., Bana, J., & Farrel, B. (1997). Number sense in school mathematics: Student performance in four countries. Mathematics Science and Technology Education Centre, Edith Cowan University.

Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı (MEB). (2011). Elementary school mathematics curriculum and instruction manual (1-5 grades). Ankara: Milli Eğitim Basımevi.

Mohamed, M., & ve Johnny, J. (2010). Investigating number sense among students. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 317-324.

Olkun, S. (2012). What is the number sense? Why is it important? How is to improve? Ankara Üniversty, Faculty of Educational Sciences. Retrieved September 19, 2015, from http://www.vitaminogretmen.com/dokumanlar/6606

Pike, C. D., & Forrester, M. A. (1997). The influence of number sense on children’s ability to estimate measures. Educational Psychology, 17(4), 483-500.

Reys, B. J., Kim, O. K., & ve Bay, J. M. (1999). Establishing fraction benchmarks. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 4(8), 530-532.

Singh, P. (2009). An assessment of number sense among secondary school students. International Journal for Mathematics Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from http://www.cimt.plymouth.ac.uk/journal/singh.pdf

Sengul, S., & Gulbagci, H. (2012). An investigation of 5th grade Turkish students’ performance in number sense on the topic of decimal numbers. Procedia-Social and and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 2289-2293.

Şengül, S. (2013). Identification of number sense strategies used by pre-service elementary teachers. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 13(3), 1965-1974.

Şengül, S., & Dede, H. G. (2014). The strategies of mathematics teachers when solving number sense problems. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT), 5(1), 73-88.

Şengül, S., & Dede, H. G. (2013). An ınvestigation of classifıcation of number sense components. International Journal of Social Science, 6(8), 645-664.

Shulman, S. L. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Tsao, Y. L. (2012). Number sense of pre-service teachers. Research in Higher Education Journal, 16, 1.


217

Tsao, Y. L., & Lin, Y. C. (2011). The study of number sense and teaching practice. Journal of Case Studies in Education, 2(1), 1-14.

Yaman, H. (2014). Number sense performances of preservice teachers. Grade Level, 23(2), 739-754. Yang, D. C. (2007). Investigating the strategies used by pre-service teachers in Taiwan when responding to number sense

questions. School Science and Mathematics, 107(7), 293-301. Yang, D. C., Reys, R. E., & ve Reys, B. J. (2009). Number sense strategies used by preservice teachers in Taiwan. International

Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 7, 383-403. Zaslavsky, C. (2001). Developing number sense: What can other cultures tell us? Teaching Children Mathematics, 7(6), 312-319.


Moving From the Knowledge Economy to the

Human Economy*

Cheryle Tewarie, Angela Escalante

The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus,

Trinidad and Tobago, West Indies

Converging on the notion that we must more aggressively invest in our people, there is a greater impetus to

transform our region from a knowledge economy to a human economy and view that relationship as cyclically

organic. The total sum of leveraging the assets resident in business skills, expertise, and resources, and university

knowledge outputs can only provide compounded benefit and add greater value to building and sustaining the

human economy. This paper will outline the framework, i.e., the key strategies, systems, channels, and processes

that iscritical for a healthy partnership and the importance of a well-designed monitoring mechanism to track the

incorporation of knowledge into the human economy. The paper will attempt to demystify the components of the “-”

between university and industry and the metrics needed to support these components, inclusive of an analysis of the

preconditions needed to ensure a healthy partnership and productive collaboration. Based on practical experiences

and on a specific case of a university-industry collaborative project implemented in the twin island State of

Trinidad and Tobago located in the Caribbean region, the paper will provide a practical framework for planning,

executing, and monitoring university-industry interaction.

Keywords: human economy, knowledge economy, enablers, competitive advantage, impact

Introduction

The global financial crisis has renewed concern about whether capitalist markets are the best way of organising economic life. Would it not be better if we were to treat the economy as something made and remade by people themselves, rather than as an impersonal machine? (Hart, Laville, & Cattani, 2010)

The term “knowledge economy” was popularized by Peter Drucker (1969) as the title of Chapter 12 in his

book The Age of Discontinuity. The turn of the 20th century was characterized as a period of disruption and

discontinuity in which the structure and meaning of economy, polity, and society have been radically altered.

Factors of production of the recent economic age, capital, and energy as the primary wealth-creating assets

were being replaced by information and knowledge. Drucker’s new universe of knowledge was based on mass

education and its implications in work, leisure, and leadership. He described the knowledge economy as the use

* The Paper entitled “Moving from the Knowledge Economy to the Human Economy” was presented at the International

University-Industry Innovation Network Conference, June 22-28, 2015, Berlin, Germany. Cheryle Tewarie, manager, Research Funding and Business Development, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine

Campus; Office of Research Development and Knowledge Transfer. Angela Escalante, contract officer, The University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus; Office of Research Development

and Knowledge Transfer.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

MOVING FROM THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY TO THE HUMAN ECONOMY

219

of knowledge to generate tangible and intangible values. Much of the theory was based on the explosion of new

technologies and its effects on new industries, new economic borders, and the lack of policy and institutions to

circumvent these changes.

Michael Porter (1998) noted that the economy had become far more dynamic and that comparative

advantage had become less relevant than competitive advantage which rests on “making more productive use of

inputs, which requires continual innovation.”

More than a decade later, new ideas are emerging, not the least those surrounding an economy created by

humans. In order to be a human economy, according to Hart, Laville, and Cattani (2010), the economy must

have at least four key characteristics: (1) It must be made and remade by people and should be of practical use

in daily lives; (2) It should address a great variety of particular situations in all their institutional complexity; (3)

It must be based on a more holistic conception of everyone’s needs and interests; and (4) It has to address

humanity as a whole and the world society we are making.

Seidman (2014) noted that mature economies have evolved from being industrial to knowledge and had

arrived at a watershed moment, transitioning to human economies and catering for all of its implications. Here,

he proposed, everyone is a leader doing the next right thing.

As we now, strive to invest in the development of the economy through collaboration, and as we move

from the knowledge economy to the human economy, as the next level to strive to achieve competitive

advantages, we attempt to focus on university-industry collaboration as a foundation for deeper economic

development. Close examination of the competitive advantage model that informs the most successful or most

competitive countries reveals a very heavy emphasis on the development of its human capital. As Porter (1990)

noted, “National prosperity does not grow out of a country’s natural endowments, its labor pool, its interest

rates, or its currency’s value, as classical economics insists.”

Transformation into a Human Economy

Converging, therefore, on the notion that we must more aggressively invest in our people, there is a

greater impetus to transform our region from a “knowledge economy” to a “human economy” and view

that relationship as cyclically organic. In so doing, there ought to be a continuous examination of the

performance of those prescribed factors that enable and sustain this relationship to generate the envisioned

impact.

According to development indices and noted in a Review of the Economy 2013, the Human

Development Index ranked Trinidad and Tobago 64 out of 187; for the Global Competitive Review, it was

ranked 92 out of 148 in 2013-2014 and 89 in 2014-2015. Generally, the Caribbean displayed the levels of

competitiveness and development that are reflective of the urgent need to engage new strategies that will

alleviate critical restraints on human development, competiveness, and innovation. One of these major

strategies is for universities to link more strategically and effectively with industry to the benefit of the

universities’ mission, the industries’ raison d’être and to all those sectors on which each will benefit, influence,

and impact.

A nation’s competitiveness depends on the capacity of and rate at which its industry innovates and

upgrades. Industries gain advantage overthe world’s best competitors because of pressure and challenge.

(Porter, 1990). The growing impetus on not only developing countries, but on all countries to be competitive

and profitable, requires an increased ability to uptake and incorporate knowledge generated from valuable


220

activities and leveraging networks and partnerships to increase entrepreneurial and innovative outputs all in a

time-sensitive manner. This is exceedingly critical for universities in the face of increased competition for

public funding and for industries as they compete for market share. Governments are increasing their support

for university-industry interaction as the mechanism to improve efficiency, innovation, and competitiveness

and it is expected that once this environment is successfully nurtured, there will be faster economic

development of a country/region.

Universities themselves focus more on non-traditional activities to differentiate themselves from their

competitors. These activities include conducting contracted and joint research, institutionalising systems that

facilitate and engage commercialisation of research, encouraging spin off activity and identifying and

sustaining various partnerships with business (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural

Organization [UNESCO], 2000). Universities worldwide have set up mechanisms to deal with the changing

demands as in the establishment of the Office of Research Development and Knowledge Transfer at the St.

Augustine Campus of The University of the West Indies. The foundation of these activities is having a

comprehensive knowledge and relationship management system upon which the partnership relies to identify,

assess, manage, and monitor the performance of the relationship(s) at all stages. It is recognised that the

generation of knowledge is a foundation element, but if the capacity to take up this knowledge and transform it

into useful applications is not adequately realised via the interactionor partnership, then its value can be

compromised and it can quickly become irrelevant.

Resident within the university is a critical mass of knowledge, expertise, and living laboratories where

new knowledge is constantly being created. In most societies, universities play a major role in fuelling the

knowledge economy and have now to engage its constituents in a manner that results in successfully utilising

this knowledge and opportunities toward measurable development results as it helps to create a more innovative

and competitive region.

From the perspective of industry where the focus is on the triple bottom line, universities are seen as

having capabilities to explore several connections, channels, and practices in support of each pillar of the triple

bottom line, namely, economic, social, and environmental. Understanding the value propositions of both sides

will serve to ensure that the university as well as industry derive mutual benefits. The total sum of leveraging

the assets resident in industry business skills, expertise and resources, and university research and knowledge

outputs can only provide compounded benefit and add greater value to defining, building, and sustaining the

human economy.

Use of Indicators

Seppo and Lilles (2012) have described a number of input, impact, and output indicators measuring

different types of university-industry cooperation. We will selectively examine how these translate into tangible

outputs. The viability of the interaction as well as the degree of success of the collaboration will be measured in

several ways, including tracking the performance of the collaboration over time.

This paper will demystify the components of the “-” between university and industry cooperation and the

metrics needed to support these components, inclusive of an analysis of the preconditions needed to ensure a

healthy partnership and productive collaboration. This paper will present a model designed and executed at The

University of the West Indies in collaboration with two major business partnerswith the support of government.

It will outline the framework, i.e., the key strategies, systems, channels, and processes that are critical for a


221

healthy partnership and a keenly designed monitoring mechanism to derive positive impact of incorporating

knowledge into the human economy in an extractive region of Trinidad and Tobago.

The paper will be divided into three sections. Section I will begin with a brief literature review of

university-industry indicators, followed by the authors’ description and analysis of the components that make

up a successful collaboration. Section II will illustrate a practitioner’s case of a successful university-business

collaboration and apply a practical framework for planning, executing, and monitoring university-industry

interaction. Section III will present the authors’ conclusions and recommendations on the identification and

establishment of effective university-industry interactions.

Section I: Identifying Context and Desiging Appropriate Indicators

Literature Review

Research on university-industry linkages has provided “a vast array of indicators and outcomes” both

tangible and intangible, but there is scant research on the “how” in managing university linkages. Numerous

reports, symposia, think pieces, and descriptions of collaboration exist, but a number of constraints are noted.

These may include partners’ differences in mission and objectives, organizational structures, effectiveness, and

arrangements for collaboration along with potential barriers including culture, policies, expectations, and the

conduct between/among partners (Geisler & Rubenstein, 1989).

Korf, Baaken, and Macpherson (2013) described university-industry linkages as “two-way linkages

between university and government entities established to enable the diffusion of creativity, ideals, skills, and

people with the aim of creating mutual value over time....” They note that the research provides

limited theoretical development and practical advice on successfully managing collaboration throughout the

phases of university-industry linkage evolution. They propose a team-based model with high levels of

involvement in the process that can lead to development of personal and economic ties. They recognise that

many barriers need to be overcome including different backgrounds, purposes, cultures, and norms of

each partner. Three phases of development of collaboration were examined: initiation, engaging, and

continuing engagement. They found that communication at all stages of relationship development in the

form of open professional dialogue and informal discussions will help to influence trust. They note that

each partner needs to understand changes in relational success factors over time. It was important for

universities to understand the evolving factors of long term linkages to establish guidelines for successful

partnering. However, they note that the most challenging constraints affecting university-industry linkages

remain: (1) differing structure/organization of partners; (2) differing value-added for partners; and (3) a shift in

expectations over the life of the project as a response to technology, markets, partners’ changes in policy, and

even funding.

Ryan and Heim (1997) suggested that university-industry linkages can take any one of three forms: (1)

institutionally directed; (2) industry directed; and (3) government catalysed. They recommend that there should

be a clear and mutual understanding of each partner’s expectations. In other words, value-added for each

partner must be clearly articulated from the onset. The importance of building value-added incentives and

outcomes, developing effective linkages, taking time to understand the culture, traditions, and values of each

partner will lead to enhancement of trust and communication, factors which they felt would help to nourish and

sustain the partnership. They recognised the importance of an outreach structure within the university that can


222

adequately respond to partnership opportunities.

Much research and discussions of collaborative activities between universities and industry emphasise, the

importance of using proper indicators including input-output indicators, as well as relationship-based indicators.

For example, Seppo and Lillies (2012) highlighted a number of key indicators: (1) channels of interaction; (2)

level of impact; (3) performance indicators; (4) intensity of collaboration; (5) economic impact; and (6)

productivity (increasing productivity means that businesses are improving the size of income relative to

expenses thus becoming more competitive). They suggest that both the knowledge and the transfer of it should

be measured as this would provide good practice and networking opportunities. Both quantitative and

qualitative methods are recommended, the latter serving to provide an understanding of the changes taking

place as the collaboration evolves. Many indicators have been prescribed to measure successful

university-industry collaboration, and while it is difficult to determine appropriate indicators, those selected

should be clear and relevant to the partnership and servethe intended outcome.

Cyert and Goodman (1997) took an organizational learning perspective and note that relationships are

opportunities for learning. Like Korf, Baaken, and Macpherson (2013), they view a team-based approach as

one of the strategies to facilitate transfer and creation of knowledge between institutions. Further, they suggest

that multiple relationships among partners, for example, internships, research collaboration, and tasks help to

reinforce the relationship, so that partners have a better understanding of each other.

Marzo-Navarro, Pedraja-Iglesias, Marta, and Rivera-Torres (2009) took a relational marketing

approachand analyse the university-industry approach from a business perspective. They found that firms

[industry] that experience greater satisfaction in their relationships with universities feel more committed and

would be more willing to form lasting partnerships.

As noted, research on university-industry collaboration provides varying models and perspectives, for

example, stakeholder relationship, network theories, organisational learning, and relationship marketing

perspective among others. However, there is general agreement that while models, indicators, prescriptions,

theories, and discussions, and a vast array of indicators both tangible and intangible that may be applied to

un-ravel the meaning of the “-”, there is actually very little research on the “how” or the strategies in managing

university-industry linkages. The characteristics and expectations of partners belonging to different sectors of

economies are viewed as major barriers to successful linkages.

Demystifying the Mysterious “-” What Are the Components of This Link?

The phrase “university-industry collaboration” is becoming increasingly popular for good reasons. There

is tremendous benefit to be derived from leveraging university-industry interaction for immediate and potential

future mutual benefits to economies as a whole. The traditional culture of many universities, however, is not

evolving fast enough to survive in a competitive market place even though some universities are becoming

more entrepreneurial in their interaction with society and industry. Clark (1998) suggested that “The

university-environment relationship is characterized by a deepening asymmetry between environmental

demand and institutional capacity to respond, resulting in a need for an overall capacity to respond flexibly and

selectively to change.” This further justifies the imperative between universities and industries to forge

collaborative partnerships.

Many entities take it for granted that the mere identification of a seemingly suitable partner is sufficient,

but this is only the beginning. Much thought must be invested prior to the collaboration in identifying and


223

defining the constituents of the “-”. One must consider the meaning and requirements of each constituent, each

of which will depend on the specific initiative being agreed upon, the resources, i.e., the human, physical, and

financial as sets of each partner and the due consideration of incorporating additional collaborators and as

certaining their respective roles and impact. These additional collaborators may include government, state

enterprises, non-governmental organizations, and the community. The “-” also refers to the agreed-upon

governing structure arrangement or collaboration between university and industry that will facilitate the

arrangement or collaboration, the ease of harmonization of operational architecture, i.e., the rules, regulations,

procedures, and policies of each collaborator and the agreed-upon mechanisms for reporting, monitoring, and

evaluation.

Anatomy of the “-”. The foundation of university-industry interaction is often based on the fact that any

sustainable relationship requires both tangible and intangible guiding parameters working collaboratively and

harmoniously together to ensure desirable outcomes. The parameters may be viewed as analogous to structure

of the human anatomy:

1. The head—governing structure. Contractual agreement that outlines “inter alia” terms and conditions of

engagement and termination, ownership of intellectual property, and scope of work to be done;

2. The heart—expectations, relationship management, trust, open communication, good will, and “going

the extra mile;”

3. The nervous system—monitoring, evaluation, and sustainability strategies;

4. The skeletal system—rules, regulations, policies, and procedures of each partner.

Selection of Indicators “You Cannot Manage What You Cannot Measure”

Indicators can be viewed as analogous to road signals: (1) green-keep going, on the right track; (2)

yellow-caution, pay attention to threats to the relationship ecology; and (3) red-stop and re-evaluate, possible

need to re-design. With the identification of sound and appropriate indicators and effective tracking and

monitoring of the performance of these indicators, attaining red status should be rare. Indicators are important

for the productive process over the life of the collaboration and for fostering a healthy collaborative

environment, where expectations of various partners are satisfied.

Categories of indicators. There are several categories of indicators, including: (1) Project indicators

which serve to monitor and evaluate the performance of the implementation activities for attainment of outputs

and team deliverables; and (2) Partnership indicators which serve to monitor the satisfaction of the basic

requirements of the partnership governed by the contract. As mentioned previously, indicators can be “hard”

and “soft,” “tangible and codified,” or “intangible or tacit.” As far as possible, intangible or qualitative

indicators (such as trust, timely responses, and action) must be expressed and documented. These

considerations leave less room for misunderstanding or misinterpretation of expectations as the interaction

progresses and mature.

Measuring successful university-industry collaboration. It is critically important that the indicators

selected to measure result and impacts of the university-industry interaction are judiciously identified. Selection

of inadequate or inappropriate indicators will naturally result in misalignment with the expected outcome(s).

Seppo and Lilles (2012) noted that different types of cooperation will require different indicators and it is

difficult to select the most appropriate indicators to reflect policy and achievement. They categorise and

describe three categories of indicators: input indicators, output indicators, and impact indicators. They provide


224

a framework for university-industry cooperation in the categories of “output” and “impact” indicators that

reflect both medium and long term impact. They conclude that it is difficult to determine the most appropriate

indicates for successful university-industry cooperation. We examine indicators, that from our experiences, best

identify a family of indicators-primary and supporting for a strong university-industry collaboration.

Figure 1 illustrates the three primary indicators that will form the framework of the exploration phase

among partners.

Figure 1. Three primary indicators of interaction success.

Quality of life is an important indicator for universities and public sectors (governments), whose goal is to

improve the quality of life of its citizens, whether we view these as national, regional, or international.

Return on investment is an important indicator for private sector and industry to ensure that the impact

outweighs the initial investment.

Organisational management capability is an important indicator for all collaborators to ensure that each

partner possesses the requisite composition of processes, structures, rules, regulations, and intrinsic skill sets to

bring the outcome to fruition.

Each of these primary indicators depends on a series of supporting indicators for more accurate assessment

of collaboration viability. These are described in the following interaction matrix (see Table 1).

The Interaction Matrix

In 2015, as part of the work of the Office of Research Development and Knowledge Transfer of The

University of the West Indies, Tewarie and Escalante developed a matrix based on the above three primary

indicators to assess and determine the value of collaboration outcomes.


225

Table 1

Matrix of Indicators and Measurement of Interaction Performance Indicators Measurement indicators Means of verification

Leveraging networks and partnerships

Good communication plan among/between the main partners

Sanctioned communication plan

Similar values Partners’ raison d’être submitted

Medium-long term commitment to the agreed upon goals (of the intervention).

Signed document (memorandum of agreement and contract).

Government’s support to improve effectiveness, innovation, and competitiveness.

Alignment with government’s development agenda

National policy In-kind (facilitation) or financial commitment from the government

Faster economic development of a country/region. Sustained impact.

Articulation of each partners’ commitment(at the level of the organisation) and mutual (at the level of the interaction) goals.

Signed document Clear documented distinction between project/intervention performance and collaboration performance

To survive Contextual awareness of the situation to be resolved and of each other’s position

Partner’s brief-position statement

Offset/mitigate against or capitalize on unforeseen occurrences that can arise.

An agile collaboration (partners) will quickly re-conform itself to mitigate unforeseen occurrences.

Articulated commitment by partners for a successful collaboration

A receptive organizational structure Internal policy that governs university-industry interaction

Generation of new knowledge, capacity for uptake knowledge, opportunities to publish and conduct additional research.

Knowledge toolkits designed Agreement to co-share new knowledge generated collaborative research agenda proposed.

System to capture and transfer knowledge Research information management system

To generate third stream revenues Knowledge of financial position Financial statements

Sharing of cutting-edge research and information

Reports Publications

Informed research agenda Approved multidisciplinary research agenda

Proposed solutions to industry’s most critical needs

Proposal to industry for engagement

Pool of experts that can easily be “assembled” to solve an issue or a challenge.

Facilitates organizational growth-for all partners

Performance targets are being met

Encourages deeper and long term participation among partners.

Long term agreement

Propensity for long-term collaboration

Some degree of synchronization among policies that encourage or guide collaboration, mandates, mission, and vision.

Signed agreement for long term collaboration

The prospect of commercialization partnerships.

Industry’s indication of the commercial potential of a particular output(s).

Memorandum of understanding (soft agreement) for continued support patents, trade secrets, and trade marks.

Section II: Indicators at Work: A Case Study by The University of the West Indies

Practitioner’s case “Developing and Implementing a Framework for Local Economic Development for

Regions with Extractive Industries.”

Background

The project was informed by a socio-economic baseline study of six communities in the south western

peninsula of Trinidad. The assessment focused on the link between an extractive industry’s core business

activities and its impact on the local economy. While the industry had made significant contributions to the

community, the base line report found that the activities over many years failed to achieve the expected


226

sustainability results. Further, despite the interventions, communities showed declining economic activity and

showed only marginal increases in the number of new businesses. Furthermore, the findings supported the need

for various forms of collaboration between the private and public sector to facilitate further growth and

development in the region.

The project “Developing and Implementing a Framework for Local Economic Development for Regions

with Extractive Industries” was the result of several discussions among university and industry each of whom

found a common interest as a result of collaboration.

The Project

The project is located in Trinidad and Tobago located in the Caribbean (see Figure 2). The goal of this

project was to expand the adoption of regional economic development policies and strategies based on

public-private interaction for economic, social, and environmental sustainability. The purpose was to support a

sustainable and inclusive socio-economic growth in the south western peninsula of Trinidad and to develop and

implement a Local Economic Development (LED) model for regions with extractive industries. The south

western peninsulais, one of five areas in Trinidad and Tobago that has been identified as a “growth pole” or an

area that has latent economic and sociocultural value that can be developed to generate economic activity

within the area (see Figure 3).

The components that informed the project indicators of success were:

1. To integrate public-private actors and build institutional capabilities for LED;

2. To develop new or expanded business activities in key non energy sectors in the region;

3. To support human capital development and employability of “at risk” and marginalized groups;

4. To create and transfer of knowledge, results, and best practices on LED in extractive industries regions

to key stakeholders groups.

The Collaborators

The major collaborators were identified as: (1) The University of the West Indies; (2) Atlantic liquefied

natural gas (LNG); and (3) Inter-American Development Bank, Multilateral Investment Fund (IDB-MIF).

The University of the West Indies, Office of Research Development and Knowledge Transfer (The

UWI-ORDKT). The UWI was founded by Royal Charter on April 2, 1962. Its mandate is to serve the

manpower needs of the Caribbean region and continue to aggressively seek funding opportunities for research

through various avenues including commercialization of intellectual property, spinoffs, and other knowledge

transfer activities. The UWI is the first port of call for Caribbean governments seeking advice, technical expertise

for policy development, strategic planning, and programme implementation. Over the past decade, the UWI had

been undergoing transformation by setting up structures to form closer links with industry and to respond to a

range of demands, both internal and external. The UWI has four main campuses, three of which are located in

the islands of Trinidad (St. Augustine Campus), Jamaica (Mona Campus), and Barbados (Cave Hill Campus),

and the fourth, an open campus to serve the needs of the non-campus territories of the Caribbean region.

The UWI-ORDKT, one of the structures set up within the UWI, supports all research and knowledge

transfer activities at the St. Augustine Campus located in the twin island State of Trinidad and Tobago. In

collaboration with the UWI’s Central Office of Research, the ORDKT provides intelligence and early

information on new initiatives and developments and on the updated priorities of major funding bodies via a

research information management system which links UWI experts to national and international corporations,


227

multinational organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and funding agencies,

provides project management and project monitoring services. It also provides guidance and mentoring to

faculty engaged in grant writing and project execution.

Atlantic LNG. Atlantic LNG is the sixth largest producer of LNG in the world and is a corporate entity

committed to creating sustainable opportunities for Trinidad and Tobago. It has committed itself to investing

more strongly in sustainable corporate social responsibility programs in the local community and across

Trinidad and Tobago and funds a chair in environmental engineering at the UWI.

Inter-American Development Bank, Multilateral Investment Fund (IDB-MIF). The IDB-MIF is the

leading provider of technical assistance for the private sector in Latin America and the Caribbean. It is also one

of the region’s largest investors in microfinance and venture capital funds for small businesses. The MIF

always works with local, mainly private partners, to help fund and execute projects. It provides grants, loans,

guarantees, equity and quasi-equity, as well as advisory services to business associations, non-governmental

organizations, foundations, public sector agencies, and financial institutions, and in some cases, private sector

firms to support projects that benefit the underprivileged and those whose quality of life should be enhanced.

Other critical peripheral collaborators were identified, that is, those “spokes” that were perceived as being

able to bring increased value during the life of the project and beyond, to ensure that the outputs and outcomes

were achieved. These were “inter alia,” the government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago as the entity to

further enable the initiative, Partners of America, service volunteered for all (SERVOL), a voluntary

organization, life centre, and the beneficiaries, constituting six communities in the south western region of

Trinidad comprising a population of approximately 25,000.

Location of the project. Figures 2 and 3 show that the location of the project in the Caribbean and the

growth poles identified. For the south western peninsula, the focus is on port development, fishing industry,

manufacturing, and support services and agriculture.

Figure 2. Geographical location of Trinidad and Tobago.


228

Figure 3. Growth poles of Trinidad and Tobago.


229

Project Matrix Applied

In accordance with the interaction matrix shown in Table 1, Section I, the project team applied project

indicators (see Table 2) to ensure that the deliverables of the project were being met within the budget and

timeframe expected. It is note worthy that ensuring project success is in itself an indicator of a sound

interaction or collaboration.

Table 2

Showing the Project Matrix Applied Indicator Measurement indicators Means of verification

Integrate public-private actors and build institutional capabilities for the implementation of the LED methodology.

Coordination committees established Agendas of committee meetings

Training/workshops Attendance registers and certificates

At least two exchange trips Reports

LED entity created and secures diversifiedstreams of funding

Financial statements

Development of new or expanded business activities in key non-energy sectors (agriculture, fishing, and tourism) in the region.

Total of 150 small and medium enterpris (SME) esestablished

Proof of registration

Identification of at least five innovative (financed) products

Financing agreements

Support human capital development and employability of marginalized and at risk groups in the region.

15% decrease in school drop-out rate Register of students completing school

75% of at risk youth participating in sporting programmes showing improvement in behaviour and academic performance

Evaluation reports

Creating and transferring knowledge, results, and best practices on LED in extractive industries regions to key stakeholders groups.

Creation of LED guide Guidelines submitted

Case study written Publications

Adoption of extractive industries transparency initiative (EITI) standards

Policy adjustments

Interaction Matrix Applied

The interaction matrix was applied according to Table 3 below.

Table 3

The Interaction Matrix Applied Indicator Measurement indicators Means of verification

Similar vision-to see greater impact of investment by Atlantic liquefied natural gas (ALNG) into sustainable development initiatives in the south western region of Trinidad.

Consistent message by each partner Mission and vision statements

Commitment to fund the project Negotiations on budget requirements Financial agreement signed

Agreement to share the new knowledge generated.

Included in initial concept and project design

Contractual terms and conditions signed

To participate actively in project meetings-ensure that there is no need to adjust roles, responsibilities, etc..

Steering committee established to meet once a month

Report

Explore possible future/long term collaborations.

Ongoing discussions New proposal concepts being designed

Outreach and national development-investing in people.

SMEs developed and funded, greater retention of school aged children, linkagesin the business sector

Registration of businesses, funding agreements, improved school pass rates

230

Conclusion

The “

relationship

identifying

Indica

to be viewe

This requir

which the j

according t

persists and

individual

Const

intensity o

Frequent i

increase th

MOVIN

ns

“interaction”

p whose out

g opportunitie

ators are criti

ed as static b

res a degree

joint effort i

to the type an

d multiple int

indicators ma

tant communi

of the collabo

interaction an

he opportunity

NG FROM TH

Section

must not be

tput serves t

es for future in

cal and so is

but as dynami

of flexibility

s taking plac

nd nature of u

teractions are

ay vary.

Figur

ication is nec

oration canv

nd discussio

y for learning

HE KNOWLE

III: Conclu

seen as an e

to benefit a

nteractions.

the selection

ic, and theref

and agility w

ce and the inc

university-ind

e realized, on

re 4. Framework

cessary to fac

ary as requir

n increase th

g from each ot

EDGE ECON

usions and

end in itself, b

much wider

n of appropria

fore, must be

within partne

corporation o

dustry collabo

ne will observ

k for university

cilitate these a

red, but gov

he chances

ther.

NOMY TO T

Recommen

but rather the

r area. It mu

ate measurem

carefully mo

ers to cater fo

of these chan

oration (see F

ve that the fam

y-industry intera

amendments

verned at the

of tacit kno

THE HUMAN

ndations

e beginning

ust also be

ments to be ap

onitored as th

or changes in

nging indicato

Figure 4). Ove

mily of indic

action.

in a smooth

very least b

wledge trans

N ECONOMY

of a mutually

seen as inve

pplied. Indica

hey may need

n the environm

ors. Indicator

er time, if the

ators or the e

and timely m

by a formal

sference, and

Y

y beneficial

estments in

ators are not

d to change.

ment within

rs also vary

e interaction

emphasis on

manner. The

agreement.

d therefore,


231

Agreement on indicators “prior to initiation” of the intervention or project may require consultation with

main partners, peripheral partners, and beneficiaries. Each entity/partner will measure the success of the

initiative/intervention against differing sets of indicators or measures depending on their mission, vision, and

business proposition. Agreement and documentation at this stage is very important.

Finally, the interaction will persist as long as all partners maintain a committed position throughout the

interaction. If, however, during the life of the interaction, a partner defaults on its commitment position, then

the system becomes compromised.

Recommendations for Creating a Successful Interaction

Four critical steps are identified for a successful interaction from pre engagement to execution.

Step 1. Prior to formally engaging partners, it is advisable to conduct due diligence by:

1. Understanding clearly the mandate(s) of each partner;

2. Understanding the rules, regulations, and procedures that govern each entity;

3. Having the expectations of each entity properly articulated and documented interalia impact of activity

or output, visibility, level of documentation;

4. Having a good understanding of the issue to be resolved or addressed and what are the impacting issues

and peripheral relationships.

This set of pre-activity helps to determine whether there are grounds for a viable and sustainable interaction.

Step 2: Design the collaboration.

1. Agree on the scope of the project/the intervention, etc. “Garbage in, garbage out;”

2. Indicate the timelines, activities, resources, and measurements of performance;

3. Design a system to measure the health of the interaction—what is the overarching set of interaction

indicators;

4. Establish an open form of communication.

Step3: Engage partners.

1. It is advisable that the contract governing the arrangement is one in which each partner has had ample

input. This ensures that all parties’ interests are catered for and each protected.

2. Constitute a project steering committee that meets at an agreed upon timeframe to discuss the

performance of the contract (adherence, necessity for any changes to be discussed). This ensures that

communication lines are kept open and expectations are on track.

3. Document and share proceedings of meetings, decisions, and changes.

Step 4: Monitor the performance of the interaction, by applying the interaction matrix.

The conditions under which the attainment of the outcome(s) of the interaction are specified must be

carefully nurtured and monitored for signs of change. Any changes in various factors will influence the terms

and conditions of the interaction and will call on each partner’s ability to modify its approach.

Figure 5 summarises, in its entirety, the concept of a well-articulated university-industry collaboration. It

depicts the main partners as the UWI, the IDB, and ALNG. The primary interaction or collaboration will be

greatly facilitated, realising greater impact and return on investment if it can enjoy the enabling environment of

the government. The beneficiary must retain its position as the focus of the intervention or collaboration. Once,

all these parts work together and are monitored for performance, both collectively as a partnership and as

individual entities, the desired outcome will be achieved.

232

Clark, B. R. The Edu

Cyert, R. M.Organiz

Drucker, P. FEliezer, G. E

developHart, K., LavHart, K., Lav

Polity PJames, R. H

DirectioKorff, P. C.

relationMarzo-Nava

universiPlewa, C, Ko

relationPorter, M. EPorter, M. ESeidman, D.

2014, frSeppo, M., &

Policy, United Natio

relationnon-tra

MOVIN

Fig

(1998). Creatinucation Resourc., & Goodman,zational DynamF. (1969). The aE., & Rubensteipment (pp. 43-6ville, J., & Cattaville, J., & CattPress. H., & Heim, Aons for Higher E, N., Baaken,

nship success faarro, M., Pedraities and firms. orff, N., Baake

nship success fa. (1990). The co. (1998). Cluste (2014). From rom https://hbr.& Lilles, A. (2020(1). ons Educationans. Provides fivditional activiti

NG FROM TH

gure 5. Illustrat

ng entrepreneurces Information P. S. (1997). C

mics, 25(4), 45-5age of discontinin, A. H. (1989)2). The Industryani, A. D. (2010tani, A. D. (Eds

. A., (1997). PEducation, JoseT., & Macpher

actors. R & D Maja-Iglesias, MJournal of Rela

en, T., & Macphactors. R & D Mompetitive advaers and the newthe knowledgeorg/2014/11/fro

012). University

al, Scientific, anve institutional ies partnership

HE KNOWLE

tion of the relati

rial universitiesn Center # ED4Creating effecti57. nuity (Chapter 1). University-iny-Government0). The human s.). (2010). Bui

Promoting econey-Bass Publicarson, G. (2013

Management, 43M., & Rivera-T

ationship Markherson, G. (201

Management, 43antage of nation

w economics of ce economy to thom-the-knowley of Tartu, disc

nd Cultural Orcase studies froand business e

EDGE ECON

ionship among

Referencess: Organization

421938. ive university-i

12). Elsevier Ltndustry relationRelationship, Keconomy. Authilding the huma

nomic developmations Spring 11). University-in

3, 365-380. Torre, P. (200keting, 9, 127-1413). University-3, 365-380. ns. Harvard Bucompetition. Hahe human econedge-economy-tcussions on Est

rganization [UNom Africa, Eur

engageme.

NOMY TO T

university-indu

s nal pathways of

industry allianc

td.. ns, a review of tKluwer Academhors’ commentsan economy tog

ment through u197, # 97. ndustry linkage

09). The mark47. -industry linkag

usiness Review, Harvard Busines

omy. Harvardto-the-human-eonian economic

NESCO]. (2000rope, Latin Ame

THE HUMAN

ustry collaborat

f transformation

ces: An organiz

the major issuesmic Publicationss. gether. In The h

university and

e evolution: An

keting approach

ge evolution: A

March-April. s Review, NoveBusiness Revie

economy c policy. Theor

0). The Manageerica and the P

N ECONOMY

tors.

n. Issues in hig

zational learning

s, in corporate s.

human economy

industry partn

n empirical inv

h in relationsh

An empirical inv

ember-Decembeew. Retrieved N

ry and Practice

ement of univePacific region t

Y

gher education.

g perspective.

research and

y (Chapter I).

erships. New

vestigation of

hips between

vestigation of

er, 77-90. November 12,

e of Economic

ersity-industry that exemplify


A Study of the Application Strategies of Mobile Social

Media—the LINE Official Account in University and College

Marketing and Public Relations

Chi-Hu Tien, Chia-Sung Yen

Hungkuang University, Taichung, Taiwan

A 2014 survey indicated that 77.8% of Taiwanese individuals over 12 years of age were mobile Internet users, and

that the most commonly used app was distributed by LINE Corporation (LINE). Given the increasing popularity of

mobile Internet devices, as evidenced by the widespread use of smart phones, the dissemination of information

mainly through traditional media is no longer adequate. Nevertheless, the marketing and public relations strategies

of Taiwanese universities and colleges still largely rely on traditional media, venturing online only to establish

official websites, and investing very little in mobile social media. This study has adopted a case study approach by

focusing on Hungkuang University, which has set up a LINE Official Account that has attracted more “LINE

friends” than any other university or college account in Taiwan. By analyzing and discussing this case study, we

hope to present information on both the benefits that universities and colleges can derive—and the operational

strategies they can employ—by using LINE Official Accounts as part of their marketing and public relations

strategies. These findings will provide reliable strategic guidance on marketing and public relations practices in

universities and colleges. This study introduces the LINE Official Account as a new option that works differently

from traditional media. It is a new and effective mobile marketing tool for school and university marketing and

public relations strategies. The seven key strengths of a LINE Official Account for educational marketing and

public relations are as follows: (1) It uses the latest mobile Internet apps to establish an organizational image of

high-quality service; (2) It employs a large number of media editors to provide efficient and comprehensive

information services; (3) It reinforces marketing communications through both one-to-many and one-to-one

approaches; (4) It uses mobile Internet social events to increase a sense of participation among friends; (5) It

reinforces the horizontal connections between different units and disseminates information to maintain internal and

external relationships; (6) It constantly recruits new friends through physical enrolment activities and advertising;

and (7) It provides crisis management by taking advantage of widespread mobile Internet use.

Keywords: LINE Official Account, university marketing, public relations strategies

Introduction

Social media help to fulfill the human need for interaction. By transforming traditional “one-to-many” into

“many-to-many” communications via social media. For this reason, social media content can be characterized

Chi Hu Tien, assistant professor, Department of Cultural and Creative Industries, Hungkuang University. Chia-Sung Yen, assistant professor, Department of Cultural and Creative Industries, Hungkuang University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

A STUDY OF THE APPLICATION STRATEGIES OF MOBILE SOCIAL MEDIA

234

as “user-generated” content (UGC) (Onmedia, 2009). According to a 2015 “Survey on Broadband Internet

Usage in Taiwan” conducted by the Taiwan Network Information Center (TWNIC), the percentage of Internet

users in the Taiwanese population increased from 75.6% in 2014 to 80.3% in 2015. A total of 16,372,581

Taiwanese individuals over 12 years old (78.2%) have Internet experience. The majority of people interviewed

were using 3G or 3.5G, while 94% use smart phones to access the Internet.

The smart phone application program, LINE, developed by Naver Corporation (NHN) Japan Corporation,

was launched in June 2011. In 2013, the NHN Japan Corporation announced that the number of global

registered users of LINE officially exceeded 300 million and was likely to continue to increase; in Taiwan, the

number of registered users has reached 17 million. Among smart phone apps, the 10 most commonly used apps

include four that involve instant messaging software: LINE (1st), Whats App (4th), Facebook Messenger (8th),

and WeChat (10th) (TWNIC, 2015). LINE is the most popular instant messaging software in Taiwan,

especially among young people. The penetration rate of LINE on smart phones is 92%, far higher than any

other messaging software (INSIGHTXPLORER, 2014).

Mobile social media are currently the best tools for such interactions, and LINE has been rated the most

popular tool in Taiwan. We selected Hungkuang University as our case study and the university has

accumulated more than 7,000 university fans in Taiwan.

This study has focused on two questions:

1. What are the differences between a LINE Official Account and traditional tools for marketing and

public relations?

2. Are marketing and public relations strategies employed by universities and colleges?

Literature Review

Armstrong and Kolter (2000) have defined relationship marketing as the process of creating, maintaining,

and enhancing the relationship with customers and other stakeholders, in order to obtain customer satisfaction

and loyalty in the long term.

According to Cheng (2014), relationship marketing is gradually attracting more attention for the

following reasons. Firstly, the cost of maintaining regular customers is far less than the cost of acquiring

new customers. Secondly, mass media is expensive to use, and its impact is difficult to measure. Thirdly,

customers and service-providers interact more closely than ever before. Fourthly, advances in information

technology have contributed to the implementation of new approaches to relationship marketing. Jao (2005)

found that four factors were needed to achieve optimal relationship marketing: (1) services that offered

constant innovation; (2) comprehensive and diverse channels for services; (3) comprehensive management of

customer relations; and (4) continuous relationship marketing. Hagel and Armstrong (1997) have defined the

following four types of participation among virtual community members based on degree and participation

value.

1. Browser: New community members, who often browse communities casually;

2. Lurker: Members who spend more time in the community than browsers, but do not actively make

content contributions as contributors do;

3. Contributor: After a period of time, browsers who chose to stay are likely to become contributors who

contribute content to the community actively and passionately. They are the second most highly valued

members in a community;


235

4. Shopper: Active members who actively participate in communities, and also purchase products and

services. They have the highest value of all members.

“Public relations (PR)” are planned communications designed to achieve mutual understanding between

an organization and the general public. The ideal public relations model is characterized by two-way, dialogic

communications that create a communication environment of truth, tolerance, mutual trust, equality, and

support (Grunig, 2001).

Most previous studies have been based on the principle of dialogic communications proposed by Kent

and Taylor (1998), which has been widely applied to public relations strategies on the Internet and

recognized as a basis for establishing more effective communication strategies. Zhang, Craciuna, and Shin

(2010) have argued that companies ought to use entertaining content to make their brands appealing and to

attract the attention of their target audience. Kelleher and Miller (2006) discovered that social media was the

best way to build a relationship between an organization and the public. Lovejoy and Saxton (2012) discovered

that tweets could be grouped into three categories: information, community, and action. In contrast to

traditional websites, Twitter established relationships with stakeholders through dialogic and

community-building approaches. Furthermore, Wright and Hinson (2009) have pointed out that most

public relations professionals believe that developing the relationship between organizations and their target

audiences through social media is cost effective. However, finding optimal ways to integrate social media

functions into organizational communication strategies is an area that needs further research (Alikilic & Atabek,

2012).

Research Method

This study has adopted a case study approach. In June 2015, LINE announcements were used to invite

members to participate in an online questionnaire survey; 1,470 individuals participated. In addition, the

researchers designed an open-ended questionnaire and (between May and June 2015) interviewed six

individuals, including the Hungkuang University Public Relations Director and administrative officials

responsible for the university’s strategy.

Research Results

1. The LINE Official Account is a new and effective mobile marketing tool for school and university

marketing and public relations strategies.

For marketing professionals, therefore, finding ways to market an Official Account, invite new visitors to

become active fans, and achieve acceptance for messages and marketed products have become key focal points.

The Hungkuang University Director of Public Relations commented that, “LINE is an instant communication

medium; when fans receive messages, they can immediately click on them and begin interactions.”

2. A LINE Official Account is a new option that differs from traditional marketing and public relations

tools. As for goals, when organizations use news agents and broadcasting PR models, they tend to post

information that benefits themselves.

LINE Official Accounts begin by adopting a “passive approach” to advertising (i.e., waiting for consumers

to voluntarily add them as friends). After consumers have become friends, these accounts employ an

“interactive approach” (i.e., companies disseminate information and consumers can connect to their websites)

to establish relationships with consumers.


236

3. A LINE Official Account enables schools and universities to use the following seven marketing and

public relations strategies:

(1) Using the latest mobile Internet apps to give themselves a reputation for (and image related to)

high-quality service.

(2) Employing a large number of media editors to provide efficient and comprehensive information

services. When there is any problem involving university affairs, these editors must try to respond within 24

hours; in case of emergency, the university will immediately send someone to resolve it. It is not surprising that

Hungkuang University is ranked top among all universities and colleges in Taiwan for its number of users (see

Figure 1).

(3) Applying one-to-many or one-to-one approaches to reinforce marketing communications.

Open one-to-one dialogues are akin to having exclusive mobile secretaries responsible for students.

According to the online survey, 72% of respondents gave the editors the highest possible rating of “5 stars”

(see Figure 2).

Figure 1. The growing number of friends of the Hungkuang University LINE Official Account.

Figure 2. Ratings for editor services.

22282886

38914501

6206

7335

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

January February March April May June

Number of friends of the Hungkuang University LINE Official Account

No. of Friends

5 Stars72%

4 Stars22%

3 Stars5%

2 Stars1%

1 Stars0%

5 Stars

4 Stars

3 Stars

2 Stars

1 Stars


237

(4) Using social events on the mobile Internet to increase a sense of participation among friends. Online

survey shows that the most helpful information involves announcements about sporadic lottery draw activities

posted on the Official Account (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Friends’ favorite types of information.

(5) Reinforcing the horizontal connections between different units and publicizing information to maintain

internal and external relations. The LINE Official Account has been able to achieve timely, two-way, and

diverse interactions.

(6) Constantly recruiting friends through physical enrolment activities and advertising. Organizations can

adopt approaches, such as actively sending messages, regularly distributing e-newsletters and media reports,

and inviting people to attend education exhibitions to encourage the target audience to obtain information about

the school or university, and to join as friends (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Information channels for those added as friends.

0100200300400500

Sporadic Lucky Draw Activities

Activity Preview Reports

Academic Announcement

s

Hungkuang News

Activity Registration

General affairs Reports

Students Related Topics

No. of Individuals

835

260 225

71 49

0

225

450

675

900

Hungkuang Information Distribution

Hungkuang Website

Introduced by Friends and

Family

Education Exhibitions

Mass Media Reports

No. of Individuals


238

(7) Conducting crisis management by taking advantage of the ubiquity of the mobile Internet. The

university used LINE to notify students that they should immediately change classroom; this was done to avoid

confusion when the students arrived at school. Many students joked about it, saying, “We can not find an

excuse for not attending school.”

4. The key to success lay in the proactive approach of the LINE Official Account operation team and the

effectiveness of the feedback mechanism. The individuals in charge of the response window are all known

anonymously as “editors.” The organizational framework is illustrated by Figure 5 below:

Figure 5. Organizational framework of Hungkuang University’s LINE Official Account management.

All editors can simultaneously view a question from any friend via the back-end management platform.

There are 22 editors in total, around 7 of them are proactive, answering questions every day (see Figure 6).

Table 6. Categories of questions asked by friends of the Hungkuang University LINE Official.

473

73

31 171 2 1

0

125

250

375

500

Academic Affairs

Student Affairs

General Affairs

Library and Information

International Affairs

Professional Advancement

Alumni Association

No. of Individuals


239

Discussion and Conclusion

This study shows that LINE Official Accounts are indeed effective tools for school and university

marketing and public relations. The operation strategies developed by one institution can also be transferred to

others. The first concerns costs and benefits. In terms of cost analysis, the tools used in the past for public

relations communications, such as traditional media, the telephone, and marketing activities require more

manpower and expensive resources to achieve timely and interactive communications. Second, in order to keep

a LINE Official Account functioning efficiently, a substantial amount of professional labor is required. The

third issue relates to the education, training, recognition, and discipline of personnel. Behind the scenes, LINE

Official Accounts personnel should have expertise in professional fields and proficiency in using apps; they

should also be able to use terms and expressions that young people use to communicate with friends. Lastly,

LINE Official Accounts can function only as a supplementary mechanism, and will never replace formal

communication channels. Outside the group of friends with interactions, LINE does not make it possible to

obtain much information about friends who have joined, but do not ask or respond to questions.

Furthermore, this new tool has untapped potential for development; by incorporating the commercial

circles that surround a particular university or school, a LINE Official Account can extend its circle of

influence, uncover revenue resources, develop downloaded images, and generate non-business income. For this

reason, universities that have invested in managing LINE Official Accounts are encouraged to continue

developing this resource, while those that have not are recommended to rapidly evaluate the potential benefits

and follow suit.

References Alikilic, O., & Atabek, U. (2012). Social media adoption among Turkish public relations professionals: A survey of practitioners.

Public Relations Review, 38(1), 56-63. Armstrong, G., & Kotler, P. (2000). Marketing: An introduction (5th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Cheng, K. F. (2014). Services marketing and management: Quality enhancement and value creation. Taipei: Future Culture

Management Company. (in Chinese) Grunig, J. E. (2001). Two-way symmetrical public relations: Past, present, and future. Handbook of Public Relations, 11, 30. Hagel, J., & Armstrong, A. G. (1997). Net gain: Expanding markets through virtual communities. Boston, M.A.: Harvard

Business School Press. Heath, R. L. (Ed.). Handbook of public relations (pp. 11-30). Thousand Oaks, C.A.: Sage. INSIGHTXPLORER. (2014). Retrieved from https://order.csn.com.tw/downloads/lineintroductionoastickers201405272014-h2-

140619112634-phpapp01.pdf (in Chinese) Jao, H. P. (2005). A study on relationship marketing and loyalty—An example of eastern home shopping (EHS). Research Institute

of the Department of Public Relations and Advertising, Shih Hsin University. (in Chinese) Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (1998). Building dialogic relationships through the World Wide Web. Public Relations Review, 24(3),

321-334. Kelleher, T., & Miller, B. M. (2006). Organizational blogs and the human voice: Relational strategies and relational outcomes.

Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11 (2), 395-414. Lai, Y. Y. (2011). Internet public relations strategies of a Facebook fan page: A case study of “try it, request a free trial fan page”

(Master’s thesis, Research Institute of the Department of Public Relations and Advertising, Shih Hsin University). (in Chinese)

Lovejoy, K.,Waters, R. D., & Saxton, G. D. (2012). Engaging stakeholders through Twitter: How nonprofit organizations are getting more out of 140 characters or less. Public Relations Review, 38, 313-318.

Onmedia. (2009). Social media marketing. Retrieved from http://www.taaa.org.tw/userfiles/Onmedia%20Sept%202009.pdf (in Chinese)


240

Sun, H. H. (2000). Corporate public relations in the Internet era—Theoretical reconstruction of Grunig’s model. The Journal of Advertising Research, 15, 1-24. (in Chinese)

Sun, H. H. (2004). Assessing the effectiveness of web-based public relations: A study of Taiwan’s top 500 corporations in the service industry. The Journal of Advertising Research, 21, 1-28. (in Chinese)

Sun, H. H. (2009). Public relations: Theory, strategy, and case studies. Taipei: Cheng Chung. (in Chinese) Taiwan Network Information Center (TWNIC). (2015). Survey on wireless Internet usage in Taiwan. Retrieved from

http://www.twnic.net.tw/NEWS4/137.pdf (in Chinese) TWNIC. (2015). Survey on usage of wireless Internet in Taiwan. Retrieved from http://www.twnic.net.tw/download/200307/

20140109e.pdf (in Chinese) Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. D. (2009). An analysis of the increasing impact of social and other new media on public relations

practice. International Public Relations Research Conference. Miami, F.L. Retrieved from http://www.instituteforpr.org/ research_single/wright_hinson_social_media_miami

Zhang, J. Q., Craciuna, G., & Shin, D. (2010). When does electronic word of mouth matter? A study of consumer product reviews. Journal of Business Research, 63(12), 1336-1341.


Code-Switching Makes Sense, LO1? Factors Involved in

Code-Switching in a Multilingual Society

Orit Berlinsky-Shay

Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaci, Iaci, Romania

This paper presents the initial findings of an in-process study, which seeks factors involved in the phenomenon of

code-switching in multilingual Israel, where one may find a significantly complex linguistic reality, in which 40 to

50 languages are spoken. The study examines instances of code-switching collected from three groups of

participants, bilinguals of Hebrew and English, as well as bilinguals of Hebrew and Arabic. Data were collected by

observations, recording and transcribing 25 hours of discourses at various occasions during the last 20 months. The

first analysis of all data identifies 12 types of code-switching, e.g., reiteration, discretion, parenthetical clauses, and

more. In this sense, the largest category is the one consists of “undefined” instances of code-switching, namely,

those instances which fall under none of the recognizable types, as if the speaker switches to the other language as

an unconscious act and for no obvious reason. Derived from this circumstance, a second analysis has been

conducted, which examined the socio-linguistic, psycho-linguistic, professional, cultural, and grammatical factors

involved in code-switching. This analysis shows that sometimes more than one factor is involved, and that there is

no “just” code-switching. Speakers do not code switch purposelessly, some of the evidence to support that is the

fact that in the presence of a monolingual interlocutor, the same speakers do not code switch. They simply realize

that their partner will not understand them unless they make the choice to stick to one language. Since

code-switching is a well-known trait in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society all over the

world, finding a model of code-switching in the multilingual reality existing in Israel may shed light on the

phenomenon of code-switching in other countries with similar linguistic reality, as a large proportion of the world’s

population is bilingual.

Keywords: code-switching, bilingualism, multilingualism, socio-linguistics

Introduction

Back in 1947, Barker realized that in some interactions (e.g., among family members or other intimates),

the conversations were more often conducted in Spanish; while in others (e.g., formal talk with

Anglo-Americans), the spoken language was English, even when all parties in the interaction were able to

understand Spanish. He was interested in answering the question, “How does it happen, for example, that

among bilinguals, the ancestral language will be used on one occasion and English on another, and that on

certain occasions, bilinguals will alternate, without apparent cause, from one language to another?” (1947, pp.

185-186).

Orit Berlinsky-Shay, a doctoral student, Department of Letters, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iaci.

1 “LO” is the Hebrew word for “no”.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

FACTORS INVOLVED IN CODE-SWITCHING IN A MULTILINGUAL SOCIETY

242

This paper presents a research conducted in the multilingual reality of Israel, examining the linguistic

phenomenon of code-switching among bilinguals, speakers of Hebrew and English, as well as Hebrew and

Arabic. The different parts of the paper include a brief review of literature, the gap in knowledge which

motivated this study, the research design and methodology, and finally—the findings arising from two separate

analyses of all instances of code-switching and information collected via observations and interviews.

Brief Review of Literature

As the linguistic phenomenon in question is called code-switching, it should firstly be clear what the term

“code” refers to. Auer (1998) noted that the question of what counts as a code is not easy to answer, since it is

the participants who determine what a code is, and not the linguists. Moreover, he raised the question, “How

can we, the analysts, prove that a given set of co-occurring linguistic features is perceived by participants as a

distinct code?” (Auer, 1998, p. 13). The only answer to this question, claimed Auer, is by showing that

switching between this set and another is employed in a meaningful way in bilingual conversation.

When a particular code is decided on, there is no need to stick to it all the time, as can be seen in the

instances of code-switching presented in the current study. People can and should shift, as the need arises, from

one code to another (Wardhaugh, 2010). In everyday interaction, people usually choose different codes in

different situations. They choose a particular code or variety to discuss a particular topic, taking into account

various dimensions, such as social distance, status relationship, formality, goal of interaction, and more. When

talking about school or work at home, for instance, one may use the language that is related to those fields

rather than the language used in daily language communication at home (Holmes, 2013). In the present study,

the term “code” refers to a language.

The phenomenon of code-switching has gained great attention and different researchers related to it in

different ways. Code-switching has developed from what used to be looked upon as “possibly a somewhat

peculiar act” (Luckmann, 1983) into a subject matter which enlightens fundamental linguistic issues, from

universal grammar to the consolidation of identities and ethnic boundaries through verbal behavior. Although

the scholarly literature offers different definitions for the term “code-switching,” it is used in the current study

as a general term to cover all aspects of code alternation between two different languages, the switching

between Hebrew and Arabic and the switching between Hebrew and English.

Code-switching is a widespread phenomenon in bilingual speech, and it is therefore not surprising that a

great proportion of research on bilingualism focuses on this topic (Riehhl, 2005). The ownership of two or

more languages is increasingly seen as an asset as the “communication world” gets smaller (Baker, 2011).

Phenomena, such as globalization, modernization, and language revival have increased the number of people

speaking more than one language (Milroy & Muysken, 1995).

Auer (1995) explained that code-switching “is defined as a relationship of contiguous juxtaposition of

semiotic systems, such that the appropriate recipients of the resulting complex sign are in a position to interpret

this juxtaposition as such” (p. 116). This definition implies that such phenomenon may take place only between

participants who fully understand the two systems which are in contact, namely, bilinguals.

Although some researchers (e.g., Fabbro, 1999) distinguish between bilinguals and multilinguals, claiming

that the first speak two languages whereas the latter speak more than two languages, there are some others (e.g.,

Wei, 2013) who claim that both phenomena refer to the coexistence, contact, and interaction of different

languages in society or in an individual, an attitude which was espoused in this study.


243

In the last decades, developments, such as massive population shifts through migration, the expansion of

educational provision to many more levels of society, and technical advances in large communities have

emphasized the existence of a visibly and audibly multilingual modern world (Milroy & Muysken, 1995).

To the average person in the United States or Europe, bilingualism—the regular use of two or more

languages—is a rather special language phenomenon restricted to a few countries, such as Canada, Belgium, or

Switzerland, where every citizen is bilingual (Grosjean, 2001). However, to a citizen of Israel, bilingualism is

the norm; most people speak two or more languages. Multilingualism has always been common in the Israeli

reality. In Jerusalem, for example, at the end of the 19th century, Arabic, Turkish, Greek, Yiddish, English,

German, Latin, and Aramaic were in use. Many people, especially those living in the cities, were bilingual

(Spolsky & Cooper, 1991).

At present, the population in Israel is divided into a Jewish majority and a big Arab-speaking minority,

amounting about 20% of the population. The Jewish sector itself, while in principle Hebrew-speaking, is only

partly composed of native speakers of the language. As an immigrant society, Israel includes a large percentage

of native speakers of a variety of other languages, whose share in the population periodically increases due to

waves of mass immigration from various parts of the world (Spolsky & Shohamy, 1999).

According to the Israel Bureau of Immigration and the Jewish Agency, a record number of 29,500 new

immigrants arrived in Israel in 2014, most of them from the former Soviet Union (14,100) and from Europe

(9,000). Three thousand and six hundred immigrants arrived from North America and 1,200 from Latin

America. The two leading countries in relation to the number of immigrants are France and Ukraine. In

addition, 690 people arrived from Britain, 400 from Italy, and 290 from Belgium.

In private, Israelis speak 40-50 languages they have brought to Israel as immigrants, and their discourse if

full of utterances and phrases in the languages of the different countries which made up the Jewish Diaspora.

Complex patterns of code shifting between these languages and Hebrew are very common, especially among

older people who are still monolingual living with the younger generations who are now native speakers of

Hebrew.

Gap in Knowledge

Code-switching is a well-known phenomenon, mainly practiced by bilinguals. In the unique linguistic

reality of Israel, both Hebrew and Arabic have a status of official language. Nevertheless, English is given

precedence over Arabic in many contexts; it is a compulsory subject of study from elementary school through

graduation, and an essential subject in the matriculation exam. There are only few researches discussing what

factors are involved in code-switching in such circumstances.

Research Design and Methodology

Since this research examines a linguistic phenomenon and its relations with socio-linguistic,

psycho-linguistic, cultural, grammatical, and professional factors, the method chosen for it was the qualitative

one. Within the qualitative method, the research used the discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is an

increasingly popular qualitative research method in social sciences (Cameron, 2001). The process of discourse

analysis usually involves two instances of transformation: in the first one, discourse is “collected” via a

recording device; and in the second one, recording is transformed into some kind of written or multimodal

artifact for the purpose of analysis (Jones, 2011).


244

Research Questions

The main research question was: What patterns of code-switching can be identified within Israeli society

as a multilingual reality?

Derived from this general question, three secondary question have risen:

1. In what circumstances do people in Israel code-switch?

2. What grammatical, socio-linguistic, cultural, psycho-linguistic, and/or professional factors are involved

in code-switching between Hebrew-English and Hebrew-Arabic?

3. What are the causes of code-switching (e.g., idleness, family composition, convenience, and schooling)?

Research Participants

Since the present research examines the phenomenon of code-switching among Israeli bilingual speakers

of Hebrew, English, and Arabic, it includes there groups of study:

Group 1: Nine high school English teachers; all of them are bilingual, but the matrix language (i.e., the

dominant language) varies between them.

Group 2: Five family members; the mother is an American English speaker, the father is an Israeli Hebrew

speaker. The couple has two daughters: The elder one is 29 years old, married to an American English speaker,

and the younger one is 25 years old. All family members speak English and Hebrew alternatively.

Group 3: Nine construction workers who work at a construction site in Tel-Aviv, Israel. The workers are

all bilingual men, speakers of Hebrew and Arabic.

Research Tools

Within the framework of the discourse analysis, the research includes several tools: participant

observations and nonparticipant observations of all three groups, recording of discourses, transcribing of the

parts which includes code-switching and analyzing all instances of code-switching. In addition, the research

includes semi-structured interviews of some of the participants, in order to get some deeper impression and

understanding about their need to code-switch.

Findings

The first categorization of the data collected identified 12 different kinds of code-switching:

1. Reiteration: The speaker switches to the other language for the actual sake of repeating or reiterating the

word/phrase/sentence that was said inthe first language.

2. Discretion: The speaker switches to the other language in order to say something personal, meant only

for the ears of a specific person from the crowd of listeners.

3. Addressing a specific attender: The speaker switches to the other language when addressing a specific

person from the present audience, creating intimacy with one of the crowd, as if there are only the speaker and

the interlocutor present, ignoring all other attendants.

4. Exclamation and expressing emotions: The speaker switches to the other language when exclaiming an

utterance emotionally or strongly expressing a personal opinion which he/she wishes so stress.

5. Idioms and expressions: The speaker switches to the other language at the point of using a fixed

expression, an idiom or a proverb in its original language, which carries an obvious meaning suiting the current

situation.


245

6. Professional and cultural terms: The speaker switches to the other language when using a term known to

the present audience and/or general public in its original language and rarely if ever is translated. Mostly, it is a

professional term used by a group of people from the same field, as found in Group 1 and in Group 3. In

addition, the terms nay carry a cultural background, namely, they are known to people living in the linguistic

culture of Israel.

7. Parenthetical clauses: The speaker switches to the other language in cases where it seems as if he/she is

making a personal remark to himself/herself.

8. Tag questions: The speaker switches to the other language for a tag question, at the end of an utterance.

9. Connectors and transition words: The speaker switches to the other language using connectors (e.g., but

in short) or transition words (e.g., namely, anyway).

10. Quoting: The speaker switches to the other language in order to quote what has been said by a third

party. It should be noted that this type of code-switching was found only in the findings gathered from Group 2.

11. “Leading-to-switching” words: In these instances, it seems that the speaker switches to the other

language saying a certain word or phrase, and then sticks to the “new” language for the rest of the utterance,

and does not go back to the first language, with which he has started the utterance.

12. “Undefined” instances: This category was found to be the largest of all 12. It includes instances in

which the researcher could find no obvious characteristic or pattern. Similarly to all the above-mentioned

categories, these code-switching instances could appear in the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of the

utterance and consist of a word, a phrase, or a sentence. However, they do not seem to suit any of the cases

above, since they carry no reasonable cause on the part of the speaker to code-switch.

Not all 12 categories were found to be significant, considering the level of frequency of their occurrence.

This frequency can be seen in Table 1.

Table 1

Frequency of Categories Amidst All Groups of Participants

Category Group 1(%) Group 2 (%) Group 3 (%)

Undefined 30 47 36

Professional and cultural terms 9 14 32

Reiteration 7 7 18

Connectors and transition words 13 4 0

Exclamations and expressing emotions 9 7 0

Addressing a specific attender 12 4 0

Leading-to-Switching words 4 0 11

Idioms and expressions 5 4 4

Discretion 6 2 0

Quoting 0 7 0

Parenthetical clauses 4 2 0

Tag questions 1 4 0

Focusing on the five most frequent types of code-switching amidst all three groups of participants, Table 1

shows that these are:

1. Undefined instances of code-switching (the first in all groups);

2. Professional and cultural terms (one of the first five in all groups);

3. Reiteration (the third in both Group 2 and Group 3);


246

4. Connectors and transition words (only in Group 1);

5. Exclamations and expressing emotions (the fourth in both Group 1 and Group 2).

Some interesting findings should be pointed out regarding this categorization, and the following clauses will

discuss the most prominent ones.

1. Both Group 1 and Group 2 practiced 11 out of the 12 identified categories of code-switching; however,

Group 3 practiced only five of them. This may suggest that due to unknown circumstances and causes, the

speakers of Hebrew and Arabic demonstrated less than half of the different types of code-switching practiced by

speakers of Hebrew and English.

2. A category which is very dominant in one group may be insignificant in another. For example, a type of

code-switching located in the second place of frequency in Group 1 (“Connectors and transition words”) is not

practiced at all by participants of Group 3.

3. All groups of participants practice undefined instances of code-switching in the most frequent manner of

all. In other words, the most common type of code-switching in all groups of participants showed no obvious

pattern, unlike other types.

However, the idea that there is no apparent reason, pattern or drive for the speaker to alternate the language

is almost as unreasonable as the speaker’s switching from language A to language B. Determining that these

instances are unreasonable contradicts the target of this research, which was to examine the factors motivating

code-switching in the multilingual reality of Israel. Therefore, the next stage of analyzing the data included a

new categorization according to the following factors: socio-linguistic, psycho-linguistic, professional, cultural,

and grammatical. This thorough examination of code-switching instances among all three groups of participants

determined that each and every instance involved one of the above factors, and even more than one. In other

words, an instance which was previously identified as a case of “reiteration,” for instance, was found as

involving a socio-linguistic factor.

In the following example (where the capital letters represent Hebrew and later are translated in the square

brackets), the English teachers are in the middle of a meeting, where the conversation is run in English. At one

point, the head of English department (HED) mentions a specific occasion when R taught her students a unit

which was not very important and consumed a great amount of time and energy. She wanted the rest of the staff

to know that this specific unit is not worthwhile. R is addressing her colleagues by saying:

Ken, Ken, Ani Mitzta’arti She’asiti Et Ze, I regret doing it. Yes, yes, I am sorry I did it. I regret doing it.

R is using the “reiteration” type of code-switching, but her aim is to emphasize the fact that she is really

sorry for doing that (i.e., wasting time on teaching the unnecessary unit).

Conclusions

Going over the instances of code-switching one by one demonstrates that each one of them is involved

with one or more of the factors. In this second categorization, it seems that no instance is left “undefined,”

unlike the findings of the first categorization.

Bilinguals perform the switching from language A to B and vice versa for a reason. They code switch,

because they want to emphasize something; they need to express an emotion; they wish to challenge their

interlocutor; they switch for a professional term that they always use in language B; they naturally switch to


247

language B when they utter a remark to themselves as in parenthesis; they need a word which better expresses

their idea and exists only in the second language, and so on.

One of the conclusions drawn from the second categorization is that among Group 1, the psycho-linguistic

factor is the most dominant one, whereas among Group 2, it is the socio-linguistic factor, and among Group 3,

it is the professional one. When examining all instances of code-switching from all three groups, the

socio-linguistic factor is the most dominant one. In other words, in an overall view, most of the code-switching

instances involve socio-linguistic considerations.

Another conclusion is that Group 1 practiced code-switching involving all factors, Group 2 did not

practice any code-switching involving the professional factor, and Group 3 did not practice any code-switching

involving the psycho-linguistic factor.

In addition, all instances of intra-sentential code-switching indicated a grammatical agreement between the

main sentence and the part of the code-switching. In other words, when switching to language B in the middle

of an utterance, the speakers never violated grammatical rules of language A. It seems, then, that bilingual do

not really need grammatical constraints, as they master the rules of both languages and are perfectly aware of

what switches are possible and which are not. They do not pause to weigh their next words, grammatically

speaking, before they switch to the other language. On the contrary, one of the teachers who was interviewed

admitted that she does a conscious decision, which demands great efforts on her part, to not switch to Hebrew

whenever she speaks in English as a challenge she has set for herself. She claims that code-switching is the

easy way, which she expects herself to overcome.

Nevertheless, based on data collected and analyzed in the framework of this research, it would be wrong to

believe that code-switching is an unconscious act on the part of the speaker. When a bilingual conducts a

conversation, he or she knows well that if their interlocutor shares their knowledge of the other language, they

will let themselves code-switch, and if they are aware of the fact that their interlocutor is a monolingual, they

will stick to the one language they share. All in all, code-switching is a language of its awn, created from

bilinguals’ art of combining existing languages. Regarding intra-sentential code-switching, bilinguals

demonstrate knowledge of structures existing in both languages, which enables them to locate the switching in

the appropriate and acceptable point in their utterance.

References Auer, P. (1995). The pragmatics of code-switching: A sequential approach. In L. Milroy & P. Muysken (Eds.), One

speaker—Two Languages: Cross disciplinary perspectives on code-switching (pp. 115-135). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Auer, P. (1998). Bilingual conversation revised. In P. Auer (Ed.), Code-switching in conversation (pp. 1-24). London & New York: Routledge.

Baker, C. (2011). Foundation of bilingual education and bilingualism (5th ed.). USA: McNaughton & Gunn Ltd.. Barker, G. (1947). Social functions of language in a Mexican-American community. Acta Americana, 5, 185-202. Cameron, D. (2001). Working with spoken discourse. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.. Fabbro, F. (1999). The neurolinguistics of bilingualism: An introduction. New York: Taylor and Francis Group. Grosjean, F. (2001). Life with two languages: An introduction to bilingualism. USA: Harvard University Press. Holmes, J. (2013). An introduction to sociolinguistics (4th ed.). Oxon and New York: Routledge. Jones, P. G. (2011). An Introduction to discourse analysis theory and method. London: Routledge. Luckmann, T. (1983). Life-world and social realities. London: Heinemann. Milroy, L., & Muysken, P. (Eds.). (1995). One speaker, two languages: Cross-disciplinary perspectives on code-switching.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.


248

Riehl, C. M. (2005). Code-switching in bilinguals: Impacts of mental processes and language awareness. In J. Cohen, K. T. McAlister, K. Rolstad & J. MacSwan (Eds.), ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism (pp. 1945-1959). Somerville, M.A.: Cascadilla Press.

Spolsky, B., & Cooper, R. (1991). The languages of jerusalem. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Spolsky, B., & Shohami, E. (1999). The languages in Israel: Policy, ideology and practice. Great Britain: Cromwell Press Ltd.. Wardhaugh, R. (2010). An introduction to sociolinguistics (6th ed.). UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Wei, L. (2013). Conceptual and methodological issues in bilingualism and multilingualism research. In T. K. Bathia & W. C.

Ritchie (Eds.), The handbook of bilingualism and multilingualism (pp. 26-52). UK: Wiley Blackwell.


Longitudinal Research on the Development of Speech of People

With Mild Mental Retardation

Jacek J. Błeszyński

Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland

The research on the development of speech of people with mental retardation is one of the areas which are rarely

undertaken. The problem applies to both publishing the findings of the research in terms of age, which are rare and

outdated and these conducted in line with the approach of the developmental psychology. One of the developmental

psychology approach representatives in Poland was Maria Przetacznikowa-Jarża, who in her work, presented a

wide spectrum of language competence acquisition on different stages of development. The problem has been also

discussed from various angles by Reed, who multi-facetedly analyses communication process. In the case of speech

therapy, the current approach to the development of speech of people with varying degrees of mental retardation is

associated with oligophreno-logopedics, which most often is recognized as clinical speech therapy section dealing

with the diagnosis and treatment of speech disorders—delayed speech development, speech disorders, and language

competence occurring in individuals with intellectual disability.

Keywords: speech, language, speech, intellectual disability, forms of expression

Introduction

Other definitions also narrow the issue and scope of activities undertaken in the context of working with

people with intellectual disability, as well as the very essence of communication (eg., Skorek, 2005, p. 117).

The author of this paper has carried out that studies clearly showing that in such a system of cognitive

functioning mental retardation is not a lack, a limitation, but a different system of perception, processing, and

creation of cognitive structures (including concepts) and communication as an image reflected in existing

reality, which is processed individually in every mind (Błeszyński, 2013, pp. 115-116).

In such a approach, which limts the understanding oligophreno-logopedics—speech therapy for people

with intellectual disabilities, as a section of speech therapy dealing with the speech of mentally handicapped

individuals—becomes narrow and not entirely structured. As the author of this paper pointed out in his

publications, individuals with a formal diagnosis of intellectual disability are classified as members of this

group (on the basis of tests and diagnostic proces), but frequently they do not show an organic defect. These

individuals are either neglected children (who suffered lack of stimulation, e.g., care resulting from

environmental factors or educational neglect), or mentally retarded individuals sufferring from Fragile X

Chromosome Syndrome, autism as undiagnosed (in particular incorrectly diagnosed) (Grenser, Rorman, &

Child, 2007, pp. 567-572).

Jacek J. Błeszyński, professor, Faculty of Pedagogical Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEECH OF PEOPLE WITH MILD MENTAL RETARDATION

250

As the author indicated in the earlier publications, it is necessary to review that very term (there is a

trend to stop using branding terms, derived from biology and medicine), and clarify the scope of the created

concept. Oligophreno-logopedics—communication of people with intellectual disabilities/mental retardation is

a range of actions (diagnosis, therapy, and support), speech therapy, undertaken using the methods research

aimed at determining the optimal functioning of the tested person, and on this background, to assess the

development of communication, speech, and language, and indications of irregularities occuring in the

communication process (Błeszyński, 2015a, p. 166). Extending the research to communication, and not as

before narrowing to speech and language, allows for a multi-faceted understanding of the entire process of

acquisition of communication and language skills as historically presented by Grenser, Rorman, and Child

(2007, p. 63).

An important element of supportive and therapeutic procedure is the goal set for undertaken actions.

While showing multidirectional possibilities of placing a disabled person in the modern world, not only

the effect but also possibilities, needs, treatment, and social conditions are equally important. The approaches

to individuals with disabilities presented by the author of this work in earlier publications (Błeszyński, 2015b,

pp. 12-16) describe three trends, each of which determines the place of of a disabled person in a social

structure.

It is also a determinant of speech therapist’s therapeutic work, which becomes a part of interaction aimed

at facilitating and finding a place for individuals with intellectual disabilities in society. In his research, the

author especially pays attention to the optimization problem (Błeszyński, 2010, pp. 25-30), as rationalization,

modification, evaluation, stimulation, strengthening—but above all adaptation of the requirements and purpose,

to the needs and possibilities of the individuals undergoing therapy.

Literature Review

As shown by numerous sources, it is possible to provide a full etiology of mental retardation, and thus, the

factors affecting the development of communication. At this level, an important division, was made by Styczek

(1979), dividing factors to endogenous and exogenous. As factors that influence the development of

communication, and in particular, speech, Jęczeń (2003) mentioned:

1. Immaturity (including a delay myelination of nerve fibers) or damage to the nervous system;

2. Morphological defects and malfunctions articulatory apparatus (Duffy, 2013);

3. Insufficiently formed dominance of one hemisphere of the brain leading to abnormal lateralization;

4. Emotional disturbance;

5. Hyperactivity or apathy;

6. The occurrence of characteristic forms of mental retardation (down syndrome, micro-cephaly, cerebral

palsy, and focal damage to the left hemisphere of the brain) (pp. 127-138).

At this point, however, arises a need of discussion whether down syndrome, cerebral palsy, as well as focal

damage to the left hemisphere of the brain are factors affecting incidence of mental retardation. It can be

considered that such a relationship does not have to coincide, but certainly conditional mental impairment does

not need to occur in these cases. Such popular approaches to disability and certain genetic diseases recognized

as determining mental development have been undermined, and evolve in the direction of finding the optimum

forms of assistance, rehabilitation—which we understand, not as a restoring skills (It is difficult to restore

something that never existed), but shaping them.


251

The approach to the problem of intellectual disability, and in particular, the development of speech and

language has been transformed and redefined. This applies both to tests conducted at the theoretical level

(Krzemińska, 2012; Wątorek, 2014) as well as practical (Malczyk, 2006, pp. 98-104). An important publication,

which presents psycho-lingual approach to the language of a child with a disability is the study of the Reed

(2012, pp. 229-270). In the discussion over the development of social skills, especially communication the

author of this article contributes by presenting his research, which can primarily fill the gap in research reports,

as well as present many areas, which in the case of speech therapy urgently need to be analysed and described.

Assumptions Connected with Conducting the Research

The study concerned the speech of individuals with mild mental retardation mild, widened subsequently to

the comparison with a group of high school students within the intellectual norm, and pointed at the essential

elements not only differentiating, but also indicating different features of acquisition of skills related to

communication, and an emerging style of thinking. Moving away from simple binding of speech disorders

(communication and language) with intellectual disabilities has become important, and consequently, leads to a

need to change the approach for all degrees of mental retardation.

The earlier research results concerned with the language skills of individuals with mild mental retardation

(Błeszyński, 2014, pp. 39-56) were then compared with those of their peers from public schools (Błeszyński,

2013). The next stage of the research carried out at the University of Nicolaus Copernicus, was to conduct the

analysis of utterances of children with mild intellectual disability on five levels, three stages of education, i.e.,

preschool, primary school (Grades I-II and IV-VI), middle school, and upper secondary education. Tasks were

chosen to get the most comparable results. The number of people conducting the experiment was limited to a

minimum.

The biggest difficulty was the selection of a research group of preschool children, which was related to the

varied delays in speech development, environmental neglect, and mental retardation. The test results were

obtained in cooperation with family environment and schools assuming that in the coming years will be to

make a final verification of the etiology of generated disorders. In total, the study involved 160 children and

adolescents aged from kindergarten to secondary school, and 40 persons in each group (see Table 1).

Table 1

The Number of Participants Involved in the Study at Different Levels of Education

Stage of education Number of persons undergoing the research

Preschool 40

Primary school 40

Middle school 40

Upper secondary education 40

Note. Source: Own research.

The research was conducted in Kuyavian-Pomeranian, often re-used by teachers and speech therapists to

assess children’s development. The study aimed not only at acquiring data, but maintaining a closer cooperation

with the local community, an indication of the practical dimension of the analyzes performed and the need to

start collaboration between university theoreticians and practitioners. The research is ongoing, and in this

article, the preliminary results have been presented which will be replenished later. The study started in 2013

and the expected date of completion is 2016.


252

The Results of the Research

In the course of the study, efforts were made to preserve the task force situation. There were no rewards

used, no competition was introduced. The author desired to conduct the research in natural situations that are

familiar and daily for a child.

The hardest part was to gather a group of preschool children, which was closest to the developmental age

of peers. Along with the subsequent stages of education, the age difference in relation to peers attending the

class increased, i.e., a delay or postponement from compulsory schooling, and second year in the same grade

(see Table 2).

Table 2

The Use of Parts of Speech to Describe the Image at Different Stages of Education

Preschool Primary school

Middle school I-III IV-VI

Noun 1,167 1,195 906 563

Adjective 47 189 163 105

Verb 400 960 397 347

Participle 0 0 18 8

Numeral 0 12 22 24

Pronoun 60 167 155 187

Adverb 233 355 26 94

Preposition 7 0 261 212

Prepositional phrase 0 0 211 164

Conjunction 0 628 118 127

Particle 173 101 18 22

Average 189.73 327.91 208.64 168.45


Dominant trends in the findings of the research:

1. The increasing number of used numerals along with the growing age of the subjects of the research.

2. Decreasing number of used nouns, adverbs, and particles.

3. The emergence of the use of conjunctions and the number of prepositional phrases, and then, decreasing

in the first stage of education—in classrooms of primary education.

4. Intensifying the occurrence and then decreasing numbers of the used verbs, pronouns, and adjectives in

the first stage education—in classrooms of primary education.

5. These trends are very clearly visible on the graph, which allows us to analyze the use and coexistence of

the parts of speech at the various stages of education.

It is also important to draw attention to the parts of speech that are not subject to important evaluation

during all stages of education, e.g., participles, numerals, and pronouns. The biggest differences are in the use

of nouns, verbs, and adverbs.

In the case of primary school educational stage, in particular Classes I-III should be considered a

milestone (see Figure 1).

The study also included mistakes in the statements, which were formulated by the surveyed students (see

Table 3). In written statements lexical—phraseological mistakes do not occur (they were not reported). The

most common mistakes were spelling mistakes (not properly acquired rules).


253

Figure 1. The use of parts of speech to describe an image at different stages of education. (Source: Own research)

Table 3

Mistakes Made in the Statements Written by the Surveyed Students [N = 120]

Primary school Middle school Vocational school

Grammar: Inflexional 127 62 40

Grammar: Syntactic 19 43 19

Lexical vocabulary 0 0 3

Lexical word formation 5 3 2

Stylistic 184 114 61

Spelling 541 211 145

Punctuation 381 214 147

Average 157.13 80.875 52.125


These errors can be grouped. The least frequent are lexical errors, which are characterized by similar

levels of severity. The next type are grammatical errors (severe inflexional mistakes of students in Grades

IV-VI of primary school). The most severe stylistic, punctuation, and spelling—the highest level in Classes

IV-VI of primary school (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Mistakes made while describing an image at different stages of education. (Source: Own research)


254

Discussion and Conclusion

The studies are related to the theories and concepts of speech formation. One of these, despite being

undermined and still recognised allows to conduct deeper analyzes is the theory of Benjamin Lee Whorf,

presented in Język, myśl i rzeczywistość (language, mind, and reality) published also in Polish in 2002. In

addition to previous observations, discussions presented in the magnificent work of Klimchuk (2013), the

author of this work has ommitted a number of controversial aspects, but draws the attention to an important

statement of Benjamin Lee Whorf presented in Chapter Geometria reguł. Formjęzyk (Whorf, 2002) of his

publication. According to Whorf, such an arrangement comes from outside the narrow circle of individual

consciousness; as a result of it, an individual becomes a puppet, whose linguistic maneuvers are determined by

an impalpable and tight, but cohesive pattern (2002, p. 343). In this chapter, Whorf drawn the attention to the

social character of language (as many other psychologists) and speculative equivocal influence on shaping

language competence of an every human being. Language competence is not only a socially important progress,

but a responsibility and factors influencing acquiring it. Language is a social creation, and as such, undergoes

multidimensional, functional, and conditional modifications typical for an every individual.

This has further consequences connected with the issue of speech of intellectually disabled persons raised

by the author of this article. It must be assumed that communication, as a social creation, however, is

conditioned by the human factor. Society is one of the factors that can develop or limit the development of, in

particular, communication, speech, and language of an individual. This social character of the formation of

communication skills, is becoming one of the opportunities to develop other functions. As noted by Lee Whorf,

there is a differentiation in language acquisition, which can be looked at not only through the prism of

intelligence quotient (IQ), but the acquisition of communication skills—nowadays commonly referred to as

language proficiency. This development of features, skills not only aims to expand the acquired knowledge, but

above all, its use of at a higher level of correlation. This development of features and skills not only aims to

expand the acquired knowledge, but above all, its use of at a higher level of correlation. Higher mind is a

systematic and configurative, and thus, the standard language aspect controlsits aspect of, “lexation,” or naming.

The meanings of the words are less important than we usually think. The essence of the of speech are not words,

but sentences just like the math content is not numbers, but the equations and functions (Whorf, 2002, p. 345).

Similarly, in the development of analysis in children and adolescents, and broader research on individuals

with mild mental retardation, it becomes significant not to use only quantitative analysis of particular parts of

speech, but also:

1. The role of the individual parts in the creation of an utterance and their impact on the accuracy of

expression;

2. Order and variability of occurrence (appearance and evaluating) parts of speech in the statements, which

is dynamic and developmental (studied by developmental psychologists);

3. The importance of social utility built of an utterance as a means of delivering maturing thoughts and

structures of thought;

4. The search for conditions, which influence the improvement of communication and linguistic skills

compared with:

(1) Non-disabled peers;

(2) At different levels of development—education (as educational programmed skills development);


255

(3) The impact of increased stimulation of the environment as institutionalized (special education) and the

influence of peers and mass education system requirements;

(4) The occurrence of errors at the level of verbal and expressive of spoken utterances—as reflecting

mechanisms for creating and transforming the content of speech.

At this stage of the study, it can be concluded that the first and second stage of education are

groundbreaking, because then there is an increase of trends in the occurrence of errors—the most common

being stylistic, punctuation, and spelling.

The difficulties that arise are multilateral. First of all, they occur during puberty and the process of

development of personality—this can be reflected in the intensity of attention to the content, thought, less so

form.

The conducted research aims to present the studies, so far abandoned, aimed to determine the ability to use

the language in a number of areas:

1. Developmental (developmental psychology, speech therapy, and educational), the state of speech and

language development on three stages of education;

2. Clinical (special education, oligophreno-logopedics—speech therapy for people with intellectual

disabilities) speech development of disabled persons with global developmental disorders;

3. Differentiation (educational speech therapy and linguistics), presenting the characteristic changes in the

development of speech of people with mild intellectual disability.

As shown by studies conducted in other countries, e.g., the study of Cirrin and Gillam (2008, pp. 132-133),

pointed out that schools are required to create special educational interactions (services) that require monitoring

student progress on all levels of development. It is difficult to confirm clearly the correlation

(language-achieved educational results). This is particularly important in the work with students with

intellectual disabilities.

References Błeszyński, J. J. (2010). Discriminating analysis of selected bands autism. In Outline of revalidation. UMK, Toruń. Błeszyński, J. J. (2013). Intellectual disability: Speech, language, communication. Does IQ explain everything? Harmonia, Gdańsk. Błeszyński, J. J. (2014). Language of people with mild intellectual disability—An independent research taking written statements.

In A. Hamerlińska-Latecka, & M. Karwowska (Eds.), Interdisciplinarity in speech therapy. Fundacjadla Uniwersytetu Kazimierza Wielkiego, Komlogo Piotr Gruba, Gliwice.

Błeszyński, J. J. (2015a). Diagnostic and therapeutic proceedings in speech therapy. In K. Kaczorowska-Bray, & S. Milewski (Eds.). Harmonia Universitas, Gdańsk.

Błeszyński, J. J. (2015b). Disability, incomplete performance, efficiency and perhaps other. Ateneum Kapłańskie, ZESZYT, 1(635); styczeń/luty, TOM, 164, 8-16.

Cirrin, F. M., & Gillam, R. B. (2008). Language intervention practices for school-age children with spoken language disorders: A systematic review. Language, Speech, And Hearing services in Schools, American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 39, 110-137,

Duffy, J. R. (2013). Motor speech disorders: Substrates,differential diagnosis and management. Elsevier, St. Louis. Grenser, J., Rorman, B., & Child, T. (2007). Speech and language deficits in children with developmental disabilities. In J. W.

Jacobsor, J. A. Mulick, & J. Rojahn (Eds.), Handbook of intellectual and developmental disabilities. Springer. Jacobsor, J. W., Mulick, J. A., & Rojahn, J. (2007). Handbook of intellectual and developmental disabilities. Springer. Jęczeń, U. (2003). Conditions for development of language and communicative competence in children with mental disabilities.

Logopediat.32, podred. Stanisława Grabiasa, 127-138. Klimczuk, A. (2013). Linguistic relativity Sapira-Whorfa—A review of the arguments of supporters and opponents. Kultura,

Społeczeńs Two, Edukacja, 1(3), 165-178.


256

Krzemińska, D. (2012). Language and discourse of everyday people with intellectual disabilities. Impuls, Kraków. Kupisiewicz, M. (2014). Dictionary of special education. APSiWNP, Warszawa. Malczyk, G. (2006). Using knowledge of foreign language teaching in dealing with children with learning disabilities in varying

degrees. Logopedia, 1-2, 98-104. Retrieved from http://www.logopeda.org.pl/resources/pliki/65_logopeda_nr_2.pdf, 13.02.15

Reed, V. A. (2012). An introduction to children with language disorders. Pearson, Soston. Skorek, E. M. (2005). With speech therapy for you. In Concise dictionary. Impuls, Kraków. Styczek, I. (1979). Logopedia. PWN, Warszawa. Wątorek, A. (2014). Language competence of students with mild intellectual disability. NOMOS, Kraków. Whorf, B. L. (2002). Language, thought and reality. K.R.,Warszawa. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of…. In J. B. Carroll (Ed.). Oxford, England: Technology

Press of MIT.


Junior Primary Music Education in Nigeria

Young-Sook Onyiuke

Babcock University, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria

Modern day trend and challenges require that all children be given the opportunity to develop their musical abilities

to the full. Music education is significant in achieving this. In Nigeria, music education in primary school, junior

primary section in particular, does not effectively realise this purpose in most public primary schools across the

country. This lapse is as a result of shortage of music experts to teach the subject, unavailability of user-friendly

subject syllabi, and most importantly, ineffective instructional lesson materials. The aim of this study is to provide

some useful instructional material and guide on the basic aspects of teaching and learning process for music

teachers in junior primary schools in Nigeria. The main contribution of this study is the presentation of a lesson

series with complete work-out lessons for early formal music education and recommendation for all sectors

involved in primary music education in Nigeria.

Keywords: primary education, primary music education, music education in Nigeria

Importance of Childhood Music Education

Every human being is born with a certain level of musical potential. The most powerful neural networks

and behavioural attitudes are developed during childhood. Therefore, childhood music education plays an

essential role in developing and consolidating this given potential (Gruhn, 2005, p. 99). Since the beginning of

time music has been part of man and the everyday life of all communities and cultures. Bergethan and

Boardman (as cited in Schoeman, 1993) noted that “from the most primitive to the most sophisticated of

cultures, music has been central to every ritual. Every significant event in man’s personal life has its

accompanying musical expression. The very existence of music and the importance thereof in everyday life

necessitates a rightful place for the subject in the school programme.”

The role of music education is to equip children with the necessary knowledge and skills to adapt to this

environment. Technological development also results in people having increasingly more free time on their

hands and many people will turn to music for recreation and the enrichment of their lives. Education implies

that every member of society should have avenues open to him/her to improve his knowledge and skills and to

contribute to his/her quality of life. Music can supply such an avenue. In music, each individual can find his/her

own expression and create his/her own interpretation. For this reason, a child’s preparation for life will be

incomplete if his/her education in music is neglected.

All children should be given the opportunity to develop their musical abilities to the full. The inclusion of

music in an education programme is significant in fulfilling the requirements of the so-called

“whole-child-education” (as cited in Campbell, 1995). Music contributes to the physical, intellectual, emotional,

Young-Sook Onyiuke, associate professor, Department of Music & Creative Arts, School of Education and Humanities,

Babcock University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

JUNIOR PRIMARY MUSIC EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

258

aesthetic, and social development of the child. Music provides enjoyment and the opportunity to express

feelings, to relieve physical tension, and to bring emotional release. Learning through music can also promote

and add enjoyment to the learning of skills necessary for the understanding of all the other school subjects.

Zoltan Kodaly, the well-known Hungarian composer and music educator said the following (as cited in

Campbell, 1995), “Music education contributes to the many-sided capabilities of a child, affecting not only

specifically musical aptitudes but his general hearing, his ability to concentrate, his conditional reflexes, his

emotional horizon and his physical culture” (p. 8). Yick-ming expressed, “Music in education is education in

life” (p. 8). She further noted that children need every exposure to music, and lack of financial resources should

not be used as an excuse for omitting music education from school programme. Therefore, we, music educators,

continue to plead “music education right from childhood, music for everyone, and music for our everyday life.”

The major purpose of any music programme for the primary school is to provide opportunities for children

to explore and enjoy music, to obtain basic musical skills, and to develop readiness and willingness for further

learning of and participation in music activities. According to Carl Orff (as cited in Campbell, 1995):

It is at primary school age that the imagination must be stimulated; and opportunities for emotional development, which contain experience of the ability to feel, and the power to control the expression of that feeling, must also be provided. Everything that a child of this age experiences, everything in him that has been awakened and nurtured is a determining factor for the whole of his life. (p. 7)

An issue for music educators worldwide is how a diversity of musical experiences can form a coherent

music education, enabling young people to develop musically and personally (Hallam, 2011, p. 155). The

success of any educational programme depends on the teachers. When there are no well-prepared teachers to

implement a well-designed curriculum the programme dies.

Music can assist each child in the realization of his physical, social, emotional aesthetic, and intellectual

potentialities. Music, therefore, provides an opportunity for the child to do this in creative ways and it helps in

the development of a complete and balanced individual that will actively participate in the activities of the

community. Therefore, having this mind, following lesson series has been prepared for music program in the

junior primary school level in Nigeria.

Suggested Music Lesson Series for Junior Primary School in Nigeria

Why Music?

1. Music makes you happy.

2. Music helps develop your mind.

3. Music help develop your body.

4. Music gives you something to do.

5. Music can be shared with others.

What? How?

○Learn about the elements of music—○Singing—sing songs with:

Pitch: high-low good breathing;

Duration: rhythm (long-short) good diction;

Dynamics: colour of music (loud-soft) good phrasing;

Tone-colour: mood, voices, and instruments good tone.


259

Tone structure: combination of sounds ○Dancing—learn about rhythm, beat, and tempo

○Learn about music through—through: walking, matching;

Performing: singing running;

dancing skipping, galloping;

playing waltzing.

Appraising: listening ○Playing—by using instruments, such as:

Appreciating laps, voice, and traditional instruments;

Composing: improvising new home-made simple instruments

Songs ○Listening—simple and short melodies of:

dances environmental sounds;

instrumental music vocal music; instrumental music;

music for movement.

Aims

Long term/short term

○ To develop a love of music. ○ Development of perceptual-motor skills:

○ To obtain musical literacy, kinesthetic perception, body awareness, balance,

○ To provide opportunities to develop music laterality, directionality, spatial awareness, abilities,

positionin space, and co-ordination.

○To stimulate an interest in active○ Development of visual-auditory skills:

participation, memory, discrimination, and foreground-background.

○ To become aware of one’s own and other form constancy, form observation, analysis, culture ssynthesis,

and conceptualising.

Objectives

○Development of technical skills:

Performing: Singing—voicetraining, enlargement of song repertoire;

Dancing—knowledge of different movements and interpretation of music;

Playing—handling of instruments and group playing.

Composing: Creating new rhythms and melodies;

Creating new combinations of movement;

Improvising rhythms on instruments;

Improvising melodies on melodic instruments;

Creating instrumental accompaniment.

Appraising: Discipline of listening attentively;

Recognising, identifying, and classifying sounds.

○Development of aural skills:

To sing on pitch, to move, to the rhythm of music, to make music in a group, to evaluate performance, and

to create original musical ideas.

○Development of skills in rudiment of music.

Core Content

Concepts

260

○Dura

faster/

○Pitch

○Inter

○Dyn

○Tone

male/femal

Instru

○Tone

Activities.

○Performi

▫Notatio

Ha

Qu

Eig

Half not

Qua

with the no

discarded.

Fig

○Performi

▫Dura

Rhyth

run

ation: Rhythm

/slower.

h: High/low,

rvals: d-r; d-m

namics: Loud/

e colour:

le/children;

uments—perc

e structure: M

ing—Singing

on: Duration ▫

alf note (mini

uarter note (cr

ghthnote (qua

te rest, but al

arter rest than

otes. Once, th

gure 1. Curwin

ing—Dancin

ation: ▫Pitch

hm—walk

▫Tone col

JUNIO

m—long/shor

going up/dow

m; d-s; d-d’; m

/soft, getting

Environ

ussion; Mood

Melody—rhyt

g

▫Dynamics:

im) louder, b

rochet) ▫Toni

aver) pitch. It

so appear to e

n if they were

he children b

’s hand signs. (

ng

:

high/middle/

lour:

R PRIMARY

rt, sound/silen

wn, the same;

m-f; et al.;

louder/softer

nmental s

d—happy/sad

thm/pitch; Fo

musical term

ecoming soft

ics ol-fa and

is not only p

establish mem

e not used” (C

become acqua

(Source: Curwin

/low moveme

Y MUSIC ED

nce; Beat—du

;

r;

sound; mu

d, heavy/light

orm—repetitio

ms and signs to

ter.

hand signs (

present a “visu

mory of pitch

Choksy, 1981

ainted with d

n’s hand signs,

ent

DUCATION I

uple/triple tim

usic/noise/sil

t.

on/contrasts.

o indicate lou

(as shown be

ualization of

h patterns mor

1). They also

efinite pitch

modified by K

IN NIGERIA

me; Tempo—

lence; Vo

ud, soft, gettin

low) to indic

tonal relation

re securely

o establish a K

notation, the

Kodάly [as cited

A

—fast/slow, ge

oices—speaki

ng:

ate definite

nships,

Kinaes thetic

relatives ol-

in Choksy, 198

etting

ing/singing,

association

fa signs are

81])

skip

gallop

▫Beat

○Performi

▫Body

○Composi

▫Singi

Impro

enviro

Create

▫Danc

▫Appr

drama

under

▫Playi

Evalu

Impro

Evalu

Create

Cross-Cur

Topic

○ Reli

○ Phy

cognitive d

○ Hea

○ Mat

○ Lan

Didactic G

Good

light/hea

▫ Tone st

t-

(waltz,

ing—Playing

y percussion:

ing ○Apprais

ing: ▫Listenin

ovising songs

onmental sou

e new melodi

cing: melodic

improvis

raising:

atise stories, s

st and how m

ing:

uate the music

ovise accomp

uate own musi

e instrumenta

rricular Inte

cs for singing,

igious studies

ysical educati

development.

alth education

thematics: co

nguages: voca

Guidelines

teaching sho

JUNIO

avy, happy/sa

tructure: rep

(walk, m

swing)

g instrument

▫Percussion

echo-clappin

play on the b

tap on the be

play rhythm

clap the rhyth

sing

ng:

;

unds;

ies for existin

c and percussi

se rhythmic m

songs;

musicis organi

c of others;

animents to s

ic.

al music.

gration

, dancing, pla

s: the Birth o

ion: movemen

n: hygiene; sa

ounting and vo

abulary; dictio

ould be used a

R PRIMARY

ad

petition and co

match) ▫Tem

ts

instruments:

ng;

beat;

eat;

patterns;

hm.

ng ward male

ion instrumen

movement.

ised.

songs and dan

aying, and list

f Christ; the c

nt developme

afety rules; an

ocabulary.

on; and phras

at all times.

Y MUSIC ED

ontrast

mpo: move fas

, female, and

nts;

nces;

tening can be

creation.

ent; physical

nd traffic rule

sing.

DUCATION I

st/slow, faster

d children’svo

e chosen from

development

es.

IN NIGERIA

r/slower

oices;

m the school s

t; social-emo

A

subjects, for e

otional develo

261

example:

opment; and


262

Musical sounds are at the centre of every lesson; All children should take an active part in lessons.

◙ Singing

Teaching of songs:

Compass: Care should be taken to use songs with a limited range to match young children’s singing

abilities.

Matching pitch: The emphasis here must be on attentive listening, to enable correct imitation of singing

tones.

Developing good tone quality: Good breathing habits should be stressed to support the singing voice. Note

that the shoulders should not be raised or slumped. Make use of all the lung spaces.

Improvising diction: Stress consonants at the beginning and at the ending of words, so that words can be

clearly understood. Demonstrate poor diction (lazy lips and tongue) and good diction—exaggerate consonants,

lips, and tongue exercise, such as wa-wa, la-la-la, non-non or “No jaw tension exercise” as Mancusi and Paulk

(2012, p. 20) suggested: la-bay-da-bay-nee-po-too-la-bay, et al..

Singing with expression: Control of the voice is important. Make pupils aware of the blending of voices

and undesirability of voices that standout. Give special attention to the dynamic levels of a song.

Tempo: Choose a comfortable tempo to ensure clarity of diction and tone.

Teaching Songs by Rote

The length of songs and the use of repetition will determine the teaching method. Longer songs might

need subdivision in order to help children remember them. Repetition within songs may be pointed out to make

learning more efficient.

Schoeman (1993, pp. 7-8) suggested three ways of organising the learning of a song by rote:

1. Absorption: The song is sung by the teacher (or on tape) and is repeated by the children until they know

it by heart. This is an effective manner of teaching short songs.

2. Segmentation: The song is divided into sections to facilitate the learning thereof.

3. Segmentation and absorption: This method is effective in teaching songs with choruses, where the

chorus part may be taught first. Where more than one verse occurs, the words of some of the verses may be

omitted and used at a later stage, to prevent children from getting bored with the song.

Note that the song should always be presented “as a whole” at first (Leonhard & House, 1972, p. 287).

Explain the words of the song if necessary, e.g., if a foreign language or foreign words are used. Two folk

songs have been presented here in staff notation, although many music teachers in Nigeria are familiar with the

sol-fa notation system, this study encourages staff notation. The Nigerian folk song “udala m too” as illustrated

in Appendix II uses locally accessible indigenous instruments and Appendix I is an example of pentatonic scale

music piece from Korea.

◙ Performing

Movement. ○ Ensure that enough space is available for the movement to be carried out.

○ Pupils should wait for a sign to start movement.

○ Before any movements are commenced, the pupils should be able to hear the beat clearly.

○ All movements should have a definite beginning and ending. Encourage pupils to finish movement

neatly. Even the simplest movement should be performed with accuracy and control.


263

○ The teacher may use recorded music, class room instruments as a stimulus for movement activities.

Playing instruments. ○ Write different rhythmic pattern on the board and demonstrate the rhythmic pattern.

○ Attentive listening is again essential in order to play the rhythm and/or beat clearly, to start and end

playing together.

○ To avoid chaos during an instrumental session, pupils should be instructed not to play without being

instructed to do so. Attention should be paid to the leader, conductor or teacher. Arrange pupils in such a

manner that the teacher (conductor) is clearly visible to everyone. Correct playing techniques should be taught

from the beginning.

…

◙ Composing

○ Composing could take place as a group activity. Children can work together as a class or in smaller

groups. This facilitates the task of the teacher in giving support.

○ Let the children play with sound in a music corner. Encourage them to bring interesting sounds to school,

listen to sounds, talk about, and compare them. Any home-made or classroom instruments, the voice or other

sound source may be used. This may be done as a starting point to stimulate creativity.

○ During a composing lesson,the teacher has to lead and support activities to some extent:

(1) A stimulus or idea may be suggested by the teacher or the pupils, followed by a discussion;

(2) Observation, listening, and experimentation with ideas are conducted;

(3) At this point, intervention by the teacher may be necessary to give extra help;

(4) The drawing together of ideas in the performance of thecomposed musicpiece.

◙ Appraising

○ All learning processes are dependent on effective listening. Music always involves listening and provide

excellent opportunities for the development of listening skills. The benefits of this development apply to

learning across the curriculum.

○ Pupils should be introduced to the discipline of attentive listening procedures. A helpful hint is to close

the eyes when listening at first, before any actions are carried out.

○ Music examples should be very short during the first school year (approximately 20-40 seconds per

extract), as the attention span of children is still very short. The time-span of listening activities can gradually

be lengthened.

◙ General teaching strategies

○ Teach in many small steps rather than in one big step.

○ Be alert for signs of fatigue and boredom and deal with them quickly by changing to a counter acting

activity.

◙ Teaching media

Media comprises all the resources used by the teacher to accomplish teaching aims and objectives. Media

may be classified under two categories: (1) media for teaching (used by the teacher); and (2) media for learning

(used by pupils). A variety of different media should be used in the teaching situation and should be selected

purposefully. Media could be intrinsic (the teacher self-use of the voice, mime, and body language) or extrinsic

(auditory, visual, and audio-visual). Examples of extrinsic media are: Non-technological media, such as hand

book, writing-board, pictures, flash-cards, graphic presentation, models etc.; and technological media, such as

overhead projector, radio, compact disc (CD) player, film projector, television, slide projector, computer, et al..


264

◙ Differentiation

○ Lessons should be constructed in such way that it makes provision for all pupils. Core content may be

adapted to suit individual preferences.

○ All pupils should be encouraged to develop to their full potential according to their own abilities and

interests. Ensure that all pupils participate in activities.

◙ Cross-curricular integration

○ Learning through music can expand the pupil’s interest and knowledge in particular aspect of the curriculum.

○ Music can flow from the overall curriculum. The development of languages skills in particular takes

place in all aspects of a music programme.

◙ Assessment

○ Every lesson unit should be evaluated at the end to determine whether the expected standard of skills

were reached. The teacher will then be able to do remedial work or change method if necessary.

○ The knowledge of pupils should be determined at the beginning and at the end of a lesson unit to

ascertain the success of the teaching. During the course of the lesson, the pupils’ progress should be monitored

to be able to consider the didactic efficiency.

Recommendations for Improvement of Music Education in Nigerian Primary Schools

Based on the survey of the literature and the author’s investigation in the field of junior primary music

education in Nigeria, the following recommendations have been proffered for the development of music

education inpublic primary schools in Nigeria.

Government Concern

The government should make the music programme a fully-fledged subject in the primary school

curriculum. It should not be taken as an alternative to any other subject in the school curriculum.

Music teachers should be posted by the government to primary schools to ensure that music is being

taught by music teachers trained for that purpose.

The government should equip the schools with musical instruments to enhance the effective teaching and

learning.

Government should make sure that when reviewing the primary school curriculum, music specialist should

be involved to make their input.

School Administrator, Teachers, Parents, and Children Concern

Consider holding an orientation for parents and guardians as well as other potential advocates at the

beginning of each year of the study.

Periodic competitions should be organized, so as encourage performances, interaction, and further works

and discover talents.

Mass music experiencing activities, in which all pupils are enable to express themselves freely, should be

provided in the daily school program.

The use of staff notation by music teachers (non-specialists) in Nigeria is recommended.

Pupils with exceptional potential in music should be provided with opportunities of sponsorship.

Teachers should adopt an individual approach in the process of teaching bearing in mind that all children

differ in intelligence, aptitude, interests, temperament, age and social, and religious backgrounds.


265

Parents should provide children with the opportunity to experience music at home: listening of music,

singing, and playing home-made simple musical instrument.

The activities provided for a child should include a substantial amount of singing experience, preferably

together with his/her parents, an opportunity to explore a wide range of the environment in which he/she lives.

Parents should provide children with the opportunity of watching performances at concert or festivals in

order to gain musical experience.

Tertiary Institution Concern

Among the students of the tertiary institution are the future teachers of the primary schools. It is, therefore,

necessary to consider them in the study of primary school music education.

Department of Music in Universities and College of Education in Nigeria should be encouraged to conduct

regular workshops in which their own students of music, as well as primary teacher education students and

practicing teachers must participate in.

Workshops or seminars on simple and homemade musical instrument should be available (Onyiuke, 1991,

pp. 50-55).

Financial Support Concern

● Support from the Nigerian government:

A reasonable provision should be made for music education in the national budget.

The Nigerian government should provide adequate funds for infrastructure, equipment, musical

instruments, qualified music teaches, and other facilities that will enhance music education at all levels.

● School organization:

Apart from the government funds, the school organization could appeal to the stake holders, individuals,

and parents for their contributions as well as companies, both nationally and internationally.

Conclusions

This study is an attempt to emphasize the importance of music education for early age of children. It is

also aimed at presenting a music lesson series, particularly to the public junior primary schools in Nigeria. In

recent times, most private primary schools in Nigeria are well planned, equipped, and qualified with music

teachers to handle music classes and regular performances within school and elsewhere, but this is not the case

in public primary schools. Music education in this sector has merely improved since the first time the author

investigated this matter 25 years ago. Although music is included in the primary school syllabus, it is often

neglected. Government’s written commitment to ensuring that children receive music education has not been

adequately fulfilled to date.

The author also stressed that the most important fact that experience in music can help the child to

understand different aspect of his or her own culture and that of others. Finally, recommendations for all sectors

involved in primary music education in Nigerian schools have been made. Certainly, the inculcation of early

childhood music education is one way of equipping our young generation to become musically talented with

bright prospect in the future.

References Campbell, M. R. (1995). Interdisciplinary projects in music. Music Educators Journal, 82(2), 37-44. Choksy, L. (1981). The Kodάly method. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.


266

Gruhn, W. (2005). Children need music. International Journal of Music Education (Showcase), 23(2), 99-101. Hallam, R. (2011). Effective partnership working in music education: Principles and practice. International Journal of Music

Education (Practice), 29(2), 155-171. Leonhard, C., & House, R. W. (1972). Foundations and principles of music education (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Mancusi, R., & Paulk, K.(2012). Song anthology. N.J.: Silver Burdett Ginn. Onyiuke, Y. S. (1991). Teaching instrumental music as a source of aesthetic education for children: A survey of views and

implications for Nigeria (M.A. thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka). Onyiuke, Y. S. (2011). Literature, language and music education of the child. Journal of Music and Aesthetics (JOMA), 1(2),

96-100. Schoeman, L. (1993). A teacher training programme for junior primary music education. Adaptable for Botswana and South

Africa—A multicultural approach (PhD dissertation, University of Pretoria). Yick-ming, R. W. (2005). Music in education is education for life. International Journal of Music Education (Showcase), 23(2),

107-110.

Appendix I

Arirang

Folk song from South Korea

Arranged by Young-Sook Onyiuke

Arirang, Arirang, Arariyo ____, Arirang, pass through the Arirang hill ____,

I’ll follow you follow you go there ____, Here you wait for me Arariyo ____


267

Appendix II

Udala M Too

Folk Song from the Igbo Tribe of Nigeria

Arranged by Alvan-Ikoku Nwamara

My apple fruit grow, Nda, my apple fruit grow Nda, grow grow grow Nda, My step mother Nda, bought an apple fruit, Nda, lick lick lick, Nda, Leaving motherless, the world is a stage, Nda, we ome and we go, Nda.


Retrospection and Expectation: A Review on Studies of

China English*

Wu Jihong

Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Guangzhou, China

The globalization has witnessed an increasing interest in “China English,” and much attention has been devoted to

its form, status, function, and people’s language attitudes since it was first proposed in 1980’s in the 20th century.

In this article, the author first undertakes a review of the arguments concerning China English and the preferable

model of English teaching in mainland China, and then with a critical reflection on the strength and weakness of the

studies, proposes that it is necessary to clear the misunderstandings in studies of China English by strengthening the

theoretical construction of English Chinese and refining the research methods.

Keywords: China English, variety, globalization, reflection

Introduction

English globalization has posed a great challenge to the nativization of the English language and culture.

With the Globish (Jenkins et al., 2011) and the formation of new variants, the monolithic approach, and

normativity of native English are defied, while plurality and variability of English are accepted by an increasing

number of people. At present, the perception of English can be divided into the following three: English as a

native language (ENL) model, a traditional and purist one which view native English as the only viable option

and the best model of English in the world; the second one is the world Englishes (WE) paradigm, which is

against a monolithic ENL model and for a pluralized and pluricentric view of English in the world; and the

third one, English as a lingua franca (ELF) model, in which English is a lingua franca for international

communication as an alternative model to ENL model (Saraceni, 2008). In China, since 1980’s in the 20th

century, China English has become a focus in language research, especially in sociolinguistics and applied

linguistics, and various even opposite conclusions have been reached in term of its form, status, function, and

people’s language attitude. In retrospect, the author considers it necessary to reexamine the theoretical

framework for studies on China English, so as to bring forth a more comprehensive and objective perception of

China English, thus, further deepening its study.

Literature Review

The study of China English began in 1980’s in the 20th century. The concept was first introduced by Ge

Chuangui (1980), then it was elaborated by Wang Rongpei (1991) and Li Wenzhong (1993), who redefined

China English as “a variety with normative English as its core, but with Chinese characteristics at the levels of

* Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the Humanities and Social Science Research Funding of the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China under Grant (No. 15YJA740048).

Wu Jihong, Ph.D., associate professor, School of English for International Business, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

A REVIEW ON STUDIES OF CHINA ENGLISH

269

lexis, syntax, and discourse; it is free from first language (L1) interference and can be employed to express

Chinese-specific linguistic and cultural features by means of transliteration, borrowing, and semantic transfer”

(Li, 1993, p. 19). Along with Li, scholars who adopt a positive attitude towards China English affirm that China

English is a variant of English (Eaves, 2012; He & Li, 2009; Jiang, 1995). However, some other scholars are

reluctant to accept China English as a variant, contending that China English is not yet an established variant,

but a developing one, and “it is neither objective nor practical to impose China English as an equal to America

English and British English as it lacks political, social and theoretical basis, and the imposition will likely cause

the theoretical and practical confusion” (Xie, 1995, p. 10). The research on the language attitude also includes

some empirical studies, which target on the intelligibility and acceptability of China English (Chen, 1996; Gao

& Wen, 2012). It is worth noting that many language attitude researches are oriented on Chinese university

teachers and students, along with their perception of language teaching model (He & Li, 2009; Hu, 2004;

Kirkpatrick & Xu, 2002). The studies have shown that the subjects are inclined to have a strong attachment to

native English norms, and English teachers tend to adopt the ENL-based English model in their teaching.

Apart from language attitudes studies, researchers on China English devote their attention to language

description and application as well. Descriptive researches mainly concentrate on phonetics, morphology,

syntax, and discourse (Li, 1993; Kirkpatrick & Xu, 2002; He & Li, 2009). It is widely accepted that China

English has demonstrated Chinese-specific characteristics in all these four aspects. Meanwhile, researches on

the application of China English are mainly oriented towards English teaching models (Hu, 2007; Wen, 2012),

but some researchers on China English also incorporate their efforts into studies on intercultural

communication (Xie, 1995; Pan, 2005), translation strategies (Xu & Huo, 2008), and language function (Hu,

2008).

Reflection on Studies on China English

Previous studies on China English have been fruitful yet deficient to some extent. It is hoped that

improvement can be made when the studies are based on more solid theoretical foundation, more standardized

concepts, and more productive research methods.

Sociolinguistics Perspective vs. Applied Linguistics Perspective

In studies on China English, it is imperative to make a distinction between sociolinguistic perspective and

applied linguistic perspective. As is shown, variant is the core concept of sociolinguistics, and sociolinguistic

studies mainly focus on the standard for establishment of variants and their process of development (Kachru,

1985; Schneider, 2007). Therefore, studies on China English from sociolinguistic perspective are oriented on its

status as a variant and its developing process. China Englishes: A Sociolinguistic History (Bolton, 2003) is a

typical study of China English from sociolinguistic perspective: Its author tries to define, describe, and analyze

Hongkong English and China English as a social, historical, and linguistic phenomenon. The sociolinguistic

studies on China English, as an important part of the world Englishes, may provide the foundation for studies

on China English from applied linguistics perspective.

On the other hand, the focus of applied linguistics is English teaching with the distinction between features

of China English as its priority. Unlike sociolinguists who show a concern for intelligibility and acceptability,

applied linguists put learnability and testability into consideration (Sewell, 2009; Jiang & Du, 2003). However,

at present, there is no theoretical framework for description of local features of China English, nor is there any


270

serious effort to incorporate it into curriculum in English teaching, to say nothing of any systematic research on

its assessment. So, the studies on China English are far from comprehensive in terms of integrity, systematicity,

and objectivity. Therefore, it is impractical to insist that “Chinese English learners should learn China English”

(Hu, 2004, p. 26), nor is it realistic to suggest that “only China English in lexical level should be put into the

teaching content” (Wang, 2009, p. 18). It is certain that in the theoretical level, the importance and necessity of

teaching China English is beyond discussion, yet for all practical purposes, teaching China English is still

unattainable in the short term. As for the viewpoint that China English and Chinglish are two ends of one

continuum, it may bring an end to the debate on China English and carries some sociolinguistic significance,

but in applied linguistic studies, it has little practical value, for at present, there are no standards and tools for

segmentation of the continuum. Consequently, it does make sense when some people reject China English.

Learners vs. Users

A recent research shows there have been approximately 400 million English learners in China, among

whom 69% “Seldom,” 7% “Often,” and 23% “Sometimes” use English in daily life (Wei & Su, 2012, p. 11). It

is estimated that among hundreds of millions of English users in China, only 70 million are actual users in real

sense (Yang, 2006, p. 8). These data indicate that English in China serves more pedagogical than practical

function, and the number of English learners is far greater than the number of English users, hence, English at

home is more a learner’s language. It is true that there is no absolute boundary between learners and users, or

the users’ language and learners’ language, but if we do not seperate users from learners in the research, we run

the risk of oversimplifying the situation. China English has some common features with Englishes in other

countries in expanding circle, but it also demonstrates its own characteristics. Viewed from the external

language environment, English has the absolute dominance in China as a foreign language, but due to the

historical reason, it only reentered the public view in the late 1970’s in the 20th century, and has practical

applications only in some specific domains including tourism, trade, and academia. As a matter of fact, English

in China only carries a dominant weight in educational setting. Meanwhile, viewed from the internal

environment, British and American English have assumed overwhelming dominance in China over other

foreign languages, and there is little space for China English in academic setting, literature (for Chinese local

recipients) or reference books compiling (although China does have a certain number of Chinese learner

English corpus and China English corpus). The distinction between users’ language and learners’ language not

only attaches great importance to the perception of China English, but also helps to illuminate the difficult

issues in the research, especially those concerning English teaching: When we view China English from

learners’ perspective, we should pay more attention to learners as individuals in the process of their language

development, for their language is more characterized with errors embedded in the interlanguage, so practically,

it is necessary to emphasize the nativization of English and stress accuracy and standardization. Nevertheless,

viewed from users’ perspective, persistent errors are found in their language usage and the high frequency and

prevalence turn these errors more as salient features in China English, therefore, we should perceive users as a

community, who communicate with common linguistic features and play the most important role in the process

of localization. For them, to emphasize comprehensibility and communicative effectiveness than accuracy

makes more sense.

Localization vs. Indigenization

Localization and indigenization are two concepts which overlap slightly in sociolinguistics. It is the


271

acceptability of the variants in the local language community that differentiates one from the other. The

language process determines the degree of localization while the attitudinal process is crucial to indigenization

as attitudinal process and the linguistic process seem to work simultaneously in the development of non-native

models (Pang, 2003; Kachru, 1982). The current researches show that China English has been localized to a

great extent, but the language attitude researches indicate that China English has not yet indigenized. Even

though many people acknowledge China English has become the language reality, most of them still adhere to

the normative role of American and British English. Obviously, the developmental process of China English is

undergoing an unbalanced trend: attitudinal process lags behind the linguistic process, which may hinder the

indigenization. Kachru (1982, p. 39) claimed that “a variety may exist, but unless it is recognized and accepted

as a model it does not acquire a status.” Sociolinguistic studies show that all variants will go through the phase

of exonormative norm to the phase of endonormative norm, and as we can see that the development of

Englishes in the inner circle and outer circle, such as America and India all follow the pattern. Therefore, we

should try not to be too optimistic about China English with its linguistic process, nor should we be too

pessimistic with its attitudinal process. The development of a language is not subject to man’s will.

Undoubtedly, the increasing influence of Chinese in the international community will accelerate the

localization of China English, which will eventually facilitate its indigenization.

Conclusions

The past 30 years have witnessed the flourishing of the research on China English. However, there is still

much left to be done. It is suggested that improvement can be made with broadened perspective, expanded

scope, and refined methods in the research. First, researches on China English should include both the

macro-perspective and micro-perspective. In the macro-perspective, studies on China English will be put under

the framework of world Englishes, investigating the impact of the changing status and function of English

exerted on the development of China English as a regional variant. From the micro-perspective, the local

features of China English as a developing variant, including the historical, political, and cultural factors should

be stressed. Meanwhile, it is hoped that studies on China English will extend its scope. The present studies have

bore more fruits in linguistic level, but yielded fewer results from pragmatics and culture studies. So, the

priority of the researches on China English at present is to establish a framework to describe local features of

China English and to seek a balance in linguistic, pragmatic, and cultural level. What is more, researches on

China English should involve Chinese in other Chinese-speaking countries and regions, including Hongkong

English, Taiwan English, etc.. The studies on the bilingual research can also be extended to the trilingual

research (triglossia) in which local languages, such as Cantonese also play a part. Finally, to refine research

methods, both qualitative and quantitative studies should be given equal importance. The current studies have

yielded more fruitful results in qualitative than quantitative studies, more overall description than

micro-analysis. Consequently, overgeneralization and simplification are not rare when researches are confined

to small quantity of data. The situation can be hopefully improved with the development of corpus research. It

is of great significance for researchers to put more effort into construction of China English corpus, and

enhance the reliability and validity of their work with corpus-driven research.

At present, China English has attracted more and more attention. It is to be expected that greater efforts

will be made to advance the study of China English and enhance its academic significance, which in turn will

contribute to the English teaching reformation in China.


272

References Bolton, K. (2003). China Englishes: A sociolinguistic history. Cambridge: CUP. Chen, L. (1996). How foreigners evaluate two China English newspapers? Modern Foreign Language, 71(1), 44-46. Eaves, M. (2011). English, Chinglish or China English. English Today, 27(4), 64-70. Gao, C., & Wen, Q. (2012). A study on the intelligibility and acceptability of nativized English in China. Foreign Language

Education, 33(5), 53-58. Ge, C. G. (1980). On the C-E translation. Translation Communication, (2), 13-14. He, D., & Li, D. C. S. (2009). Language attitudes and linguistic features in the “China English” debate. World English, 28(1),

77-89. Hu, X. L. (2008). On function of China English. Foreign Language and Education, 22(11), 13-16. Hu, X. Q. (2007). The development of “global English” in globalization and its impact on English teaching in China. Foreign

Language Teaching, 118(2), 16-23. Hu, X. (2004). Why China English should stand alongside British, American, and the other world Englishes. English Today, 20(2),

26-33. Jenkins, et al.. (2011). Review of developments in research into English as a lingua franca. Language Teaching, 44(3), 281-315. Jiang, Y. (1995). Chinglish and China English. English Today, 11(1), 51-53. Jiang, Y., & Du, R. (2003). On China English—A response to the “China English” debate. Foreign Language Teaching, 24(1),

27-35. Kachru, B. B. (1982). Models for non-native Englishes. In B. B. Kachru (Ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures (pp.

31-57). Urbana: Pergamon Press Ltd.. Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk, &

H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kirkpatrick, A., & Xu, Z. (2002). Chinese pragmatic norms and “China English”. World English, 21(2), 269-279. Li, W. Z. (1993). China English and Chinglish. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), 18-24. Pan, Z. (2005). Linguistic and cultural identification in China English. Beijing: Beijing University Press. Pang, T. T. (2003). Hong Kong English: A stillborn variety? English Today, 19(2), 12-18. Saraceni, M. (2008). English as a lingua franca: Between form and function. English Today, 24(2), 20-26. Schneider, E. W. (2007). Postcolonial English-variety around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sewell, A. (2009). World Englishes, English as a lingua franca, the case of Hong Kong English. English Today, 25(1), 37-43. Wang, J. (2009). Problems with China English studies. Journal of PLA Foreign Languages Institute, 32(6), 14-19. Wang, R. P. (1991). China English is a reality. Journal of PLA Foreign Languages Institute, 48(1), 1-8. Wei, R. & Su, J. (2012). The statistics of English in China. English Today, 28(3), 10-14. Wen Q. (2012). The framework of teaching English as an international language. Syllabus, Materials, and Methods, 32(1), 77-81. Xie, Z. (1995). China English: Interference in cross-cultural communication. Modern Foreign Language, 70(4), 7-11. Xu, J. & Huo, Y. (2008). Translation of classic works: Foreignization and China English. Foreign Lnaguage and Education,

232(7), 45-48. Yang, J. (2006). Learners and users of English in China. English Today, 22(2), 3-10.

Call for Papers or Books

US-China Education Review A (Education Practice) (ISSN: 2161-623X) and US-China Education Review B (Education Theory) (ISSN: 2161-6248), the earlier title: US-China Education Review (ISSN: 1548-6613) are professional journals published across the United States by David Publishing Company, USA. These journals are regularly published by China National Publication Import & Export Corporation on commission. If you have the idea of making our journal a vehicle for your research interests, please send electronic version of your paper to us. US-China Education Review A & US-China Education Review B are collected and indexed by the Library of U.S. Congress, on whose official Website (http://catalog.loc.gov) an on-line inquiry can be triggered with its publication number ISSN No. as key words in “Basic Search” column. In addition, these journals are also retrieved by some renowned databases:

Database of EBSCO, ★Massachusetts, USA

Chinese Database of CEPS, A★ iriti Inc. & OCLC, USA

Chinese Scientific Journals ★Database, VIP Corporation, Chongqing, P.R.C. ★ Excellent paper in ERIC ★ Norwegian Social Science Data Service (NSD), Database for Statistics on Higher Education (DBH), Norway ★ Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd (UDLSB), Malaysia

★ Summon Serials Solutions ★ Polish Scholarly Bibliography (PBN) ★ Google Scholar ★ CNKI ★ J-GATE ★ Scribd Digital Library ★ Airiti ★ Academic Key ★ Electronic Journals Library ★ CiteFactor ★ SJournal Index ★ Scientific Indexing Services

★ New Jour ★ Pubicon Science ★ Sherpa Romeo ★ Scholarsteer ★ Turkish Education Index ★ World Cat ★ Infobase Index ★ Free Libs ★ Pubget ★ CrossRef

Current columns involve Higher Education, Higher Educational Management, Educational Psychology, Teacher Education, Curriculum and Teaching, Educational Technology, Educational Economics and Management, Educational Theory and Principle, Educational Policy and Administration, Sociology of Education, Educational Methodology, Comparative Education, Vocational and Technical Education, Special Education, Educational Philosophy, Elementary Education, Science Education, Lifelong Learning, Adult Education, Distance Education, Preschool Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, Art Education, Rural Education, Environmental Education, Health Education, History of Education, Education and Culture, Education Law, Educational Evaluation and Assessment, Physical Education, Educational Consulting, Educational Training, Moral Education, Family Education, as well as other issues. David Publishing Company is strived to provide the best platform for researchers and scholars worldwide to exchange their latest findings and results. We admire your achievements, and we understand how important your research impact on other peers in the same interest field and other disciplines, and how delighted you would be when communicating with global professional peers. Your contribution to our journals would be very much welcome! Requirements: (1) Paper must be empirical or theoretical contributions without being published previously; (2) All other scholars’ words or remarks as well as their origins must be indicated if quoted; (3) English title, abstract and key words should be prerequisite; (4) Patterns or forms should conform to the standard listed in our Website; (5) Automatic paper submission system is strongly recommended, while e-mail attachment can be sent through e-mail at [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; or [email protected]. Please visit our Website at http://www.davidpublisher.com for our automatic paper submission systems. Should you have any questions or concerns, please feel free to contact us. Best regards, US-China Education Review A & US-China Education Review B David Publishing Company

us-china education review 2016 (4b)

Documents