the story of buddhism

Saksham Sobti

The Storyof BuddhismA Concise Guide to Its History

The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History

The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to

Its History

Saksham Sobti

Published by Vidya Books,

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Saksham Sobti

ISBN: 978-93-5431-156-7

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Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 Buddhist Cosmology ............................................................... 57

Chapter 3 Disciples of the Buddha ........................................................ 109

Chapter 4 Edicts of Ashoka .................................................................... 155

Chapter 5 God in Buddhism ................................................................... 199

Chapter 6 Schools of Buddhism ............................................................. 253

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Introduc tion

The History of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BCE to the present, startingwith the birth of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. This makes it one of the oldestreligions practiced today. Throughout this period, the religion evolved as it encounteredvarious countries and cultures, adding to its original Indian foundation Hellenisticas well as Central Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian cultural elements. In theprocess, its geographical extent became considerable so as to affect at one time oranother most of the Asian continent. The history of Buddhism is also characterizedby the development of numerous movements and schisms, foremost among them theTheravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions, punctuated by contrasting periodsof expansion and retreat.

Life of the Buddha

According to the Buddhist tradition, the historical Buddha Siddhartha Gautamawas born to the Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha period 546–324 BCE),in the plains of Lumbini, Southern Nepal. He is also known as the Shakyamuni.

After an early life of luxury under the protection of his father, Suddhodana, theruler of Kapilavastu (later to be incorporated into the state of Magadha), Siddharthaentered into contact with the realities of the world and concluded that real life wasabout inescapable suffering and sorrow. Siddhartha renounced his meaningless lifeof luxury to become an ascetic. He ultimately decided that asceticism was alsomeaningless, and instead chose a middle way, a path of moderation away from theextremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification. Under a fig tree, now known asthe Bodhi tree, he vowed never to leave the position until he found Truth. At theage of 35, he attained Enlightenment. He was then known as Gautama Buddha, orsimply “The Buddha”, which means “the enlightened one”.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, he travelled the Gangetic Plain of centralIndia (region of the Ganges/Ganga river and its tributaries), teaching his doctrineand discipline to an extremely diverse range of people.

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The Buddha’s reluctance to name a successor or to formalise his doctrine ledto the emergence of many movements during the next 400 years: first the schoolsof Nikaya Buddhism, of which only Theravada remains today, and then the formationof Mahayana, a pan-Buddhist movement based on the acceptance of new scriptures.

Early Buddhism

Before the royal sponsorship of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE,Buddhism is to have remained a relatively minor phenomenon, and the historicityof its formative events is poorly established. Two formative councils are supposedto have taken place, although our knowledge of them is based on much lateraccounts.

The councils tend to explain the formalization of the Buddhist doctrine, and thevarious subsequent schisms inside the Buddhist movement.

1st Buddhist Co unc il (5th c . BCE)

The first Buddhist council was held soon after the death of the Buddha underthe patronage of king Ajatashatru of the Magadha empire, and presided by a monknamed Mahakasyapa, at Rajagriha (today’s Rajgir). The objective of the council wasto record the Buddha’s sayings (sutra) and codify monastic rules (vinaya): Ananda,one of the Buddha’s main disciples and his cousin, was called upon to recite thediscourses of the Buddha, and Upali, another disciple, recited the rules of the vinaya.These became the basis of the Pali Canon, which has been the orthodox text ofreference throughout the history of Buddhism.

2nd Buddhist Co unc il (383 BCE)

The second Buddhist council was convened by King Kalasoka and held atVaishali, following conflicts between the traditional schools of Buddhism and a moreliberal interpretational movement called the Mahasanghikas. The traditional schoolsconsidered the Buddha as a human being who reached enlightenment, which couldbe most easily attained by monks following the monastic rules and practicing theteaching for the sake of overcoming suffering and attaining Arahantship.

The secessionist Mahasangikas, however, tended to consider this approach tooindividualistic and selfish. They considered the objective of becoming an arhatinsufficient, and instead proposed that the only true goal was to reach full Buddhahood,in a sense opening the way to future Mahayana thought. They became proponentsof more relaxed monastic rules, which could appeal to a large majority of monasticand lay people (hence their name the “great” or “majority” assembly).

The council ended with the rejection of the Mahasanghikas. They left the counciland maintained themselves for several centuries in northwestern India and CentralAsia according to Kharoshti inscriptions found near the Oxus and dated c. 1stcentury CE.


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Asho kan Pro se ly tism (c . 261 BCE)

The Mauryan emperor Ashoka the Great (273–232 BCE) converted to Buddhismafter his bloody conquest of the territory of Kalinga (today’s Orissa) in eastern India.Regretful of the horrors brought by the conflict, the king decided to renounceviolence, and propagate the faith by building stupas and pillars urging for the respectof all animal life, and enjoining people to follow the Dharma. Perhaps the finestexample of these is the Great Stupa in Sanchi, India (near Bhopal). It was constructedin the third century BCE and later enlarged. Its carved gates, called Tohans, areconsidered among the finest examples of Buddhist art in India. He also built roads,hospitals, resthouses, universities and irrigation systems around the country. Hetreated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics or caste.

This period marks the first spread of Buddhism beyond India. According to theplates and pillars left by Ashoka (the Edicts of Ashoka), emissaries were sent tovarious countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far as the Greek kingdoms in theWest, in particular the neighbouring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly evenfarther to the Mediterranean.

3rd Buddhist Co unc il (c .250 BCE)

King Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE at Pataliputra(today’s Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta. The objective of the councilwas to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism, to purify the Buddhist movement,particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royalpatronage, and to organize the dispatch of Buddhist missionaries throughout theknown world.

The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, literally the “Three Baskets”),which comprises the texts of reference of traditional Buddhism and is consideredto be directly transmitted from the Buddha, was formalized at that time. It consistsof the doctrine (the Sutra Pitaka), the monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka) and anadditional new body of subtle philosophy (the Abhidharma Pitaka).

The efforts of Ashoka to purify the Buddhist faith also had the effect of segregatingagainst other emerging movements. In particular, after 250 BCE, the Sarvastivadin(who had been rejected by the 3rd council, according to the Theravada tradition)and the Dharmaguptaka schools became quite influential in northwestern India andCentral Asia, up to the time of the Kushan Empire in the first centuries of thecommon era. The Dharmaguptakas were characterized by a belief that Buddha wasseparate, and above, the rest of the Buddhist community. The Sarvastivadin believedthat past, present, and future are all simultaneous.

He lle nistic Wo rld

Some of the Edicts of Ashoka inscriptions describe the efforts made by Ashokato propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time


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formed an uninterrupted continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The Edictsindicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories:the names and location of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, andthey are claimed as recipients of Buddhist proselytism: Antiochus II Theos of theSeleucid Kingdom (261–246 BCE), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285–247 BCE),Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia (276–239 BCE), Magas of Cyrene (288–258 BCE),and Alexander II of Epirus (272–255 BCE).

“The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even sixhundred yojanas (5,400-9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules,beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexanderrule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni(Sri Lanka).” (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

Furthermore, according to Pali sources, some of Ashoka’s emissaries were GreekBuddhist monks, indicating close religious exchanges between the two cultures:

“When the thera (elder) Moggaliputta, the illuminator of the religion of theConqueror (Ashoka), had brought the (third) council to an end (...) he sent forththeras, one here and one there: (...) and to Aparantaka (the “Western countries”corresponding to Gujarat and Sindh) he sent the Greek (Yona) namedDhammarakkhita”. (Mahavamsa XII).

Ashoka also issued Edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. Oneof them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of “Piety” (using the Greek termEusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community.

“Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) madeknown (the doctrine of) Piety to men; and from this moment he has made men morepious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world.”

It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but someauthors have commented that some level of syncretism between Hellenist thoughtand Buddhism may have started in Hellenic lands at that time.

They have pointed to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenisticworld around that period, in particular in Alexandria (mentioned by Clement ofAlexandria), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the Therapeutae (possiblya deformation of the Pali word “Theravada”), who may have “almost entirely drawn(its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism” (RobertLissen).

Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found inAlexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel (Tarn, “The Greeks inBactria and India”). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria, somescholars have even pointed out that “It was later in this very place that some ofthe most active centres of Christianity were established” (Robert Linssen “Zenliving”).


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In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist Clement of Alexandria recognizedBactrian Buddhists (Sramanas) and Indian Gymnosophists for their influence onGreek thought:

“Thus philosophy, a thing of the highest utility, flourished in antiquity among

the barbarians, shedding its light over the nations. And afterwards it came to Greece.

First in its ranks were the prophets of the Egyptians; and the Chaldeans among the

Assyrians; and the Druids among the Gauls; and the Sramanas among the Bactrians;

and the philosophers of the Celts; and the Magi of the Persians, who foretold the

Saviour’s birth, and came into the land of Judaea guided by a star. The Indian

gymnosophists are also in the number, and the other barbarian philosophers. And

of these there are two classes, some of them called Sramanas, and others Brahmins.”

Clement of Alexandria “The Stromata, or Miscellanies”.

The Two Fo urth Co unc ils

A Fourth Council is said to have been convened in the reign of the Kushanemperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir. Because Therevadabelieves the The Fourth Council of Kashmir introduced unauthentic sutras asauthentic, and it was itself not present at this Fourth Council to prevent this,Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and sometimesthey call it the “council of heretical monks”. Theravada Buddhism had its own FourthCouncil in Sri Lanka. Therefore there are two Fourth Councils: one in Sri Lanka(Theravada), and one in Kashmir (Sarvastivadin).

It is said that for the Fourth Council of Kashmir, Kanishka gathered 500 monksheaded by Vasumitra, partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries on theAbhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out uponthe existing canon itself. The main fruit of this Council was the redaction of Agamasand complilation of the vast commentary known as the Maha-Vibhasha (“GreatExegesis”), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of theSarvastivadin Abhidharma.

Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change wasmade in the language of the Sarvastivadin canon, by converting an earlier Prakritversion into Sanskrit. Although this change was probably effected without significantloss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskritwas the official holy language of Hinduism in India, and was also being used by otherthinkers (regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance), thusenabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices. Forthis reason, all major (Mahayana) Buddhist scholars in India thereafter wrote theircommentaries and treatises in Sanskrit. Theravada however never switched toSanskrit, partly because Buddha explicitly forbade translation of his discourses intoSanskrit because it was an elitist religious language (like Latin was in Europebefore). He wanted his monks to use a local language instead; a language which could


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be understood by all. Over time however, the language of the Theravadin scriptures(Pali) became a scholarly or elitist language as well.

Asian Expansio n

In the areas east of the Indian subcontinent (today’s Burma), Indian culturestrongly influenced the Mons. The Mons are said to have been converted to Buddhismaround 200 BCE under the proselytizing of the Indian king Ashoka, before the fissionbetween Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism. Early Mon Buddhist temples, suchas Peikthano in central Burma, have been dated between the 1st and the 5th centuryCE.

The Buddhist art of the Mons was especially influenced by the Indian art ofthe Gupta and post-Gupta periods, and their mannerist style spread widely in South-East Asia following the expansion of the Mon kingdom between the 5th and 8thcenturies. The Theravada faith expanded in the northern parts of Southeast Asiaunder Mon influence, until it was progressively displaced by Mahayana Buddhismfrom around the 6th century CE.

Sri Lanka was allegedly proselytized by Ashoka’s son Mahinda and six companionsduring the 2nd century BCE. They converted the king Devanampiya Tissa and manyof the nobility. This is when the Mahavihara monastery, a centre of Sinhaleseorthodoxy, was built. The Pali Canon was put in writing in Sri Lanka during thereign of king Vittagamani (r. 29–17 BCE), and the Theravada tradition flourishedthere, harbouring some great commentators such as Buddhaghosa (4th–5th century).Although Mahayana Buddhism gained some influence at that time, Theravadaultimately prevailed, and Sri Lanka turned out to be the last stronghold of TheravadaBuddhism, from where it would expand again to South-East Asia from the 11thcentury. There is also a legend, not directly validated by the edicts, that Ashokasent a missionary to the north, through the Himalayas, to Khotan in the TarimBasin, then the land of the Tocharians, speakers of an Indo-European language.

Gre c o -Buddhist Inte rac tio n (2nd c . BCE–1st c . CE)

In the areas west of the Indian subcontinent, neighbouring Greek kingdoms hadbeen in place in Bactria (today’s northern Afghanistan) since the time of the conquestsof Alexander the Great around 326 BCE: first the Seleucids from around 323 BCE,then the Greco-Bactrian kingdom from around 250 BCE.

The Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I invaded India in 180 BCE as far asPataliputra, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that was to last in various partof northern India until the end of the 1st century BCE. Buddhism flourished underthe Indo-Greek kings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India wasintended to show their support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhistfaith from the alleged religious persecutions of the Sungas (185–73 BCE), accountswhich are disputed by historians.


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One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is Menander (reigned c. 160–135BCE). He apparently converted to Buddhism and is presented in the Mahayanatradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Ashokaor the later Kushan king Kanishka. Menander’s coins bear the mention “Saviourking” in Greek, and sometimes designs of the eight-spoked wheel. Direct culturalexchange is also suggested by the dialogue of the Milinda Panha between Menanderand the monk Nagasena around 160 BCE. Upon his death, the honour of sharinghis remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined instupas, in a parallel with the historic Buddha. Several of Menander’s Indo-Greeksuccessors inscribed the mention “Follower of the Dharma” in the Kharoshthi scripton their coins, and depicted themselves or their divinities forming the vitarka mudra.

The interaction between Greek and Buddhist cultures may have had someinfluence on the evolution of Mahayana, as the faith developed its sophisticatedphilosophical approach and a man-god treatment of the Buddha somewhat reminiscentof Hellenic gods. It is also around that time that the first anthropomorphicrepresentations of the Buddha are found, often in realistic Greco-Buddhist style:“One might regard the classical influence as including the general idea of representinga man-god in this purely human form, which was of course well familiar in the West,and it is very likely that the example of westerner’s treatment of their gods wasindeed an important factor in the innovation” (Boardman, “The Diffusion of ClassicalArt in Antiquity”).

Rise o f Mahayana (1st c .BCE–2nd c .CE)

The rise of Mahayana Buddhism from the 1st century BCE was accompaniedby complex political changes in northwestern India. The Indo-Greek kingdoms weregradually overwhelmed, and their culture assimilated by the Indo-Scythians, andthen the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan Empire from around 12 BCE.

The Kushans were supportive of Buddhism, and a fourth Buddhist council wasconvened by the Kushan emperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or inKashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism andits secession from Theravada Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognizethe authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of hereticalmonks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra,to edit the Tripitaka and make references and remarks. Allegedly, during the councilthere were all together three hundred thousand verses and over nine millionstatements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. This council did not relyon the original Pali canon (the Tipitaka). Instead, a set of new scriptures wasapproved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures,usually in the Gandhari vernacular and the Kharosthi script, were rewritten in theclassical language of Sanskrit, to many scholars a turning point in the propagation


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of Buddhist thought. The new form of Buddhism was characterized by an almost God-like treatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a Buddha-nature andshould aspire to Buddhahood, and by a syncretism due to the various cultural influenceswithin northwestern India and the Kushan Empire.

Mahayana Expansio n (1st c .CE–10th c .CE)

From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was to flourishand spread in the East from India to South-East Asia, and towards the north to CentralAsia, China, Korea, and finally to Japan in 538 CE.

India

After the end of the Kushans, Buddhism flourished in India during the dynastyof the Guptas (4th-6th century). Mahayana centres of learning were established,especially at Nalanda in northeastern India, which was to become the largest andmost influential Buddhist university for many centuries, with famous teachers suchas Nagarjuna. The Gupta style of Buddhist art became very influential from South-East Asia to China as the faith was spreading there.

Indian Buddhism had weakened in the 6th century following the White Huninvasions and Mihirkulas persecution.

Xuanzang reports in his travels across India during the 7th century of Buddhismbeing popular in Andhra, Dhanyakataka, and Dravida which today rougly correspondto the modern day Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. While reportingmany deserted stupas in the area around modern day Nepal and the persecutionof buddhists by Ssanka in the Kingdom of Gouda. (In modern day West Bengal.)Xuanzang compliments the patronage of Harshavardana during the same period.After Harshavardanas kingdom, the rise of many small kingdoms that lead to therise of the Rajputs across the gangetic plains and marked the end of Buddhist rulingclans along with a sharp decline in royal patronage until a revival under the PalaEmpire in the Bengal region. Here Mahayana Buddhism flourished and spread toBhutan and Sikkim between the 8th and the 12th century before the Palas collapsedunder the assault of the Hindu Sena dynasty. The Palas created many temples anda distinctive school of Buddhist art. Xuanzang noted in his travels that in variousregions Buddhism was giving way to Jainism and Hinduism. By the 10th centuryBuddhism had experienced a sharp decline beyond the Pala realms in Bengal undera resurgent Hinduism and the incorporation in Vaishnavite Hinduism of Buddhaas the 9th incarnation of Vishnu.

A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193when Turkic Islamic raiders under Muhammad Khilji burnt Nalanda. By the endof the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds inBihar, and the loss of political support coupled with social and caste pressures, thepractice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and Sri


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Lanka in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due toHinduism’s revival movements such as Advaita, the rise of the bhakti movementand the missionary work of Sufis.

Ce ntral and No rthe rn Asia

Ce ntral Asia

Central Asia had been influenced by Buddhism probably almost since the timeof the Buddha. According to a legend preserved in Pali, the language of the Theravadacanon, two merchant brothers from Bactria, named Tapassu and Bhallika, visitedthe Buddha and became his disciples. They then returned to Bactria and builttemples to the Buddha (Foltz).

Central Asia long played the role of a meeting place between China, India andPersia. During the 2nd century BCE, the expansion of the Former Han to the westbrought them into contact with the Hellenistic civilizations of Asia, especially theGreco-Bactrian Kingdoms. Thereafter, the expansion of Buddhism to the north ledto the formation of Buddhist communities and even Buddhist kingdoms in the oasesof Central Asia. Some Silk Road cities consisted almost entirely of Buddhist stupasand monasteries, and it seems that one of their main objectives was to welcome andservice travellers between east and west.

The Hinayana traditions first spread among the Turkic tribes before combiningwith the Mahayana forms during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE to cover modern-day Pakistan, Kashmir, Afghanistan, eastern and coastal Iran, Uzbekistan,Turkmenistan and Tajikistan. These were the ancient states of Gandhara, Bactria,Parthia and Sogdia from where it spread to China. Among the first of these Turkictribes to adopt Buddhism was the Turki-Shahi who adopted Buddhism as early asthe 3rd century BCE. It was not, however, the exclusive faith of this region. Therewere also Zoroastrians, Hindus, Nestorian Christians, Jews, Manichaeans, andfollowers of shamanism, Tengrism, and other indigenous, nonorganized systems ofbelief.

Various Nikaya schools persisted in Central Asia and China until around the7th century CE. Mahayana started to become dominant during the period, but sincethe faith had not developed a Nikaya approach, Sarvastivadin and Dharmaguptakasremained the Vinayas of choice in Central Asian monasteries.

Various Buddhism kingdoms rose and prospered in both the Central Asianregion and downwards into the Indian sub-continent such as Kushan Empire priorto the White Hun invasion in the 5th century where under the King Mihirkula theywere heavily persecuted.

Buddhism in Central Asia started to decline with the expansion of Islam andthe destruction of many stupas in war from the 7th century. The Muslims accordedthem the status of dhimmis as “people of the Book”, such as Christianity or Judaism


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and Al-Biruni wrote of Buddha as prophet “burxan”. Buddhism saw a surge duringthe reign of Mongols following the invasion of Genghis Khan and the establishmentof the Il Khanate and the Chagatai Khanate who brought their Buddhist influencewith them during the 13th century, however within a 100 years the Mongols wouldconvert to Islam and spread Islam across all the regions across central asia.

Parthia

Buddhism expanded westward into Arsacid Parthia, at least to the area of Merv,in ancient Margiana, today’s territory of Turkmenistan. Soviet archeological teamshave excavated in Giaur Kala, near Merv, a Buddhist chapel, a gigantic Buddhastatue, as well as a monastery.

Parthians were directly involved in the propagation of Buddhism: An Shigao(c. 148 CE), a Parthian prince, went to China, and is the first known translator ofBuddhist scriptures into Chinese.

Tarim Basin

The eastern part of central Asia (Chinese Turkestan, Tarim Basin, Xinjiang)has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art (wall paintings and reliefs innumerous caves, portable paintings on canvas, sculpture, ritual objects), displayingmultiple influences from Indian and Hellenistic cultures. Serindian art is highlyreminiscent of the Gandharan style, and scriptures in the Gandhari script Kharosthihave been found.

Central Asians seem to have played a key role in the transmission of Buddhismto the East. The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were eitherParthian like An Shigao (c. 148 CE) or An Hsuan, Kushan of Yuezhi ethnicity likeLokaksema (c. 178 CE), Zhi Qian and Zhi Yao, or Sogdians like Kang Sengkai.Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of themhave been identified as Central Asians.

Central Asian and East Asian Buddhist monks appear to have maintainedstrong exchanges until around the 10th century, as shown by frescoes from the TarimBasin.

These influences were rapidly absorbed however by the vigorous Chinese culture,and a strongly Chinese particularism develops from that point.

China

Buddhism probably arrived in China around the 1st century CE from CentralAsia (although there are some traditions about a monk visiting China during Asoka’sreign), and through to the 8th century it became an extremely active centre ofBuddhism.

The year 67 CE saw Buddhism’s official introduction to China with the comingof the two monks Moton and Chufarlan. In 68 CE, under imperial patronage, they


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established the White Horse Temple, which still exists today, close to the imperialcapital at Luoyang. By the end of the second century, a prosperous community hadbeen settled at Pengcheng (modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu).

The first known Mahayana scriptural texts are translations made into Chineseby the Kushan monk Lokaksema in Luoyang, between 178 and 189 CE. Some ofthe earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on “moneytrees”, dated circa 200 CE, in typical Gandharan style (drawing): “That the importedimages accompanying the newly arrived doctrine came from Gandhara is stronglysuggested by such early Gandhara characteristics on this “money tree” Buddha asthe high ushnisha, vertical arrangement of the hair, moustache, symmetricallylooped robe and parallel incisions for the folds of the arms.” (“Crossroads of Asia”).

Buddhism flourished during the beginning of the Tang Dynasty (618–907). Thedynasty was initially characterized by a strong openness to foreign influences, andrenewed exchanges with Indian culture due to the numerous travels of ChineseBuddhist monks to India from the 4th to the 11th century. The Tang capital ofChang’an (today’s Xi’an) became an important centre for Buddhist thought. Fromthere Buddhism spread to Korea, and Japanese embassies of Kentoshi helped gainfootholds in Japan.

However foreign influences came to be negatively perceived towards the endof the Tang Dynasty. In the year 845, the Tang emperor Wu-Tsung outlawed all“foreign” religions (including Christian Nestorianism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism)in order to support the indigenous Taoism. Throughout his territory, he confiscatedBuddhist possessions, destroyed monasteries and temples, and executed Buddhistmonks, ending Buddhism’s cultural and intellectual dominance.

Pure Land and Chan Buddhism, however, continued to prosper for some centuries,the latter giving rise to Japanese Zen. In China, Chan flourished particularly underthe Song dynasty (1127–1279), when its monasteries were great centres of cultureand learning.

Today, China boasts one of the richest collections of Buddhist arts and heritagesin the world. UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Mogao Caves near Dunhuangin Gansu province, the Longmen Grottoes near Luoyang in Henan province, theYungang Grottoes near Datong in Shanxi province, and the Dazu Rock Carvingsnear Chongqing are among the most important and renowned Buddhist sculpturalsites. The Leshan Giant Buddha, carved out of a hillside in the 8th century duringTang Dynasty and looking down on the confluence of three rivers, is still the largeststone Buddha statue in the world.

Kore a

Buddhism was introduced around 372 CE, when Chinese ambassadors visitedthe Korean kingdom of Goguryeo, bringing scriptures and images. Buddhism prosperedin Korea, and in particular Seon (Zen) Buddhism from the 7th century onward.


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However, with the beginning of the Confucean Yi Dynasty of the Joseon period in1392, Buddhism was strongly discriminated against until it was almost completelyeradicated, except for a remaining Seon movement.

Japan

Japan discovered Buddhism in the 6th century when Korean monks travelledto the islands together with numerous scriptures and works of art. The Buddhistreligion was adopted by the state in the following century.

Being geographically at the end of the Silk Road, Japan was able to preservemany aspects of Buddhism at the very time it was disappearing in India, and beingsuppressed in Central Asia and China.

From 710 CE numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital cityof Nara, such as the five-story pagoda and Golden Hall of the Horyuji, or the Kofuku-ji temple. Countless paintings and sculptures were made, often under governmentalsponsorship. The creation of Japanese Buddhist art was especially rich between the8th and 13th century during the periods of Nara, Heian, and Kamakura.

From the 12th and 13th, a further development was Zen art, following theintroduction of the faith by Dogen and Eisai upon their return from China. Zen artis mainly characterized by original paintings (such as sumi-e and the Enso) andpoetry (especially haikus), striving to express the true essence of the world throughimpressionistic and unadorned “non-dualistic” representations. The search forenlightenment “in the moment” also led to the development of other importantderivative arts such as the Chanoyu tea ceremony or the Ikebana art of flowerarrangement. This evolution went as far as considering almost any human activityas an art with a strong spiritual and aesthetic content, first and foremost in thoseactivities related to combat techniques (martial arts).

Buddhism remains very active in Japan to this day. Around 80,000 Buddhisttemples are preserved and regularly restored.

So uth-East Asia

During the 1st century CE, the trade on the overland Silk Road tended to berestricted by the rise in the Middle-East of the Parthian empire, an unvanquishedenemy of Rome, just as Romans were becoming extremely wealthy and their demandfor Asian luxury was rising. This demand revived the sea connections between theMediterranean and China, with India as the intermediary of choice. From that time,through trade connection, commercial settlements, and even political interventions,India started to strongly influence Southeast Asian countries. Trade routes linkedIndia with southern Burma, central and southern Siam, lower Cambodia and southernVietnam, and numerous urbanized coastal settlements were established there.

For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was therefore the major factorthat brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region.


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The Pali and Sanskrit languages and the Indian script, together with Theravadaand Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism, were transmitted fromdirect contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the Ramayanaand the Mahabharata.

From the 5th to the 13th century, South-East Asia had very powerful empiresand became extremely active in Buddhist architectural and artistic creation. Themain Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent,so that these empires essentially followed the Mahayana faith. The Sri VijayaEmpire to the south and the Khmer Empire to the north competed for influence,and their art expressed the rich Mahayana pantheon of the Bodhisattvas.

Vie tnam

Srivijayan Empire (5th–15th Ce ntury)

Srivijaya, a maritime empire centred at Palembang on the island of Sumatrain Indonesia, adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a line of rulersnamed the Sailendras. Yijing described Palembang as a great centre of Buddhistlearning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court. Atishastudied there before travelling to Tibet as a missionary.

Srivijaya spread Buddhist art during its expansion in Southeast Asia. Numerousstatues of Bodhisattvas from this period are characterized by a very strong refinementand technical sophistication, and are found throughout the region. Extremely richarchitectural remains are visible at the temple of Borobudur (the largest Buddhiststructure in the world, built from around 780 CE), in Java, which has 505 imagesof the seated Buddha. Srivijaya declined due to conflicts with the Chola rulers ofIndia, before being destabilized by the Islamic expansion from the 13th century.

Khme r Empire (9th–13th Ce ntury)

Later, from the 9th to the 13th century, the Mahayana Buddhist and HinduKhmer Empire dominated much of the South-East Asian peninsula. Under theKhmer, more than 900 temples were built in Cambodia and in neighbouring Thailand.Angkor was at the centre of this development, with a temple complex and urbanorganization able to support around one million urban dwellers. One of the greatestKhmer kings, Jayavarman VII (1181–1219), built large Mahayana Buddhist structuresat Bayon and Angkor Thom.

Following the destruction of Buddhism in mainland India during the 11thcentury, Mahayana Buddhism declined in Southeast Asia, to be replaced by theintroduction of Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka.

Eme rg e nc e o f the Vajrayana (5th Ce ntury)

Vajrayana Buddhism, also called Tantric Buddhism, first emerged in easternIndia between the 5th and 7th centuries CE. It is sometimes considered a sub-school


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of Mahayana and sometimes a third major “vehicle” (Yana) of Buddhism in its ownright. The Vajrayana is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism in that it does not offernew philosophical perspectives, but rather introduces additional techniques (upaya,or‘skilful means’), including the use of visualizations and other yogic practices. Manyof the practices of Tantric Buddhism are also derived from Hinduism (the usage ofmantras, yoga, or the burning of sacrificial offerings). This school of thought wasfounded by the Brahmin Padmasambhava.

Early Vajrayana practitioners were forest-dwelling mahasiddas who lived on themargins of society, but by the 9th century Vajrayana had won acceptance at majorMahayana monastic universities such as Nalanda and Vikramshila. Along withmuch of the rest of Indian Buddhism, the Vajrayana was eclipsed in the wake ofthe late 12th century Muslim invasions. It has persisted in Tibet, where it was whollytransplanted from the 7th to 12th centuries and became the dominant form ofBuddhism to the present day, and on a limited basis in Japan as well where it evolvedinto Shingon Buddhism.

The ravada Re naissanc e (11th Ce ntury CE)

From the 11th century, the destruction of Buddhism in the Indian mainlandby Islamic invasions led to the decline of the Mahayana faith in South-East Asia.Continental routes through the Indian subcontinent being compromised, direct searoutes between the Middle-East through Sri Lanka and to China developed, leadingto the adoption of the Theravada Buddhism of the Pali canon, introduced to theregion around the 11th century CE from Sri Lanka.

King Anawrahta (1044–1077); the historical founder of the Burmese empire,unified the country and adopted the Theravada Buddhist faith. This initiated thecreation of thousands of Buddhist temples at Pagan, the capital, between the 11thand 13th century. Around 2,000 of them are still standing. The power of the Burmesewaned with the rise of the Thai, and with the seizure of the capital Pagan by theMongols in 1287, but Theravada Buddhism remained the main Burmese faith to thisday.

The Theravada faith was also adopted by the newly founded ethnic Thai kingdomof Sukhothai around 1260. Theravada Buddhism was further reinforced during theAyutthaya period (14th–18th century), becoming an integral part of the Thai society.

In the continental areas, Theravada Buddhism continued to expand into Laosand Cambodia in the 13th century. However, from the 14th century, on the coastalfringes and in the islands of South-East Asia, the influence of Islam proved stronger,expanding into Malaysia, Indonesia, and most of the islands as far as the southernPhilippines.

However, since 1966 with Soeharto’s rise of power in the aftermath of the bloodyevents after the so called “September 30th, 1965 murders”, allegedly executed bythe Communists Party, there has been a remarkable renaissance of Buddhism in


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Indonesia. This is partly due to the Soeharto’s New Order’s requirements for thepeople of Indonesia to adopt one of the five official religions: Islam, Protestantism,Catholicism, Hinduism or Buddhism. Today it is estimated there are some 10millions Buddhists in Indonesia. A large part of them are people of Chinese ancestry.

Expansio n o f Buddhism to the We st

After the Classical encounters between Buddhism and the West recorded inGreco-Buddhist art, information and legends about Buddhism seem to have reachedthe West sporadically. During the 8th century, Buddhist Jataka stories were translatedinto Syriac and Arabic as Kalilag and Damnag. An account of Buddha’s life wastranslated in to Greek by John of Damascus, and widely circulated to Christiansas the story of Barlaam and Josaphat. By the 1300s this story of Josaphat hadbecome so popular that he was made a Catholic saint.

The next direct encounter between Europeans and Buddhism happened inMedieval times when the Franciscan friar William of Rubruck was sent on anembassy to the Mongol court of Mongke by the French king Saint Louis in 1253.The contact happened in Cailac (today’s Qayaliq in Kazakhstan), and William originallythought they were wayward Christians (Foltz, “Religions of the Silk Road”).

Major interest for Buddhism emerged during colonial times, when Westernpowers were in a position to witness the faith and its artistic manifestations in detail.European philosophy was strongly influenced by the study of oriental religionsduring that period. The opening of Japan in 1853 also created a considerable interestfor the arts and culture of Japan, and provided access to one of the most thrivingBuddhist cultures in the world.

Buddhism started to enjoy a strong interest from the general population in theWest during the 20th century, following the perceived failure of social utopias, fromFascism to Marxism. After the Second World War, the focus of progress tended toshift to personal self-realization, on the material as well as spiritual plane.

In this context, Buddhism has been displaying a strong power of attraction, dueto its tolerance, its lack of deist authority and determinism, and its focus onunderstanding reality through self inquiry. According to the latest census it is nowthe fastest growing religion in Britain.

Time line of Buddhism

Fo undatio n to the Co mmo n Era

Some sources give the date of the Buddha’s birth as 563 BCE and others as624 BCE. Theravada Buddhist countries tend to use the latter figure. This displacesall the dates in the following table about 61 years further back.

• 563 BCE: Siddhartha Gautama, Buddha-to-be, is born in a Kshatriya familyin Lumbini, Nepal region of ancient India.


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• 534 BCE: Gautama leaves his inheritance and becomes an ascetic.

• 528 BCE: Gautama attains Enlightenment in Bodhgaya, then travels to a deer.park in Sarnath (near Varanasi), India, and begins his ministry.

• c.500 BCE: Classical Sanskrit replaces Vedic.

• c.490-410 BCE Life of the Buddha according to recent research.

• c.483 BCE: Sakyamuni Buddha died at Kusinara (now called Kushinagar),India.

• 400s BCE: Kharosotohi script began to be used in Gandhara.

• 383 BCE: The Second Buddhist Council was convened by King Kalasoka andheld at Vaishali.

• 300s BCE: Oldest Brahmi script found, is attested to be from this period.

• c.250 BCE: Third Buddhist Council convened by Ashoka and chaired byMoggaliputta Tissa, compiled the Kathavatthu to refute the heretical viewsand theories held by some Buddhist sects. Ashoka erected a number of edicts(Edicts of Ashoka) about the kingdom in support of Buddhism.

• c.250 BCE: First fully developed examples of Kharosotohi script date fromthis period (the Ashokan inscriptions at Shahbazgarohi and Mansehra,northern Pakistan region of ancient India).

• 200s BCE: Indian traders regularly visited ports in Arabia, explaining theprevalence of place names in the region with Indian or Buddhist origin. Forexample, bahar (from the Sanskrit vihara, a Buddhist monastery). Ashokanemissary monks brought Buddhism to Suwannaphum, the location of whichis disputed but the Dipavamsa and the Mon believe it was a Mon seafaringsettlement in present-day Burma.

• c.220 BCE: Theravada Buddhism is officially introduced to Sri Lanka by theVenerable Mahinda, the son of the emperor Ashoka of India during the reignof king Devanampiya Tissa.

• 185 BCE: Brahmin general Pusyamitra Sunga overthrows the Mauryandynasty and establishes the Sunga dynasty, apparently starting of wave ofpersecution against Buddhism.

• 180 BCE: Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius invades India as far as Pataliputra,and establishes the Indo-Greek kingdom (180-10 BCE), under which Buddhismflourishes.

• c.150 BCE: Indo-Greek king Menander I converts to Buddhism under thesage Nagasena, according to the account of the Milinda Panha.

• 120 BCE: The Chinese Emperor Han Wudi (156-87 BCE) receives two goldenstatues of the Buddha, according to inscriptions in the Mogao Caves, Dunhuang.

• 1st century BCE: The Indo-Greek governor Theodorus enshrines relics of theBuddha, dedicating them to the deified “Lord Shakyamuni”.


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• 29 BCE: According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was writtendown in the reign of King Vammagamini (29-17 B.C.E).

• 2 BCE: The Hou Hanshu records the visit of Yuezhi envoys to the Chinesecapital in 2 BCE, who gave oral teachings on Buddhist sutras.

Co mmo n Era

• 65: Liu Ying’s sponsorship of Buddhism is the first documented case ofBuddhist practices in China.

• 67: Buddhism came to China with the two monks Moton and Chufarlan.

• 68: Buddhism is officially established in China with the founding of the WhiteHorse Temple.

• 78: Ban Chao, a Chinese General, subdues the Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan.

• 78-101: According to Mahayana tradition, the Fourth Buddhist council takesplace under the Kushana king Kanishka’s reign, near Jalandar, Kashmir,India.

• 116 CE: The Kushans under Kanishka established a kingdom centred onKashgar, also taking control of Khotan and Yarkand, previously Chinesedependencies in the Tarim Basin, modern Xinjiang.

• 148: An Shigao, a Parthian prince and Buddhist monk, arrived in China andproceeded to make the first translations of Theravada texts into Chinese.

• 178: The Kushan monk Lokaksema travels to the Chinese capital of Loyangand becomes the first known translator of Mahayana texts into Chinese.

• 100s/200s: Indian and Central Asian Buddhists travel to Vietnam.

• 200s: Use of Kharosotohi script in Gandhara stops.

• 200s & 300s: Kharosotohi script is used in the southern Silk Road cities ofKhotan and Niya.

• 296: The earliest surviving Chinese Buddhist scripture dates from this year.(Zhu Fo Yao Ji Jing, discovered in Dalian, late 2005).

• 300s: Two Chinese monks took scriptures to the Korean kingdom of Goguryeoand established paper-making in Korea.

• 320-467: The University at Nalanda grew to support 3000-10,000 monks.

• 399-414: Fa Xian travelled from China to India, then returned to translateBuddhist works in to Chinese.

• 400s: The kingdom of Funan (centred in modern Cambodia) begins to advocateBuddhism in a departure from Hinduism. Earliest evidence of Buddhism inMyanmar (Pali inscriptions). Earliest evidence of Buddhism in Indonesia(statues). Earliest reinterpretations of Pali texts. The stupa at Dambulla (SriLanka) is constructed.


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• 402: At the request of Yao Xing, Kumarajiva travels to Changan and translatesmany Buddhist texts in to Chinese.

• 403: In China, Hui Yuan argues that Buddhist monks should be exempt frombowing to the emperor.

• 405: Yao Xing honours Kumarajiva.

• 425: Buddhism reached Sumatra.

• 464: Buddhabhadra reaches China to preach Buddhism.

• 495: The Shaolin temple is built in the name of Buddhabhadra, by the edictof emperor Wei Xiao Wen.

• 485: Five monks from Gandhara travel to the country of Fusang (Japan, orpossibly the American continent), where they introduced Buddhism.

• 500s: Zen adherents enter Vietnam from China. Jataka stories are translatedinto Persian by order of the Zoroastrian king Khosrau I of Persia.

• 527: Bodhidharma settles into the Shaolin monastery in Henan province ofChina.

• 552: Buddhism was introduced to Japan via Baekje (Korea) according toNihonshoki. Some scholars place this event in 538.

• Early 600s: Jingwan begins carving sutras on to stone at Fangshan, Yuzhou,75km south west of modern day Beijing.

• 607: A Japanese imperial envoy was dispatched to Sui China to obtain copiesof sutras.

• 600s: Xuan Zang travelled to India, noting the persecution of Buddhists bySasanka (king of Gouda, a state in northwest Bengal), before returning toChang An in China to translate Buddhist scriptures. End of sporadic Buddhistrule in the Sindh. King Songtsen Gampo of Tibet sent messengers to Indiato get Buddhist texts. Latest recorded use of the Kharosotohi script amongstBuddhist communities around Kucha.

• 671: Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Yi Jing visited Palembang, capital of thepartly-Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya on the island of Sumatra, Indonesiaand reported over 1000 Buddhist monks in residence. Uisang returns toKorea after studying Chinese Huayan Buddhism, and founds the Hwaeomschool.

• 736: Huayan is transmitted to Japan via Korea, when Roben invites theKorean Hwaeom monk Simsang to lecture, and formally founds Japan’sKegon tradition in the Todaiji temple.

• 743-754: The Chinese monk Jianzhen attempts to reach Japan eleven times,succeeding in 754 to establish the Japanese Ritsu school, which specialisedin the vinaya (monastic rules).


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• 700s: Buddhist Jataka stories are translated in to Syriac and Arabic as Kalilagand Damnag. An account of Buddha’s life was translated in to Greek by Johnof Damascus, and widely circulated to Christians as the story of Barlaam andJosaphat. By the 1300s this story of Josaphat had become so popular that hewas made a Catholic saint.

• 700s: Under the reign of King Trisong Deutsen, Padmasambhava travelledfrom Afghanistan to establish tantric Buddhism in Tibet (later known as theNyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism), replacing Bonpo as the kingdom’smain religion. Buddhism quickly spreads to Sikkim and Bhutan.

• c.760: Borobodur, the famous Indonesian Buddhist structure, begins to beconstructed, probably as a non-Buddhist shrine. It was completed as a Buddhistmonument in 830 after about 50 years of work.

• 804: Under the reign of Emperor Kammu of Japan, a fleet of four ships setsail for mainland China. Of the two ships that arrived, one carried the monkKukai, recently ordained by the Japanese government as a Bhiksu, whoabsorbed Vajrayana teachings in Chang’an and returned to Japan to foundthe Japanese Shingon school. The other ship carried the monk Saicho, whoreturned to Japan to found the Japanese Tendai school, partly based uponthe Chinese Tiantai tradition.

• 838-847: Ennin, a priest of the Tendai school, travels in China for nine years.He reaches both the famous Buddhist mountain of Wutaishan and the Chinesecapital, Chang’an, keeping a detailed diary that is a primary source for thisperiod of Chinese history, including the Buddhist persecution.

• 841-846: Li Yan reigns in China during the Tang Dynasty, one of threeChinese emperors to prohibit Buddhism.

• 9th Century Tibet: Decline of Buddhism, persecution by King Langdharma.

• 900s: Buddhist temple construction commences at Bagan, Myanmar. In Tibetbegins a strong Buddhist revival. The Caodong school of Zen is founded byDongshan Liangjie and Caoshan Benji in southern China.

• 971: Chinese Song Dynasty commissions Chengdu wood carvers to carve theentire Buddhist canon for printing. Work is completed in 983, 130,000 blocksare produced in total.

• 991: A printed copy of the Song Dynasty Buddhist canon arrives in Korea,impressing government.

• 1009: Vietnam’s Ly Dynasty began, which was partly brought about by analliance with the Buddhist monkhood. Ly emperors patronized MahayanaBuddhism, in addition to traditional spirits.

• 1010: Korea begins carving its own woodblock print edition of the Buddhistcanon. No completion date is known-the canon is continuously expanded withthe arrival of new texts from China.


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• 1025: Srivijaya, a Buddhist kingdom based on Sumatra, is raided by theChola empire of southern India. It survives, but declines in importance.Shortly after the raid, the centre of the kingdom moves northward fromPalembang to Jambi-Melayu.

• 1044-1077: In Burma, Pagan’s first king Anoratha reigned. He converted thecountry to Theravada Buddhism with the aid of monks and books from SriLanka. He is said to have been converted to Theravada Buddhism by a Monmonk, though other beliefs persisted.

• 1057: Anawrahta of Myanmar captures Thaton in northern Thailand,strengthening Theravada Buddhism in the country.

• 1063: A copy of the Khitans’ printed canon arrives in Korea from mainlandChina.

• 1084-1113: In Myanmar, Pagan’s second king, Kyanzittha (son of Anawrahta)reigns. He completed the building of the Shwezigon pagoda, a shrine for relicsof the Buddha, including a tooth brought from Sri Lanka. Various inscriptionsrefer to him as an incarnation of Vishnu, a chakravartin, a bodhisattva anddharmaraja.

• 1100s: Sanskrit is subsequently written in Devanagari.

• 1100-1125: Huizong reigns during the Chinese Song Dynasty and outlawsBuddhism to promote the Dao. He is one of three Chinese emperors to haveprohibited Buddhism.

• 1113: Alaungsithu reigned in Pagan, Myanmar, until his son Narathusmothered him to death and assumed the throne.

• 1133-1212: Honen Shonin establishes Pure Land Buddhism as an independentsect in Japan.

• 1181: The self-styled bodhisattva Jayavarman VII, a devout follower ofMahayana Buddhism (though he also patronised Hinduism), assumes controlof the Khmer kingdom. He constructs the Bayon, the most prominent Buddhiststructure in the Angkor temple complex. This set the stage for the laterconversion of the Khmer people to Theravada Buddhism.

• 1190: In Myanmar, Anawrahta’s lineage regains control with the assistanceof Sri Lanka. Pagan has been in anarchy. The new regime reforms BurmeseBuddhism on Sri Lankan Theravada models.

• Late 1100s: The great Buddhist educational centre at Nalanda, where varioussubjects were taught such as Buddhism, Logic, Philosophy, Law, Medicine,Grammar, Yoga, Mathematics, Alchemy and Astrology, is sacked. Nalandawas supported by kings of several dynasties and had served as a greatinternational centre of learning.

• 1200s: Theravada overtakes Mahayana-previously practised alongsideHinduism-as the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia. Thailand and Sri


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Lanka were influences in this change. In Persia, the historian Rashid al-Dinrecords some eleven Buddhist texts circulating in Arabic translation, amongstwhich the Sukhavati-vyuha and Karanda-vyuha Sutras are recognizable.Portions of the Samyutta and Anguttara-Nikayas, along with parts of theMaitreya-vyakarana, have also been identified in this collection.

• 1222 Birth of Nichiren Daishonin (1222-1282) who was the Japanese founderof Nichiren Buddhism.

• Abt. 1238: The Thai Kingdom of Sukhothai is established, with TheravadaBuddhism as the state religion.

• 1227: Dogen Zenji took the Caodong school of Zen from China to Japan asthe Soto sect.

• 1244: Eiheiji Soto Zen Temple and Monastery established by Dogen Zenji.

• 1258: Arghun makes the Il-Khanate a Buddhist State.

• 1277: Burma’s Pagan empire begins to disintegrate after being defeated byKublai Khan at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan, at Yunnan near the Chineseborder.

• 1287: The Theravada kingdom at Pagan, Myanmar falls to the Mongols, andis overshadowed by the Shan capital at Ava.

• c.1279-1298: Sukhothai’s third and most famous ruler, Ramkhamhaeng (Ramathe Bold), reigned and made vassals of Laos, much of modern Thailand, Pegu(Burma), and parts of the Malay Peninsula, thus giving rise to Sukhothaiartistic tradition. After Ramkhamhaeng’s death, Sukhothai lost control of itsterritories as its vassals became independent.

• 1295: Mongol leader Ghazan Khan is converted to Islam, ending a line ofTantric Buddhist leaders.

• 1305-1316: Buddhists in Persia attempt to convert Uldjaitu Khan.

• 1321: Sojiji Soto Zen Temple and Monastery established by Keizan Zenji.

• 1351: In Thailand, U Thong, possibly the son of a Chinese merchant family,established Ayutthaya as his capital and took the name of Ramathibodi.

• 1391-1474: Gyalwa Gendun Drubpa, first Dalai Lama of Tibet.

• 1405-1431: The Chinese eunuch admiral Zheng He made seven voyages inthis period, through South-East Asia, India, the Persian Gulf, East Africa,and Egypt. At the time, Buddhism was well-established in China, so visitedpeoples may have had exposure to Chinese Buddhism.

• 1578: Altan Khan of the Tumed gave the title of Dalai Lama to Sonam Gyatso(later known as the third Dalai Lama).

• 1600s & 1700s: When Vietnam divided during this period, the Nguyen rulersof the south chose to support Mahayana Buddhism as an integrative ideology


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for the ethnically plural society of their kingdom, which was also populatedby Chams and other minorities.

• 1614: The Toyotomi family rebuilt a great image of Buddha at the Templeof Hokoji in Kyoto.

• 1615: The Oirat Mongols converted to the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism.

• 1635: Zanabazar, the first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu, was born as a great-grandson of Abadai Khan of the Khalkha.

• 1642: Guushi Khan of the Khoshuud donated the sovereignty of Tibet to thefifth Dalai Lama.

• 1766-67: In Thailand, many Buddhist texts are destroyed as the Burmeseinvade Ayutthaya.

• 1800s: In Thailand, King Mongkut-himself a former monk-conducted acampaign to reform and modernise the monkhood, a movement that hascontinued in the present century under the inspiration of several greatascetic monks from the northeast of the country.

• 1802-20: Nguyen Anh comes to the throne of the first united Vietnam-hesucceeds by quelling the Tayson rebellion in south Vietnam with help fromRama I in Bangkok, then took over the north from the remaining Trinh. Aftercoming to power, he created a Confucianist orthodox state and was eager tolimit the competing influence of Buddhism. He forbade adult men to attendBuddhist ceremonies.

• 1820-41: Minh Mang reigns in Vietnam, further restricting Buddhism. Heinsists that all monks be assigned to cloisters and carry identificationdocuments. He also placed new restrictions on printed material. He alsobegan a persecution of Catholic missionaries and converts that his successors(not without provocation) continued.

• Abt. 1860: In Sri Lanka, against all expectations the monastic and laycommunity brought about a major revival in Buddhism, a movement thatwent hand in hand with growing nationalism. The revival followed a periodof persecution by foreign powers. Since then Buddhism has flourished andSri Lankan monks and expatriate lay people have been prominent in spreadingTheravada Buddhism in Asia, the West and even in Africa.

• 1879: A council was convened under the patronage of King Mindon Min ofBurma to re-edit the Pali canon. The king then had the texts engraved on729 stones, which were then set upright on the grounds of a monastery nearMandalay.

• 1880s: Burma becomes a British colony.

• 1882: Jade Buddha Temple founded in Shanghai, China with two JadeBuddha statues imported from Burma.


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• 1893: World Parliament of Religions meets in Chicago, Illinois. AnagarikaDharmapala and Soyen Shaku attend.

• 1896: Using Fa Xian’s records, Nepalese archaeologists rediscovered thegreat stone pillar of Ashoka at Lumbini.

• 1899: Gordon Douglas is ordained in Myanmar. He is the first westerner tobe ordained in the Theravada tradition.

• 1922: Zenshuji Soto Mission founded as first Soto Zen temple in NorthAmerica.

• 1930: Soka Gakkai is founded in Japan.

• 1949: Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is returned to partial Buddhistcontrol.

• 1950: World Fellowship of Buddhists is founded in Colombo, Sri Lanka.

• 1956: Indian untouchable leader B. R. Ambedkar converts to Buddhism withmore than 350,000 followers, beginning the modern Neo-Buddhist movement.

• 1956: The Zen Studies Society is founded in New York to support the workof D.T. Suzuki.

• 1957: Caves near the summit of Pai-tai mountain, Fangshan district,75km south-west of Beijing are re-opened, revealing thousands of Buddhistsutras that had been carved on to stone since the 7th century. Seven setsof rubbings are made and the stones numbered in work which continues until1959.

• 1959: Together with some 100,000 Tibetans, the 14th Dalai Lama flees theChinese occupation of Tibet, and establishes an exile community in India.The Chinese invaders completely destroy all monasteries but a handful, andseverely persecute Buddhist practitioners.

• 1962: The San Francisco Zen Centre is founded by Shunryu Suzuki.

• 1963: Thich Qunng Dec performed self-immolation to protest againstoppressing of the Buddhist religion by Ngo Dinh Diem.

• 1965: The Burmese government arrested over 700 monks for in Hmawbi,near Rangoon, for refusing to accept government rule.

• 1966: World Buddhist Sangha Council convened by Theravadins in Sri Lankawith the hope of bridging differences and working together. The first conventionwas attended by leading monks, from many countries and sects, Mahayanaas well as Theravada. Nine Basic Points Unifying the Theravada and

Mahayana written by Ven. Walpola Rahula were approved unanimously;

1. The Buddha is our only Master.

2. We take refuge in the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha.

3. We do not believe that this world is created and ruled by a God.


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4. We consider that the purpose of life is to develop compassion for all livingbeings without discrimination and to work for their good, happiness, andpeace; and to develop wisdom leading to the realization of Ultimate Truth.

5. We accept the Four Noble Truths, namely Dukkha, the Arising of Dukkha,the Cessation of Dukkha, and the Path leading to the Cessation of Dukkha;and the law of cause and effect (Pratitya-samutpada).

6. All conditioned things (sa.mskaara) are impermanent (anitya) and dukkha,and that all conditioned and unconditioned things (dharma) are withoutself (anaatma).

7. We accept the Thirty-seven Qualities conducive to Enlightenment(bodhipak.sa-dharma) as different aspects of the Path taught by theBuddha leading to Enlightenment.

8. There are three ways of attaining bodhi or Enlightenment: namely as adisciple (sraavaka), as a Pratyeka-Buddha and as a Samyak-sam-Buddha(perfectly and Fully Enlightened Buddha). We accept it as the highest,noblest, and most heroic to follow the career of a Bodhisattva and tobecome a Samyak-sam-Buddha in order to save others.

9. We admit that in different countries there are differences regardingBuddhist beliefs and practices. These external forms and expressionsshould not be confused with the essential teachings of the Buddha.

• 1970s: Indonesian Archaeological Service and UNESCO restore Borobodur.

• 1974: The Naropa Institute, now Naropa University, is founded in Boulder,Colorado.

• 1974: In Burma, during demonstrations at U Thant’s funeral, 600 monkswere arrested and several bayoneted by government forces.

• 1975: Lao Communist rulers attempted to change attitudes to religion, inparticular calling on monks to work, not beg. This caused many to returnto lay life, but Buddhism remains popular.

• 1975: The Insight Meditation Society is established in Barre, Massachusetts.

• 1975-79: Cambodian communists under Pol Pot tried to completely destroyBuddhism, and very nearly succeeded. By the time of the Vietnamese invasionof Cambodia in 1978 nearly every monk and religious intellectual had beeneither murdered or driven into exile, and nearly every temple and Buddhistlibrary had been destroyed.

• 1976: Following a demonstration in Burma, the government sought to discreditthe critical monk La Ba by claiming that he was a cannibal and a murderer.

• 1978: In Burma, more monks and novices were arrested, disrobed andimprisoned by the government. Monasteries were closed and property seized.The critical monk U Nayaka was arrested and died, the government claimingit was suicide.


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• 1980: Burmese military government asserts authority over the sangha, violenceagainst monks continues through the decade.

• 1983: Shanghai Institute of Buddhism established at Jade Buddha Templeunder the Shanghai Buddhist Association.

• 1988: During the 1988 uprising SPDC troops gunned down monks. After theuprising, U Nyanissara, a senior monk, recorded a tape which discusseddemocracy in Buddhist precepts. This tape was banned.

• 1990, August 27: Over 7000 monks met in Mandalay in Burma to call fora boycott of the military. They refused to accept alms from military familiesor perform services for them. The military government seized monasteriesand arrested hundreds of monks, including senior monks U Sumangala andU Yewata. The monks faced long-term imprisonment, and all boycottingmonks were disrobed. Some monks were tortured during interrogation.

• 1998: January 25: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) terrorists commita deadly suicide attack on Sri Lanka’s most sacred Buddhist site and aUNESCO World Heritage centre; the Temple of the Tooth, where Buddha’stooth relic is enshrined. 8 civilians were killed and 25 others were injured,as well as significant damage to the temple structure which was firstconstructed in 1592 AD.

• 2000, January: The Sasanarakkha Buddhist Sanctuary, a training facility forTheravada monks, is founded in Malaysia.

• 2001, May: Two of the world’s tallest ancient Buddha Statues CompletelyDestroyed by Taliban in Bamyan, Afghanistan.

• 2004, April: In Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks acting as candidates for theJaathika Hela Urumaya party win nine seats in elections.

Buddhist Counc ils

1st Buddhist Co unc il (5th Ce ntury BC)

The first Buddhist council was held soon after the nirvana of the Buddha underthe patronage of king Ajatashatru, and presided by the monk Mahakasyapa, atRajagaha (today’s Rajgir). Its objective was to record the Buddha’s sayings (sutta)and the monastic discipline or rules (Vinaya). The Suttas were recited by Ananda,and the Vinaya was recited by Upali. Also the Sangha made the unanimous decisionto keep all the rules of the Vinaya, even the lesser and minor rules.

2nd Buddhist Co unc il (383 BC)

The historical records for the so-called ‘Second Buddhist Council’ derive primarilyfrom the canonical Vinayas of various schools (Theravada, Sarvastivada,Mulasarvastivada, Mahasanghika, Dharmaguptaka, and Mahiuasaka). In most cases,these accounts are found at the end of the ‘Skandhaka’ portion of the Vinaya. While


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inevitably disagreeing on points of details, they nevertheless agree on roughly thefollowing.

100 (or 110) years after the Buddha’s Nibbana, a monk called Yasa, whenvisiting Vesali, noticed a number of lax practices among the local monks. A list of‘ten points’ is given; the first and most important was that the Vesali monks, knownas Vajjiputtakas, consented to accepting money. Considerable controversy eruptedwhen Yasa refused to follow this practice. He was prosecuted by the Vajjiputtakas,and defended himself by quoting in public a number of canonical passages condemmingthe use of money by monastics. Wishing to settle the matter, he gathered supportfrom monks of other regions, mainly to the west and south. A group consented togo to Vesali to settle the matter. After considerable maneuvering, a meeting washeld, attended by 700 monks. A council of eight was appointed to consider the matter.This consisted of four locals and four ‘westerners’; but some of the locals had alreadybeen secretly won over to the westerners’ case. Each of the ten points was referredto various canonical precedents. The committee found against the Vajjiputtakamonks. They presented this finding to the assembly, who consented unanimously.The canonical accounts end there.

3rd Buddhist Co unc il (c . 250 BCE)

In striking contrast to the uniform accounts of the Second Council, there arerecords of several possible ‘Third Councils’. These different versions function toauthorize the founding of one particular school or other.

According to the Theravada commentaries and chronicles, the Third BuddhistCouncil was convened by the Mauryan king Ashoka (260–218 BC) at Pataliputra(today’s Patna), under the leadership of the monk Moggaliputta Tissa. Its objectivewas to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions whichhad been attracted by the royal patronage. The king asked the suspect monks whatthe Buddha taught, and they claimed he taught views such as eternalism, etc., whichare condemned in the canonical Brahmajala Sutta. He asked the virtuous monks,and they replied that the Buddha was a ‘Teacher of Analysis’ (Vibhajjavadin), ananswer that was confirmed by Moggaliputta Tissa. The Council proceeded to recitethe scriptures once more, adding to the canon Moggaliputta Tissa’s own book, theKathavatthu, a discussion of various dissentient Buddhist views now contained inthe Theravada Abhidhamma Pitaka.

Also, emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism,as far as the Greek kingdoms in the West (in particular the neighbouring Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and possibly even farther according to the inscriptions left onstone pillars by Ashoka). According to Frauwallner (Frauwallner, 1956), several ofthese missionaries were responsible for founding schools in various parts of India:Majjhantika was the father of the Kasmiri Sarvastivadins; Yonaka Dhammarakkhitamay have been the founder of the Dharmaguptaka school; Mahadeva, sent to the


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Mahisa country may have been the founder of the Mahisasakas; and several teacherstravelled to the Himalayas where they founded the Haimavata school, including acertain Kassapagotta, who may be connected with the Kasyapiyas. Relics of someof these monks have been excavated at Vedisa. (Willis, 2001) The most famous ofthe missionaries, and the main focus of interest for these Theravada histories, isMahinda, who travelled to Sri Lanka where he founded the school we now knowas Theravada.

The Theravada’s own Dipavamsa records a quite different Council called the‘Greal Recital’ (Mahasangiti), which it claims was held by the reformed Vajjiputtakasfollowing their defeat at the Second council. The Dipavamsa criticizs theMahasangitikas (who are the same as the Mahasanghikas) for rejecting various textsas non-canonical: the [Vinaya] Parivara; the 6 books of the Abhidhamma; thePatisambhida; the Niddesa; part of the Jatakas; and some verses. (Dipavamsa 76,82).

The Mahasanghika, for their part, remember things differently: they allege, inthe Sariputraparipriccha available in Chinese translation, that there was an attemptto unduly expand the old Vinaya. Although this account is set much later than theDipavamsa’s account, both accounts agree that the dispute was over the extent ofwhat works could be considered canonical.

An entirely different account of Mahasanghika origins is found in the works ofthe Sarvastivada group of schools. Vasumitra tells of a dispute in Pataliputra at thetime of Ashoka over five heretical points: that an arahant can have nocturnalemission; that he can have doubts; that he can be taught by another; that he canlack knowledge; and that the path can be aroused by crying ‘What suffering!’ Thesesame points are discussed and condemned in Moggaliputta Tissa’s Kathavatthu, butthere is no mention of this Council in Theravadin sources. The later Mahavibhasadevelops this story into a lurid smear campaign against the Mahasanghika founder,who it identifies as ‘Mahadeva’. This version of events emphasizes the purity of theKasmiri Sarvastivadins, who are portrayed as descended from the arahants who fledpersecution due to ‘Mahadeva’.

The Two Fo urth Buddhist Co unc ils (c . 30 BCE and 100 CE)

The Fourth Buddhist Council of the Mahayana was convened by the Kushanemperor Kanishka, around 100 CE at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usuallyassociated with the formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism doesnot recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “councilof heretical monks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 Bhikkhus in Kashmir, headed by Vasumitra,to edit the Tripitaka and make references and remarks. It is said that during thecouncil, there were all together three hundred thousand verses and over nine millionstatements compiled, and that it took twelve years to complete.


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The Mahayana Fourth Buddhist Council did not rely on the original pali canon(the Tipitaka). Instead, a set of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamentalprinciples of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the Gandharivernacular and the Kharosthi script, were rewritten in the classical language ofSanskrit, to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

The new Mahayana form of Buddhism was characterized by an almost God-liketreatment of the Buddha, by the idea that all beings have a Buddha-nature andshould aspire to Buddhahood, and by a syncretism due to the various culturalinfluences within northwestern India and the Kushan Empire, especially fromZoroastrianism and Greco-Buddhism.

From that point on, and in the space of a few centuries, Mahayana was toflourish and spread into Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan (introduction ofBuddhism in 538 CE).

The First Ge ne ral Co nfe re nc e o f the Wo rld Fe llo wship o f Buddhists

The first time in the history of Buddhism since the third council, monks andlaitiy representatives from nearly every school and organisation of Buddhism in theMahayana, Theravada and Vajrayana from 27 countries in Asia, Europe and NorthAmerica gathered to found The World Fellowship of Buddhists (WFB). The Aimsand Objectives of the World Fellowship of Buddhists are:

1. To promote among the members strict observance and practice of the teachingsof the Buddha.

2. To secure unity, solidarity, and brotherhood amongst Buddhists.

3. To propagate the sublime doctrine of the Buddha.

4. To organize and carry on activities in the field of social, educational, culturaland other humanitarian services.

5. To work for happiness, harmony and peace on earth and to collaborate withother organizations working for the same ends.

The ravada Buddhist Co unc il in 1871 (5th Buddhist Co unc il)

Another Buddhist Council, this time presided by Theravada monks took placein Mandalay Burma now known as Myanmar in 1871 in the reign of King Mindon.The chief objective of this meeting was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha andexamine them in minute detail to see if any of them had been altered, distorted ordropped. It was presided over by three Elders, the Venerable MahatheraJagarabhivamsa, the Venerable Narindabhidhaja, and the Venerable MahatheraSumangalasami in the company of some two thousand four hundred monks (2,400).Their joint Dhamma recitation lasted for five months. It was also the work of thiscouncil to cause the entire Tripitaka to be inscribed for posterity on seven hundredand twenty-nine marble slabs in the Myanmar script after its recitation had beencompleted and unanimously approved. This monumental task was done by some two


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thousand four hundred (2,400) erudite monks and many skilled craftsmen who uponcompletion of each slab had them housed in beautiful miniature ‘pitaka’ pagodason a special site in the grounds of King Mindon’s Kuthodaw Pagoda at the foot ofMandalay Hill where it and the so called ‘largest book in the world’, stands to thisday.

The ravada Buddhist Co unc il in 1954 (Sixth Buddhist Co unc il)

The Sixth Council was called at Kaba Aye in Yangon, formerly Rangoon in 1954,eighty-three years after the fifth one was held in Mandalay. It was sponsored bythe Burmese Government led by the then Prime Minister, the Honourable U Nu.He authorized the construction of the Maha Passana Guha, ‘the great cave’, anartificial cave very like India’s Sattapanni Cave where the first Buddhist Councilhad been held. Upon its completion The Council met on the 17th of May, 1954.

As in the case of the preceding councils, its first objective was to affirm andpreserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. However it was unique in so far as themonks who took part in it came from eight countries. These two thousand fivehundred learned Theravada monks came from Myanmar, Cambodia, India, Laos,Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand. The late Venerable Mahasi Sayadaw was appointed thenoble task of asking the required questions about the Dhamma of the VenerableBhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa who answered all of them learnedly and satisfactorily.By the time this council met all the participating countries had the Pali Tipitakarendered into their native scripts, with the exception of India.

The traditional recitation of the Buddhist Scriptures took two years and theTripitaka and its allied literature in all the scripts were painstakingly examinedand their differences noted down and the necessary corrections made and all theversions were then collated. It was found that there was not much difference in thecontent of any of the texts. Finally, after the Council had officially approved them,all of the books of the Tipitaka and their Commentaries were prepared for printingon modern presses and published in the Myanmar (Burmese) script. This notableachievement was made possible through the dedicated efforts of the two thousandfive hundred monks and numerous lay people. Their work came to an end in May,1956, two and a half millennia after the Lord Buddha’s Parinibbana.

Do ub ts o n the 6th Buddhist Co unc il’s Tipitaka

Since the year 2000, the authenticity of the currently published version ofTipitaka of the Sixth Buddhist Council has been in some doubt, as some findingsfrom the Dhamma Society Fund in Thailand have become more well known. TheDhamma Society Fund claims it has proof that after the first printing of the Tipitakaof Sixth Buddhist Council in 1958, it had been secretly replaced with the previousBurmese Fifth Buddhist Council Tipitaka. The Dhamma Society Fund is currentlyprinting the ‘real’ Sixth Buddhist Council Tiptaka with sponsorship from the ThaiKing and other Thai royalty, for distribution amongst the most prestigious libraries


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and institutes around the world. After this, they plan to publish the Sixth BuddhistCounil Tipitaka for free, via the internet.

• Sanskrit (or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit): primarily Mahayana Buddhism.

• Tibetan (Tib): Tibetan Buddhism.

• Thai: Theravada Buddhism.

• Burmese (Bur): Theravada Buddhism.

• CJKV languages:

o Chinese (Cn): Chinese Buddhism.

o Japanese (Jp): Japanese Buddhism.

o Korean (Ko): Korean Buddhism.

o Vietnamese (Vi): Vietnamese Buddhism.

Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are one of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings,they appear many times throughout the most ancient Buddhist texts, the PaliCanon. They are among the truths the Buddha realised during his enlightenmentexperience. Why the Buddha taught in this way is illuminated by the social contextof the time in which he lived. The Buddha was a Sramana, a wandering ascetic whose“aim was to discover the truth and attain happiness”. The Buddha claimed to haveachieved this aim while under a bodhi tree near the Ganges River; the Four NobleTruths are a formulation of his understanding of “suffering”, the fundamental causeof all suffering, the escape from suffering, and what effort a person can go to so thatthey themselves can “attain happiness.”

These truths are not expressed as a theory or tentative idea, rather the Buddhasays:

“These Four Noble Truths, monks, are actual, unerring, not otherwise. Therefore,they are called noble truths.”

The Buddha said that he taught them.

“...because it is beneficial, it belongs to the fundamentals of the holy life, it leadsto disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, toenlightenment, to Nirvana. That is why I have declared it.”

This teaching was the basis of the Buddha’s first discourse after his enlightenment.

Mahayana Buddhism contains within itself an alternative version of the FourNoble Truths, in which the immortality of the Buddha occupies a central position.

Fo ur No b le Truths

Suffering (Dukkha): Now this, monks, is the noble truth of suffering: Birthis suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering; union with


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what is displeasing is suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not toget what one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging aresuffering.

Source of Suffering (Samudaya): Now this, monks, is the noble truth of theorigin of suffering: It is this craving which leads to renewed existence, accompaniedby delight and lust, seeking delight here and there; that is, craving for sensualpleasures, craving for existence, craving for extermination.

The Cessation of Suffering (Nirodha): Now this, monks, is the noble truthof the cessation of suffering: It is the remainder less fading away and cessation ofthat same craving, the giving up and relinquishing of it, freedom from it, and non-reliance on it.

The Way Leading to the Cessation of Suffering (Magga): Now this, monks,is the noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering: It is this NobleEightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, rightlivelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.”

Variant Fo ur No b le Truths in Mahayana Buddhism

Certain major Mahayana sutras, including the Mahaparinirvana Sutra and theAngulimaliya Sutra, present variant versions of the Four Noble Truths in line withtheir own metaphysics and soteriology. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddhadeclares that:

The Truth of Suffering relates to the failure to recognise the eternity of theBuddha; The Truth of the Cause of Suffering concerns the perversion and distortionof the True Dharma; The Truth of the Cessation of Suffering relates to the correctmeditative cultivation of the tathagatagarbha (indwelling Buddha Essence in allbeings) and not erroneously viewing it as non-Self and empty; cessation of sufferingalso arises with the elimination of inner defilements, when one can then enter intothe Buddhic Essence within oneself: “When the afflictions have been eradicated, thenone will perceive entry into the tathagata-garbha”; the Truth of the Path to theCessation of Suffering entails envisioning the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha aseternal, immovable and indestructible.

The Angulimaliya Sutra similarly emphasises the seeing and knowing of theBuddha’s eternality, immutability and peace as the key factors in liberation fromsuffering; failure to see this eternal nature of ultimate reality is said to constitutethe primary cause of beings’ continued entrapment in the sufferings of samsara.

Noble Eightfold Path

The Noble Eightfold Path is, in the Buddhist tradition as taught by the BuddhaUakyamuni, considered to be the way that leads to the end of suffering. It formsthe fourth part of the Four Noble Truths, which are the most fundamental Buddhistteachings.


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The Noble Eightfold Path is essentially a practical guide of ethics, mentalrehabilitation and mind deconditioning, and is believed, by Buddhists, to result inan end to dukkha, or suffering, which is a goal that has informed and driven theentire Buddhist tradition since its inception 2500 years ago. As the name indicates,there are eight elements in the Noble Eightfold Path, and these are further subdividedinto three basic categories as follows:

• Wisdom (Sanskrit: prajna, Pali: panna)

1. Right understanding

2. Right intention

• Ethical conduct

1. Right speech

2. Right action

3. Right livelihood

• Mental discipline

1. Right effort

2. Right mindfulness

3. Right concentration.

In all of the elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, the word “right” is a translationof the word samyanc (Sanskrit) or samma (Pali), which denotes completion,togetherness, and coherence, and which can also carry the sense of “perfect” or“ideal”.

Though the path is numbered one through eight, it is generally not consideredto be a series of linear steps through which one must progress; rather, as theBuddhist monk and scholar Walpola Rahula points out, the eight elements of theNoble Eightfold Path “are to be developed more or less simultaneously, as far aspossible according to the capacity of each individual. They are all linked togetherand each helps the cultivation of the others”.

In Buddhist symbology, the Noble Eightfold Path is often represented by meansof the Dharma wheel, whose eight spokes represent the eight elements of the path.

Wisdo m (Pra jna · Pa nna )

The “wisdom” subdivision of the Noble Eightfold Path is constituted by thoseelements that refer primarily to the mental or cognitive aspect of a Buddhistpractitioner’s practice.

Rig ht Unde rstanding

Right understanding can also be translated as “right view” or “right perspective”.This element of the Noble Eightfold Path refers explicitly to the Four Noble Truthsof Buddhism, stating that these must be fully understood by the Buddhist practitioner.


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In the Mahasatipammhana Sutta, one of the Buddha Uakyamuni’s discourses, rightunderstanding is explained directly in terms of the Four Noble Truths:

And what, O bhikkhus, is right understanding? To understand suffering, tounderstand the origination of suffering, to understand extinction of suffering, tounderstand the path leading to the extinction of suffering; this is called rightunderstanding.

Additionally, right understanding is sometimes considered to encompass anunderstanding of the Buddhist idea of the non-permanence, or even non-existence,of the self, an idea known as anatman in Sanskrit and anatta in Pali.

There are two stages for every stage of the eightfold path, a preliminary stageand the higher stages gradually obtained through the journey towards enlightenment.The preliminary stage of Right Views or right understanding is the knowledge ofthe Four Noble Truths. The higher stage require more than the comprehension ofthe Four Noble Truths, it also includes the knowledge and understanding of the not-self doctorine, imperminence, dependent origination, the five aggregates, kamma

and rebirth, and so on.

Rig ht Tho ug ht

Right thought can also be translated as “right intention”, “right resolve”, or“right aspiration”. This element of the Noble Eightfold Path deals, fundamentally,with the Buddhist practitioner’s reasons for practising Buddhism, and with his orher outlook towards the world. It enjoins renunciation of worldly things and anaccordant greater commitment to spiritual matters; good will; and a commitmentto non-violence, or ahimsa, towards other living beings. In the Magga-vibhanga

Sutta, it is simply explained as follows:

And what is right thought? Being resolved on renunciation, on freedom fromill will, on harmlessness: This is called right thought.

Ethic al Co nduc t (Uila )

The “ethical conduct” (Uila) subdivision of the Noble Eightfold Path is constitutedby those elements that are driven by and ultimately conducive to the Buddhist ideaof karuna, which is generally translated as compassion and somewhat akin to theChristian notion of agapç, or “unconditional love”. This aspect of the Noble EightfoldPath is the most outward-oriented aspect of the Noble Eightfold Path insofar as itdeals directly with a Buddhist practitioner’s relationship with other members of hisor her society.

Rig ht Spe e c h

Right speech, as the name implies, deals with the way in which a Buddhistpractitioner would best make use of his or her words. In the Magga-vibhanga Sutta,this aspect of the Noble Eightfold Path is explained as follows: And what is right


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speech? Abstaining from lying, abstaining from divisive speech, abstaining fromabusive speech, abstaining from idle chatter: This, monks, is called right speech.

Walpola Rahula glosses this by stating that not engaging in such “forms of wrongand harmful speech” ultimately means that “one naturally has to speak the truth,has to use words that are friendly and benevolent, pleasant and gentle, meaningfuland useful”.

Rig ht Ac tio n

Right action can also be translated as “right conduct” and, as the name implies,deals with the proper way in which a Buddhist practitioner would act in his or herdaily life. In the Magga-vibhanga Sutta, this aspect of the Noble Eightfold Path isexplained as follows:

And what, monks, is right action? Abstaining from taking life, abstaining fromstealing, abstaining from unchastity: This, monks, is called right action.

Together with the idea of ahimsa and right speech, right action constitutes theFive Precepts, which form the fundamental ethical code undertaken by lay followersof Buddhism, and which are as follows:

1. To refrain from destroying living beings.

2. To refrain from stealing.

3. To refrain from sexual misconduct (adultery, rape, etc.).

4. To refrain from false speech (lying).

5. To refrain from intoxicants which lead to heedlessness.

Rig ht Live liho o d

Right livelihood is based around the concept of ahimsa, or harmlessness, andessentially states that Buddhist practitioners ought not to engage in trades oroccupations which, either directly or indirectly, result in harm to other living beings.Such occupations include “trading in arms and lethal weapons, intoxicating drinks,poisons, killing animals, [and] cheating”, among others. “[B]usiness in human beings”—such as slave trading and prostitution—is also forbidden, as are several otherdishonest means of gaining wealth, such as “[s]cheming, persuading, hinting, belittling,[and] pursuing gain with gain”.

Me ntal De ve lo pme nt (Sa ma dhi)

The “mental development” subdivision of the Noble Eightfold Path is constitutedby those elements that deal with how a Buddhist practitioner can best go aboutshaping his or her outlook towards the world.

Rig ht Effo rt

Right effort can also be translated as “right endeavour”, and involves theBuddhist practitioner’s continuous effort to, essentially, keep his or her mind free


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of thoughts that might impair his or her ability to realize or put into practice the otherelements of the Noble Eightfold Path; for example, wishing ill towards another livingbeing would contradict the injunction—contained in the “Right thought” element—to have good will towards others, and the “Right effort” element refers to the processof attempting to root out such an ill wish and replace it with a good wish.

The Buddhist monk Ajahn Chah, of the Thai forest tradition of TheravadaBuddhism, described right effort as follows:

Proper effort is not the effort to make something particular happen. It is theeffort to be aware and awake in each moment, the effort to overcome laziness anddefilement, the effort to make each activity of our day meditation.

By making right effort, a Buddhist practitioner is considered to be engaging inan effort that is wholesome in terms of karma; that is, in terms of that effort’sultimate consequences to the practitioner.

Rig ht Mindfulne ss

Right mindfulness, also translated as “right memory”, together with rightconcentration, is concerned broadly with the practice of Buddhist meditation. Roughlyspeaking, “mindfulness” refers to the practice of keeping the mind alert to phenomenaas they are affecting the body and mind. In the Magga-vibhanga Sutta, this aspectof the Noble Eightfold Path is explained as follows:

And what, monks, is right mindfulness?

(i) There is the case where a monk remains focused on (his/her) body in andof itself... ardent, aware, and mindful... having already put aside worldlydesire and aversion.

(ii) (He/she) remains focused on feelings in and of themselves... ardent, aware,and mindful... having already put aside worldly desire and aversion.

(iii) (He/she) remains focused on the mind in and of itself... ardent, aware, andmindful... having already put aside worldly desire and aversion.

(iv) (He/she) remains focused on mental qualities in and of themselves... ardent,aware, and mindful... having already put aside worldly desire and aversion.

This, monks, is called right mindfulness.

Bhikkhu Bodhi, a monk of the Theravadin tradition, further glosses the conceptof mindfulness as follows:

The mind is deliberately kept at the level of bare attention, a detached observationof what is happening within us and around us in the present moment. In the practiceof right mindfulness the mind is trained to remain in the present, open, quiet, andalert, contemplating the present event. All judgments and interpretations have tobe suspended, or if they occur, just registered and dropped.


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Rig ht Co nc e ntratio n

Right concentration (samyak-samadhi · samma-samadhi), together with rightmindfulness, is concerned broadly with the practice of Buddhist meditation.

And what, monks, is right concentration?

(i) Quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unwholesome states, amonk enters in the first jhana: rapture and pleasure born from detachment,accompanied by movement of the mind onto the object and retention of themind on the object.

(ii) With the stilling of directed thought and evaluation, (he/she) enters andremains in the second jhana: rapture and pleasure born of concentration;fixed single-pointed awareness free from movement of the mind onto theobject and retention of the mind on the object; assurance.

(iii) With the fading of rapture, (he/she) remains in equanimity, mindful and fullyaware, and physically sensitive of pleasure. (He/She) enters and remains inthe third jhana which the Noble Ones declare to be “Equanimous and mindful,(he/she) has a pleasurable abiding.”

(iv) With the abandoning of pleasure and pain...as with the earlier disappearanceof elation and distress...(he/she) enters and remains in the fourth jhana:purity of equanimity and mindfulness, neither in pleasure nor in pain.

The Ninth and Te nth Ele me nts

In the Great Forty Sutra (Mahacattarisaka Sutta), which appears in the PaliCanon, the Buddha explains that cultivation of the Eightfold Path leads to thedevelopment of two further stages once enlightenment has been reached. These alsofall under the category of panna and are Right Knowledge (sammanana) and Right

Liberation (or Right Release; sammavimutti). Some consider Right Association asan implicit ninth aspect of the Path.

The No b le Eig htfo ld Path and Co g nitive Psyc ho lo g y

From the standpoint of modern cognitive psychology, the Noble Eightfold Pathcan be seen as rooted in what is called cognitive dissonance, which is the perceptionof incompatibility between two cognitions. In the essay “Buddhism Meets WesternScience”, Gay Watson explains this dissonance as it relates to Buddhist teaching:

Buddhism has always been concerned with feelings, emotions, sensations, andcognition. The Buddha points both to cognitive and emotional causes of suffering.The emotional cause is desire and its negative opposite, aversion. The cognitive causeis ignorance of the way things truly occur, or of three marks of existence: that allthings are unsatisfactory, impermanent, and without essential self.

The Noble Eightfold Path is, from this psychological viewpoint, an attempt toresolve this dissonance by changing patterns of thought and behaviour. It is for this


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reason that the first element of the path is right understanding (samma-dimmhi),which is how one’s mind views the world. Under the wisdom (panna) subdivisionof the Noble Eightfold Path, this worldview is intimately connected with the secondelement, right thought (samma-samkappa), which concerns the patterns of thoughtand intention that controls one’s actions. These elements can be seen at work, forexample, in the opening verses of the Dhammapada:

Preceded by perception are mental states,

For them is perception supreme,

From perception have they sprung.

If, with perception polluted, one speaks or acts,

Thence suffering follows

As a wheel the draught ox’s foot.

Preceded by perception are mental states,

For them is perception supreme,

From perception have they sprung.

If, with tranquil perception, one speaks or acts,

Thence ease follows

As a shadow that never departs.

Thus, by wilfully altering one’s distorted worldview—as well as the behavioursstemming from that worldview—and bringing out “tranquil perception” in the placeof “perception polluted”, one is enabled to potentially escape from suffering anddevelop one’s mind. Watson points this out from a psychological standpoint:

The Five Pre c e pts

The five precepts constitute the basic Buddhist code of ethics, undertaken bylay followers of the Buddha Gautama in the Theravadin tradition.

The laity undertake to follow these training rules at the same time as theybecome Buddhists, taking refuge in the Triple Gem: In the Buddha (teacher), in theDharma (teaching) and thirdly in the Sangha (community of monks and nuns). Alay practitioner who has undertaken the precepts is called an Upasaka.

The Buddha is said to have taught the five precepts out of compassion, not outof any desire to control his followers, and so they are to be undertaken voluntarilyrather than as commandments from a god. They are to be seen as guidelines to howone who is awakened lives, not as mere moral injunctions imposed from outside andto be obeyed literally at all times.

The Buddha said that undertaking the precepts is a gift to oneself and others.He also described the rewards of following the precepts and the bad consequencesof breaking the precepts.


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The following are the five precepts rendered in English and then Pali.

1. I undertake the precept to refrain from taking the life (killing) of living beings.

“Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami”2. I undertake the precept to refrain from stealing.

“Adinnadana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami”3. I undertake the precept to refrain from sexual misconduct (adultery, rape,

etc.).

“Kamesu micchacara veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami”4. I undertake the precept to refrain from false speech (lying).

“Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami”5. I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicants which lead to heedlessness.

“Sura meraya majja pamadatthana veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami”

Chine se Ve rsio n o f Five Pre c e pts

The Chinese version as found in the Supplement to the Canon hardly differs:

1. As the Buddha refrained from killing until the end of his life, so I too willrefrain from killing until the end of my life.

2. As the Buddha refrained from stealing until the end of his life, so I too willrefrain from stealing until the end of my life.

As the Buddha refrained from sexual misconduct until the end of his life,so I too will refrain from sexual misconduct until the end of my life.

As the Buddha refrained from false speech until the end of his life, so I toowill refrain from false speech until the end of my life.

3. As the Buddha refrained from alcohol until the end of his life, so I too willrefrain from alcohol until the end of my life.

Nirva na

Nirvana is a Sanskrit word from India that literally means extinction (as in a

candle flame) and/or extinguishing (i.e. of the passions).

It is a mode of being that is free from mind-contaminants (Kilesa) such as lust,anger or craving. It is thus a state of great inner peace and contentment-the endof suffering, or Dukkha. The Buddha in the Dhammapada says of Nirvana that itis “the highest happiness.” This is not the transitory, sense-based happiness ofeveryday life, but rather an enduring, transcendental happiness integral to thecalmness attained through enlightenment.

The Buddha describes the abiding in nirvana as ‘deathlessness’ or ‘theunconditioned’ and as the highest spiritual attainment, the natural result that


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accrues to one who lives a life of virtuous conduct in accordance with Dharma. Sucha life (called Brahmacarya in India) dissolves the causes for future becoming thatotherwise keep beings forever wandering through realms of desire and form (samsara).

There are many synonyms for Nirvana, as shown by the following passage:

World Honored One, the ground of fruition is bodhi, nirvana, true suchness, theBuddha-nature, the amala-consciousness, the empty treasury of the Thus Come One,the great, perfect mirror-wisdom. But although it is called by these seven names,it is pure and perfect, its substance is durable, like royal vajra, everlasting andindestructible.

Ove rvie w

Nirvana (Pali nibbana) in sutra is “bhavanirodha nibbanam” (The cessation ofbecoming means Nirvana). Nirvana in sutra is never conceived of as a place, butthe antinomy of samsara which itself is synonymous with ignorance (avidya, Paliavijja). “This said:‘the liberated mind (citta) that no longer clings’ means Nibbana”.

Nibbana is meant specifically as pertains gnosis that which ends the identityof the mind (citta) with empirical phenomena. Doctrinally Nibbana is said of themind which no “longer is coming (bhava) and going (vibhava)”, but which hasattained a status in perpetuity, whereby “liberation (vimutta) can be said”.

It carries further connotations of stilling, cooling, and peace. The realizing ofnirvana is compared to the ending of avidya (ignorance) which perpetuates the will(cetana) into effecting the incarnation of mind into biological or other form passingon forever through life after life (samsara). Samsara is caused principally by cravingand ignorance. Nirvana, then, is not a place nor a state, it is an absolute truth tobe realized, and a person can do so without dying. When a person who has realizednirvana dies, his death is referred as his parinirvana, his fully passing away, as hislife was his last link to the cycle of death and rebirth (samsara), and he will notbe reborn again. Buddhism holds that the ultimate goal and end of samsaric existence(of ever “becoming” and “dying” and never truly being) is realization of nirvana; whathappens to a person after his parinirvana cannot be explained, as it is outside ofall conceivable experience.

Nirvana and Samsara

In Mahayana Buddhism, calling nirvana the “opposite” of samsara or implyingthat it is apart from samsara is doctrinally problematic. According to early MahayanaBuddhism, they can be considered to be two aspects of the same perceived reality.By the time of Nagarjuna, there are teachings of the identity of nirvana and samsara.However, even here it is assumed that the natural man suffers from at the veryleast a confusion regarding the nature of samsara.

The Theravada school makes the antithesis of samsara and Nibbana the startingpoint of the entire quest for deliverance. Even more, it treats this antithesis as


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determinative of the final goal, which is precisely the transcendence of samsara andthe attainment of liberation in Nibbana. Where Theravada differs significantly fromthe Mahayana schools, which also start with the duality of samsara and Nirvana,is in not regarding this polarity as a mere preparatory lesson tailored for those withblunt faculties, to be eventually superseded by some higher realization of non-duality. From the standpoint of the Pali Suttas, even for the Buddha and theArahants suffering and its cessation, samsara and Nibbana, remain distinct.

In the experience of all, Nirvana is a state which all six bases (Eye, Ear, Nose,Tongue, Body and Mind) cannot feel.

It is probably best to understand the relationship between Nirvana and samsarain terms of the Buddha while on earth. Buddha was both in Samsara while havingattained to Nirvana so that he was seen by all, and simultaneously free fromsamsara.

Nirvana in Buddhist Co mme ntarie s

Sarvastivadin commentary, Abhidharma-mahavibhasa-sastra, gives the completecontext of the possible meanings from its sanskrit roots:

• Vana, implying the path of rebirth, + nir, meaning leaving off’ or ‘being awayfrom the path of rebirth.’

• Vana, meaning ‘stench’, + nir, meaning ‘freedom’: ‘freedom from the stenchof distressing kamma.’

• Vana, meaning ‘dense forests’, + nir, meaning ‘to get rid of’ = ‘to be permanentlyrid of the dense forest of the five aggregates (panca skandha), or the ‘threeroots of greed, hate and delusion (lobha, dosa, moha)’ or ‘three characteristicsof existence (impermanence, anitya; unsatisfactoriness, dukkha, soullessness,anatma).

• Vana, meaning ‘weaving’, + nir, meaning ‘knot’ = ‘freedom from the knot ofthe distressful thread of kamma.’

Nirvana in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra

The nature of Nirvana assumes a differently aspected Mahayana focus in whatalleges to be the final of all Mahayana sutras, allegedly delivered by the Buddhaon his last day of life on earth-the Mahaparinirvana Sutra or Nirvana Sutra. Here,as well as in a number of linked “tathagatagarbha” sutras, in which theTathagatagarbha is equated with the Buddha’s eternal Self or eternal nature,Nirvana is spoken of by the Mahayana Buddha in very “cataphatic”, positive terms.Nirvana, or “Great Nirvana”, is indicated to be the sphere or domain (vishaya) ofthe True Self. It is seen as the state which constitutes the attainment of what is“Eternal, the Self, Bliss, and the Pure”. Maha-nirvana (“Great Nirvana”) thusbecomes equivalent to the ineffable, unshakeable, blissful, all-pervading and deathlessSelfhood of the Buddha himself-a mystery which no words can adequately reach and


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which, according to the Nirvana Sutra, can only be fully known by an AwakenedBeing-a perfect Buddha-directly.

Strikingly, the Buddha of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra gives the followingdefinition of the attributes of Nirvana, which includes the ultimate reality of theSelf (not to be confused with the “worldly ego” of the 5 skandhas):

“The attributes of Nirvana are eightfold. What are these eight? Cessation[nirodha], loveliness/wholesomeness [subha], Truth [satya], Reality [tattva], eternity[nitya], bliss [sukha], the Self [atman], and complete purity [parisuddhi]: that isNirvana.”

He further states: “Non-Self is Samsara [the cycle of rebirth]; the Self (atman)is Great Nirvana.”

An important facet of Nirvana in general is that it is not something that comesabout from a concatenation of causes, that springs into existence as a result of anact of creation or an agglomeration of causative factors: it was never created; italways was, is and will be. But due to the moral and mental darkness of ordinary,samsarically benighted sentient beings, it remains hidden from unawakenedperception. The Buddha of the Mahaparinirvanasutra insists on its eternal natureand affirms its identity with the enduring, blissful Self, saying:

“It is not the case that the inherent nature of Nirvana did not primordially existbut now exists. If the inherent nature of Nirvana did not primordially exist but doesnow exist, then it would not be free from taints (asravas) nor would it be eternally(nitya) present in nature. Regardless of whether there are Buddhas or not, itsintrinsic nature and attributes are eternally present... Because of the obscuringdarkness of the mental afflictions, beings do not see it. The Tathagata, endowed withomniscient awareness (sarvajna-jnana), lights the lamp of insight with his skill-in-means (upaya-kauualya) and causes Bodhisattvas to perceive the Eternal, Bliss, theSelf, and the Pure of Nirvana.”

Vitally, according to these Mahayana teachings, any being who has reachedNirvana is not blotted out or extinguished: there is the extinction of the impermanentand suffering-prone “worldly self” or ego (comprised of the five changeful skandhas),but not of the immortal “supramundane” Self of the indwelling Buddha Principle[Buddha-dhatu]. Spiritual death for such a Nirvana-ed being becomes an utterimpossibility. The Buddha states in the “Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra” (Tibetanversion): “Nirvana is deathless... Those who have passed into Nirvana are deathless.I say that anybody who is endowed with careful assiduity is not compounded and,even though they involve themselves in compounded things, they do not age, theydo not die, they do not perish.”

Paths to Nirvana in the Pali Cano n

Buddhaghosa identifies various options within the Pali canon for pursuing apath to Nirvana, including:


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1. by insight (vipassana) alone.

2. by jhana and understanding.

3. by deeds, vision and righteousness.

4. by virtue, consciousness and understanding.

5. by virtue, understanding, concentration and effort.

6. by the four foundations of mindfulness.

Depending on one’s analysis, each of these options could be seen as a reframingof the Buddha’s Threefold Training of virtue, mental development and wisdom.

Thre e Je we ls

The Three Jewels, also rendered as Three Treasures, Three Refuges or TripleGem are the three things that Buddhists give themselves to, and in return looktoward for guidance, in the process known as taking refuge.

Taking refuge in the Three Jewels is central to Buddhist lay and monasticordination ceremonies, as originated by Gautama Buddha.

Taking refuge in the Triple Gem is generally considered to make one officiallya Buddhist. Thus, in many Theravada Buddhist communities, the following Palichant, the Vandana Ti-sarana is often recited by both monks and lay people:

• Buddham saranam gacchami

I go for refuge in the Buddha

• Dhammam saranam gacchami

I go for refuge in the Dharma

• Sangham saranam gacchami

I go for refuge in the Sangha

The Mahayana Chinese/Japanese version differs only slightly from the Theravada:

• I take refuge in the Buddha, wishing for all sentient beings to understandthe great way and make the greatest vow.

• I take refuge in the Dharma, wishing for all sentient beings to deeply delveinto the Sutra Pitaka, gaining an ocean of knowledge.

• I take refuge in the Sangha, wishing all sentient beings to lead the congregationin harmony, entirely without obstruction.

Impo rtanc e o f the Triple Ge m

The Triple Gem is important and is one of the major practices of mental“reflection” in Buddhism, we reflect on the true qualities of the Buddha, Dharmaand Sangha. These qualities are called the Mirror of the Dharma in theMahaparinibbana Sutta and help us attain the true “mind like a mirror”.


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Re fle c tio n in the Mirro r o f the Dharma

The qualities of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are frequently repeated inthe ancient texts. It is a Buddhist practise to reflect upon them.

The Buddha: “The Blessed One is an Arahant, perfectly enlightened,accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world,unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, theEnlightened One, the Blessed One.”

In some traditions, the Buddha as refuge, is known as the historical Buddhaand also ‘the full development of mind’, in other words, the full development of one’shighest potential i.e. recognition of mind and the completion or full development ofone’s inherent qualities and activities.

The Dharma: “The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directlyvisible, immidiate, inviting one to come and see, applicable, to be personallyexperienced by the wise.”

Refuge in the Dharma in the Vajrayana tradition includes reference not onlyto the words of the Buddha, but to the living experience of realization and teachingsof fully realized practitioners. In Tibetan Buddhism, it includes both the Kangyur(the teaching of the Buddha) and the Tengyur (the commentaries by realizedpractioners) and in an intangible way also includes the living transmission of thosemasters, which can also be very inspiring.

The Sangha: “The Sangha of the Blessed One’s disciples is practising the goodway, practising the straight way, practising the true way, practising the proper way;that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals-This Sangha of theBlessed One’s disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings,worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.”

In the Vajrayana, a more liberal definition of Sangha can include all practitionerswho are actively using the Buddhas teachings to benefit themselves and/or others.It can be more strictly defined as the ‘Realized Sangha’ or ‘Arya-Sangha’, in otherwords, practitioners and historical students of the Buddha who have fully realizedthe nature of their mind, also known as realized Boddhisatvas; and ‘OrdinarySangha’, which can loosely mean practitioners and students of the Buddha who areusing the same methods and working towards the same goal.

In the Vajrayana traditions, there is another very important and expandedaspect of the Refuge, the refuge in the teacher. This can be understood on manylevels including what is called the Three Roots-the Root of Blessing, Root of Methodsand Root of Protection. Another way to understand this is as the Body (Sangha),Speech (Dharma) and Mind (Buddha) of the Buddha. The teacher has a prominentplace in the Vajrayana, as without his personal permission and guidance, a practitionercannot achieve proper spiritual progress.


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Why is it Calle d the Triple Ge m?

In Buddhism, the following three are called Gems (Ratna) as they are invaluable :• Buddha (The Enlightened One), who, depending on one’s interpretation, can

mean the Historical Buddha, Shakyamuni, or the Buddha nature or idealwithin all beings.

• Dharma (The Teaching), which is the Teachings of the Buddha.

• Sangha (The Community), The Community of those great people who haveattained Enlightenment. so that those people (Sangha) will help you to attainEnlightenment.

The three gems are so called since amongst all gems, the Buddha gem andDharma gem are considered incomparable in value as they are not material, socannot be created, destroyed or changed in any way. Buddha’s mind in his earthbody or sambhogakaya is frequently associated with the greatest gem of all, thediamond. In the Anguttara Nikaya(3:25), Buddha talks about the diamond mind:

These three types of persons are found in the world: One with a mind like anopen sore; one with a mind like a flash of lightning; one with a mind like a diamond.

• One who is irascible and very irritable, displaying anger, hatred and sulkiness;such a one is said to be a person with a mind like an open sore.

• One who understands the Four Noble Truths correctly is said to have a mindlike a flash of lightning.

• One who has destroyed the mind-intoxicating defilements and realized theliberation of mind and the liberation by knowledge is said to have a mindlike a diamond.

With this we understand that to take refuge in the Buddha is to take refugein the mind like a diamond, the hardest natural substance that can cut through alldelusion.

The Three Gems when used in the process of taking refuge, become the Three

Refuges.

The expression Three Gems are found in the earliest Buddhist literature of thePali Canon, besides other works there is one sutta in the Sutta-nipata, called theRatana-sutta which contains a series of verses on the Jewels in the Buddha, Dharma,and Sangha. In the Ratana-sutta, all the qualities of the Sangha mentioned areattributes of the Buddha’s enlightened disciples.

The Three Refuges occur very frequently in the ancient Buddhist Texts, and herethe Sangha is used more broadly to refer to either the Sangha of Bhikkhus, or theSangha of Bhikkhunis.

“I go to Master Gautama for refuge and to the Dhamma, and to the Sanghaof Bhikkhus.”


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Thre e Marks of Existe nc e

After much meditation, the Buddha concluded that everything in the physicalworld (plus everything in the phenomenology of psychology) is marked by threecharacteristics, known as the three characteristics of existence, three signs of beingor Dharma Seals. Together the three characteristics of existence are called ti-lakkhana, in Pali; or tri-laksana, in Sanskrit.

• Dukkha (Sanskrit duhkha) or unsatisfactoriness. Nothing found in the physicalworld or even the psychological realm can bring lasting deep satisfaction.

• Anicca (Sanskrit anitya) or impermanence. This refers not only to the factthat all conditioned things eventually cease to exist, but also that all conditionedthings are in a constant state of flux. (Visualize a leaf growing on a tree.It dies and falls off the tree but is soon replaced by a new leaf.)

• Anatta (Sanskrit anatman) impersonality, or non-Self. The human personality,“soul”, or Self, is a conventional appellation applied to the assembly ofphysical and psychological components, each individually subject to constantflux; there is no central core (or essence); this is somewhat similar to a bundletheory of mind or soul.

There is often a fourth Dharma Seal mentioned:

Nirvana is peace. Nirvana is the ‘other shore’ from Samsara.

By bringing the three (or four) seals into moment-to-moment experience throughconcentrated awareness, we are said to achieve Wisdom-the third of the three highertrainings-the way out of Samsara. In this way we can identify that, according toSutra, the recipe (or formula) for leaving Samsara is achieved by a deep-rootedchange to our Weltanschauung.

According to the Buddhist tradition, all phenomena (dharmas) are marked bythree characteristics, sometimes referred to as the Dharma seals, that is dukkha(suffering), anicca (impermanence), and anatta (non-Self).

Dukkha

Striving for what we desire, we may experience stress and suffering — dukkha.Getting what we desired, we may find delight and happiness. Soon after, the noveltymay wear out and we may get bored with it. Boredom is a form of dissatisfaction(or suffering) and to escape from it, we divert ourselves from such boredom byindulging in a pursuit of new forms of pleasure. Sometimes not willing to relinquishobjects that we are already disinterested in, we start to collect and amass possessionsinstead of sharing with others who may have better use in it than we do. Boredomis a result of change. Change of our interest in that object of desire that so captivatedus in the first place.

If we do not get bored already, then change may instead occur in the object ofdesire. Silverware may become tarnished, a new dress worn thin or a gadget gone


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obsolete. Or it may become broken, causing us to grieve. In some cases it may getlost or stolen. In some cases, we may worry about such losses even before theyhappen. Husbands and wives worry about losing their spouses even though theirpartners are faithful. Unfortunately, sometimes our very worry and fear drives usto act irrationally, resulting in distrust and breaking up of the very relationship thatwe cherished so much.

While we like changes such as becoming an adult when we are in our teens,

we dislike the change called aging. While we strive for change to become rich, wefear the change of retrenchment. We are selective in our attitude towards thetransient nature of our very existence. Unfortunately, this transient nature isunselective. We can try to fight it, just as many have tried since beginningless time,

only to have our efforts washed away through the passages of time. As a result, wecontinually experience dissatisfaction or suffering due to the very impermanence ofcompounded phenomena.

Only in the realm of Nirvana — so Mahayana Buddhism insists — can true and

lasting happiness be found. Nirvana is the opposite of the conditional, the transitoryand the painful (dukkha), so it does not result in disappointment or deteriorationof the state of bliss. Nirvana is the refuge from the otherwise universal tyranny ofchange and suffering. In other schools of Buddhism, nirvana is not viewed as the

goal, but merely as a projection from the state of samsara. According to these schoolssamsara (confusion) and nirvana (perfection) are two sides of the same coin thatmust be transcended through diligent practice of meditation.

Anic c a

All compounded phenomena (things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady,and impermanent. (Practically) everything is made up of parts, and is dependent

on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in constant flux, and soconditions and the thing itself is constantly changing. Things are constantly cominginto being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.

The important point here is that phenomena arise and cease according to

(complex) conditions and not according to our whims and fancy. While we havelimited ability to effect change to our possessions and surroundings, experience tellsus that our feeble attempts are no guarantee that the results of our efforts will beto our likings. More often than not, the results fall short of our expectations.

In Mahayana Buddhism, a caveat is added: one should indeed always meditateon the impermanence and changefulness of compounded structures and phenomena,but one must guard against extending this to the realm of Nirvana, whereimpermanence holds no sway and eternity alone obtains. To see Nirvana or the

Buddha (in his ultimate Dharmakaya nature) as impermanent would be to indulgein “perverted Dharma” and would be seriously to go astray, according to the Buddha’s


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final Mahayana doctrines. Other schools of Buddhism, however, feel uneasy with sucha teaching.

Anatta

In Indian philosophy, the concept of a Self is called atman (that is, “soul” ormetaphysical Self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence conceived byvirtue of existence. This concept and the related concept of Brahman, the Vedanticmonistic ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate atman for all beings, wereindispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparentthings there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a Platonic form.The Buddha rejected all concepts of atman, emphasizing not permanence, butchangeability. He taught that all concepts of a substantial personal Self wereincorrect, and formed in the realm of ignorance. However, in a number of majorMahayana sutras (e.g. the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Tathagatagarbha Sutra, theSrimala Sutra, among others), the Buddha is presented as clarifying this teachingby saying that, while the skandhas (constituents of the ordinary body and mind)are not the Self, there does truly exist an eternal, unchanging, blissful Buddha-essence in all sentient beings, which is the uncreated and deathless Buddha-nature(“Buddha-dhatu”) or “True Self” of the Buddha himself. This immaculate BuddhicSelf (atman) is in no way to be construed as a mundane, impermanent, suffering“ego”, of which it is the diametrical opposite. On the other hand, this Buddha-essenceor Buddha-nature is also often explained as the potential for achieving Buddhahood,rather than an existing phenomenon one can grasp onto as being me or Self. It isthe opposite of a personalised, samsaric “I” or “mine”. The paradox is that as soonas the Buddhist practitioner tries to grasp at this inner Buddha potency and clingto it as though it were his or her ego writ large, it proves elusive. It does not “exist”in the time-space conditioned and finite mode in which mundane things are bodiedforth. It is presented by the Buddha in the relevant sutras as ultimately inexplicable,primordially present Reality itself-the living potency for Buddhahood inside allbeings. It is finally revealed (in the last of the Buddha’s Mahayana sutras, theNirvana Sutra) not as the circumscribed “non-Self”, the clinging ego (which is indeedanatta/anatman), but as the ever-enduring, egoless Great Self or Dharmakaya ofthe Buddha.

The scriptural evidence of the Nikayas and Agamas is ambivalent with regardto the Buddha’s reported views on the existence or otherwise of a permanent Self(atman/atta). Though he is clearly reported to have criticized many of the heterodoxconcepts concerning an eternal personal Self and to have denied the existence ofan eternal Self with regards to any of the constituent elements (skandha) of a being,he is nevertheless not reported to have explicitly denied the existence of a non-personal, permanent Self, contrary to the popular, orthodox view of the Buddha’steachings. Moreover, when the Buddha predicates “anatman” (anatta) with regardsto the constituents of a being, there is a grammatical ambivalence in the use of the


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term. The most natural interpretation is that he is simply stating that “the constituentsare not the Self” rather than “the constituents are devoid of Self”. This ambivalencewas to prove troublesome to Buddhists after the Buddha’s passing. Some of the majorschools of Buddhism that developed subsequently maintained the formerinterpretation, but other influential schools adopted the latter interpretation andtook measures to establish their view as the orthodox Buddhist position.

One such proponent of this hard-line “non-Self” position was the monk Nagasena,who appears in the Questions of King Milinda, composed during the period of theHellenistic Indo-Greek kingdom of the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. In this text,Nagasena demonstrates the concept of absolute ‘non-Self’ by likening human beingsto a chariot and challenges the Greek king “Milinda” (Menander) to find the essenceof the chariot. Nagasena states that just as a chariot is made up of a number ofthings, none of which are the essence of the chariot in isolation, without the otherpieces, similarly no one part of a person is a permanent entity; we can be brokenup into five constituents — body, sensations, ideation, mental formations andconsciousness — the consciousness being closest to the permanent idea of‘Self’, butis ever-changing with each new thought according to this viewpoint.

According to some thinkers both in the East and the West, the doctrine of “non-Self”, may imply that Buddhism is a form of nihilism or something similar. However,as thinkers like Nagarjuna have clearly pointed out, Buddhism is not simply arejection of the concept of existence (or of meaning, etc.) but of the hard and fastdistinction between existence and non-existence, or rather between being and no-

thingness. Phenomena are not independent from causes and conditions, and do notexist as isolated things as we perceive them to be. Philosophers such as Nagarjunastress that the lack of a permanent, unchanging, substantial Self in beings andthings does not mean that they do not experience growth and decay on the relativelevel. But on the ultimate level of analysis, one cannot distinguish an object fromits causes and conditions, or even object and subject. (This is an idea appearingrelatively recently in Western science.) Buddhism thus has much more in commonwith Western empiricism, pragmatism, anti-foundationalism, and evenpoststructuralism than with nihilism.

In the Nikayas, the Buddha and his disciples are commonly found to ask inquestion or declare “Is that which is impermanent, subject to change, subject to

suffering fit to be considered thus: ‘This I am, this is mine, this is my self’?” Thequestion which the Buddha posts to his audience is whether compounded phenomenais fit to be considered as self, in which the audience agrees that it is unworthy tobe considered so. And in relinquishing such an attachment to compounded phenomena,such a person gives up delight, desire and craving for compounded phenomena andis unbounded by its change. When completely free from attachments, craving ordesire to the five aggregates, such a person experiences then transcends the verycauses of suffering.


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In this way, the insight wisdom or prajna of non-Self gives rise to cessation ofsuffering, and not an intellectual debate over whether a self exists or not.

It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real inone’s experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops prajna,which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering. Fromthe “tathagatagarbha-Mahayana” perspective (which diverges from the Theravadinunderstanding of Buddhism), however, a further step is required if full Buddhahoodis to be attained: not only seeing what is impermanent, suffering and non-Self inthe samsaric sphere, but equally recognising that which is truly Eternal, Blissful,Self, and Pure in the transcendental realm — the realm of Mahaparinirvana.

Inte rpre tatio ns o f the Thre e Marks b y Vario us Sc ho o ls

Some Buddhist traditions assert that Anatta pervades everything, and is notlimited to personality, or soul. These traditions assert that Nirvana also has thequality of Anatta, but that Nirvana (by definition) is the cessation of Dukkha andAnicca.

In Nagarjuna’s MMK XXV:19, he says :

There is not the slightest difference

Between Samsara and Nirvana.

This verse points us to an interesting stress between dukkha and nirvana,through an argument based in anatta. This specific stress can be seen to be the keyto (and possibly source for the development of) the deity yogas of vajrayana.

The sutra path enjoins us to identify the entire world (internally and externally)as samsara — a continual churning of suffering that nobody wants to be part of.Our practice is that of leaving the shores of samsara.

On the other hand, we are told that unconditioned, enlightened activity is notactually different from samsara.

Whereas the deity yoga of vajrayana enjoins us to identify the entire world asnirvana — a continual play of enlightening activity that everyone wishes to be apart of. Our practice here is that of arriving at the shores of nirvana.

At this level, the distinction between Sutra and Vajrayana remain that of view(departing vs. arriving), but basically the practitioner remains involved in undergoinga transformative development to his or her Weltanschauung, and in this context,these practices remain rooted in psychological change, grounded in the developmentof Samatha, or training in concentration.

However, there are certain practices in Tantra which are not solely concernedwith psychological change; these revolve around the basic idea that it is possibleto induce deep levels of concentration through psycho-physical methods as a resultof special exercises. The purpose remains the same (to achieve liberating view), butthe method involves a ‘short cut’ for the training in Samatha.


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Skandha

The five skandhas (Sanskrit) or khandhas (Pali) are the five “aggregates” whichcategorize or constitute all individual experience according to Buddhistphenomenology. An important corollary in Buddhism is that a “person” is made upof these five aggregates, beyond which there is no “self.”

In the Theravada tradition, suffering arises when one identifies with or otherwiseclings to an aggregate; hence, suffering is extinguished by relinquishing attachmentsto aggregates. The Mahayana tradition further puts forth that ultimate freedom isrealized by deeply penetrating the intrinsically empty nature of all aggregates.

Outside of Buddhist didactic contexts, “skandha” can mean mass, heap, bundleor tree trunk.

De finitio n

Buddhist doctrine describes five aggregates:

1. “form” or “matter” (Skt., Pali rupa): external and internal matter. Externally,rupa is the physical world. Internally, rupa includes the material body andthe physical sense organs.

2. “sensation” or “feeling” (Skt., Pali vedana): sensing an object as either pleasantor unpleasant or neutral.

3. “perception” or “cognition” (Skt. samjna, Pali sanna): registers whether anobject is recognized or not (for instance, the sound of a bell or the shape ofa tree).

4. “mental formations” or “volition” (Skt. samskara, Pali sankhara) : all typesof mental habits, thoughts, ideas, opinions, compulsions, and decisionstriggered by an object.

5. “Consciousness”:

(a) In the Nikayas: cognizance.

(b) In the Abhidhamma: a series of rapidly changing interconnected discrete actsof cognizance.

(c) In Mahayana sources: the base that supports all experience.

In the Pali canon, the aggregates are causally related as follows:

• Form (rupa) arises from experientially irreducible physical/physiologicalphenomena.

• Form – in terms of an external object (such as a sound) and its associatedsense organ (such as the ear) – gives rise to consciousness.

• From the contact of form and consciousness arise the three mental (nama)aggregates of feeling (vedana), perception (sanna) and mental formation(sankhara).


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In this scheme, form, the mental aggregates, and consciousness are mutuallydependent. Other Buddhist literature has described the aggregates as arising in alinear or progressive fashion, from form to feeling to perception to mental formationsto consciousness.

The ravada Pe rspe c tive s

Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000) states that an examination of the aggregates has a“critical role” in the Buddha’s teaching for multiple reasons, including:

1. Understanding the Four Noble Truths: The five aggregates are the “ultimatereferent” in the Buddha’s elaboration on suffering (dukkha) in his First NobleTruth and “since all four truths revolve around suffering, understanding theaggregates is essential for understanding the Four Noble Truths as a whole.”

2. Future Suffering’s Cause: The five aggregates are the substrata for clingingand thus “contribute to the causal origination of future suffering.”

3. Release: Clinging must be removed from the five aggregates in order toachieve release.

Suffe ring ’s Ultimate Re fe re nt

In the Buddha’s first discourse, the “Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta” (“TheSetting in Motion the Wheel of Truth Discourse,” SN 56:11), he provides a classicelaboration on the first of his Four Noble Truths, “The Truth of Suffering”(Dukkhasacca):

“The Noble Truth of Suffering (dukkha), monks, is this: Birth is

suffering, aging is suffering, sickness is suffering, death is suffering,

association with the unpleasant is suffering, dissociation from the

pleasant is suffering, not to receive what one desires is suffering —

in brief the five aggregates subject to grasping are suffering.”

According to Thanissaro (2002):

“Prior to the Buddha, the Pali word khandha had very ordinary

meanings: A khandha could be a pile, a bundle, a heap, a mass. It

could also be the trunk of a tree. In his first sermon, though, the

Buddha gave it a new, psychological meaning, introducing the term

‘clinging-khandhas’ to summarize his analysis of the truth of stress

and suffering. Throughout the remainder of his teaching career, he

referred to these psychological khandhas time and again.”

In what way are the aggregates suffering? For this we can turn to Khandhavaggasuttas.

Future Suffe ring ’s Cause

The Samyutta Nikaya contains a book entitled the “Khandhavagga” (“The Bookof Aggregates”) compiling over a hundred suttas related to the five aggregates.


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Typical of these suttas is the “Upadaparitassana Sutta” (“Agitation through ClingingDiscourse,” SN 22:7), which states in part:

“...[T]he instructed noble disciple... does not regard form [or other

aggregates] as self, or self as possessing form, or form as in self, or

self as in form. That form of his changes and alters. Despite the change

and alteration of form, his consciousness does not become preoccupied

with the change of form.... [T]hrough non-clinging he does not become

agitated.” (Trans. by Bodhi, 2000).

Put another way, if we were to self-identify with an aggregate then we wouldcling (upadana) to such; and, given that all aggregates are impermanent (anicca),it would then be likely that at some level we would experience agitation (paritassati)or loss or grief or stress or suffering. Therefore, if we want to be free of suffering,it is wise to experience the aggregates clearly, without clinging or craving (tanha),as apart from any notion of self (anatta).

Many of the suttas in the Khandhavagga express the aggregates in the contextof the following sequence:

• An uninstructed worldling (assutava puthujjana):

1. regards: form as self; self as possessing form; form as in self; self as inform.

2. lives obsessed by the notions: I am form; and/or, form is mine.

3. this form changes.

4. with the changes of form, there arises dukkha.

• An instructed noble disciple (sutava ariyasavaka) does not regard form asself, etc., and thus, when form changes, dukkha does not arise.

(Note that, in each of the suttas where the above formula is used, subsequentverses replace “form” with each of the other aggregates: sensation, perception,mental formations and consciousness.)

Example o f Ag g re g ate Cling ing

To give a simplistic example, if one believes “this body is mine” or “I exist withinthis body,” then as their body ages, becomes ill and approaches death, such a personwill likely experience longing for youth or health or eternal life, will likely dreadaging and sickness and death, and will likely spend much time and energy lost infears, fantasies and ultimately futile activities.

In the Nikayas, such is likened to shooting oneself with a second arrow, wherethe first arrow is a physical phenomenon (such as, in this case, a bodily manifestationassociated with aging or illness or dying) and the second is the mental anguish ofthe undisciplined mind associated with the physical phenomenon. On the other hand,one with a disciplined mind who is able to see this body as a set of aggregates will


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be free of such fear, frustration and time-consuming escapism. But how does onebecome aware of and then let go of ones own identification with or clinging to theaggregates? Below is an excerpt from the classic Satipatthana Sutta that shows howtraditional mindfulness practices can awaken understanding, release and wisdom.

Re le ase thro ug h Ag g re g ate Co nte mplatio n

In the classic Theravada meditation reference, the “Satipammhana Sutta” (“TheFoundations of Mindfulness Discourse,” MN 10), the Buddha provides four bases forestablishing mindfulness: body (kaya), sensations (vedana), mind (citta) and mentalobjects (dhamma). When discussing mental objects as a basis for meditation, theBuddha identifies five objects, including the aggregates. Regarding meditation onthe aggregates, the Buddha states:

“How, monks, does a monk live contemplating mental objects in the

mental objects of the five aggregates of clinging?

“Herein, monks, a monk thinks, ‘Thus is material form; thus is the

arising of material form; and thus is the disappearance of material

form. Thus is feeling; thus is the arising of feeling; and thus is the

disappearance of feeling. Thus is perception; thus is the arising of

perception; and thus is the disappearance of perception. Thus are

formations; thus is the arising of formations; and thus is the

disappearance of formations. Thus is consciousness; thus is the arising

of consciousness; and thus is the disappearance of consciousness.’

“...Or his mindfulness is established with the thought, ‘Mental objects

exist,’ to the extent necessary just for knowledge and mindfulness, and

he lives detached, and clings to nothing in the world. Thus also,

monks, a monk lives contemplating mental objects in the mental objects

of the five aggregates of clinging.” (Nyanasatta, trans., 1994.)

Thus, through mindfulness contemplation, one sees an “aggregate as an aggregate”— sees it arising and dissipating. Such clear seeing creates a space between theaggregate and clinging, a space that will prevent or enervate the arising andpropagation of clinging, thereby diminishing future suffering.

As clinging disappears, so too notions of a separate “self.” In the MahasunnataSutta (“The Greater Discourse on Emptiness,” MN 122), after reiterating theaforementioned aggregate-contemplation instructions (for instance, “Thus is form;thus is the arising of form; and, thus is the disappearance of form”), the Buddhastates:

“When he [a monk] abides contemplating rise and fall in these five

aggregates affected by clinging, the conceit ‘I am’ based on these five

aggregates affected by clinging is abandoned in him....” (Nanamoli &

Bodhi, 2001).


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In a complementary fashion, in the Buddha’s second discourse, the AnattalakkhanaSutta (“The Characteristic of Nonself,” SN 22:59), the Buddha instructs:

“Monks, form is nonself. For if, monks, form were self, this form would

not lead to affliction, and it would be possible to [manipulate] form

[in the following manner]: ‘Let my form be thus; let my form not be

thus....’ [Identical statements are made regarding feeling, perception,

volitional formations and consciousness.]

“Seeing thus [for instance, through contemplation], monks, the instructednoble disciple becomes disenchanted with form [and the other aggregates].... Beingdisenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion [his mind] is liberated.”

Mahayana Pe rspe c tive

In one of Mahayana Buddhism’s most famous declarations, the aggregates arereferenced:

“Form is emptiness, emptiness is form.”

What does this mean? To what degree is it a departure from the aforementionedTheravada perspective? Moreover, more generally, how are the aggregates used inthe Mahayana literature? These questions are addressed below.

The Intrinsic Emptine ss o f all Thing s

The classic “Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra” (“Heart Sutra”) begins:

The Bodhisattva Avalokita,

while moving in the deep course of Perfect Understanding,

shed light on the five skandhas,

and found them equally empty [of self],

After this penetration, he overcame all pain.

From its very first verse, the Heart Sutra introduces an alternative practice andworldview to the Theravada perspective of the aggregates:

• Prajnaparamita: Whereas Theravada meditation practices with the aggregatesgenerally use change-penetrating vipassana meditation, here the non-dualisticprajnaparamita practice is invoked.

• Svabhava: In Theravada texts, when “emptiness of self” is mentioned, theEnglish word “self” is a translation of the Pali word “atta” (Sanskrit, “atman”);in the Heart Sutra, the English word “self” is a translation of the Sanskritword “sva-bhava”. According to Red Pine, “The ‘self’ (sva)... was moregeneralized in its application than ‘ego’ (atman) and referred not only tobeings but to any inherent substance that could be identified as existing intime or space as a permanent or independent entity.” (Italics added.)


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In other words, whereas the Sutta Pitaka typically instructs one to apprehendthe aggregates without clinging or self-identification, Prajnaparamita leads one toapprehend the aggregates as having no intrinsic reality.

In the Heart Sutra’s second verse, after rising from his aggregate meditation,Avalokiteshvara declares:

“Form is emptiness, emptiness is form, form does not differ from

emptiness, emptiness does not differ from form. The same is true with

feelings, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness.”

Thich Nhat Hanh interprets this statement as:

“Form is the wave and emptiness is the water.... [W]ave is water, water

is wave.... [T]hese five [aggregates] contain each other. Because one

exists, everything exists.”

Red Pine comments:

“That form is empty was one of the Buddha’s earliest and most frequent

pronouncements. But in the light of Prajnaparamita, form is not

simply empty, it is so completely empty, it is emptiness itself, which

turns out to be the same as form itself.... All separations are delusions.

But if each of the skandhas is one with emptiness, and emptiness is

one with each of the skandhas, then everything occupies the same

indivisible space, which is emptiness.... Everything is empty, and

empty is everything.

Tang ib ility and Transc e nde nc e

Commenting on the Heart Sutra, D.T. Suzuki notes:

“When the sutra says that the five Skandhas have the character of

emptiness..., the sense is: no limiting qualities are to be attributed to

the Absolute; while it is immanent in all concrete and particular

objects, it is not in itself definable.”

That is, from the Mahayana perspective, the aggregates convey the relative (orconventional) experience of the world by an individual, although Absolute truth isrealized through them.

Vajrayana Pe rspe c tive

The Vajrayana tradition further develops the aggregates in terms of mahamudraepistemology and tantric reifications.

The Truth o f o ur Insub stantiality

Referring to mahamudra teachings, Chogyam Trungpa identifies the formaggregate as the “solidification” of ignorance (Pali, avijja; Skt., avidya), allowing oneto have the illusion of “possessing” ever dynamic and spacious wisdom (Pali, vijja;


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Skt. vidya), and thus being the basis for the creation of a dualistic relationship between“self” and “other.” According to Trungpa Rinpoche (1976), the five skandhas are “aset of Buddhist concepts which describe experience as a five-step process” and that“the whole development of the five skandhas...is an attempt on our part to shieldourselves from the truth of our insubstantiality,” while “the practice of meditationis to see the transparency of this shield.”

Re latio n to o the r Buddhist Co nc e pts

Other fundamental Buddhist concepts associated with the five skandhas include:

Samsara: It is through the five skandhas that the world (samsara) is experienced,and nothing is experienced apart from the five skandhas.

Three Characteristics: It is through the five skandhas that impermanence(anicca) is experienced, that suffering (duhkha) arises, and that “non-self” (anattaor anatman) can be realized.

Twelve Nidanas/Dependent Origination: The Twelve Nidanas describe twelvephenomenal links by which suffering is perpetuated between and within lives. Itis through the five skandhas that clinging (upadana) occurs, a pivotal link in thisendless chain of suffering.

Eighteen Dhatus: The eighteen dhatus function through the five aggregates.The eighteen dhatus can be arranged into six triads, where each triad is composedof a sense organ, a sense object and sense consciousness. In regards to the aggregates:

o The first five sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) are derivates of form.The sixth sense organ (mind) is part of consciousness.

o The first five sense objects (visible forms, sound, smell, taste, touch) are alsoderivatives of form. The sixth sense object (mental object) includes form,sensation, perception and mental formations.

o The six sense consciousness are the basis for consciousness.


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2

Buddhist Cosmolog y

Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the universeaccording to the canonical Buddhist scriptures and commentaries.

Intro duc tio n

The self-consistent Buddhist cosmology which is presented in commentaries andworks of Abhidharma in both Theravada and Mahayana traditions, is the end-product of an analysis and reconciliation of cosmological comments found in theBuddhist sutra and vinaya traditions. No single sutra sets out the entire structureof the universe. However, in several sutras the Buddha describes other worlds andstates of being, and other sutras describe the origin and destruction of the universe.The synthesis of these data into a single comprehensive system must have takenplace early in the history of Buddhism, as the system described in the PaliVibhajyavada tradition (represented by today’s Theravadins) agrees, despite sometrivial inconsistencies of nomenclature, with the Sarvastivada tradition which ispreserved by Mahayana Buddhists.

The picture of the world presented in Buddhist cosmological descriptions cannotbe taken as a literal description of the shape of the universe. It is inconsistent, andcannot be made consistent, with astronomical data that were already known inancient India. However, it is not intended to be a description of how humans perceivetheir world; rather, it is the universe as seen through the divyacakcus, the “divineeye” by which a Buddha or an arhat who has cultivated this faculty can perceiveall of the other worlds and the beings arising (being born) and passing away (dying)within them, and can tell from what state they have been reborn and into what statethey will be reborn.

Buddhist cosmology can accordingly be divided into two related kinds: spatialcosmology, which describes the arrangement of the various worlds within the universe,and temporal cosmology, which describes how those worlds come into existence, andhow they pass away.

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Spatial Co smo lo g y

Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical cosmology

describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern, some being higher andsome lower. The sahasra cosmology describes the grouping of these vertical worldsinto sets of thousands, millions or billions.

Ve rtic al Co smo lo g y

In the vertical cosmology, the universe exists of many worlds – one might say“planes” – stacked one upon the next in layers. Each world corresponds to a mentalstate or a state of being. A world is not, however, a location so much as it is thebeings which compose it; it is sustained by their karma and if the beings in a worldall die or disappear, the world disappears too. Likewise, a world comes into existencewhen the first being is born into it. The physical separation is not so important asthe difference in mental state; humans and animals, though they partially sharethe same physical environments, still belong to different worlds because their mindsperceive and react to those environments differently.

The vertical cosmology is divided into three realms, or dhatus, each correspondingto a different type of mentality. These three (Tridhatu) are the Arupyadhatu, theRupadhatu, and the Kamadhatu. This technical division does not correspond to themore informal categorization of the “six realms”. In the latter scheme, all of thebeings born in the Arupyadhatu and the Rupadhatu may be classified as “gods” or“deities”, as can a considerable fraction of the beings born in the Kamadhatu, eventhough the deities of the Kamadhatu differ more from those of the Arupyadhatuthan they do from humans. It is to be understood that deva is an imprecise termreferring to any being living in a longer-lived and generally more blissful state thanhumans. Most of them are not “gods” in the common sense of the term, having littleor no concern with the human world and rarely if ever interacting with it; only thelowest deities of the Kamadhatu correspond to the gods described in many polytheisticreligions.

The term “brahma” is used both as a name and as a generic term for one ofthe higher devas. In its broadest sense, it can refer to any of the inhabitants of theArupyadhatu and the Rupadhatu. In more restricted senses, it can refer to aninhabitant of one of the nine lower worlds of the Rupadhatu, or in its narrowestsense, to the three lowest worlds of the Rupadhatu. A large number of devas usethe name “Brahma”, e.g. Brahma Sahampati, Brahma Sanatkumara, Baka Brahma,etc. It is not always clear which world they belong to, although it must always beone of the worlds of the Rupadhatu below the Uuddhavasa worlds.

Arupyadhatu

The Arupyadhatu (Sanskrit) or Arupaloka (Pali) or “Formless realm” wouldhave no place in a purely physical cosmology, as none of the beings inhabiting it


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has either shape or location; and correspondingly, the realm has no location either.This realm belongs to those devas who attained and remained in the Four FormlessAbsorptions of the arupadhyanas in a previous life, and now enjoys the fruits(vipaka) of the good karma of that accomplishment. Bodhisattvas, however, arenever born in the Arupyadhatu even when they have attained the arupadhyanas.

There are four types of Arupyadhatu devas, corresponding to the four types ofarupadhyanas:

• Naivasamjnanasamjnayatana or Nevasannanasannayatana “Sphere of neitherperception nor non-perception”. In this sphere the formless beings have gonebeyond a mere negation of perception and have attained a liminal state wherethey do not engage in “perception” but are not wholly unconscious. This wasthe sphere reached by Udraka Ramaputra, the second of the Buddha’s twoteachers, who considered it equivalent to enlightenment.

• Akimcanyayatana or Akincannayatana “Sphere of Nothingness” (literally“lacking anything”). In this sphere formless beings dwell contemplating uponthe thought that “there is no thing”. This is considered a form of perception,though a very subtle one. This was the sphere reached by Araa Kalama, thefirst of the Buddha’s two teachers; he considered it to be equivalent toenlightenment.

• Vijnananantyayatana or Vinnananancayatana “Sphere of InfiniteConsciousness”. In this sphere formless beings dwell meditating on theirconsciousness (vijnana) as infinitely pervasive.

• Akauanantyayatana or Akasanancayatana “Sphere of Infinite Space”. In thissphere formless beings dwell meditating upon space or extension as infinitelypervasive.

Rupadhatu

The Rupadhatu or “Form realm” is, as the name implies, the first of the physicalrealms; its inhabitants all have a location and bodies of a sort, though those bodiesare composed of a subtle substance which is of itself invisible to the inhabitants ofthe Kamadhatu. According to the Janavasabha Sutta, when a brahma (a being fromthe Brahma-world of the Rupadhatu) wishes to visit a deva of the Trayastrimshaheaven (in the Kamadhatu), he has to assume a “grosser form” in order to be visibleto them.

The beings of the Form realm are not subject to the extremes of pleasure andpain, or governed by desires for things pleasing to the senses, as the beings of theKamadhatu are. The bodies of Form realm beings do not have sexual distinctions.

Like the beings of the Arupyadhatu, the dwellers in the Rupadhatu have mindscorresponding to the dhyanas. In their case it is the four lower dhyanas or rupadhyanas.However, although the beings of the Rupadhatu can be divided into four broad


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grades corresponding to these four dhyanas, each of them is subdivided into furthergrades, three for each of the four dhyanas and five for the Uuddhavasa devas, fora total of seventeen grades (the Theravada tradition counts one less grade in thehighest dhyana for a total of sixteen).

Physically, the Rupadhatu consists of a series of planes stacked on top of eachother, each one in a series of steps half the size of the previous one as one descends.In part, this reflects the fact that the devas are also thought of as physically largeron the higher planes. The highest planes are also broader in extent than the ones

lower down, as discussed in the section on Sahasra cosmology. The height of theseplanes is expressed in yojanas, a measurement of very uncertain length, but sometimestaken to be about 4,000 times the height of a man, and so approximately 4.54 milesor 7.32 kilometers.

Uuddhavasa Wo rlds

The Uuddhavasa worlds, or “Pure Abodes”, are distinct from the other worldsof the Rupadhatu in that they do not house beings who have been born there through

ordinary merit or meditative attainments, but only those Anagamins (“Non-returners”)who are already on the path to Arhat-hood and who will attain enlightenmentdirectly from the Uuddhavasa worlds without being reborn in a lower plane(Anagamins can also be born on lower planes). Every Uuddhavasa deva is therefore

a protector of Buddhism. Because a Uuddhavasa deva will never be reborn outsidethe Uuddhavasa worlds, no Bodhisattva is ever born in these worlds, as a Bodhisattvamust ultimately be reborn as a human being.

Since these devas rise from lower planes only due to the teaching of a Buddha,

they can remain empty for very long periods if no Buddha arises. However, unlikethe lower worlds, the Uuddhavasa worlds are never destroyed by natural catastrophe.The Uuddhavasa devas predict the coming of a Buddha and, taking the guise ofbrahmins, reveal to human beings the signs by which a Buddha can be recognized.

They also ensure that a Bodhisattva in his last life will see the four signs that willlead to his renunciation.

The five Uuddhavasa worlds are:

• Akanicmha or Akanimmha – World of devas “equal in rank” (literally: havingno one as the youngest). The highest of all the Rupadhatu worlds, it is oftenused to refer to the highest extreme of the universe. The current Shakra willeventually be born there. The duration of life in Akanicmha is 16,000 kalpas

(Vibhajyavada tradition). The height of this world is 167,772,160 yojanasabove the Earth.

• Sudarshana or Sudassi – The “clear-seeing” devas live in a world similar toand friendly with the Akanicmha world. The height of this world is 83,886,080

yojanas above the Earth.


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• Sudnsha or Sudassa – The world of the “beautiful” devas are said to be theplace of rebirth for five kinds of anagamins. The height of this world is41,943,040 yojanas above the Earth.

• Atapa or Atappa – The world of the “untroubled” devas, whose company thoseof lower realms wish for. The height of this world is 20,971,520 yojanas abovethe Earth.

• Avnha or Aviha – The world of the “not falling” devas, perhaps the mostcommon destination for reborn Anagamins. Many achieve arhatship directlyin this world, but some pass away and are reborn in sequentially higherworlds of the Pure Abodes until they are at last reborn in the Akanicmhaworld. These are called in Pali Buddhamsotas, “those whose stream goesupward”. The duration of life in Aviha is 1,000 kalpas (Vibhajyavada tradition).The height of this world is 10,485,760 yojanas above the Earth.

Bihat phala Wo rlds

The mental state of the devas of the Bihatphala worlds corresponds to the fourthdhyana, and is characterized by equanimity (upekca). The Bihatphala worlds formthe upper limit to the destruction of the universe by wind at the end of a mahakalpa,that is, they are spared such destruction.

• Asannasatta (Vibhajyavada tradition only) – “Unconscious beings”, devaswho have attained a high dhyana (similar to that of the Formless Realm),and, wishing to avoid the perils of perception, have achieved a state of non-perception in which they endure for a time. After a while, however, perceptionarises again and they fall into a lower state.

• Bihatphala or Vehapphala – Devas “having great fruit”. Their lifespan is 500mahakalpas. (Vibhajyavada tradition). Some Anagamins are reborn here.The height of this world is 5,242,880 yojanas above the Earth.

• Punyaprasava – The world of the devas who are the “offspring of merit”. Theheight of this world is 2,621,440 yojanas above the Earth.

• Anabhraka – The world of the “cloudless” devas. The height of this worldis 1,310,720 yojanas above the Earth.

Sub haktsna Wo rlds

The mental state of the devas of the Subhaktsna worlds corresponds to the thirddhyana, and is characterized by a quiet joy (sukha). These devas have bodies thatradiate a steady light. The Subhaktsna worlds form the upper limit to the destructionof the universe by water at the end of a mahakalpa, that is, the flood of water doesnot rise high enough to reach them.

• Subhaktsna or Subhakinna/Subhakinha – The world of devas of “total beauty”.Their lifespan is 64 mahakalpas (some sources: 4 mahakalpas) according tothe Vibhajyavada tradition. 64 mahakalpas is the interval between destructions


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of the universe by wind, including the Subhaktsna worlds. The height of thisworld is 655,360 yojanas above the Earth.

• Apramanasubha or Appamanasubha – The world of devas of “limitless beauty”.

Their lifespan is 32 mahakalpas (Vibhajyavada tradition). They possess “faith,virtue, learning, munificence and wisdom”. The height of this world is 327,680

yojanas above the Earth.

• Parittauubha or Parittasubha – The world of devas of “limited beauty”. Theirlifespan is 16 mahakalpas. The height of this world is 163,840 yojanas above

the Earth.

Ab hasvara Wo rlds

The mental state of the devas of the Abhasvara worlds corresponds to the seconddhyana, and is characterized by delight (priti) as well as joy (sukha); the Abhasvara

devas are said to shout aloud in their joy, crying aho sukham. These devas have

bodies that emit flashing rays of light like lightning. They are said to have similarbodies (to each other) but diverse perceptions.

The Abhasvara worlds form the upper limit to the destruction of the universe

by fire at the end of a mahakalpa, that is, the column of fire does not rise high enoughto reach them. After the destruction of the world, at the beginning of the vivartakalpa,

the worlds are first populated by beings reborn from the Abhasvara worlds.

• Abhasvara or Abhassara – The world of devas “possessing splendor”. Thelifespan of the Abhasvara devas is 8 mahakalpas (others: 2 mahakalpas).

Eight mahakalpas is the interval between destructions of the universal by

water, which includes the Abhasvara worlds. The height of this world is81,920 yojanas above the Earth.

• Apramanabha or Appamanabha – The world of devas of “limitless light”, a

concept on which they meditate. Their lifespan is 4 mahakalpas. The heightof this world is 40,960 yojanas above the Earth.

• Parittabha or Parittabha – The world of devas of “limited light”. Their

lifespan is 2 mahakalpas. The height of this world is 20,480 yojanas above

the Earth.

Brahma Wo rlds

The mental state of the devas of the Brahma worlds corresponds to the first

dhyana, and is characterized by observation (vitarka) and reflection (vicara) as wellas delight (priti) and joy (sukha). The Brahma worlds, together with the other lower

worlds of the universe, are destroyed by fire at the end of a mahakalpa.

• Mahabrahma – the world of “Great Brahma”, believed by many to be the

creator of the world, and having as his titles “Brahma, Great Brahma, theConqueror, the Unconquered, the All-Seeing, All-Powerful, the Lord, the


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Maker and Creator, the Ruler, Appointer and Orderer, Father of All That Have

Been and Shall Be.” According to the Brahmajala Sutta (DN.1), a Mahabrahmais a being from the Abhasvara worlds who falls into a lower world through

exhaustion of his merits and is reborn alone in the Brahma-world; forgetting

his former existence, he imagines himself to have come into existence withoutcause. Note that even such a high-ranking deity has no intrinsic knowledge

of the worlds above his own. Mahabrahma is 1 D 2 yojanas tall. His lifespan

variously said to be 1 kalpa (Vibhajyavada tradition) or 1 D 2 kalpas long

(Sarvastivada tradition), although it would seem that it could be no longer than

D 4 of a mahakalpa, i.e., all of the mahakalpa except for the Samvartasthayikalpa,

because that is the total length of time between the rebuilding of the lowerworld and its destruction. It is unclear what period of time “kalpa” refers to

in this case. The height of this world is 10,240 yojanas above the Earth.

• Brahmapurohita – the “Ministers of Brahma” are beings, also originally fromthe Abhasvara worlds, that are born as companions to Mahabrahma afterhe has spent some time alone. Since they arise subsequent to his thoughtof a desire for companions, he believes himself to be their creator, and theylikewise believe him to be their creator and lord. They are 1 yojana in heightand their lifespan is variously said to be D

2 of a kalpa (Vibhajyavada

tradition) or a whole kalpa (Sarvastivada tradition). If they are later rebornin a lower world, and come to recall some part of their last existence, theyteach the doctrine of Brahma as creator as a revealed truth. The height ofthis world is 5,120 yojanas above the Earth.

• Brahmaparicadya or Brahmaparisajja – the “Councillors of Brahma” or thedevas “belonging to the assembly of Brahma”. They are also calledBrahmakayika, but this name can be used for any of the inhabitants of theBrahma-worlds. They are half a yojana in height and their lifespan is variouslysaid to be D

3 of a kalpa (Vibhajyavada tradition) or D

2 of a kalpa (Sarvastivada

tradition). The height of this world is 2,560 yojanas above the Earth.

Kamadhatu

The beings born in the Kamadhatu differ in degree of happiness, but they areall, other than arhats and Buddhas, under the domination of Mara and are boundby desire, which causes them suffering.

He ave ns

The following four worlds are bounded planes each 80,000 yojanas square, whichfloat in the air above the top of Mount Sumeru. Although all of the worlds inhabitedby devas (that is, all the worlds down to the Caturmaharajikakayika world andsometimes including the Asuras) are sometimes called “heavens”, in the westernsense of the word the term best applies to the four worlds listed below:


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• Parinirmita-vaœavartin or Paranimmita-vasavatti – The heaven of devas“with power over (others’) creations”. These devas do not create pleasingforms that they desire for themselves, but their desires are fulfilled by theacts of other devas who wish for their favour. The ruler of this world is calledVauavartin (Pali: Vasavatti), who has longer life, greater beauty, more powerand happiness and more delightful sense-objects than the other devas of hisworld. This world is also the home of the devaputra (being of divine race)called Mara, who endeavours to keep all beings of the Kamadhatu in the gripof sensual pleasures. Mara is also sometimes called Vauavartin, but ingeneral these two dwellers in this world are kept distinct. The beings of thisworld are 4,500 feet tall and live for 9,216,000,000 years (Sarvastivadatradition). The height of this world is 1,280 yojanas above the Earth.

• Nirmanarati or Nimmanarati – The world of devas “delighting in theircreations”. The devas of this world are capable of making any appearanceto please themselves. The lord of this world is called Sunirmita (PaliSunimmita); his wife is the rebirth of Visakha, formerly the chief of theupasikas (female lay devotees) of the Buddha. The beings of this world are3,750 feet tall and live for 2,304,000,000 years (Sarvastivada tradition). Theheight of this world is 640 yojanas above the Earth.

• Tucita or Tusita – The world of the “joyful” devas. This world is best knownfor being the world in which a Bodhisattva lives before being reborn in theworld of humans. Until a few thousand years ago, the Bodhisattva of thisworld was Uvetaketu (Pali: Setaketu), who was reborn as Siddhartha, whowould become the Buddha Uakyamuni; since then the Bodhisattva has beenNatha (or Nathadeva) who will be reborn as Ajita and will become theBuddha Maitreya (Pali Metteyya). While this Bodhisattva is the foremost ofthe dwellers in Tucita, the ruler of this world is another deva called Santucita(Pali: Santusita). The beings of this world are 3,000 feet tall and live for576,000,000 years (Sarvastivada tradition). The height of this world is 320yojanas above the Earth.

• Yama – Sometimes called the “heaven without fighting”, because it is thelowest of the heavens to be physically separated from the tumults of theearthly world. Its ruler is the deva Suyama; according to some, his wife isthe rebirth of Sirima, a courtesan of Rajagriha in the Buddha’s time who wasgenerous to the monks. The beings of this world are 2,250 feet tall and livefor 144,000,000 years (Sarvastivada tradition). The height of this world is160 yojanas above the Earth.

Wo rlds o f Sume ru

The world-mountain of Sumeru is an immense, strangely shaped peak whicharises in the centre of the world, and around which the Sun and Moon revolve. Its


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base rests in a vast ocean, and it is surrounded by several rings of lesser mountainranges and oceans. The three worlds listed below are all located on or aroundSumeru: the Trayastrimua devas live on its peak, the Caturmaharajikakayika devaslive on its slopes, and the Asuras live in the ocean at its base. Sumeru and itssurrounding oceans and mountains are the home not just of these deities, but alsovast assemblies of beings of popular mythology who only rarely intrude on the humanworld.

• Trayastrimsha or Tavatimsa – The world “of the Thirty-three (devas)” is awide flat space on the top of Mount Sumeru, filled with the gardens andpalaces of the devas. Its ruler is Shakra devanam indra, “lord of the devas”.Besides the eponymous Thirty-three devas, many other devas and supernaturalbeings dwell here, including the attendants of the devas and many apsarases(nymphs). The beings of this world are 1,500 feet tall and live for 36,000,000years (Sarvastivada tradition) or 3/4 of a yojana tall and live for 30,000,000years (Vibhajyavada tradition). The height of this world is 80 yojanas abovethe Earth.

• Caturmaharajikakayika or Catummaharajika – The world “of the Four GreatKings” is found on the lower slopes of Mount Sumeru, though some of itsinhabitants live in the air around the mountain. Its rulers are the four GreatKings of the name, Viruhaka, Dhritaracmra, Virupakca, and their leaderVaishravana. The devas who guide the Sun and Moon are also consideredpart of this world, as are the retinues of the four kings, composed of Kumbhanas(dwarfs), Gandharvas (fairies), Nagas (dragons) and Yakcas (goblins). Thebeings of this world are 750 feet tall and live for 9,000,000 years (Sarvastivadatradition) or 90,000 years (Vibhajyavada tradition). The height of this worldis from sea level up to 40 yojanas above the Earth.

• Asura – The world of the Asuras is the space at the foot of Mount Sumeru,much of which is a deep ocean. It is not the Asuras’ original home, but theplace they found themselves after they were hurled, drunken, fromTrayastrimsha where they had formerly lived. The Asuras are always fightingto regain their lost kingdom on the top of Mount Sumeru, but are unableto break the guard of the Four Great Kings. The Asuras are divided into manygroups, and have no single ruler, but among their leaders are Vemacitrin(Pali: Vepacitti) and Rahu.

Earthly Re alms

• Manucyaloka – This is the world of humans and human-like beings who liveon the surface of the earth. The mountain-rings that engird Sumeru aresurrounded by a vast ocean, which fills most of the world. The ocean is inturn surrounded by a circular mountain wall called Cakravaa which marksthe horizontal limit of the world. In this ocean there are four continents whichare, relatively speaking, small islands in it. Because of the immenseness of


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the ocean, they cannot be reached from each other by ordinary sailing vessels,although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled, communicationbetween the continents was possible by means of the treasure called thecakraratna, which a cakravartin and his retinue could use to fly through theair between the continents. The four continents are:

o Jambudvipa or Jambudipa is located in the south and is the dwelling ofordinary human beings. It is said to be shaped “like a cart”, or rathera blunt-nosed triangle with the point facing south. (This descriptionprobably echoes the shape of the coastline of southern India.) It is 10,000yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavada tradition) or has a perimeter of 6,000yojanas (Sarvastivada tradition) to which can be added the southern coastof only 3 D

2 yojanas’ length. The continent takes its name from a giant

Jambu tree (Syzygium cumini), 100 yojanas tall, which grows in themiddle of the continent. Every continent has one of these giant trees. AllBuddhas appear in Jambudvipa. The people here are five to six feet talland their length of life varies between 80,000 and 10 years.

o Purvavideha or Pubbavideha is located in the east, and is shaped like asemicircle with the flat side pointing westward (i.e., towards Sumeru).It is 7,000 yojanas in extent (Vibhajyavada tradition) or has a perimeterof 6,350 yojanas of which the flat side is 2,000 yojanas long (Sarvastivadatradition). Its tree is the acacia. The people here are about 12 feet talland they live for 250 years.

o Aparagodaniya or Aparagoyana is located in the west, and is shaped likea circle with a circumference of about 7,500 yojanas (Sarvastivadatradition). The tree of this continent is a giant Kadambu tree. The humaninhabitants of this continent do not live in houses but sleep on the ground.They are about 24 feet tall and they live for 500 years.

o Uttarakuru is located in the north, and is shaped like a square. It hasa perimter of 8,000 yojanas, being 2,000 yojanas on each side. Thiscontinent’s tree is called a kalpavrikca (Pali: kapparukkha) or kalpa-tree,because it lasts for the entire kalpa. The inhabitants of Uttarakuru aresaid to be extraordinarily wealthy. They do not need to labour for a living,as their food grows by itself, and they have no private property. They havecities built in the air. They are about 48 feet tall and live for 1,000 years,and they are under the protection of Vaishravana.

• Tiryagyoni-loka or Tiracchana-yoni – This world comprises all members ofthe animal kingdom that are capable of feeling suffering, from the smallestinsect to the elephant.

• Pretaloka or Petaloka – The pretas, or “hungry ghosts”, are mostly dwellerson earth, though due to their mental state they perceive it very differentlyfrom humans. They live for the most part in desert and waste places.


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Na rakas

Naraka or Niraya is the name given to one of the worlds of greatest suffering,usually translated into English as “hell” or “purgatory”. As with the other realms,a being is born into one of these worlds as a result of his karma, and resides therefor a finite length of time until his karma has achieved its full result, after whichhe will be reborn in one of the higher worlds as the result of an earlier karma thathad not yet ripened. The mentality of a being in the hells corresponds to states ofextreme fear and helpless anguish in humans.

Physically, Naraka is thought of as a series of layers extending below Jambudvipainto the earth. There are several schemes for counting these Narakas and enumeratingtheir torments. One of the more common is that of the Eight Cold Narakas and EightHot Narakas.

Co ld Narakas

• Arbuda – the “blister” Naraka.

• Nirarbuda – the “burst blister” Naraka.

• Amama – the Naraka of shivering.

• Hahava – the Naraka of lamentation.

• Huhuva – the Naraka of chattering teeth.

• Utpala – the “blue lotus” Naraka.

• Padma – the “lotus” Naraka.

• Mahapadma – the “great lotus” Naraka.

Each lifetime in these Narakas is twenty times the length of the one before it.

Ho t Narakas

• Sanjiva – the “reviving” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 162*1010 years long.

• Kalasutra – the “black thread” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 1296*1010 yearslong.

• Samghata – the “crushing” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 10,368*1010 yearslong.

• Raurava – the “screaming” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 82,944*1010 yearslong.

• Maharaurava – the “great screaming” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is663,552*1010 years long.

• Tapana – the “heating” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 5,308,416*1010 yearslong.

• Pratapana – the “great heating” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 42,467,328*1010

years long.


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• Avici – the “uninterrupted” Naraka. Life in this Naraka is 339,738,624*1010

years long.

The Fo undatio ns o f the Earth

All of the structures of the earth, Sumeru and the rest, extend downward toa depth of 80,000 yojanas below sea level – the same as the height of Sumeru abovesea level. Below this is a layer of “golden earth”, a substance compact and firmenough to support the weight of Sumeru. It is 320,000 yojanas in depth and soextends to 400,000 yojanas below sea level. The layer of golden earth in turn restsupon a layer of water, which is 8,000,000 yojanas in depth, going down to 8,400,000yojanas below sea level. Below the layer of water is a “circle of wind”, which is16,000,000 yojanas in depth and also much broader in extent, supporting 1,000different worlds upon it.

Sahasra Co smo lo g y

While the vertical cosmology describes the arrangement of the worlds vertically,the sahasra (Sanskrit: “thousand”) cosmology describes how they are groupedhorizontally. The four heavens of the Kamadhatu, as mentioned, occupy a limitedspace no bigger than the top of Mount Sumeru. The three Brahma-worlds, however,stretch out as far as the mountain-wall of Cakravaa, filling the entire sky. This wholegroup of worlds, from Mahabrahma down to the foundations of water, constitutesa single world-system. It corresponds to the extent of the universe that is destroyedby fire at the end of one mahakalpa.

Above Mahabrahma are the Abhasvara worlds. These are not only higher butalso wider in extent; they cover 1,000 separate world-systems, each with its ownSumeru, Cakravaa, Sun, Moon, and four continents. This system of 1,000 worldsis called a sahasra-cuika-lokadhatu, or “small chiliocosm”. It corresponds to theextent of the universe that is destroyed by water at the end of 8 mahakalpas.

Above the Abhasvara worlds are the Subhaktsna worlds, which cover 1,000chiliocosms, or 1,000,000 world-systems. This larger system is called a dvisahasra-madhyama-lokadhatu, or “medium dichiliocosm”. It corresponds to the extent of theuniverse that is destroyed by wind at the end of 64 mahakalpas.

Likewise, above the Subhaktsna worlds, the Uuddhavasa and Bihatphala worldscover 1,000 dichiliocosms, or 1,000,000,000 world-systems. This largest grouping iscalled a trisahasra-mahasahasra-lokadhatu or “great trichiliocosm”.

Te mpo ral Co smo lo g y

Buddhist temporal cosmology describes how the universe comes into being andis dissolved. Like other Indian cosmologies, it assumes an infinite span of time andis cyclical. This does not mean that the same events occur in identical form witheach cycle, but merely that, as with the cycles of day and night or summer andwinter, certain natural events occur over and over to give some structure to time.


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The basic unit of time measurement is the mahakalpa or “Great Eon”. The exactlength of this time in human years is never defined exactly, but it is meant to bevery long, to be measured in billions of years if not longer.

A mahakalpa is divided into four kalpas or “eons”, each distinguished from theothers by the stage of evolution of the universe during that kalpa. The four kalpasare:

• Vivartakalpa “Eon of evolution” – during this kalpa the universe comes intoexistence.

• Vivartasthayikalpa “Eon of evolution-duration” – during this kalpa the universeremains in existence in a steady state.

• Samvartakalpa “Eon of dissolution” – during this kalpa the universe dissolves.

• Samvartasthayikalpa “Eon of dissolution-duration” – during this kalpa theuniverse remains in a state of emptiness.

Each one of these kalpas is divided into twenty antarakalpas each of about thesame length. For the Samvartasthayikalpa this division is merely nominal, asnothing changes from one antarakalpa to the next; but for the other three kalpasit marks an interior cycle within the kalpa.

Vivartakalpa

The Vivartakalpa begins with the arising of the primordial wind, which beginsthe process of building up the structures of the universe that had been destroyedat the end of the last mahakalpa. As the extent of the destruction can vary, thenature of this evolution can vary as well, but it always takes the form of beings froma higher world being born into a lower world.

The example of a Mahabrahma being the rebirth of a deceased Abhasvara devais just one instance of this, which continues throughout the Vivartakalpa until allthe worlds are filled from the Brahmaloka down to Naraka. During the Vivartakalpathe first humans appear; they are not like present-day humans, but are beingsshining in their own light, capable of moving through the air without mechanicalaid, living for a very long time, and not requiring sustenance; they are more likea type of lower deity than present-day humans are.

Over time, they acquire a taste for physical nutriment, and as they consumeit, their bodies become heavier and more like human bodies; they lose their abilityto shine, and begin to acquire differences in their appearance, and their length oflife decreases. They differentiate into two sexes and begin to become sexually active.Then greed, theft and violence arise among them, and they establish social distinctionsand government and elect a king to rule them, called Mahasammata, “the greatappointed one”. Some of them begin to hunt and eat the flesh of animals, which haveby now come into existence. These developments are described in the Agganna Sutta(DN.27).


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Vivarta stha yika lpa

First Antarakalpa

The Vivartasthayikalpa begins when the first being is born into Naraka, thusfilling the entire universe with beings. During the first antarakalpa of this eon,human lives are declining from a vast but unspecified number of years (but at leastseveral tens of thousands of years) toward the modern lifespan of less than 100 years.At the beginning of the antarakalpa, people are still generally happy. They live underthe rule of a universal monarch or “wheel-turning king” (cakravartin), who conquer.The Mahasudassana-sutta (DN.17) tells of the life of a cakravartin king,Mahasudassana (Sanskrit: Mahasudaruana) who lived for 336,000 years. TheCakkavatti-sihanada-sutta (DN.26) tells of a later dynasty of cakravartins, Dahanemiand five of his descendants, who had a lifespan of over 80,000 years. The seventhof this line of cakravartins broke with the traditions of his forefathers, refusing toabdicate his position at a certain age, pass the throne on to his son, and enter thelife of a sramana. As a result of his subsequent misrule, poverty increased; as a resultof poverty, theft began; as a result of theft, capital punishment was instituted; andas a result of this contempt for life, murders and other crimes became rampant.

The human lifespan now quickly decreased from 80,000 to 100 years, apparentlydecreasing by about half with each generation (this is perhaps not to be takenliterally), while with each generation other crimes and evils increased: lying, adultery,evil speech, greed and hatred, wrong views, incest and other sorts of sexualabnormalities, disrespect for parents and elders. During this period, according tothe Mahapadana-sutta (DN.14) three of the four Buddhas of this antarakalpa lived:Krakucchanda Buddha (Pali: Kakusandha), at the time when the lifespan was 40,000years; Kanakamuni Buddha (Pali: Konagamana) when the lifespan was 30,000years; and Kauyapa Buddha (Pali: Kassapa) when the lifespan was 20,000 years.

Our present time is taken to be toward the end of the first antarakalpa of thisVivartasthayikalpa, when the lifespan is less than 100 years, after the life ofUakyamuni Buddha (Pali: Sakyamuni), who lived to the age of 80.

The remainder of the antarakalpa is prophesied to be miserable: lifespans willcontinue to decrease, and all the evil tendencies of the past will reach their ultimatein destructiveness. People will live no longer than ten years, and will marry at five;foods will be poor and tasteless; no form of morality will be acknowledged. The mostcontemptuous and hateful people will become the rulers. Incest will be rampant.Hatred between people, even members of the same family, will grow until peoplethink of each other as hunters do of their prey.

Eventually a great war will ensue, in which the most hostile and aggressive willarm themselves and go out to kill each other. The less aggressive will hide in forestsand other secret places while the war rages. This war marks the end of the firstantarakalpa.


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Se c o nd Antarakalpa

At the end of the war, the survivors will emerge from their hiding places andrepent their evil habits. As they begin to do good, their lifespan increases, and thehealth and welfare of the human race will also increase with it. After a long time,the descendants of those with a 10-year lifespan will live for 80,000 years, and atthat time there will be a cakravartin king named Saekha. During his reign, thecurrent bodhisattva in the Tucita heaven will descend and be reborn under the nameof Ajita. He will enter the life of a sramana and will gain perfect enlightenment asa Buddha; and he will then be known by the name of Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya).

After Maitreya’s time, the world will again worsen, and the lifespan will graduallydecrease from 80,000 years to 10 years again, each antarakalpa being separated fromthe next by devastating war, with peaks of high civilization and morality in themiddle. After the 19th antarakalpa, the lifespan will increase to 80,000 and thennot decrease, because the Vivartasthayikalpa will have come to an end.

Samvartakalpa

The Samvartakalpa begins when beings cease to be born in Naraka. Thiscessation of birth then proceeds in reverse order up the vertical cosmology, i.e. pretasthen cease to be born, then animals, then humans, and so on up to the realms ofthe deities. When these worlds as far as the Brahmaloka are devoid of inhabitants,a great fire consumes the entire physical structure of the world. It burns all theworlds below the Abhasvara worlds. When they are destroyed, theSamvartasthayikalpa begins.

Samvartasthayikalpa

There is nothing to say about the Samvartasthayikalpa, since nothing happensin it below the Abhasvara worlds. It ends when the primordial wind begins to blowand build the structure of the worlds up again.

Othe r De struc tio ns

The destruction by fire is the normal type of destruction that occurs at the endof the Samvartakalpa. But every eighth mahakalpa, after seven destructions by fire,there is a destruction by water. This is more devastating, as it eliminates not justthe Brahma worlds but also the Abhasvara worlds. Every sixty-fourth mahakalpa,after 56 destructions by fire and 7 destructions by water, there is a destruction bywind. This is the most devastating of all, as it also destroys the Subhaktsna worlds.The higher worlds are never destroyed.

Dharma (Buddhism)

Dharma or Dhamma in Buddhism has two primary meanings:

• The teachings of the Buddha which lead to enlightenment.

• The constituent factors of the experienced world.


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Buddha’s Te ac hing s

What is called Buddhism in the west has been referred to in India (the teachings’place of origin) and the east generally for many centuries as Buddha-dharma. Thisterm has no sectarian connotations but simply means “Path of Awakening” and thusconforms to a universal understanding of dharma.

The status of dharma is regarded variably by different traditions. Some regardit as an ultimate and transcendent truth which is utterly beyond worldly things,somewhat like the Christian logos. Others, who regard the Buddha as simply anenlightened human being, see dharma as the 84,000 different teachings that theBuddha gave to various types of people based on their needs. The teachings areexpedient means of raising doubt in the hearer’s own cherished beliefs and view oflife; when doubt has opened the door to the truth, the teaching can be put aside.

“Dharma” usually refers inclusively not just to the sayings of the Buddha butto the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools ofBuddhism have developed to help explain and expand upon the Buddha’s teachings.For others still, they see the dharma as referring to the “truth” or ultimate realityor “the way things are”.

The dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism of which practitioners ofBuddhism seek refuge in (what one relies on for his/her lasting happiness). The threejewels of Buddhism are the Buddha (mind’s perfection of enlightenment), the dharma(teachings and methods), and the Sangha (awakened beings who provide guidanceand support).

Buddha’s Dharma Bo dy

The qualities of the Dharma (Law, truth) is the same as the qualities of theBuddha and forms his “truth body” or “Dhamma Kaya”: In the Samyutta Nikaya,Vakkali Sutta, Buddha said to his disciple Vakkali that:

“Yo kho Vakkali dhammam passati so mam passati”

Vakkali, whoever sees Dhamma, sees me [the Buddha]

Another reference from the Agganna Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, says to hisdisciple Vasettha:

“Tathagatassa h’etam Vasettha adivacanam Dhamma-kayo iti pi...”

O Vasettha! The Word of Dhammakaya is indeed the name of the Tathagata.

Qualitie s o f Buddha Dharma

The Teaching of the Buddha also has six supreme qualities:

1. Svakkhato: The Dhamma is not a speculative philosophy, but is the UniversalLaw found through enlightenment and is preached precisely. Therefore it isexcellent in the beginning, excellent in the middle (samadhi – concentration)and excellent in the end.


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2. Sandimmhiko : The Dhamma can be tested by practice and therefore he whofollows it will see the result by himself through his own experience.

3. Akaliko : The Dhamma is able to bestow timeless and immediate results hereand now, for which there is no need to wait until the future or next existence.

4. Ehipassiko : The Dhamma welcomes all beings to put it to the test and comesee for themselves.

5. Opanayiko : The Dhamma is capable of being entered upon and thereforeit is worthy to be followed as a part of one’s life.

6. Paccattam veditabbo vinnuhi: The Dhamma can be perfectly realized onlyby the noble disciples (Ariyas) who have matured and enlightened enoughin supreme wisdom.

Knowing these attributes, Buddhists believe that they will attain the greatestpeace and happiness through the practice of the Dhamma. Each person is thereforefully responsible for himself to put it in the real practice.

Here the Buddha is compared to an experienced and skilful doctor, and theDhamma to proper medicine. However efficient the doctor or wonderful the medicinemay be, the patients cannot be cured unless they take the medicine properly. Sothe practice of the Dhamma is the only way to attain the final deliverance ofNibbana.

These teachings ranged from understanding karma (Pali: kamma) (cause andeffect) and developing good impressions in one’s mind, to reach full enlightenmentby recognizing the nature of mind.

Dharmas in Buddhist Phe no me no lo g y

Other uses include dharma, normally spelled with a small “d” (to differentiate),which refers to a phenomenon or constituent factor of human experience. This wasgradually expanded into a classification of constituents of the entire material andmental world. Rejecting the substantial existence of permanent entities which arequalified by possibly changing qualities, Buddhist Abhidharma philosophy, whichenumerated seventy-five dharmas, came to propound that these “constituent factors”are the only type of entity that truly exists. This notion is of particular importancefor the analysis of human experience: Rather than assuming that mental statesinhere in a cognizing subject, or a soul-substance, Buddhist philosophers largelypropose that mental states alone exist as “momentary elements of consciousness”,and that a subjective perceiver is assumed.

One of the central tenets of Buddhism, is the denial of a separate permanent“I”, and is outlined in the three marks of existence. The three signs: 1. Dukkha (Pali:Dukkha)-Suffering, 2. Anitya (Pali: Anicca)-Change/Impermanence, 3. Anatman(Pali: Anatta)-Non-self. At the heart of Buddhism, is the denial of a “self” or “I” (andhence the delusion) as a separate self-existing entity.


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Later, Buddhist philosophers like Nagarjuna would question whether the dharmas(momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own.(ie Do they exist apart from anything else?) Rejecting any inherent reality to thedharmas, he asked (rhetorically):

uunyecu sarvadharmecu kim anantam kim antavat

kim anantam antavac ca nanantam nantavac ca kim

kim tad eva kim anyat kim uauvatam kim auauvatam

auauvatam uauvatam ca kim va nobhayam apyatah

sarvopalambhapaœamah prapancopaœamah shivah

na kva cit kasyacit kaœcid dharmo buddhena deœitah.

When all dharmas are empty, what is endless? What has an end?

What is endless and with an end? What is not endless and not with an end?

What is it? What is other? What is permanent? What is impermanent?

What is impermanent and permanent? What is neither?

Auspicious is the pacification of phenomenal metastasis, the pacification of allapprehending;

There is no dharma whatsoever taught by the Buddha to whomever, whenever,wherever. —Mulamadhyamakakarika, Nirvanaparikca, 25:22-24.

Dharma as Rig hte o usne ss

According to S. N. Goenka, teacher of Vipassana Meditation, the original meaningof dhamma is “dhareti ti dhamma’, or “that which is contained”. Dharma in theBuddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including “phenomenon”, and “nature”or “characteristic”. Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta,which means heart/mind. The pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body)and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experiencedthrough the mind), in major sutras such as the Mahasatipatthana sutra. Dharmais also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the wordsof one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which wasre-discovered by this man and shared with the world. A person who lives their lifewith an understanding of this natural law, is a “dhammic” person, which is oftentranslated as “righteous”.

Samsara (Buddhism)

Samsara, the Sanskrit and Pali term for “continuous movement” or “continuousflowing” refers in Buddhism to the concept of a cycle of birth (jati) and consequentdecay and death (jaramarana), in which all beings in the universe participate andwhich can only be escaped through enlightenment. Samsara is associated withsuffering and is generally considered the antithesis of Nirvana or nibbana.


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Samsara in Nikaya Buddhism

Whereas in Hinduism some being is regarded as being subject to Samsara,Buddhism was founded on a rejection (anatta) of such metaphysical substances, andoriginally accounts for the process of rebirth/reincarnation by appeal tophenomenological or psychological constituents. Later schools of Buddhism such asthe Pudgalavada, however, re-introduce the concept of a “person” which transmigrates.The basic idea that there is a cycle of birth and rebirth is, however, not questionedin early Buddhism and its successors, and neither is, generally, the concept thatSamsara is a negative condition to be abated through religious practice concludingin the achievement of final Nirvana.

Samsara in Mahayana Buddhism

According to several strands of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, the divisionof Samsara and Nirvana is attacked using an argument that extends some of thebasic premises of anatman and of Buddha’s attack on orthodox accounts of existence.This is found poetically in the “Perfection of Wisdom” literature and more analyticallyin the philosophy of Nagarjuna and later writers. It is not entirely clear whichaspects of this theoretical move were developed first in the sutras and which in thephilosophical tradition.

Samsara in Tib e tan Buddhism

Samsara is uncontrollably recurring rebirth, filled with suffering and problems(according to Kalacakra tantra as explained by Dr. A. Berzin). In this sense, Samsaramay be translated “Wheel of Suffering.”

Re birth (Buddhism)

Rebirth in Buddhism is the doctrine that streams of consciousness composedof aggregates called skandha causes a new form to emerge and would continue aslong as those aggregates abide in ignorance or avidya, which is the root cause ofexistence in Buddhism.

Although the cessation of a life is not in itself a sufficient condition for theinception of a new life (since arhats, pratyekabuddhas and buddhas pass awaywithout rebirth), the supporting conditions for a new birth are almost alwayspresent. From an external perspective, each life appears as a link in a beginninglesssequence of lives, varying in length and in quality.

In traditional Buddhist cosmology, these lives can be in any of a large numberof states of being, including those of humans, any kind of animal, and several typesof supernatural being. The type of rebirth that arises at the end of one life isconditioned by the karmas (actions of body, speech and mind) of the previous life;good karmas will yield a happier rebirth, bad karmas will produce one which is moreunhappy.


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In the traditional Buddhist languages of Sanskrit and Pali, there is no wordcorresponding exactly to the English “rebirth”. A rebirth, that is, the state one isborn into, is referred to as jati, i.e. simply “birth”, also referring to the process ofbeing born or coming into the world in any way. The entire process of change fromone life to the next is called punarbhava (Sanskrit) or punabbhava (Pali), literally“becoming again”; it is also known simply as bhava, i.e. “becoming”. The process seenfrom a universal perspective, encompassing all living beings, is called Samsara.

From an interior perspective, a person who remembers or imagines a past lifeis likely to think of it as representing a continuity of existence between lifespans,i.e., that the same person (however defined) was formerly one person (with a certainname and body) and is now a different person (with another name and body). Thisperspective is objectionable from the point of view of Buddhist philosophy on twocounts. First, because it seems to postulate an enduring, self-existing entity thatexists separate from the elements of mind and body, contrary to the Buddhistphilosophical position of anatman. Second, because it overlooks the characterizationof this process as one of constant change, both within and between lives, in whichthe newly-arising life is conditioned by but in no respect identical to the predecedentlife.

Nonetheless, the Buddha is represented using language reflecting the interiorperspective in stories about his past lives in both jatakas and sutras. For instance,“At that time I was the Brahmin, the Great Steward...” (Mahagovinda-sutta, DN.19)or “Six times, Ananda, I recall discarding the body in this place, and at the seventhtime I discarded it as a wheel-turning monarch...” (Mahasudassana-sutta, DN.17).This can be regarded as a concession to the needs of conventional speech.

Re b irth as Cyc le o f Co nsc io usne ss

Another view of rebirth describes the cycle of death and rebirth in the contextof consciousness rather than the birth and death of the body. In this view, remainingimpure aggregates, skandhas, reform consciousness into a new form.

Buddhist meditation teachers suggest that through careful observation of themind, it is possible to see consciousness as being a sequence of conscious momentsrather a continuum of awareness. Each moment is an experience of an individualmind-state: a thought, a memory, a feeling, a perception. A mind-state arises, existsand, being impermanent, ceases following which the next mind-state arises. Thusthe consciousness of a sentient being can be seen as a continuous series of birth anddeath of these mind-states. In this context rebirth is simply the persistence of thisprocess. Clearly this explanation of rebirth is wholly divorced from rebirth whichmay follow bodily death and it is possible for a Buddhist to believe in either, bothor neither definition.

The explanation of rebirth as a cycle of consciousness is consistent with othercore Buddhist beliefs, such as anicca (impermanence), dukkha (unsatisfactoriness)


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and anatta (non-self). Furthermore it is possible to observe a karmic link betweenthese mind-states.

In the practice of Vipassana meditation, the meditator uses “bare attention” toobserve the endless round of mind-states. This observation derives insight andunderstanding from seeing this cycle of birth, death and rebirth without interfering,owning or judging the individual states of mind that arise and pass away. Thisunderstanding enables them to limit the power of desire, which according to thesecond noble truth of Buddhism is the cause of Dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness)thus making possible the realisation of Nibbana. So it can be concluded that theunderstanding of rebirth in the context of the cycle of consciousness is an invaluableand practical component of the fundamental aim of Buddhism.

Re b irth as Buddhist Re inc arnatio n

Within Buddhism, the term rebirth or re-becoming (Sanskrit: punarbhava) ispreferred to “reincarnation”, as the latter is taken to imply there is a fixed entitythat is reborn. However, this still leaves the question as to what exactly the processof rebirth entails. The lack of a fixed self does not mean lack of continuity. One ofthe metaphors used to illustrate this is that of fire. For example, a flame is transferredfrom one candle to another, or a fire spreads from one field to another. In the sameway that it depends on the original fire, there is a conditioned relationship betweenone life and the next; they are not identical but neither are they completely distinct.The early Buddhist texts make it clear that there is no permanent consciousnessthat moves from life to life.

Early Buddhists had to deal with the problems of establishing the nature of thecausal link between two lives, especially the crucial one of how one being couldreceive the fruits of the actions of a previous being, now dead, and how samskaras,or volitional tendencies to act and think in particular ways can be transferred fromone being to another.

The Puggalavada school (now extinct) believed in a personal entity (puggala)separate from the five skandhas that provided a link of personal continuity thatallows for karma to act on an individual over time. The medieval Pali scholarBuddhaghosa posited a ‘rebirth-linking consciousness’ (patisandhi), which connectedthe arising of a new life with the moment of death, but how one life came to beassociated with another was still not made clear. Some schools were led to theconclusion that karma continued to exist in some sense and adhere to a particularperson until it had worked out its consequences. Another school, the Sautrantika,made use of a more poetic model to account for the process of karmic continuity.For them, each act ‘perfumed’ the individual and led to the planting of a‘seed’ thatwould later germinate as a good or bad karmic result.

While all Buddhist traditions seem to accept some notion of rebirth, there isno unified view about precisely how events unfold after the moment of death.


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Theravada Buddhism generally asserts that rebirth is immediate. The Tibetan schools,on the other hand, hold to the notion of a bardo (intermediate state) which can lastup to forty-nine days, and this has led to the development of a unique ‘science’ ofdeath and rebirth, a good deal of which is set down in what is popularly known asThe Tibetan Book of the Dead. Also, Rick Strassman’s book “The Spirit Molecule”touches on the association between the intermediate state and a possible scientificexplanation.

While Theravada Buddhism generally denies there is an intermediate state, someearly Buddhist texts seem to support it. One school that adopted this view was theSarvastivada, who believed that between death and rebirth there is a sort of limboin which beings do not yet reap the consequences of their previous actions but in whichthey may still influence their rebirth. The death process and this intermediate statewere believed to offer a uniquely favourable opportunity for spiritual awakening.

There are many references to rebirth in the early Buddhist scriptures. These aresome of the more important: Mahakammavibhanga Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 136);Upali Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 56); Kukkuravatika Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya 57);Moliyasivaka Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 36.21); Sankha Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya 42.8).

Re b irth in the Co nte xt o f o the r Re lig io ns and o the r Buddhist Be lie fs

In the religions of Middle Eastern origin, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, lifeand death are believed to be linear: a being is born (usually understood as a newcreation), lives, and then dies, at which point their soul or other part that survivesdeath, passes to a domain that is inaccessible to living beings and remains thereindefinitely, or until the end of the world. (Note that reincarnation, in the limitedform of gilgul neshamot plays a role in some forms of Judaism. An even morerestricted belief in reincarnation (tanasukh) is found in the Druze religion whichis derived from Islam.)

The Buddha lived at a time of great philosophical creativity in India, and manydifferent concepts of the nature of life and death that were proposed at that time.Some thinkers were materialists, believing that there was no existent consequentupon the end of a life, and that there was an atman (self) which was annihilatedupon death.

Others believed in a form of cyclic existence, where a being is born, lives, diesand then is re-born, but in the context of a type of determinism or fatalism, in whichkarma played no role. Others were “eternalists”, postulating an eternally existentatman, comparable to the Western concept of the soul: when a being (or his body)dies, the atman survives death and is re-embodied (reincarnates) as another livingbeing, based on its karmic inheritance. This last belief is the one that has come tobe dominant (with certain modifications) in modern Hinduism.

The Buddha taught a concept of rebirth that was distinct from that of any Indian


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teacher contemporary with him. This concept was consistent with the common notionof a sequence of related lives stretching over a very long time, but was constrainedby two core Buddhist concepts: anatta, that there is no irreducible atman or “self” tyingthese lives together; and anicca, that all compounded things are subject to dissolution,including all the components of the human person and personality. The Buddha’sdetailed conception of the connections between action (karma), rebirth, and theirultimate causes is set out in the twelve links of dependent origination.

Shunyata

Shunyata is a term, translated as “Emptiness” or “Voidness”, which constitutesan aspect of the Buddhist metaphysical critique as well as Buddhist epistemologyand phenomenology. Uunyata signifies that everything one encounters in life isempty of soul, permanence, and self-nature. Everything is inter-related, never self-sufficient or independent; nothing has independent reality. Yet uunyata neverconnotes nihilism, which Buddhist doctrine considers to be a delusion, just as itconsiders materialism to be a delusion.

In the Mahayana Tathagatagarbha sutras, in contrast, only impermanent,changeful things and states (the realm of samsara) are said to be empty in a negativesense-but not the Buddha or Nirvana, which are stated to be real, eternal and filledwith inconceivable, enduring virtues.

Orig in and De ve lo pme nt o f Sunyata

The theme of uunyata emerged from the Buddhist doctrines of Anatta (Pali,Sanskrit: Anatman—the nonexistence of the self, or Atman) and Paticcasamuppada(Pali, Sanskrit: pratityasamutpada, Interdependent Arising). The Sunna Sutta, partof the Pali Canon, relates that the monk Ananda, the attendant to Gautama Buddhaasked, “It is said that the world is empty, the world is empty, lord. In what respectis it said that the world is empty?” The Buddha replied, “Insofar as it is empty ofa self or of anything pertaining to a self: Thus it is said, Ananda, that the worldis empty.” Uunyata is a key theme of the Heart Sutra, which is commonly chantedby Mahayana Buddhists worldwide.

Uunyata was further developed by Nagarjuna and the Madhyamaka school,

which is usually counted as an early Mahayana school. Uunyata (“positively”

interpreted-see Tathagatagarbha section below) is also an important element of the

Tathagatagarbha literature, which played a formative role in the evolution of

subsequent Mahayana doctrine and practice. It should be noted that the exact

definition and extent of shunyata varies within the different Buddhist schools of

philosophy. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, detailed dialogs between the

perspectives of the various schools are preserved in order to train students.


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Sunnata “Emptiness” (sunnata) in Pali contexts is not the metaphysical Zero

(Nonbeing as the principle of Being, Infinite Possibility as distinguished from Indefinite

Actuality), but a characteristic of this world, as in S IV.295 96, where it has been

explained that when the Almsman returns from a deathlike Contemplation in which

consciousness and feeling have been arrested, “three touches touch him,” “emptiness

(sunnato),” “formlessness (animito)” and “making no plans (appanihito phasso),” and

he discriminates (viveka) accordingly; and the meaning of “emptiness” ‘is explained

at M 1.29, “emancipation of the mind by Emptiness (sunnata ceto vimutti) being

consequent upon the realization that `this world is empty of spirit or anything

spiritual’ (sunnam idam attena va attaniyena) “; sunnata is synonymous with anatta;

of which it really only paraphrases and isolates the privative AN. It is no doubt in

the same sense that in A 1.72, “the texts are coupled with `emptiness’ (suttanta...

sunnata patisannuta) “; there is, in fact, nothing more characteristic of Buddhist

teaching than its constant resort to negatives (above all in the sense of the word

anatta), which even some contemporary hearers found perplexing. The denial of

spirituality to contingent things in particular is a denial of any real essence to these

things in themselves, and thus forms the basis of the more sweeping sunyavada

doctrine which in the Mahayana denies not any “value” but any essence to even the

Buddha’s appearance and to the promulgation of the Dhamma itself. If such a

doctrine disturbs us, it may be found more palatably expressed in the Vajracchedika

Sutra thus, “Those who see me in the body (rupena) and think of me in sounds

(ghosaih), their way of thinking is false, they do not see me at all.... The Buddha

cannot be rightly understood (rjuboddhum) by any means (upayena). Not that

“means” are not dispositive to a right understanding, but that if regarded as ends,even the most adequate means are a hindrance. In such a radical iconoclasm as this

all traditional teachings are finally agreed. What is true of ethics is also true of the

supports of contemplation: as in the well known Parable of the Raft, the means are

of no more use when the goal has been reached.

Sunyata in the He art Sutra

The Heart Sutra (one of the Mahayana Perfection of Wisdom Sutras) declaresthat the skandhas, which constitute our mental and physical existence, are emptyin their nature or essence, i.e., empty of any such nature or essence. But it alsodeclares that this emptiness is the same as form (which connotes fullness)—i.e., thatthis is an emptiness which is at the same time not different from the kind of realitywhich we normally subscribe to events; it is not a nihilistic emptiness that underminesour world, but a “positive” emptiness which defines it.

• “The noble bodhisattva, Avalokitesvara, engaged in the depths of the practiceof the perfection of wisdom, looked down from above upon the five skandhas(aggregates), and saw that they were empty in their essential nature.”

Sunyata in Pre se c ular Buddhism, in the Nikayas


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emptiness is not; emptiness, form is not. Emptiness is that which is form, formis that which is emptiness. Just thus are perception, cognition, mentalconstruction, and consciousness.”

• “Hear, O Sariputra, all phenomena of existence are marked by emptiness: notarisen, not destroyed, not unclean, not clean not deficient nor fulfilled.”

The Heart sutra also states that emptiness is empty, of the self, and is the worldof the self of non-self, and while being independent of thing it reflects it directly.

Sunyata in Nag arjuna

For Nagarjuna, who provided the most important philosophical formulation ofuunyata, emptiness as the mark of all phenomena is a natural consequence ofdependent origination; indeed, he identifies the two. In his analysis, any enduringessential nature (i.e., fullness) would prevent the process of dependent origination,would prevent any kind of origination at all, for things would simply always havebeen and always continue to be. That things happen is proof that things lack thekind of nature attributed to them in mainstream Indian metaphysics.

An interesting consequence of this is that this enables Nagarjuna to put fortha bold argument regarding the relation of nirvana and samsara. If all phenomenalevents (i.e., the events that constitute Samsara) are empty, then they are emptyof any compelling ability to cause suffering. For Nagarjuna, Nirvana is neithersomething added to Samsara nor any process of taking away from it (i.e., removingthe enlightened being from it). In other words, Nirvana is simply Samsara rightlyexperienced in light of a proper understanding of the emptiness of all things.

Sunyata in the Tathag atag arb ha Sutras

The class of Buddhist scriptures known as the Tathagatagarbha sutras presentsa seemingly variant understanding of Emptiness, according to which the Buddhaand Nirvana, unlike compounded, conditioned phenomena, are not empty of intrinsicexistence, but merely empty of the impermanent, the painful and the Self-less. Inthe “Srimala Sutra” the Buddha is seen as empty of all defilement and ignorance,not of intrinsic Reality. The “Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra” supports such avision and views Ultimate Emptiness as the Buddhic cognition (“jnana”) whichperceives both Emptiness and non-Emptiness, wherein “the Empty is the totalityof Samsara and the non-Empty is Great Nirvana”. The Buddha in the Mahayana

Mahaparinirvana Sutra further indicates that to view absolutely everything asempty is an unbalanced approach and constitutes a deviation from the middle pathof Buddhism: “The wise perceive Emptiness and non-Emptiness, the Eternal andthe Impermanent, Suffering and Bliss, the Self and the non-Self.... To perceive theEmptiness of everything and not to perceive non-Emptiness is not termed the MiddleWay; to perceive the non-Self of everything and not to perceive the Self is not termedthe Middle Way.” Moreover, this particular sutra contains a passage in which the

• “Hear, O Sariputra, emptiness is form; form is just emptiness. Apart from form,


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Buddha castigates those who view the Tathagatagarbha (which is the indwelling,immortal Buddha-element) in each being as empty, declaring of them that they areeffectively committing a form of painful spiritual suicide through their wrongheadedstance: “By having cultivated non-Self in connection with the Tathagatagarbha andhaving continually cultivated Emptiness, suffering will not be eradicated but onewill become like a moth in the flame of a lamp.” (Tibetan version of the Mahayana

Mahaparinirvana Sutra). The attainment of nirvanic Liberation (“moksha”), bycontrast, is said to open up a realm of “utter bliss, joy, permanence, stability, [and]eternity”, in which the Buddha is “fully peaceful” (Dharmakshema “Southern” version).Perhaps the clearest statement of Tathagatagarbha Buddhism’s understanding ofEmptiness is found in the Angulimaliya Sutra, where we read the following clarifyingexplanation:

“By cultivating extreme emptiness and continually considering things to be empty, one will behold the utter destruction of all phenomena. Though Liberation is not empty, one will see and think it to be empty. Thus, for example, having thought hail-stones to be jewels, one comes to think that real gems are empty [uunya]. Likewise, you too think of phenomena which are not empty [auunya] to be empty [uunya], for viewing phenomena as empty, you dissolve into emptiness (uunya) even those phenomena which are not empty. Some phenomena are empty [of existence] and some phenomena are not empty [of existence]. Just like the hail-stones, the billions of kleshas [mental and moral afflictions] are empty [of existence], like the hail-stones, those phenomena appertaining to ignorance are empty [of existence] and swiftly fade away. Like the real beryl gems, the Buddha is eternal. Liberation is like the real beryl gems.”

Thus in the distinctive Tathagatagarbha sutras a balance is drawn between theempty, impermanent and coreless realm of samsara and the everlasting, liberativeReality of the Buddha and Nirvana.

Pratitya - samutpada

The doctrine of Pratityasamutpada (Sanskrit) or Paticcasamuppada DependentArising is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics. Common to all Schools ofBuddhism, it states that phenomena arise together in a mutually interdependentweb of cause and effect. It is variously rendered into English as “dependent origination,”“conditioned genesis,” “dependent co-arising,” “interdependent arising,” etc.

De pe nde nt Orig inatio n

The enlightenment (Bodhi) of the Buddha Gautama was simultaneously hisliberation from suffering and his insight into the nature of the universe – particularlythe nature of the lives of ‘sentient beings’ (principally humans and animals). Whatthe Buddha awakened to (Bodhi means ‘to awaken’) was the truth of dependentorigination. This is the understanding that any phenomenon ‘exists’ only because of


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the ‘existence’ of other phenomena in an incredibly complex web of cause and effectcovering time past, time present and time future. This concept of a web is symbolizedby Indra’s net, a multidimensional spider’s web on which lies an infinite amountof dew drops or jewels, and in these are reflected the reflections of all the other dropsof dew ad infinitum.

Stated in another way, the idea is that everything depends on everything else.For example, an individual depends on everything around themselves to exist,conversely, everything depends on an individual to exist. This is because the universeis one example in that, its causes and effects produce an individual or entity; anyother way and the universe would not be the same one.

Because all things are thus conditioned and transient (anicca), they have no realindependent identity (anatta) so do not truly ‘exist’, though to ordinary deludedminds this appears to be the case. All phenomena are therefore fundamentallyinsubstantial and ‘empty’ (sunya). Wise human beings, who ‘see things as they are’(yatha-bhuta-nana-dassana), renounce attachment and clinging, transform the energyof desire into awareness and understanding, and eventually transcend the conditionedrealm of form becoming Buddhas or Arahants.

Ge ne ral Fo rmulatio n

A general formulation of this concept goes:

With this as condition,

That arises.

With this NOT as condition,

That does NOT arise.

An example to illustrate:

You go on summer holiday to a hot climate, such as Arizona, Spain or Australia.It’s a hot clear day and you’re sunbathing by the hotel pool with the sun beatingdown on you. You will begin to feel hot, sweaty, uncomfortable, and soon feel thirsty.You go get yourself a drink to quench your thirst, and think “It’s too hot to sit bythe pool today, I’m going back to my hotel room where it’s cooler, to read for a while”.

With “hot summer sun” as condition,

Sweat, thirst and discomfort arises.

With “cool hotel room” as condition,

Sweat, thirst and discomfort do NOT arise.

This draws attention to the constant flux of “Coming to be, and Ceasing to be”that is happening all the time. All phenomena are subject to this unending interaction.And since all phenomena are dependent on other phenomena, they are all transientand impermanent.


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Applic atio ns

The general formulation has two very well known applications.

Fo ur No b le Truths

The first application is to suffering, and is known as the Four Noble Truths:

1. Dukkha: There is suffering. Suffering is an intrinsic part of life also experienced

as dissatisfaction, discontent, unhappiness, impermanence.

2. Samudaya: There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (tanha).

3. Nirodha: There is a way out of suffering, which is to eliminate attachment

and desire.

4. Marga: The path that leads out of suffering is called the Noble Eightfold Path.

Twe lve Nidanas

The other application is to the rebirth process and is known as the Twelve Nidanas

or the Twelve Links of Conditioned Existence. In this application of pratitya-samutpada,

each link is conditioned by the preceding one, and itself conditions the succeeding one.

These cover three lives:

Former Life:

• Ignorance

• Activities which produce karma

Current Life:

• Consciousness

• Name and form (personality or identity)

• The twelve domains (5 physical senses + the mind + forms, sounds,..., thoughts)

• Contact (between objects and the senses)

• Sensation (registering the contact)

• Desire (for continued contact)

• Attachment

Future Life:

• Becoming (conception of a new life)

• Birth

• Old age and death

With respect to the destinies of human beings and animals, dependent originationhas a more specific meaning as it describes the process by which such sentient beingsincarnate into any given realm and pursue their various worldly projects and


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activities with all the concomitant suffering involved. Among these sufferings areageing and death. Ageing and death are experienced by us because birth and youthhave been experienced. Without birth there is no death. One conditions the other ina mutually dependent relationship. Our becoming in the world, the process of whatwe call ‘life’, is conditioned by the attachment and clinging to certain ideas andprojects such as having a family or making money. This attachment and clingingin turn cannot exist without craving as its condition. The Buddha understood thatcraving comes into being because there is sensation in the body which we experienceas pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. When we crave certain things such as alcohol,sex or sweet foods it is the sensation induced by contact with the desired object thatwe crave rather than the object itself. Sensation is caused by contact with suchobjects of the senses.

The thrust of the formula is such that when certain conditions are present, theygive rise to subsequent conditions, which in turn give rise to other conditions andthe cyclical nature of life in Samsara can be seen. This is graphically illustrated inthe Bhavacakra.

There appears to be widespread misunderstanding of the formula in relationto time scales. Many references made to Pratityasamutpada are expressed overlifetimes. While this is true in the wider sense, more practically, this is to be seenas a daily cycle occurring from moment-to-moment throughout each day.

Its necessary to refer to the above in order to fully understand and make useof Pratitya-samutpada.

For example, Avidya the first condition, its necessary to refer to Three Signsof Being for a fuller explanation and a better understanding of its fit and functionwithin Pratitya-samutpada. Its also necessary to understand the Three Fires andhow they fit in the scheme of things. A quick glance at the Bhavacakra, you willnote that the Three Fires sit at the very centre of the schemata, and drive the wholeedifice. To understand this, it is necessary to study different sorts of conditions,because only one of them is called “causal condition”. Per example, ignorance candetermine activities as an “object condition” if one... decide to reduce ignorance.

And then because in this life one has been ignorant, and acted in such a wayas to produce karma, the cycle continues round again.

Nibbana (Skt Nirvana) is often conceived of as stopping this cycle. By removingthe causes for craving, craving ceases. So with the ceasing of birth, death ceases.With the ceasing of becoming, birth ceases... and so on until with the ceasing ofignorance no karma is produced, and the whole process of death and rebirth ceases.In fact the opportunity for change comes between the stages of sensation and desire,since as we saw above it is craving that drives the whole process. If one can simplyexperience sensations without desiring, then craving will not arise, and one canbegin to be free from the cycle of birth and death.


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Inte rde pe nde nt Orig inatio n in the He art Sutra

Heart sutra asserts that there is no karma, no law of cause and effect. Theassertion was made by bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara in a teaching for the great arhatShariputra, given before multitude of beings, on request of Buddha Shakyamuni.After the teaching Buddha Shakyamuni greatly praised the wisdom of Avalokiteshvarawords and the beings present rejoiced.

• This statement could be understood literally (as e.g. in Dzogchen), or

• it could be interpreted as seen from point of view of the philosophy ofemptiness. For example, later teachers like Nagarjuna and Tsongkhapa evenexplained that emptiness and dependent origination are like two sides of thesame coin. The point is that all phenomena are dependent originations, whichmeans that they do not exist in and out of themselves alone, are thus notself-defined, and empty (of self).

Madhyamaka and Pratitya-samutpada

Though the formulations above appear might seem to imply that pratitya-samutpada is a straightforward causal model, in the hands of the Madhyamakaschool, Pratitya-samutpada is used to demonstrate the very lack of inherent causality,in a manner that appears somewhat similar to the ideas of David Hume.

The conclusion of the Madhyamikas is that causation, like being, must beregarded as a merely conventional truth, and that to take it as really (or essentially)existing would be both a logical error and a perceptual one, arising from ignoranceand a lack of spiritual insight. According to the analysis of Nagarjuna, the mostprominent Madhyamika, true causality depends upon the intrinsic existence of theelements of the causal process (causes and effects), which would violate the principleof anatta, but pratitya-samutpada does not imply that the apparent participants inarising are essentially real.

Because of the interdependence of causes and effects (i.e. causes depend on theireffects in order to be causes, and effects likewise depend on their causes in orderto be effects), it is quite meaningless to talk about them as existing separately.However, the strict identity of cause and effect is also refuted, since if the effect were

the cause, the process of origination could not have occurred. Thus both monisticand a dualistic accounts of causation are rejected.

Therefore Nagarjuna explains that the anatta (or emptiness) of causality isdemonstrated by the interdependence of cause and effect, and likewise that theinterdependence (pratitya-samutpada) of causality itself is demonstrated by itsanatta.

In his Entry to the middle way, Candrakirti asserts, “If a cause produces itsrequisite effect, then, on that very account, it is a cause. If no effect is produced,then, in the absence of that, the cause does not exist.”


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Pratitya-samutpada in Dzo g c he n

In Dzogchen tradition the interdependent origination is considered illusory:‘(One says), “all these (configurations of events and meanings) come about anddisappear according to dependent origination.” But, like a burnt seed, since anonexistent (result) does not come about from a nonexistent (cause), cause and effect

do not exist.

Being obsessed with entities, one’s experiencing itself [sems, citta], whichdiscriminates each cause and effect, appears as if it were cause and condition.’

The Re ve rsib ility o f De pe nde nt Arising

Pratitya-samutpada is most commonly used to explain how suffering arisesdepending on certain conditions, the implication being that if one or more of theconditions are removed (if the “chain” is broken), suffering will cease.

There is also a text, the Upanisa Sutta in the Samyutta Nikaya, in which adiscussion of the conditions not for suffering but for enlightenment are given. Thisis sometimes glossed as “transcendental” dependent arising. The chain in this caseis:

• Suffering [of the rounds of rebirth]

• Faith

• Gladness

• Rapture

• Tranquillity

• Happiness

• Concentration

• Knowledge and vision of things as they really are

• Revulsion

• Dispassion

• Liberation

• Knowledge of destruction of the poisons

De pe nde nt Orig inatio n and De e p Ec o lo g y

The awareness that all beings are connected through mutual interdependenceis fundamental to ecology, especially deep ecology. The great challenge that now

faces mankind to avert global catastrophe has arisen because of ignorance of theinterconnectedness of all life – that harm caused abroad affects our own well-beingat home. Deep ecology has been very influenced by Buddhist thought and theprofound implications that the Buddha’s teaching has for changing our relationship

to the natural world.


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Karma in Buddhism

Karma means “action” or “doing”; whatever one does, says, or thinks is a karma.

In Buddhism, the term karma is used specifically for those actions which springfrom:

• Mental intent (Pali: cetana)

• Mental obsessions

which bring about a fruit (Pali, phala) or result (vipaka), either within thepresent life, or in the context of a future rebirth. Karma is the engine which drivesthe wheel of Samsara for each being.

In a discourse (Anguttara Nikaya Nibbedhika Sutta) the Buddha said:“Intention (cetana), monks, is kamma, I say. Having willed, one acts through

body, speech and mind”.

Every time a person acts there is some quality of intention at the base of themind and it is that quality rather than the outward appearance of the action thatdetermines the effect. For example, a man walking in a forest encounters a deerthat runs past him in distress. Subsequently, a man dressed in hunting gear witha gun also passes him asking which direction the deer went. The man misinformsthe hunter sending him in a direction other than that in which the deer went.Although he has told a lie, he has acted out of compassion for the deer which formsthe underlying intention behind his action. That volition (cetana) behind the actionwill be a cause for his own future well-being. On the other hand if a person professespiety and virtue but nonetheless acts with greed, anger or hatred (veiled behind anoutward display of well-meaning intent) then the fruit of those actions will beartestimony to the fundamental intention that lay behind them and will be a causefor future unhappiness. In this sense the Buddha spoke of wholesome actions(kusala-kamma) and unwholesome actions (akusala-kamma).

Karma is thus used as an ethical principle, rather than a cosmological explanationfor the world. Buddhists believe that the actions of beings determine their ownfuture, and because of this there are no private actions: all actions have a consequence.

The emphasis of karma in Buddhism is on cause, not on effect: Buddhists donot say “it was due to her karma that it happened to her”-indeed the karmicconsequences of one’s actions are dependent on sufficient conditions.

There is a further distinction between wholesome kamma that leads to moreexalted and rarefied forms of samsaric happiness (birth in higher realms), toneutralizing actions (called in Sanskrit and Pali Kriya) which lead to enlightenment:(nirvana). Therefore there is samsaric good karma, which leads to more fortunaterebirths (such as the human realm), and then there is liberating karma-which is


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supremely good. Nonetheless, the Buddha advocated the practise of wholesomeactions: “Refrain from unwholesome actions/Perform only wholesome ones/Purifythe mind/This is the teaching of the Enlightened Ones.” Dhp v.183.

Samsaric karma is typically divided into the three: good, neutral, and bad (inaccordance with the degree of samsaric happiness or suffering that will mature asa consequence). Likewise, liberating karma is divided into three: according to whetherit will mature the being as a uravakabuddha, pratyekabuddha, or asamyaksambuddha.

In Buddhism, the term karma is often used to refer only to samsaric karma,as indicated by the twelve nidanas of dependent origination.

The differentiation between “good” karma and “liberating” karma has been usedby some scholars to argue that the development of Tantra depended upon Buddhistideas and philosophies.

Because of the inevitability of consequence, Karma entails the notion of Buddhistrebirth. However, karma is not the sole basis of rebirth. The rebirths of eighth stage(and above) Bodhisattvas in the Mahayana tradition refers to those liberated beingswho consciously choose to be reborn in a future life in order to help others stilltrapped in Samsara.

Some people have problems with the teaching on karma, often of what exactlythe Buddha is asking them to believe in when asking them to have conviction inkarma.

• First, action really is happening — it’s not an illusion.

• Second, you really are responsible for your actions. There’s no outside forcelike the stars or some good or evil being acting through you. When you’reconscious, you’re the one who decides what to do.

• Third, your actions have results — you’re not just writing on the water —and those results can be good or bad depending on the quality of the intentionbehind the act.

A very good example of the working of karma in real life is recorded by Mr.Yuan Liao-Fan, a sixteenth century high ranking government officer in China. Hewrote the Liao-Fan Four Lessons with the hope that it would teach his son, YuanTian-Qi, how to understand the true nature of destiny.

Wro ng Unde rstanding s o f Karma

In Buddhism, Karma is not pre-determinism, fatalism or accidentalism, as allthese ideas lead to inaction and destroy motivation and human effort that a humanbeing can change for the better no matter what his or her past was and aredesignated as “wrong view” in Buddhism.

1. Pubbekatahetuvada: The belief that all happiness and suffering arise fromprevious karma (Past-action determinism).


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2. Issaranimmanahetuvada: The belief that all happiness and suffering arecaused by the directives of a Supreme Being (Theistic determinism).

3. Ahetu-apaccayavada: The belief that all happiness and suffering are random,having no cause (Indeterminism or Accidentalism).

“Bhikkhus, adhering to previously done kamma as the essence, there are neithermotivation nor effort with what should be done and what should not be done... Notupholding ardently what should be done, nor abandoning what should be abandoned,those ascetics and Brahmins are as if deluded, lacking a control, incapable of havingany true teaching. (Buddha)

In Buddhism, Karma is simply there as a guide and an indication of what yourpresent is and how one’s future can be made better by self effort, otherwise, fatalismand pre-determinism is the anti-thesis of the notion of perfection or self-conquest-which is the primary aim of Buddhism.

The Buddha asserts effort and motivation as the crucial factors in deciding the

ethical value of these various teachings on kamma.

List of Buddhists

A number of noted individuals have been Buddhists.

Histo ric al Buddhist Thinke rs and Fo unde rs o f Sc ho o ls

Individuals are grouped by nationality, except in cases where the vast majorityof their influence was felt elsewhere. Gautama Buddha and his contemporary disciples(‘Buddhists’) are listed separately from later Indian Buddhist thinkers, teachers andcontemplatives.

Buddha’s Disc iple s and Early Buddhists

• The Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama

• Disciples of the Buddha

• Family of the Buddha

• Ambapali

• Ananda, Siddhartha’s cousin, personal attendant of the Buddha and one ofhis chief disciples

• Anathapindika

• Angulimala

• Anuruddha

• Assaji

• Ajatasattu

• Bimbisara

• Channa


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• Cunda

• Dabba Mallaputta

• Devadatta

• Dhammadinna

• Hatthaka of Alavi

• Janussoni

• Jayasena

• Jivaka Komarabhacca

• Maha Kaccana

• Kaccayana Gotta

• Kankharevata

• Maha Kappina

• Kasi Bharadvaja

• Kevatta

• Khema

• Khujjuttara

• Kisa Gotami

• Kondanna

• Maha Kotthika

• Magandiya

• Mahakauyapa

• Mallika

• Maudgalyayana

• Maya Devi

• Migara

• Nanda

• Maha Pajapati Gotami

• Pasenadi

• Pukkusati

• Punna

• Rahula

• Ratthapala

• Revata

• Samavati


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• Sariputta (Pali, Shariputra Sanskrit), one of the two chief disciples of theBuddha

• Suddhodana

• Sundari

• Sunita

• Udena

• Upali, foremost desciple in knowledge of the Vinaya.

• Uppalavanna

• Vacchagotta

• Velukandakiya

• Visakha

• Yasa

• Yashodhara

Late r Indian Buddhists (afte r Buddha)

• Aryadeva, foremost disciple of Nagarjuna, continued the philosophical schoolof Madhyamika

• Asanga, founder of the Yogachara school, widely considered the most importantMahayana philosopher (with Nagarjuna)

• Atisha, holder of the “mind training” teachings, considered an indirect founderof the Geluk school of Tibetan Buddhism

• Bhavaviveka, early expositor of the Svatantrika Madhyamikha

• Buddhaghosa, (Theravadin commentator)

• Buddhapalita, early expositor of the Prasangika Madhyamikha

• Candragomin, renowned grammarian

• Chandrakirti, considered the greatest exponent of Prasangika Madhyamika

• Dharmakirti, famed logician, author of the Seven Treatises; student ofDignana’s student Ishvarasena; said to have debated famed Hindu scholarShankara

• Dignaga, famed logician

• Gunaprabha, foremost student of Vasubandhu, known for his work theVinayasutra

• Kamalashila (8th century), author of important texts on meditation

• Luipa, one of the eighty-four tantric mahasiddas

• Nagarjuna, founder of the Madhyamika school, widely considered the mostimportant Mahayana philosopher (with Asanga)

• Nagpopa, one of the eighty-four tantric mahasiddas


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• Nadapada, (Tib. Naropa), Tilopa’s primary disciple, teacher of Marpa theTranslator and Khungpo Nyaljor

• Sakyaprabha, prominent expositor of the Vinaya

• Saraha, famed mahasiddha, forefather of the Tibetan Kagyu lineage

• Shantarakshita, abbot of Nalanda, founder of the Yogachara-Madhyamikawho helped Padmasambhava establish Buddhism in Tibet

• Shantideva, (8th century) author of the Bodhisattvacaryavatra

• Talika, (Tilopa in Tibetan), recipient of four separate transmissions fromNagarjuna, Nagpopa, Luipa, and Khandro Kalpa Zangmo; Naropa’s teacher

• Vasubandhu, author of the Abhidharmakosha

• Vimuktisena, commentator on texts of Asanga’s

Indo -Gre e k

• Dharmaraksita (3rd century BCE), Greek Buddhist missionary of Ashoka theGreat, and a teacher of Nagasena

• Mahadharmaraksita (2nd century BCE), Greek Buddhist master during thetime of Menander

• Nagasena (2nd century BCE), Buddhist sage questioned about Buddhism byMilinda, the Indo-Greek king in the Milinda Panha

Ce ntral Asian

• An Shih Kao, a Parthian monk and the first known Buddhist missionary toChina, in 148 CE

• Dharmaraksa, a Yueh-Chih Buddhist monk, the first known translator of theLotus Sutra into Chinese

• Jnanagupta (561-592), a monk and tranlator from Gandhara, Pakistan.

• Kumarajiva (c. 401), a Kuchean monk, and one of the most importanttranslators

• Lokaksema, a Kushan monk, the first translator of Mahayana scriptures intoChinese, around 180 CE

• Prajna (c. 810). A monk and translator from Kabul, who translated importanttexts into Chinese and educated the Japanese Kukai in Sanskrit texts

Chine se

• Baizhang Huaihai

• Bodhidharma (legendary first patriarch of Zen in China)

• Fazang

• Ba Tuo/Fo Tuo

• Fa Xian (translator and pilgrim)


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• Seng Chou

• Joshu (9th century Chinese Zen monk)

• Huangbo Xiyun

• Fu Yu

• Jinaluo

• Fa Ru

• Hui Guang

• Huineng (6th Patriarch of Zen in China)

• Ingen (17th century Chinese Zen monk, founder of the Obaku sect of Zen)

• Pu Ji

• Daoji (Buddhist monk revered as a deity in Taoism)

• Jnanayasas (translator)

• Linji (9th century Chinese monk, founder of the Linji school of Zen)

• Sanghapala (6th century monk (Mon-Khmer?) who translated many texts toChinese)

• Shen Xiu (Tang Dynasty, the chief of Shao-Lin Temple, made great contributionto Zen)

• Xuanzang (brought Yogacara to China to found Faxiang school, significantpilgrim, translator)

• Yi Jing (pilgrim and translator)

• Yunmen Wenyan (founder of one of the five Chan schools)

• Zhiyi (founder of Tiantai school)

• Zongmi (WG: Tsung-mi; fifth patriarch of Chinese Huayan school)

• Ou-Yang Jin-Wu

• Hong Yi (also calligraphist, painter, master of seal carving)

Tib e tan

• Gampopa, a student of Jetsun Milarepa and founder of the Karma Kagyulineage of Tibetan Buddhism

• Dolpopa founder of the Jonang school and the Shentong philosophy

• Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Thaye, the first Jamgon Kongtrul

• Karsey Kongtrul, the second Jamgon Kongtrul

• Khungpo Nyaljor, founder of the Shangpa Kagyu lineage

• Longchenpa one of the greatest Nyingma philosophers

• Marpa (Marpa the Translator, Marpa of Lhobrag), student of Naropa anda founder of the Kagyu lineage of Tibetan Buddhism


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• Milarepa, a foremost student of Marpa Lotsawa who is said to have achieved

Buddhahood in one lifetime

• Padmasambhava Indian semi-legendary founder of Nyingma school of Tibetan

Buddhism

• Sakya Pandita one of the greatest Sakya philosophers

• Taranatha important Jonang scholar

• Tsongkhapa (14th century Tibetan monk, founder of the Geluk school of

Tibetan Buddhism, based upon the Kadam tradition)

• Yeshe Tsogyal, important female student of Padmasambhava

Japane se

• Dogen Zenji (founder of Soto Zen, based upon the Chinese Caodong tradition)

• Eisai (12th century Japanese monk, travelled to China and returned to found

the Japanese Rinzai sect of Zen)

• Ippen, founder of the Japanese Pure Land Ji sect (Ji-shu)

• Ikkyu

• Bankei Yotaku (1622-1693), ‘Unborn’ Zen

• Hakuin Ekaku (1686-1769, Rinzai Zen)

• Honen, founder of the Japanese Pure Land Jodo sect (Jodo-shu)

• Kukai (9th century Japanese monk, founder of Shingon)

• Myoe (Japanese monk of the Shingon and Kegon schools, known for his

propagation of the Mantra of Light)

• Nichiren (founder of Nichiren Buddhism)

• Nikko (founder of Nichiren Shoshu Buddhism)

• Roben (8th century Japanese monk, invited Simsang to Japan and founded

the Kegon tradition, based upon the Korean Hwaeom school)

• Ryokan (18th century Japanese Zen monk and poet)

• Saicho (9th century Japanese monk, founder of Tendai tradition, based upon

the Chinese Tiantai school)

• Shinran, founder of the Japanese Pure Land Jodo Shin sect (Jodo Shinshu)

• Takuan Soho (Zen teacher, and, according to legend, mentor of the swordsman

Miyamoto Musashi)

Ko re an

• Gihwa (1376-1433) Korean Seon monk; wrote commentaries on the Diamond

Sutra and Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment


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• Jinul Korean Seon monk (1158-1210); founder of modern Korean gong’anmeditation system

• Simsang (8th century Korean monk, who at the request of Roben helpedtransmit Hwaeom to Japan, thereby founding the Japanese Kegon tradition)

• Uisang (7th century Korean monk, founder of Hwaeom tradition, based uponthe Chinese Huayan school)

• Weonhyo (617-668) Korean monk; prolific commentator on Mahayana sutras

• Wonchuk

Thai

• Somdej Toh (Thai monk specializing in magical amulets)

• Phramonkolthepmuni (1885-1959) (Thai monk who founded the DhammakayaTradition)

• Khun Yay Maha Ratana Upasika Chandra Khonnokyoong (1909-2000) (Thainun who headed Wat Phra Dhammakaya)

Histo ric al Rule rs and Po litic al Fig ure s

• Ashoka the Great (304–232 BC), Mauryan Emperor of ancient India, and thefirst Buddhist ruler to send Buddhist missionaries outside of India throughoutthe Old World

• Brhadrata, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty

• Menander (Pali: Milinda), 2nd century BCE, an Indo-Greek king ofnorthwestern India, who questioned Nagasena about Buddhism in the Milinda

Panha, and is said to have become an arhat

• Theodorus (1st century BCE), Indo-Greek governor, author of a Buddhistdedication

• Kanishka, ruler of the Kushan Empire

• Shotoku (574-622), crown prince and regent of Japan

• Liang Wudi (502-549), emperor during the Chinese Liang Dynasty

• Harshavardhana (606-648), Indian emperor who converted to Buddhism.

• Wu Zetian

• Jayavarman VII (1181-1219), king of Cambodia

• Ming Done, king of Myanmar and facilitator of “5th World Theravada BuddhistSanga’s Council” or Sangayana

• Mongkut, king of Thailand and founder of the Thammayut Nikaya

• Emperor Ming of Han China

• Tang Dynasty

• Kublai Khan Mongol Ruler


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Mode rn Te ac he rs

The ravada/ Vipassana Te ac he rs

• Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta (1870-1949)

• Venerable Ananda Maitreya (1896-1998)

• Bhikkhu Bodhi (1944)

• Ajahn Brahm (1951)

• Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (1906-1993)

• Ajahn Chah (1918-1992)

• Venerable Chanmyay Sayadaw

• Dhiravamsa

• Dipa Ma (1911-1989)

• S. N. Goenka (1924)

• Joseph Goldstein

• Bhante Henepola Gunaratana (1927)

• Venerable Ledi Sayadaw (1846-1923)

• Ayya Khema (1923-1997)

• Preah Maha Ghosananda (1929), Supreme Patriarch of Cambodia

• Mahasi Sayadaw (1904-1982)

• Venerable Mogok Sayadaw (Late)

• Nyanasamvara Suvaddhana (born 1913), the 19th Supreme Patriarch of

Thailand

• Phrabhavanaviriyakhun (Luang Phaw Dattajeevo) (b.1941), acting abbot of

Wat Phra Dhammakaya

• Phrarajbhavanavisudh (Luang Phaw Dhammajayo) (b.1944), President of the

Dhammakaya Foundation

• Sharon Salzberg

• Acharya Godwin Samararatne

• Ajahn Sumedho

• U Ba Khin (1899-1971)

• Sayadaw U Pandita (1921)

• Walpola Piyananda

• Venerable Webu Sayadaw (Late)

• Shinzen Young


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Tib e tan Buddhist Te ac he rs

• Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama

• Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche (1930-2002)

• Chogyam Trungpa (1940-1987)

• Dhardo Rimpoche (1917-1990)

• Dudjom Rinpoche (1904-1987)

• Dzogchen Khenpo Choga Rinpoche (1965)

• Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Rinpoche (1961)

• Qoigyijabu, (1990) 11th Panchen Lama (According to the People’s Republicof China government)

• Lhundub Sopa, (1923)

• Jigdal Dachen Sakya, 1929-, head of the Sakya School in the USA

• Kalu Rinpoche (1905-1989)

• Namkhai Norbu Rinpoche (1938)

• Kelsang Gyatso (1931)

• Kirti Tsenshab Rinpoche (1926)

• Kyabje Gehlek Rinpoche (1939)

• Paltul Rinpoche (1965)

• Pawo Rinpoche (1912-1991; 1993)

• Pema Chodron (1936)

• Rangjung Rigpe Dorje (1924–1981), the 16th Karmapa

• Reginald Ray

• Rob Nairn

• Sonam Rinchen (1933)

• Tarthang Tulku

• Thinley Norbu Rinpoche

• Thrangu Rinpoche (1933)

• Trinley Thaye Dorje (1983), regarded by many as the 17th Karmapa

• Thubten Zopa Rinpoche (1946)

• Tulku Urgyen Rinpoche, (1920-1996), Dzogchen, Mahamudra and the NewTreasures of Chokgyur Lingpa (Chokling Tersar)

• Urgyen Trinley Dorje (1985), also regarded by many as the 17th Karmapa.

Ze n Te ac he rs

Japanese:

• Kodo Sawaki (1880-1965)


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• Dainin Katagiri

• D.T. Suzuki

• Taisen Deshimaru

• Kyozan Joshu Sasaki, Roshi (1907)

• Kodo Sawaki (1880-1965)

• Taizan Maezumi (1931-1995)

• Soyen Shaku, Roshi (1859-1919)

• Nyogen Senzaki, Roshi (18??-1958)

• Eido Shimano, Roshi

• Shunryu Suzuki, Roshi (1904-1971)

• Haku’un Yasutani, Roshi (1885-1973)

• Harada Shodo, Roshi (1945)

Chinese :

• Ven. Guang Qin (1892-1986)

• Ven. Hsing Yun (1927)

• Ven. Hsin Ting (1944)

• Ven. Hsuan Hua (1918-1995)

• Ven. Hsu Yun (1840-1959)

• Ven. Sheng-yen (1931)

• Ven. Wei Chueh (1928)

European :

• John Garrie Roshi (1923-1998)

• Taisen Dokusho Villalba, Roshi (1956)

• Fukai Denko Mesa, (1967)

• Kosen Thibaut, Roshi (1950)

• Barbara Kosen Richaudeau, (1951)

• Ludger Tenryu Tenbreul, (1956)

American :

• Anne Hopkins Aitken, (1911-1994)

• Robert Baker Aitken, Roshi (1917)

• Tenshin Reb Anderson

• Zentatsu Richard Baker, Roshi

• Joko Beck (1917)

• John Crook (1930)


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• Zoketsu Norman Fischer

• James Ishmael Ford, Roshi (1948)

• Tetsugen Bernard Glassman, Roshi

• Paul Haller, Roshi

• Cheri Huber

• Soeng Hyang (Barbara Rhodes)

• Philip Kapleau, Roshi (1912-2004)

• Jiyu Kennett, Roshi (1924-1996)

• Bodhin Kjolhede, Roshi (1948)

• Jakusho Kwong, Roshi (1935)

• John Daido Loori, Roshi

• Kobutsu Shindo Malone, Roshi

• Elihu Genmyo Smith (1948)

• John Tarrant, Roshi (1949)

• Brad Warner, Sensei

Korean:

• Seung Sahn, Soen Sa (1927-2004)

• Samu Sunim, (1941)

Vietnamese :

• Thich Thien An (1926-1980)

• Thich Nhat Hanh (1926)

Misc e llane o us

• Anagarika Dharmapala (1864-1933), (The World’s Debt to Buddha)

• Natalie Goldberg

• Daisaku Ikeda

• Ven. Ching Kung (1927)

• Ven. Cheng Yen (1937)

• Ram Bahadur Bamjan (1989)

• Sangharakshita (1925)

• Jan Willis

• Ven. K. Sri Dhammananda (1919-2006)

Te ac he rs o f Co ntro ve rsial Buddhist o r Buddhist- influe nc e d Gro ups

• Shoko Asahara (1955)


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• Inoue Nissho (1887-1967)

• Li Hongzhi (1952)

• Lu Sheng-yen (1945)

• Suma Ching Hai

Mo de rn Sc ho lars and Autho rs

• Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891-1956)

• Stephen Batchelor

• Alexander Berzin

• Susan Blackmore

• Thomas Cleary

• Edward Conze (1904-1979)

• Mark Epstein

• Ven. Gnanatiloka

• Nakamura Hajime (1911-1999)

• Christmas Humphreys

• Phra Khantipalo

• Nishida Kitaro (1870-1945)

• Nishitani Keiji (1900-1990)

• Johnny Lovewisdom

• Ven. Narada Maha Thera

• Ven. Tai Xu (1890-1947)

• Manhae (1879-1944)

• Abe Masao (born 1915)

• Henry Steel Olcott (1832-1907)

• Walpola Rahula

• C.A.F. Rhys Davids (1857-1942)

• T.W. Rhys Davids (1843-1922)

• Scott Shaw

• Gary Snyder

• D.T. Suzuki (1870-1966)

• Tanaka Chigaku (1861-1939)

• Robert Thurman

• Ven. Yin Shun (1906-2005)


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Mo de rn Po litic ians, Ac tivists, and Pro te sto rs

• Aung San Suu Kyi

• Tenzin Delek Rinpoche

• Phoolan Devi

• Sulak Sivaraksa

• Thich Quang Duc

Ce le b rity Buddhists

• Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, actor

• Roberto Baggio, Italian footballer

• Andrew Black, poker player

• Orlando Bloom, actor

• Leonard Cohen, poet, singer

• Mark Copani, actor

• Patrick Duffy, actor

• Michael Everson, linguist

• Richard Gere, actor

• Allen Ginsberg, poet

• Philip Glass, composer

• Ron Glass, actor

• Herbie Hancock, musician

• Goldie Hawn, actor

• Christmas Humphreys, judge, scholar

• Charles Johnson, writer

• Maxi Jazz, rapper

• Courtney Love, singer-songwriter, actress

• Gustav Meyrink, writer, translator, banker

• Kathleen Dee-Anne Norris, actor, model

• Victor Pelevin, novelist

• Steven Seagal, actor, martial artist

• Duncan Sheik, singer-songwriter

• Wayne Shorter, musician

• Tina Turner, singer

• Watazumi Doso, shakuhachi flutist

• Faye Wong, singer

• Adam Yauch, rapper (MCA of the Beastie Boys)


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Gautama Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama was a spiritual teacher from ancient India and the historicalfounder of Buddhism. He is universally recognized by Buddhists as the SupremeBuddha of our age. The time of his birth and death are uncertain; most modernhistorians date his lifetime from 563 BCE to 483 BCE, though some have suggesteda date about a century later than this.

Gautama, also known as Sakyamuni or Shakyamuni (“sage of the Shakyas”),is the key figure in Buddhism, and accounts of his life, discourses, and monasticrules were summarized after his death and memorized by the saegha. Passed downby oral tradition, the Tripimaka, the collection of discourses attributed to Gautama,was committed to writing about 400 years later.

Buddha’s Life

As few of the details of the Buddha’s life can be independently verified, it isdifficult to gauge the historical accuracy of these accounts. The main sources ofinformation on Siddhartha Gautama’s life are the earliest available Buddhist texts.The following is a summary of those narratives.

Co nc e ptio n and Birth

According to tradition, Siddhartha was born more than 200 years before thereign of the Maurya king Aœoka (273–232 BCE).

Siddhartha was born in Lumbini in modern day Nepal. His father wasSuddhodana, the chief of the Shakya nation, one of several ancient tribes on thegrowing state of Kosala; Gautama was the family name. His mother was QueenMaya, King Sudhodhana’s wife, who was a Koliyan princess. On the night Siddharthawas conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant entered her right side,and ten lunar months later Siddhartha was born from her right side. As was theShakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya fell pregnant, she returned to herfather’s kingdom to give birth, but after leaving Kapilavastu, she gave birth alongthe way at Lumbini in a garden beneath a sala tree.

The day of the Buddha’s birth is widely celebrated in Buddhist countries asVesak. Various sources hold that the Buddha’s mother died at his birth, a few daysor seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pali: Siddhatta),meaning “he who achieves his aim”. During the birth celebrations, the hermit seerAsita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that this baby would eitherbecome a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man. This occurred after Siddharthaplaced his feet in Asita’s hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodarna helda naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited scholars to read the future. All gavea dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holyman. Kondanna, the youngest, and later to be the first arahant, was the only onewho unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.


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While later tradition and legend characterized Suddhodana as a hereditarymonarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikcvaku (Pali: Okkaka), manyscholars believe that Uuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.

Early Life and Marriag e

Siddhartha, destined to a luxurious life as a prince, had three palaces (one foreach season) especially built for him. His father, King Suddhodana, wishing forSiddhartha to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledgeof human suffering. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt Maha Pajapati,Maya’s younger sister.

As the boy reached the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Yauodhara(Pali: Yasodhara), a cousin of the same age. In time, she gave birth to a son, Rahula.Siddhartha spent 29 years as a Prince in Kapilavastu, a place now situated in Nepal.Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he couldwant or need, Siddhartha felt that material wealth was not the ultimate goal of life.

The Gre at De parture

At the age of 29, however, the young prince left his palace for a short excursion.While venturing outside of his palace, and despite his father’s effort to remove thesick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old crippled man.Disturbed by this, and the fact that all people would eventually grow old, the princewent on further trips where he encountered, variously, a crippled man, a diseasedman, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These four scenes are referred to as the foursights, or the four heavenly messengers (Pali: devaduta). Deeply depressed by thesesights, he sought to overcome old age, illness, and death by living the life of anascetic. Siddhartha soon left his palace, his possessions, and his entire family at age29, to take up the lonely life of a wandering monk.

Abandoning his inheritance, he is then said to have dedicated his life to learninghow to overcome suffering. He meditated with two hermits, and, although he achievedhigh levels of meditative consciousness, he was still not satisfied with his path.

Siddhartha then chose the robes of a mendicant monk and headed to Magadhain what is today Bihar in India. He began his training in the ascetic life andpracticing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Gautama provedquite adept at these practices, and surpassed even his teachers.

However, he found no answer to his questions regarding freedom from sufferings.Leaving behind his caring teachers, he and a small group of close companions setout to take their austerities even further. Gautama tried to find enlightenmentthrough complete deprivation of worldly goods, including food, and became a completefasting ascetic. After nearly starving himself to death (some sources claim that henearly drowned), Gautama began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered amoment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season’s


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plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state that wasblissful and refreshing.

The Gre at Enlig hte nme nt

After asceticism and concentrating on meditation or Anapana-sati (awarenessof breathing in and out), Gautama is said to have discovered what Buddhists callthe Middle Way—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgenceand self-mortification. He accepted a little rice pudding from a village girl namedSujata. Then, sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya,he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attainedEnlightenment; according to some traditions, this occurred approximately in May,and according to others in December. Gautama, from then on, was known as theBuddha or “Awakened One”. Oftentimes, he is referred to in Buddhism as ShakyamuniBuddha or “The Awakened One of the Skakya Clan.”

At this point, he is believed to have stated that he had realized completeawakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering which wasignorance, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. These truths were thencategorized into the Four Noble Truths; the state of supreme liberation—possiblefor any being—was called Nirvana. He then came to possess the Nine Characteristics,which are said to belong to every Buddha.

According to one of the stories in the Ayacana Sutta, a scripture found in thePali and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha waswondering whether or not he should teach the Dharma to human beings. He wasconcerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion,they would not be able to see the true dharma, which was subtle, deep and hardto understand. However, a divine spirit, Brahma Sahampati, interceded and askedthat he teach the dharma to the world, as “there will be those who will understandthe Dharma”. With his great compassion to all beings in the universe, the Buddhaagreed to become a teacher.

At the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, he set in motionthe Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companionswith whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha,formed the first saegha, the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the firstformation of Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) was completed.

According to tradition, the Buddha emphasized ethics and correct understanding.He questioned the average person’s notions of divinity and salvation. He stated thatthere is no intermediary between mankind and the divine; distant gods are subjectedto karma themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide andteacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of Nirvana (Pali: Nibbana)themselves to attain the spiritual awakening called bodhi and see truth and realityas it is. The Buddhist system of insight, thought, and meditation practice is not


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believed to have been revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true natureof the mind, which could be discovered by anybody.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled inthe Gangetic Plain of Northeastern India and Southern Nepal, teaching his doctrineand discipline to an extremely diverse range of people— from nobles to outcastestreet sweepers, including many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. TheBuddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns (the Sangha) tocontinue the dispensation after his Parinirvana (Pali: Parinibbana) or “completeNirvana”, and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races andclasses and had no caste structure. On the other hand, Buddhist texts record thathe was reluctant to ordain women as nuns: he eventually accepted them on thegrounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men, but he gavethem certain additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.

The Gre at Passing

According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80,the Buddha announced that he would soon enter Parinirvana or the final deathlessstate abandoning the earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which,according to different translations, was either a mushroom delicacy or soft pork,which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Fallingviolently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ananda to convince Cunda that themeal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal wouldbe a source of the greatest merit as it provided the much-needed energy for theBuddha.

Ananda protested Buddha’s decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandonedjungles of Kuuinara (Pali: Kusinara) of the Mallas. Buddha, however, remindedAnanda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous king that resoundedwith joy:

“ Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds —the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, thebeating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, andcries of “Eat, drink, and be merry!”

Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikshus to clarify any doubts or questionsthey had. They had none. He then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha’s finalwords were, “All composite things pass away. Strive for your own salvation withdiligence.” The Buddha’s body was cremated and the relics were placed in monumentsor stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. Forexample, The Temple of the Tooth or “Dalada Maligawa” in Sri Lanka is the placewhere the right tooth relic of Buddha is kept at present.

According to the Pali historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dipavamsa andMahavamsa, the coronation of Ashoka (Pali: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of


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Buddha. According to one Mahayana record in Chinese, the coronation of Auoka is116 years after the death of Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha’s passing iseither 486 BCE according to Theravada record or 383 BCE according to Mahayanarecord. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha’sdeath in Theravada countries is 544 or 543 BCE, because the reign of Auoka wastraditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates (basedon Auoka’s own inscriptions, and therefore among the soundest dates in early Indianhistory).

Physic al Charac te ristic s

Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his ratherimpressive physical characteristics. He was at least six feet tall and had a strongenough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army asa general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have “the 32 Signs of the Great Man”.

Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the 1stcentury CE, his physical characteristics are described in one of the central texts ofthe traditional Pali canon, the Digha Nikaya. They help define the global aspect ofthe historical Buddha, his physical appearance is described by Prince Siddhartha’swife to his son Rahula upon Buddha’s return in the scripture of the “Lion of Men”.

Buddha as Vie we d b y o the r Re lig io ns

Hinduism

Buddhism is a dharmic religion. The systems of Buddhism and Hinduism, somesay, must not be considered to be either contradictory to one another or completelyself contained. Coomaraswamy wrote:

“The more superficially one studies Buddhism, the more it seems to

differ from Brahmanism in which it originated; the more profound our

study, the more difficult it becomes to distinguish Buddhism from

Brahmanism, or to say in what respects, if any, Buddhism is really

unorthodox.”

Buddhist scholar Rahula Vipola wrote that the Buddha was trying to shed thetrue meaning of the Vedas. Buddha is said to be a knower of the Veda (vedajna)or of the Vedanta (vedantajna) and (Sutta Nipata, 463).

Hinduism and Buddhism share many common features including Sanskrit,yoga, karma and dharma.

Tao ism, Co nfuc ianism and Shinto ism

The arrival of Buddhism caused Taoism to renew and restructure itself andaddress existential questions raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind offoreign Taoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary.Chan (Seon, Thien, or Zen) Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common


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with philosophical Taoism. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought Buddha tobe a reincarnation of Lao Tzu born in the land of barbarians. Buddhism shares manycommonalities with Neo-Confucianism, which is Confucianism with more religiouselements. In fact, the ritual of ancestor worship normally practiced by Confucianists,has been adapted to Chinese Buddhist beliefs.

In the Japanese religion of Shinto, the long coexistence of Buddhism and Shintoismresulted in the merging of Shintoism and Buddhism. Gods in Shintoism were givena position similar to the Hindu gods in Buddhism. Moreover, because one of MahayanaBuddha’s (Dainichi Nyorai) symbols was the sun, many equated Amaterasu, the SunGoddess, as the previous reincarnation (bodhisattva) of Dainichi Nyorai. However, theTokugawa Shogunate era saw a revival movement within Shinto. Some Shintoscholars started to argue that Buddhas were previous incarnations of Shinto gods,thus turning the position of Shintoism and Buddhism upside down. Shinto andBuddhism were officially separated after the Meiji Restoration.

Islam

“If you desire to see the most noble of mankind, look at the king in beggar’sclothing; it is he whose sanctity is great among men.”—Abdul Atahiya, Arab Poet.

The Buddhist monastic class flowed into what came to be called Islamicmonasticism — Sufism — which has given many poets and scientists to both Islamand the world. The Qalandariyah Sufi Order, a Muslim mystical movement, attractedmany Buddhist monks. This order arose in 9th century as a result of the Malamatiyya,and became established in Khorasan (Eastern Persia) as early in the 11th century.

Ascetic practices within the Sufi philosophy are associated with Buddhism. Thenotion of purification (cleaning one’s soul from all evil things and trying to reachNirvana and to become immortal in Nirvana) plays an important role in Buddhism.The same idea shows itself in the belief of vuslat (communion with God) in Sufiphilosophy. “The mission of the Buddha was quite unique in its character, andtherefore it stands quite apart from the many other religions of the world. Hismission was to bring the birds of idealism flying in the air nearer to the earth,because the food for their bodies belonged to the earth.” —Hazrat Inayat Khan.

The Indian scholar Maulana Abul Kalam Azad proposed in a commentary onthe Qur’an that Siddhartha Gautama is the prophet of Islam Dhu’l-Kifl referred toin Sura 21 and Sura 38 of the Qur’an together with the Biblical characters Ishmael,Idris (Enoch), and Elisha. Azad suggested that the Kifl in Dhu’l-Kifl (Ar: “possessorof a double portion”) is an Arabic pronunciation of Kapilavastu, where the Buddhaspent his early life. Azad did not, however, provide direct historical evidence tosupport his speculation. According to other ancient Muslim scholars Dhu’l-Kifl waseither a righteous man and not a prophet, or he was the prophet called Ezekiel inthe Bible.


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3

Disc iple s of the Buddha

Sariputra

Uariputra (Sanskrit) or Sariputta (Pali); Chinese) R. Shelifu was one of twoprincipal disciples of the Buddha. He became an Arhat renowned for his wisdomand is depicted in the Theravada tradition as one of the most important disciplesof the Buddha. Uariputra came from a brahmin family and had already embarkedon life as a spiritual ascetic when he encountered the teachings of the Buddha.Uariputra had a close friend Mahamaudgalyayana (Pali: Mahamoggallana), anotherwandering ascetic. They both renounced the world on the same day and becamedisciples of the sceptic Sanjaya Belatthiputta before converting to Buddhism.

After hearing of the Buddha’s teachings from a monk named Assaji (Sanskrit:Auvajit), Uariputra sought out the Buddha and became an adherent to his teachings.These two are often depicted together with the Buddha, and several sutras regardinteractions between Uariputra and Mahamaudgalyayana (who became renownedamong the early Buddhists for his mastery of supernatural powers).

In one somewhat comical scene involving the two friends, a mischievous yakca(Pali: yakkha) decides that it will attempt to irritate Uariputra by striking him onthe head. Mahamaudgalyayana sees this occurring with his ‘divine eye’ (a clairvoyant-like faculty often attributed to powerful Buddhist monks, as well as other SouthAsian ascetics), and unsuccessful attempts to warn Uariputra. However, due to hisgreat spiritual mastery, Uariputra perceives the terrible blow that the yakkhadelivers as only a light breeze. Mahamaudgalyayana approaches and expresses hisamazement that Uariputra barely noticed the terrible blow; Uariputra replies inkind, amazed at the fact that Mahamaudgalyayana was able to perceive the invisiblecreature that dealt the blow.

Uariputra was older than the Buddha and died shortly before him, an eventthat apparently caused great distress to Ananda, the Buddha’s cousin and personalattendant. The Buddha gave a eulogy. He was noted for his compassion, patience

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and humility. Uariputra often preached with the Buddha’s approval and was awardedthe title of ‘General of the Dharma’ (Pali: Dhammasenapati) for his propagation ofthe faith and is regarded of the founder of the Abhidharma tradition. Uariputra wasone of the most highest praised disciples and in the Anupada Sutta, the Buddhadeclared him to be a true spiritual son and His chief assistant in “turning the Wheelof the Dhamma”.

If one could ever say rightly of one that he is the Blessed One’s true son, bornof His speech, born of the Dhamma, formed of the :Dhamma, heir to the Dhamma(not heir to worldly benefit), it is of Sariputta that one could thus rightly declare.

After me, O monks, Sariputta rightly turns the Supreme Wheel of the Dhammaeven as I have turned it.”

While depictions of Uariputra in the Pali canon are uniformly positive, showingUariputra as a wise and powerful arhat, second only to the Buddha, his depictionin Mahayana sources has often been much less flattering. In the Vimalakirtinirdeua-sutra and the Lotus Sutra, Uariputra is depicted as the voice of the less sophisticatedHinayana or uravaka tradition. He is unable to readily grasp the Mahayana doctrinespresented by Vimalakirti and others, and is rebuked or defeated in debate by anumber of interlocutors, including a female deity (deva) who frustrates Uariputra’s‘Hinayana’ assumptions regarding gender and form.

A dialogue between Uariputra and Avalokiteœvara is the context of the HeartSutra, a brief but essential text in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition as practicedin Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan.

Ma udgalya ya na

Maudgalyayana also known as Mahamaudgalyayana or Mahamoggallana, wasone of the Buddha Shakyamuni’s closest disciples. A contemporary of famous arhatssuch as Subhuti, Sariputra, and Mahakasyapa, he is considered the second of thetwo foremost disciples of the Buddha, together with Sariputta.

Moggallana was most accomplished of all the Buddha’s disciples in the varioussupernatural powers. These abilities included being able to use mind-reading forsuch things as detecting lies from truths, transporting himself from his body intothe various realms of existence, speaking with ghosts and gods. He was also ableto do things like walking through walls, walking on water, flying through the air,and moving with a speed comparable to the speed of light.

Varying accounts in the Pali Canon show Maudgalyayana speaking with thedeceased in order to explain to them their horrific conditions and give theman understanding of their own suffering, so that they may be released from it orcome to terms with it. Moggallana was able to use his powers of mind-reading inorder to give good and fitting advice to his students, so they could attain resultsquickly.


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De ath: The Arhat’s Karma

Maudgalyayana’s demise came when he was travelling in Magadha. Someaccounts put forth that religious cultists stoned him to death, others say it wasrobbers. The general consensus is that he was killed in a brutal fashion. When askedwhy Maudgalyayana had not protected himself, and why a great arhat would suffersuch a death, the Buddha said that because Maugalyayana had contracted suchkarma in a previous life (he had murdered his innocent parents in a previous life),he had resigned himself to accept his fate and expedite such a death, that it wouldbe done with as soon as possible. Further, the Buddha stated that even supernaturalpowers will be of little or no use to oneself in avoiding their karma, especially whenit is so heavy.

Maha Mo g g allana The ra

The second of the Chief Disciples of the Buddha. He was born in Kolitagamanear Rajagaha, on the same day as Sariputta (they were both older than theBuddha), and was called Kolita after his village. His mother was a brahminee calledMoggali (Moggallani), and his father was the chief, householder of the village.Moggallana’s and Sariputta’s families had maintained an unbroken friendship forseven generations, and so the children were friends from their childhood. Sariputtahad five hundred golden palanquins and Moggallana five hundred carriages drawnby thoroughbreds. One day the two friends went together to see a mime play(giraggasamajja), and there, realizing the impermanence of things, decided to renouncethe world. They first lived as disciples of Sanjaya, and then wandered all overJambudipa, discussing with all learned men, but finding no satisfaction. Then theyseparated, after agreeing that whoever first succeeded in finding what they soughtshould inform the other.

Sariputta and Mahamo g g allana

After some time, Sariputta, wandering about in Rajagaha, met Assaji, wasconverted by him to the faith of the Buddha, and became a sotapanna. He foundMoggallana and repeated the stanza he had heard from Assaji (ye dhammahetuppabhava, etc.), and Moggallana also became a sotapanna. The two then resolvedto visit the Buddha at Veluvana, after an unsuccessful attempt to persuade Sanjayato accompany them. Sanjaya’s disciples, however, five hundred in number, agreedto go, and they all arrived at Veluvana. The Buddha preached to them, and ordainedthem by the “ehi bhikkhu pabbajja.” All became arahants except Sariputta andMoggallana. Moggallana went to the hamlet of Kallavala in Magadha, and there,on the seventh day after his ordination, drowsiness overcame him as he sat meditating.The Buddha knew this, and appearing before him, exhorted him to be zealous. Thatvery day he attained arahantship.

On the day that Sariputta and Moggallana were ordained, the Buddha announcedin the assembly of monks that he had assigned to them the place of Chief Disciples


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and then recited the Patimokkha. The monks were offended that newcomers shouldbe shown such great honour. But the Buddha told them how these two had for awhole asankheyya and one hundred thousand years strenuously exerted themselvesto win this great eminence under him. They had made the first resolve in the timeof Anomadassi Buddha. Moggallana had been a householder, named Sirivaddha, andSariputta a householder, called Sarada. Sarada gave away his immense wealth andbecame an ascetic. The Buddha visited him in his hermitage, where Sarada and hisseventy four thousand pupils showed him great honour. Anomadassi’s chief disciple,Nisabha, gave thanks, and Sarada made a vow that he would become the chiefdisciple of some future Buddha. Anomadassi saw that his wish would be fulfilledand told him so.

After the Buddha’s departure, Sarada went to Sirivaddka, and, announcing theBuddha’s prophecy, advised Sirivaddha to wish for the place of second disciple.Acting on this advice, Sirivaddha made elaborate preparations and entertained theBuddha and his monks for seven days. At the end of that time, he announced hiswish to the Buddha, who declared that it would be fulfilled. From that time, thetwo friends, in that and subsequent births, engaged in good deeds.

Sariputta and Moggallana are declared to be the ideal disciples, whose exampleothers should try to follow. In the Saccavibhanga Sutta the Buddha thus distinguishesthese “twin brethren” from the others: “Sariputta is as she who brings forth andMoggallana is as the nurse of what is brought forth; Sariputta trains in the fruitsof conversion, Moggallana trains in the highest good. Sariputta is able to teach andmake plain the four Noble Truths; Moggallana, on the other hand, teaches by hisiddhi-patihariya.” Moggallana’s pre eminence lay in his possession of iddhi power.He could create a living shape innumerable times and could transfer himself intoany shape at will. Thag.vs.1183; he is recorded as saying that he could crush Sinerulike a kidney bean, and, rolling the earth like a mat between his fingers, could makeit rotate like a potter’s wheel, or could place the earth on Sineru like an umbrellaon its stand. When the Buddha and his monks failed to get alms in Veranja,Moggallana offered to turn the earth upside down, so that the essence of the earth,which lay on the under surface, might serve as food. He also offered to open a wayfrom Nalerupu-cimanda to Uttarakuru, that the monks might easily go there foralms; but this offer was refused by the Buddha.

Several instances are given of this special display of iddhi. Once, at the Buddha’srequest, with his great toe he shook the Migaramatupasada, and made it rattle inorder to terrify some monks who sat in the ground floor of the building, talkingloosely and frivolously, regardless even of the fact that the Buddha was in the upperstorey.

On another occasion, when Moggallana visited Sakka to find out if he hadprofited by the Buddha’s teaching, he found him far too proud and obsessed by thethought of his own splendour. He thereupon shook Sakka’s palace, Vejayanta, till


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Sakka’s hair stood on end with fright and his pride was humbled. Again, Moggallanais mentioned as visiting the Brahma world in order to help the Buddha in quellingthe arrogance of Baka Brahma. He himself questioned Baka in solemn conclave inthe Sudhamma-Hall in the Brahma world and made him confess his conviction thathis earlier views were erroneous. Thag.vs.1198; Thaga.ii.185; S. i.144f. ; other visitsof his to the Brahma world are also recorded when he held converse with TissaBrahma.

In the Maratajjaniya Sutta we are told how Mara worried Moggallana byentering into his belly, but Moggallana ordered him out and told him how he himselfhad once been a Mara named Dusi whose sister Kali was the mother of the presentMara. Dusi incited the householders against Kakusandha Buddha and was, as aresult, born in purgatory.

But, according to the Commentaries, Moggallana’s greatest exhibition of iddhipower was the subjugation of the Naga Nandopananda. No other monk could havesurvived the ordeal because no other was able to enter so rapidly into the fourthjhana; which was the reason why the Buddha would give permission to no othermonk but Moggallana to quell the Naga’s pride. Similar, in many ways, was hissubjection of the Naga who lived near the hermitage of Aggidatta. Moggallana couldsee, without entering into any special state of mind, petas and other spirits invisibleto the ordinary mortal eye. He would visit various worlds and bring back to theBuddha reports of their inhabitants, which the Buddha used in illustration of hissermons. The Vimanavatthu contains a collection of stories of such visits, and weare told that Moggallana’s visits to the deva worlds-e.g., that to Tavatimsa were verywelcome to the devas.

Though Moggallana’s pre eminence was in iddhi power, yet in wisdom, too, hewas second only to Sariputta. These two could answer questions within the rangeof no other disciple of the Buddha. The Buddha paid a compliment to Moggallana’spowers of preaching, when, having preached himself to the Sakyans in their newMote Hall at Kapilavatthu, he asked Moggallana, after their departure, to talk tothe monks, as he himself was weary. And Moggallana spoke to them of lusts andof the means of getting rid of them. At the end of the sermon the Buddha praisedhim warmly. Mention is made elsewhere of eloquent sermons preached by him onthe jhanas, on qualities which lead to true emancipation, and of visits paid to himby Sakka in company with numerous other gods in order to hear him preach. Otherdevas also went to hear him-e.g., Candana, Suyama, Santusita, Sunimitta andVasavatti. He was also consulted by those, such as Vacchagotta, and Vappa, eagerto learn from him the teachings of the Buddha. When the Buddha went to preachthe Abhidhamma in Tavatimsa, it was to Moggallana that he entrusted the taskof preaching to the people who were waiting for his return. Moggallana, therefore,provided for these people spiritually, while Anathapindika looked after their bodilyneeds. When the time drew near for the Buddha’s return, Moggallana, at the request


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of the people, went to Tavatimsa, diving into the earth and climbing Sineru, in fullview of them all, in order to find out what the Buddha intended doing, so that thepeople might be kept informed. No task, which he might be told by the Buddha toperform, seemed to Moggallana too insignificant. Thus we find him employed by theBuddha as messenger to the arahant Uggasena, telling him that the Buddha wishedto see him. He was also sent to Sakkhara, to Macchariya Kosiya, to check hismiserliness and bring him to Jetavana; and to Silava, whom Ajatasattu was plottingto kill. When Visakha was building the Migaramatupasada and the Buddha wasaway on one of his journeys, Moggallana, because of his iddhi power, and fivehundred monks were left to supervise the work, which was carried through withoutdifficulty. The Buddha placed great faith in his two chief disciples and looked to themto keep the Order pure. There is one instance recorded of Moggallana seizing awicked monk, thrusting outside and bolting the door. Once, when a monk chargedSariputta with having offended him as he was about to start on a journey, Moggallanaand Ananda went from lodging to lodging to summon the monks that they mighthear Sariputta vindicate himself.

Their fame had reached even to the Brahma world, for we find Tudu Brahmasinging their praises, much to the annoyance of the Kokalika monk. When Devadattacreated a schism among the monks and took five hundred of them to Gayasisa, theBuddha sent Sariputta and Moggallana to bring them back. They were successfulin this mission. Kakudha Koliyaputta, once servant of Moggallana and later bornin a huge manomayakaya, had warned Moggallana of Devadatta’s intrigues againstthe Buddha, but the Buddha ignored this information carried to him by Moggallana.When Rahula, the Buddha’s son, was ordained, Sariputta was his preceptor andMoggallana his teacher. Moggallana seems to have carried out diligently the chargelaid on him by the Buddha of looking after the monks’ welfare. Among the verses,attributed to him in the Theragatha, are several containing exhortations to hiscolleagues; some of the colleagues are mentioned by name-e.g., Tissa, Vaddhamanaand Potthila. Elsewhere mention is made of his living at Kalasila, with a companyof five hundred monks, watching over them and discovering that all were arahants.Vangisa witnessed this and praised Moggallana in verse before the Buddha.

The love existing between Moggallana and Sariputta was mutual, as was theadmiration. Sariputta’s verses in praise of Moggallana are even more eloquent thanthose of Moggallana in praise of Sariputta. Their strongest bond was the love of eachfor the Buddha; when away from him, they would relate to each other how they hadbeen conversing with him by means of the divine ear and the divine eye. E.g.,S.ii.275ff.; Moggallana elsewhere also tells the monks of a conversation he held withthe Buddha by means of these divine powers. For another discussion betweenSariputta and Moggallana.

In the Mahagosinga Sutta we find them staying in the Gosingasalavana in thecompany of Maha Kassapa, Ananda, Revata and Anuruddha, engaged in friendly


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discussion, referring their conclusions to the Buddha for his opinion. Sariputta,Moggallana, and Anuruddha are again mentioned as staying in the Ketakivana inSaketa. Among discussions between Anuruddha and Moggallana is recorded one inwhich Anuruddha speaks of the value of cultivating the four satipatthanas. It seemsto have been usual for Sariputta and Moggallana, in their journeys, to travel togetherat the head of the monks, and lay disciples, who gave alms to the monks, wereanxious to include them in their invitations. Velukandaki in Dakkhinagiri; andCittagahapati in Macchikasanda.

Moggallana died before the Buddha, Sariputta dying before either. TheTheragatha contains several verses attributed to Moggallana regarding Sariputta’sdeath. Sariputta died on the full moon day of Kattika and Moggallana two weekslater, on the new moon day.

According to the Commentaries his death resulted from a plot of the Niganthas.Moggallana used to visit various worlds and return with his report that he haddiscovered that those who followed the Buddha’s teaching reached happy worlds,while the followers of the heretics were reborn in woeful conditions. These statementsdiminished the number of the heretics and they bribed brigands to kill Moggallana.They surrounded the Elder’s cell in Kalasila, but he, aware of their intentions,escaped through the keyhole. On six successive days this happened; on the seventh,they caught him and beat him, crushing his bones and leaving him for dead. Havingrecovered consciousness, with a great effort of will, he dragged himself to the Buddhain order to take his leave, and there he died, to the sorrow of the deva worlds. Thissad death is said to have been the result of a sin committed by him in a previousbirth. Acting on the instigation of his wife, he had taken his blind parents into aforest, where, pretending that they were attacked by thieves, he had beaten themto death. For this deed he suffered in hell for innumerable years, and in his lastbirth lost his life by violence.

Mo g g allana in the Mahayana Sutras

The Ullambana Sutra is the main Mahayana Sutra in which Maudgalyayanais mentioned. The sutra covers the topic of filial piety, and was a discourse givento Maudgalyayana by the Sakyamuni Buddha. Of particular popularity in Japan,Ullambana is the foundation for Obon, which has striking similarities to Confucianand Neo-Confucian ideals in that it deals with ancestor worship. It is for this reasonthat Ullambana is often subject to criticism, and has often been called inauthenticbecause its Confucian leanings are often at odds with other Buddhist teachings.

Ananda

Ananda was one of many principal disciples and a devout attendant of theBuddha. He was renowned as the Guardian of the Dharma. The word ‘Ananda’means ‘bliss’ in Sanskrit and is quite often part of Hindu monastic names.


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Ananda was the first cousin of the Buddha, and was devoted to him. In thetwentieth year of the Buddha’s ministry, he became his personal attendant,accompanying him on most of his wanderings and taking the part of interlocutorin many of the recorded dialogues. He is the subject of a special panegyric deliveredby the Buddha just before his death (the Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Digha Nikaya 16));it is a panegyric for a man who is kindly, unselfish, popular, and thoughtful towardothers.

In view of the abundance of praise, recognition and privileges Ananda received,mutterings of envy and resentment might have been expected, but this was not thecase at all. Ananda was so occupied subordinating his entire life to the Dhammathat fame had no influence over him. He knew that all that was good in him wasdue to the influence of the Teaching, and so avoided pride. One who is never proudhas no enemies and is not the subject of envy. If someone turns inward completelyand keeps away from any social contact, as Ananda’s brother Anuruddha did, thenit is also easy to be without enemies. But Ananda had daily contact with a largenumber of people with regard to diverse matters, yet he had no enemies or rivals,and his relationships with others were without conflict or tension.

In the long list of the disciples given in the Anguttara where each of them isdeclared to be the chief in some quality, Ananda is mentioned five times (more oftenthan any other). He was named chief in conduct, in service to others, and in powerof memory. The Buddha sometimes asked him to substitute for him as teacher andthen later stated that he himself would not have presented the teachings in anyother way.

Because he attended the Buddha personally and often travelled with him,Ananda overheard and memorized many of the discourses the Buddha delivered tovarious audiences. Therefore, he is often called the disciple of the Buddha who “heardmuch”. At the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after the Buddha died,Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the SuttaPitaka of the Pali Canon.

Despite his long association with and close proximity to the Buddha, Anandawas only a stream-winner prior to the Buddha’s death. During the period he wasthe Buddha’s attendant, though he was still a “learner” and “one in the highertraining”, no thoughts of lust or hate arose in him; this is seen as implying thathis close connection with the Buddha and his devotion to him gave no room for these.

Prior to the First Buddhist Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permittedto attend on the grounds that he was not yet an arahant. According to legend, thisprompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of nibbana and he was ableto reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave.

In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the Pali Canon, Ananda is presentedas an imperfect, if sympathetic. He mourns the deaths of both Sariputta, with whom


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he enjoyed a close friendship, and the Buddha. A verse of the Theragatha revealshis loneliness and isolation following the parinirvana of the Buddha.

In the Zen tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch.He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside Mahakashyapa, the first Indianpatriarch.

Ma ha kasya pa

Mahakauyapa or Kauyapa was a brahman of Magadha, who became one of theprincipal disciples of Uakyamuni Buddha and who convened and directed the firstcouncil. Mahakauyapa is one of the most revered of the Buddha’s early disciples.He is often depicted in statuary together with Ananda, each standing to one sideof the Buddha.

According to the legendary history of the Chan and Zen schools, Mahakauyapareceived the Dharma directly from Buddha at the flower sermon on Vulture Peak,where Buddha silently held a flower before his students. A monk named Kauyapasmiled. The Buddha remarked that Kauyapa alone of all his students had receivedhis teaching for that day, and should thereafter be known as Mahakauyapa.

According to Chinese legend, the lecherous monk and Taoist god Ji Gong is areincarnation of Mahakauyapa.

Upa li

Upali was a monk in the order of Buddha. Before joining the order, its interestingto note he worked as a barber. He asked if a person of “low birth” such as he couldjoin the order, Buddha on purpose ordained him before the princes and asked theprinces to pay homage to Upali, who by then had become an Arhant with Buddha’ssermons while Buddha was getting a hair cut. He became the Chief disciple inknowing the rules of the order and the foremost disciple in keeping precepts.

Upali Thera One of the most eminent of the Buddha’s immediate disciples. Hebelonged to a barber’s family in Kapilavatthu and entered the service of the Sakiyanprinces. When Anuruddha and his cousins left the world and sought ordination fromthe Buddha at Anupiya Grove, Upali accompanied them. They gave him all theirvaluable ornaments, but, on further consideration, he refused to accept them andwished to become a monk with them. The reason given for his refusal is that heknew the Sakyans were hot-headed, and feared that the kinsmen of the princesmight suspect him of having murdered the young men for the sake of their belongings.

At the request of the Sakiyan youths, the Buddha ordained Upali before themall, so that their pride might be humbled.

Upali’s upajjhaya was Kappitaka. When Upali went to the Buddha for anexercise for meditation, he asked that he might be allowed to dwell in the forest.But the Buddha would not agree, for if Upali went into the forest he would learn


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only meditation, while, if he remained amongst men, he would have knowledge bothof meditation and of the word of the Dhamma. Upali accepted the Buddha’s adviceand, practising insight, in due course won arahantship. The Buddha himself taughtUpali the whole of the Vinaya Pitaka.

In the assembly of the Sangha, the Buddha declared him to be the mostproficient of those who were learned in the Vinaya (vinayadharanam). He is oftenspoken of as having reached the pinnacle of the Vinaya, or as being its chiefrepository (Vinaye agganikkhitto), and three particular cases-those of Ajjuka, theBharukacchaka monk (Vin.iii.39) and Kumara-Kassapa-are frequently mentioned inthis connection as instances where Upali’s decisions on Vinaya rules earned thespecial commendation of the Buddha. In the Rajagaha Council, Upali took a leadingpart, deciding all the questions relative to the Vinaya, in the same way as Anandadecided questions regarding the Dhamma.

In accordance with this tradition, ascribing to Upali especial authority regardingthe rules of the Order, various instances are given of Upali questioning the Buddhaabout the Vinaya regulations. Thus we find him consulting the Buddha as to thelegality or otherwise of a complete congregation performing, in the absence of anaccused monk, an act at which his presence is required. Again, he wishes to knowif, in a matter which has caused altercations and schisms among members of theOrder, the Sangha declares re-establishment of concord without thoroughinvestigation, could such a declaration be lawful?. When a monk intends to take uponhimself the conduct of any matter that has to be decided, under what conditionsshould he do so? What qualities should a monk possess in himself before he takesupon himself to warn others?. In what case can there be an interruption of theprobationary period of a monk who has been placed on probation?

A whole list of questions asked by Upali and answers given by the Buddha onmatters pertaining to the Vinaya rules is found in the chapter called Upali-Pancakain the Parivara.

It is not possible to determine which of these and other questions were actuallyasked by Upali, and which were ascribed to him on account of his traditionalreputation.

It is said that even in the Buddha’s lifetime monks considered it a great privilegeto learn the Vinaya under Upali. The monks seem to have regarded Upali as theirparticular friend, to whom they could go in their difficulties. Thus, when certainmonks had been deprived by thieves of their clothes, it is Upali’s protection thatthey seek.

The canon contains but few records of any discourses connected with Upali,apart from his questions on the Vinaya. In the Anguttara Nikaya he is mentionedas asking the Buddha for a brief sermon, the Buddha telling him that if there wereanything that did not conduce to revulsion and detachment, Upali could be sure that


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such things did not form part of the Buddha’s teaching. There is a record of anothersermon which the Buddha is stated to have preached when Upali expressed thedesire to retire into the solitude of the forest. The Buddha tells him that forest-lifeis not for the man who has not mastered his mind or attained to tranquillity.

Three verses are ascribed to Upali in the Theragathawhere he admonishes thebrethren to seek noble friends of unfaltering character, to learn the monks’ code ofdiscipline and to dwell in solitude.

In the time of Padumuttara, Upali was a very rich brahmin named Sujata. Whenthe Buddha came to his father’s city in order to preach to him the Dhamma, Sujatasaw him, and in the assembly be noticed an ascetic named Sunanda, holding overthe Buddha for seven days a canopy of flowers. The Buddha declared that Sunandawould, in the time of Gautama Buddha, become famous as the Elder Punna Mantani-putta. Sujata, too, wished to seethe future Buddha Gautama, and having heardPadumuttara praise the monk Patika as chief of the Vinayadharas, he wished tohear, regarding himself, a similar declaration from Gautama. With this end in viewhe did many deeds of merit, chief of which was the erection of a monastery namedSobhana, for the Buddha and his monks, at an expense of one hundred thousand.

As a result he was born in heaven for thirty thousand kappas and was onethousand times king of the devas. One thousand times, too, he was cakkavatti.

Two kappas ago there was a Khattiya named Anjasa, and Upali was born ashis son Sunanda. One day he went to the park riding an elephant named Sirika,and met, on the way, the Pacceka Buddha Devala, whom he insulted in various ways.Sunanda was, thereupon, seized with a sensation of great heat in his body, and itwas not till he went with a large following to the Pacceka Buddha and asked hispardon that the sensation left him. It is said that if the Buddha had not forgivenhim, the whole country would have been destroyed. This insult paid to the PaccekaBuddha was the cause of Upali having been born as a barber in his last birth.

Buddhaghosa says that while the Buddha was yet alive Upali drew up certaininstructions according to which future Vinayadharas should interpret Vinaya rules,and that, in conjunction with others, he compiled explanatory notes on mattersconnected with the Vinaya.

In direct pupillary succession to Upali as head of the Vinayadharas was Dasaka,whom Upali had first met at the Valikarama, where Upali was staying. Upali taughthim the whole of the Vinaya.

Angulima la

Angulimala is an important early figure in Buddhism, particularly within theTheravada school. Depicted in the suttas as a ruthless killer who is redeemed byconversion to Buddhism, his story is seen as an example of the redemptive powerof the Buddha’s teaching and the universal human potential for spiritual progress.


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Te xtual So urc e s

Two texts in the Pali canon concern themselves with Angulimala’s initialencounter with the Buddha and his conversion. The first is the Theragatha, verses866-91, and the second is the Angulimala Sutta in the Majjhima Nikaya. Both offera fairly short description of Angulimala’s encounter with the Buddha, and omit muchof the background information later incorporated into the story (such as Angulimalabeing placed under an oath by a jealous teacher). These later additions-which appearin the sutta commentaries attributed to Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala (the MajjhimaNikaya commentary known as the Papancasudani (Ps) and the Therigathacommentary Paramattha-dipani (Pad), respectively)-may represent attempts by latercommentators to “rehabilitate” the character of Angulimala-making him appear asa fundamentally good human being entrapped by circumstance, rather than as avicious killer. The sutta texts themselves do not provide for any motive for Angulimala’sactions, other than pure sadism.

The Sto ry

Early Life

A robber who was converted by the Buddha in the twentieth year of his ministry,and who, later, became an arahant. He was born under the thieves’ constellation,and on the night of his birth all the armour in the town shone, including thatbelonging to the king. Because this omen did no harm to anyone the babe was namedAhimsaka. The Thag. Cy. says he was first called Himsaka and then Ahimsaka. AtTakkasila (Taxila) he became a favourite at the teacher’s house, but his jealousfellow-students poisoned his teacher’s mind, and the latter, bent on his destruction,asked as his Guru-Dakshina (honorarium) a thousand human right-hand fingers.Thereupon Ahimsaka waylaid travellers in the Jalini forest in Kosala and killedthem, taking a finger from each. The finger-bones thus obtained he made into agarland to hang round his neck, hence the name Angulimala (Anguli-Finger, Mala-Garland).

According to the sutta and commentarial texts, omens seen at the time ofAngulimala’s birth (the flashing of weapons in the city, and the appearance of the‘constellation of thieves’ in the sky) indicated that Angulimala would become arobber. Angulimala’s father, the Brahmin chaplain to the king of Kosala, named himAhimsaka (“harmless”-derived from the Sanskrit and Pali word Ahimsa), as anattempt to deter the dark fate predicted at his birth (Pad indicates that he wasinitially named Himsaka (“harmful”), but that the name was later changed).

Angulimala was sent to Taxila to study under a well-known Brahmin guru.There he excelled in his studies and became the teachers’ favourite student, enjoyingspecial privileges in his teachers’ house. However, the other students grew jealousof Ahimsaka’s speedy progress and sought to turn his master against him. To thatend, they made it seem as though Ahimsaka had seduced the master’s wife and


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boasted that he was wiser than the guru. Unwilling or unable to attack Ahimsakadirectly (Pad states that Ahimsaka was as “strong as seven elephants”, while Ps

states that the teacher worried that his business would suffer if he was found tohave murdered a student, the teacher said that Ahimsaka’s training was complete,but that he must provide the traditional final gift offered to a guru before the teacherwould grant his approval. As his payment, the teacher demanded 1,000 fingers, eachtaken from a different victim, thinking that Angulimala would be killed in the courseof seeking this grisly prize (Pad states that Angulimala was required to fetch 1,000fingers from right hands, seemingly unaware that this could be achieved by killing200 people. Ps states, even more strangely, that he was told to “kill a thousand legs”,and gathered fingers only as an aid to keeping an accurate count).

Sources indicate that one of his motivations may have been the unquestioningobedience to the guru-an echo of the higher principles governing his earlier life. Buttradition reports that it was probably his innate disposition to violence. In hisprevious life, he was a Yakkha-a man-eating spirit with superhuman strength. Theguru’s instructions may have also aroused a strange attraction for killing, or couldbe seen as a challenge to his manly prowess. It was reported that in all his pastlives, two traits were prominent: his physical strength and his lack of compassion.

It is also suggested that he was in fact cast out of his Guru’s house, brandinghim an outcast among Brahmins. Being unable to find acceptance anywhere, heturned to brigandry, murdering pilgrims and traders passing through the wilderness,and collecting a finger each from their right hands.

Life as a Hig hway Murde re r

Ahimsaka became a highwayman, killing travellers who passed through theforest. When the people of the kingdom began to avoid the roads, he entered thevillages and dragged people from their homes. He never took clothes or jewels fromhis victims, only fingers. To keep count of the number of victims that he had taken,he strung them on a thread and hung them on a tree. However because birds beganto eat the flesh from the fingers, he started to wear them around his neck as agarland. Thus he came to be known as Angulimala (“garland (or necklace) offingers”). As a result of his deeds whole villages were deserted, and the king ordereda detachment of men to seize the bandit, whose name nobody knew. But Angulimala’smother, guessing the truth, started off to warn him. By now he lacked but one fingerto complete his thousand, and seeing his mother coming he determined to kill her.But the Buddha, seeing his upanissaya, went himself to the wood, travelling thirtyyojanas, and intercepted Angulimala on his way to slay his mother. Angulimala wasconverted by the Buddha’s power and received the “ehi bhikkhu pabbajja” while thepopulace were yelling at the king’s palace for the robber’s life. Later, the Buddhapresented him before King Pasenadi when the latter came to Jetavana, and Pasenadi,filled with wonder, offered to provide the monk with all requisites. Angulimala,however, had taken on the dhutangas and refused the king’s offer.


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Me e ting the Buddha

Villagers petitioned the king of Kosala, who vowed to hunt down Angulimala.Fearing for her son’s life, Angulimala’s mother set out to find him and warn himof the king’s intent. The Buddha perceived with his “divine eye” (faculty of clairvoyance)that Angulimala had slain 999 victims, and was desperately seeking a thousandth.If the Buddha encountered Angulimala that day, he would become a monk andsubsequently attain Nirvana. If Angulimala encountered his mother instead, hewould slay her as his thousandth victim and fall into hell for millennia as a matricide.

The Buddha set off to intercept Angulimala, despite being warned by the peopleof the village in which he was staying. On the road through the forest of Kosala,Angulimala first saw his mother who came to warn him of the impending arrivalof the kings’ army. Angulimala, after some deliberation, decided to make her his1000th victim. But then when Buddha also arrived, he chose to kill him instead.He drew his sword, and started running towards the Buddha. But although Angulimalawas running as fast as he could, he couldn’t catch up with the Buddha who waswalking calmly, but who also was using his psychic powers to stay ahead of Angulimala.This bewildered Angulimala so much that he stopped in his tracks, and told theBuddha to stop. The Buddha said that he himself had already stopped, and thatAngulimala should stop also. Angulimala asked for further explanation, after whichthe Buddha said that he had stopped harming living beings a long time ago, andthat Angulimala was still harming and hurting living beings. After hearing this,Angulimala changed his ways, vowed to cease his life as a brigand and joined theBuddhist order.

Ang ulimala the Mo nk

Later, King Pasenadi (the king of Kosala) set out to find and kill Angulimala.He stopped first to pay a visit to the Buddha and his followers at the monasterywhere they dwelled. He explained to the Buddha his purpose, and the Buddha askedhow the king would respond if he were to discover that Angulimala had given upthe life of a highwayman and become a monk. The king said that he would salutehim and offer to provide for him in his monastic vocation. The Buddha then revealedthat Angulimala sat only a few feet away, his hair and beard shaven off, a memberof the Buddhist order. The king, astounded, offered to donate robe materials toAngulimala, and then returned to his palace.

Later, Angulimala came across a young woman undergoing a difficult labour.He went to the Buddha and asked him what he could do to ease her pain. The Buddhatold Angulimala to go to the woman and say:

‘Sister, since I was born I do not recall intentionally killing a living being.Through this truth may there be wellbeing for you, wellbeing for your fetus.’

Angulimala pointed out that it would be untrue for him to say this (it is unclearwhy the Buddha even suggested this course of action; it seems unlikely that the


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Buddha did not realise to whom he was speaking. Perhaps he was testing Angulimala’shonesty.) The Buddha offered a revised stanza to recite to the woman:

‘Sister, since I was born with the noble birth (became a monk), I do not recallintentionally killing a living being. Through this truth may there be wellbeing foryou, wellbeing for your fetus.’

After Angulimala delivered this benediction, the woman safely gave birth to herchild. This verse, commonly called the Angulimala paritta, continues to be recitedat the blessings of houses or pregnant women in Theravada countries.

This helped Angulimala focus his mind on his basic meditation subject. Before,there would always appear in his mind’s eye, the place in the jungle where he hadslain so many people. After performing the Act of Truth, he was seen to bring safetyto people and people started to approach him and provide him with almsfood.

At last, his earlier name Ahimsaka fully befitted him. Most of the people hadgained full confidence in his inner transformation and there was no lack of supportfor him.

However a resentful few could not forget that he was responsible for the deathsof their loved ones. Unable to win revenge through the law, they took matters intotheir own hands. With sticks and stones, they attacked him as he walked for alms.

With a bleeding head, torn outer robe and a broken alms bowl, Angulimalamanaged to return to the monastery. The Buddha encouraged Angulimala to bearhis torment with equanimity; he indicated that Angulimala was experiencing thefruits of the karma that would otherwise have condemned him to hell. This illustratesthe Buddhist belief that while the effects of karma are inescapable, the form thatthey take and the schedule on which they occur can be modified by later actions— in this case, Angulimala experienced physical suffering during the course of hislast life, rather than experiencing torment in another birth for a much longer periodof time.

Being an arahant, Angulimala remained firm and invulnerable in mind andheart. But his body, the symbol and fruit of previous kamma was still exposed tothe effects of his former evil deeds. As an arahant, he needed no words of consolation,but a reminder of the kammic concatenation of cause and effect, which still has tobe endured until the end.

When he entered Savatthi for alms, he was attacked by the mob, but on theadmonition of the Buddha, endured their wrath as penance for his former misdeeds.

According to the Dhammapadatthakatha he appears to have died soon after hejoined the Order.

There is a story of how he eased a woman’s labour pains by an act of truth.The words he used in this saccakiriya have come to be regarded as a paritta to wardoff all dangers and constitute the Angulimala Paritta. The water that washed the


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stone on which he sat in the woman’s house came to be regarded as a panacea. Inthe Angulimala Sutta he is addressed by Pasenadi as Gagga Mantaniputta, hisfather being a Gagga. The story is evidently a popular one and occurs also in theAvadana Sataka (No.27).

At the Kosala king’s Asadisadana, an untamed elephant, none other beingavailable, was used to bear the parasol over Angulimala. The elephant remainedperfectly still-such was Angulimala’s power.

The conversion of Angulimala is often referred to as a most compassionate andwonderful act of the Buddha’s, e.g. in the Sutasoma Jataka which was preachedconcerning him. The story of Angulimala is quoted as that of a man in whose casea beneficent kamma arose and destroyed former evil kamma.

It was on his account that the rule not to ordain a captured robber was enacted.

Me aning s and Inte rpre tatio ns

To the Theravada and Mahayana, Angulimala’s story serves as an example thateven the worst of people can undo the faults in their beings and return to the rightpath. The Theosophical viewpoint on this story is similar, and also includes thatKarma must be repaid, but it is up to the individual as to how they react to theirkarma that will determine the change in their character. Even though Angulimalahad repented and was enlightened, he still had to pay the karma of killing so many.He was peaceful and accepted what was done, and was therefore liberated from theWheel of Rebirth.

Angulimala’s story also illustrates the Buddhist belief that individuals can bereformed more readily through compassion than through punishment. As Angulimalasays, “Some prisoners are tamed with punishment of a stick, or a hook or a whip.I was tamed without a stick or a weapon. I was tamed by the kind words of theCompassionate Buddha.”

Richard F. Gombrich, in his paper Who was Angulimala?, has postulated thatthe story of Angulimala may represent an encounter between the Buddha and afollower of an early form of Saivite or Shakti tantra. Gombrich reaches this conclusionon the basis of a number of inconsistencies in the sutta text that indicate possiblecorruption (particularly the failure of the verses in the Theragatha to conform toaccepted Pali metrical schemes), and the fairly weak explanations for Angulimala’sbehaviour provided by the commentators. He notes that there are several otherreferences in the early Pali canon that seem to indicate the presence of devoteesof Siva, Kali, and other divinities associated with sanguinary tantric practices, andthat Angulimala’s behaviour would not be inconsistent with certain violent practicesthat were observed in India by Thuggee-like transgressive cults into recent times.If Gombrich’s thesis could be conclusively proven, it would establish the AngulimalaSutta as likely being the earliest known documentation of tantric practices in SouthAsia, about which very little is known before the 7th century CE.


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Mo de rn Influe nc e s

In 1985, the British-born Theravada monk Venerable Ajahn KhemadhammoMahathera founded ANGULIMALA: The Buddhist Prison Chaplaincy in England.It has been recognized by the British government as the official representative ofthe Buddhist religion in all matters concerning the British prison system, andprovides chaplains, counselling services, and instruction in Buddhism and meditationto prisoners throughout England, Wales, and Scotland.

In 2002, Thai director Suthep Tannirat attempted to release a film entitled‘Ongkulimal’ (the Thai pronunciation of Angulimala) that re-told the story of thefamous monk. Conservative Buddhist organizations in Thailand launched a protest,claiming that the movie distorted Buddhist teachings, and introduced Hindu andtheistic influences not found in the source material.

The Thai film censorship board rejected appeals to ban the film, but insistedthat the director cut some violent material, and re-title the film to distance itfurther from its scriptural sources. Interestingly, what seemed to be most offensiveto many was the fact that the director omitted commentarial information thatdepicted Angulimala as a hapless victim of the actions of others, and insteadportrayed him (as the sutta does) as engaging in his violent behaviour of his ownfree choice.

Suddhipantha ka

Suddhipanthaka was a disciple of the Buddha. He was known for being the mostdim-witted of the Buddha’s disciples, unable to understand the Buddha’s teachings,and almost completely forgetting everything the Buddha said.

According to legend, one day the Buddha assigned him to sweep the ground.After a long time, Suddhipanthaka said “The ground is clean, but is my mind-groundclean?” Thereupon he attained enlightenment.

Kisa Gotami

Kisa Gotami was the wife of a wealthy man of Savatthi. Her story is one of themore famous ones in Buddhism. After losing her only child, Kisa Gotami becamedesperate and asked if anyone can help her. Her sorrow was so great that manythought she had already lost her mind.

Someone told her to meet Buddha. Buddha told her that he would bring thechild back to life if she could get white mustard seeds from a family where no-onehas died. She desperately went from house to house, but to her disappointment,every house had someone who had died. Finally the realization struck her that thereis no house free from death. She returned to the Buddha, who comforted her andpreached to her the truth. She was awakened and entered the first stage of Arhatship.Eventually, she became an Arhat.


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The following Dhammapada verse (in Pali and English) is associated with herstory:

Yo ca vassasatam jeeve

apassam amatam padam,

Ekaaham jeevitam seyyo

passato amatam padam,

Though one should live a hundred years

without seeing the Deathless State,

yet better indeed, is a single day’s life

of one who sees the Deathless State,

In the “Gotami Sutta” (SN 5.3), Bhikkhuni Kisa Gotami declares:

I’ve gotten past the killing of [my] sons,

have made that the end

to [my search for] men,

I don’t grieve,

I don’t weep....

It’s everywhere destroyed — delight,

The mass of darkness is shattered,

Having defeated the army of death,

free of fermentations I dwell.

Mahapajapati Gotami

Mahapajapati Gotami (in Pali; Mahaprajapati Gautami in Sanskrit) was thefirst woman to request ordination from the Buddha and to join the Sangha. She wasboth the Buddha’s aunt and adoptive mother, raising him after her sister, QueenMaya (Mahamaya), the Buddha’s birth mother, died.

Early Life

An eminent Theri, Mahaprajapati (Pajapati) was born at Devadaha, in thefamily of Suppabuddha, as the younger sister of Mahamaya. Mahapajapati was socalled because, at her birth, augerers prophesied that she would have a largefollowing; Gotami was her gotta name. She was predicted by sages to be the onewho causes Buddha to allow women to join his holy order. Ap.ii.538 says her fatherwas Anjana Sakka and her mother Sulakkhana. Mhv.ii.18 says her father wasAnjana and her mother Yasodhara. Dandapani and Suppabuddha were her brothers.At the birth of each sister, interpreters of bodily marks prophesied that the childrenwould be cakkavattins. Both sisters married King Suddhodana, leader of the Uakya.When Mahamaya died, seven days after the birth of the Buddha, Pajapati looked


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after the Buddha and nursed him. She was the mother of Nanda, but it is said thatshe gave her own son to nurses and herself nursed the Buddha. She raised Buddhaand had her own children, Siddhartha’s step brother Nanda and step sister SundariNanda.

Ordinatio n o f the First Wo man

When her husband, Suddhodana, died, Pajapati decided to renounce the world.The Buddha was at Vesali and she waited for an opportunity to ask permission ofhim. Pajapati was already a sotapanna. She attained this eminence when theBuddha first visited his father’s palace and preached the Mahadhammapala Jataka.She was predicted by sages to be the one who causes Buddha to allow women tojoin his holy order. Her opportunity came when the Buddha visited Kapilavatthuto settle the dispute between the Sakiyans and the Koliyans as to the right to takewater from the river Rohini. When the dispute had been settled, the Buddhapreached the Kalahavivada Sutta, and five hundred young Sakiyan men joined theOrder. The Sakiyan wives, led by Pajapati, went to the Buddha and asked leave toalso be ordained. The Buddha refused and went on to Vesali. But Pajapati and hercompanions, nothing daunted, had barbers cut off their hair, and donning yellowrobes, followed the Buddha to Vesali on foot. They arrived with wounded feet at theBuddha’s monastery and repeated their request to ordain as monastics. The Buddhaagain refused, But, Ananda interceded on their behalf and Buddha granted theirrequest, subject to eight strict conditions. There was some question, which aroselater, as to the procedure of Pajapati’s ordination, which was not formal. When thenuns discovered this some of them refused to hold the uposatha with her. But theBuddha declared that he himself had ordained her and that all was in order. Herupasampada consisted in acquiescing in the eight conditions laid down for nuns.

Mahapajapati’s Mo nastic Life

After her ordination, Pajapati came to the Buddha and worshipped him. TheBuddha preached to her and gave her a subject for meditation. With this topic shedeveloped insight and soon after won arahantship, while her five hundred companionsattained the same after listening to the Nandakovada Sutta. Later, at an assemblyof monks and nuns in Jetavana, the Buddha declared Pajapati “Chief of Those Whohad Experience (rattannunam)”. Not long after, while at Vesali, she realized thather life had come to an end. She was one hundred and twenty years old; she tookleave of the Buddha, performed various miracles, and then died, her five hundredcompanions dying with her. It is said that the marvels which attended her cremationrites were second only to those of the Buddha.

Othe r Live s

In the time of Padumuttara Buddha Pajapati resolved to gain eminence. In thatrebirth, she belonged to a clansman’s family in Hamsavati, and, hearing the Buddha


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assign the foremost place in experience to a certain nun, wished for similar recognitionherself, doing many good deeds to that end. After many births she was born oncemore at Benares, forewoman among five hundred slave girls. When the rains drewnear, five Pacceka Buddhas came from to Isipatana seeking lodgings. Pajapati sawthem after the Treasurer had refused them any assistance, and, after consultationwith her fellow slaves, they persuaded their several husbands to erect five huts forthe Pacceka Buddhas during the rainy season and they provided them with allrequisites. At the end of the rains they gave three robes to each Pacceka Buddha.After that she was born in a weaver’s village near Benares, and again ministered,this time to five hundred Pacceka Buddhas, sons of Padumavati.

It is said that once Pajapati made a robe for the Buddha of wonderful materialand marvellously elaborate. But when it came to be offered to the Buddha he refusedit, and suggested it should be given to the Order as a whole. Pajapati was greatlydisappointed, and Ananda intervened. But the Buddha explained that his suggestionwas for the greater good of Pajapati, and also as an example to those who mightwish to make similar gifts in the future. This was the occasion for the preachingof the Dakkhinavibhanga Sutta. The Buddha had a great love for Pajapati, and whenshe lay ill, as there were no monks to visit her and preach to her-that being againstthe rule-the Buddha amended the rule and went himself to preach to her.

Pajapati’s name appears several times in the Jatakas. She was the mothermonkey in the Cula Nandiya Jataka, Canda in the Culla Dhammapala (J.iii.182),and Bhikkhudayika (or Bhikkhudasika) daughter of Kiki, king of Benares.

There is a story related of a nurse employed by Pajapati and born in Devadaha.She renounced the world with Pajapati, but for twenty five years was harassed bythoughts of lust till, at last, she heard Dhammadinna preach. She then practicedmeditation and became an arahant. Thiga.75f.

Two of the most powerful nuns:

Khe ma

Khema was one of the two chief female disciples of Buddha (the other beingUppalavanna).

The name Khema means well-composed and she was quite beautiful. The nunbelonged to the royal family of Magadha and was one of the chief queens of KingBimbisara.

She didn’t want to meet the Buddha as she knew he didn’t care much aboutbeauty, and she was very self conscious about hers. She heard about the Buddhafrom her husband who encouraged her to hear his sermons and told her howbeautiful Buddha’s monastery was. Very interested in seeing beautiful things, deckedout in royal splendor, she went to the monastery of Lord Buddha. There Buddhasaw her approaching and created with his psychic powers an exceptionally beautiful


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maiden by his side, whose beauty surpassed her own. Khema was captivated, seeingthis, Buddha slowly aged the maiden.

Khema saw the maiden’s beautiful skin wrinkle, her hair change to gray andher body age. She then saw the body collapse with age and pass away, leaving behindjust a corpse, which in turn changed to a heap of bones. Understanding that allconditioned phenomena were impermanent, Khema realized that the same wouldhappen to her. How could she retain her beauty when this exquisite vision aged anddecomposed before her very eyes? Khema was finally willing to listen to Buddha,after his sermons, she attained full enlightenment, she became an arahant. Withher husband’s permission, she joined the order of nuns.

Uppa la va nna

Uppalavanna was considered to be amongst the two chief female disciples ofthe Buddha, the other being Khema.

She was the daughter of a wealthy merchant and was known for her greatbeauty. Her name means “one with the hue of the blue lotus”.

She suffered from a horrible family life, she was kicked out of her house, andeventually she met with great poverty and had multiple marriages to try to get outof her poverty. Eventually she found her own daughter (whom she thought was deadin her second marriage) married to her final husband, and the thought that sheshared a man with her own daughter sickened her so much that she sought refugein the Buddha and became a nun.

Buddha declared her to be the foremost in supernormal powers among the nuns.

Samyutta Nikaya V.5, the Uppalavanna Sutta, is attributed to her.

Then the bhikkhuni Uppalavanna, having understood, “This is Mara the EvilOne,” replied to him in verses:

“Though a hundred thousand rogues

Just like you might come here,

I stir not a hair, I feel no terror;

Even alone, Mara, I don’t fear you.

I can make myself disappear

Or I can enter inside your belly.

I can stand between your eyebrows

Yet you won’t catch a glimpse of me.

I am the master of my own mind,

The bases of power are well developed;

I am freed from every kind of bondage,

Therefore I don’t fear you, friend.”


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Then Mara the Evil One, realizing, “The bhikkhuni Uppalavanna knows me,”sad and disappointed, disappeared right there.

Anathapindika

Anathapindika-Chief lay disciple of Buddha, and his name means “feeder of theorphans or helpless”. His given name was Sudatta. He was extremely wealthy anda patron of the Buddha. He gave Jeta Park to the Buddha having purchased it fromPrince Jeta. He honored the Buddha with laying out 1.8 million gold pieces in thegrove. Anathapindika upon death entered Tusita heaven, or the heaven of theBodhisattvas. Anathapindika was known as the “foremost disciple in generosity” aswell as character.

A banker (setthi) of Savatthi who became famous because of his unparalleledgenerosity to the Buddha. His first meeting with the Buddha was during the firstyear after the Enlightenment, in Rajagaha, whither Anathapindika had come onbusiness.

His wife was the sister of the setthi of Rajagaha, and when he arrived he foundthe setthi preparing a meal for the Buddha and his monks on so splendid a scalethat he thought that a wedding was in progress or that the king had been invited.On learning the truth he became eager to visit the Buddha, and did so very earlythe next morning. He was so excited by the thought of the visit that he got up threetimes during the night. When, at last, he started for Sitavana, the road was quitedark, but a friendly Yakkha, Sivaka, sped him on with words of encouragement. Byforce of his piety the darkness vanished.

The Buddha was staying in the Sitavana, and when Anathapindika reachedthere spirits opened the door for him. He found the Buddha walking up and down,meditating in the cool air of the early dawn. The Buddha greeted him and talkedto him on various aspects of his teaching. Anathapindika was immediately convertedand became a Sotapanna. He invited the Buddha to a meal the next day, providingeverything himself, although the setthi, the Mayor of Rajagaha and King Bimbisaraasked to be allowed to help. After the meal, which he served to the Buddha withhis own hand, he invited the Buddha to spend the rainy season at Savatthi, andthe Buddha accepted, saying “the Tathagatas, o householder, take pleasure insolitude.” “I understand, o Blessed One, I understand,” was the reply.

When Anathapindika had finished his business at Rajagaha he set out towardsSavatthi, giving orders along the way to his friends and acquaintances to preparedwellings, parks, rest-houses and gifts all along the road to Savatthi in preparationfor the Buddha’s visit. He had many friends and acquaintances and he was Adeyyavaco(his word was held to be of weight), where it is said that Anathapindika bore allthe expenses of these preparations. Viharas were built costing l,000 pieces each, ayojana apart from each other.


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Understanding the request implied in the Buddha’s words when he acceptedthe invitation, Anathapindika looked out for a quiet spot near Savatthi where theBuddha and the monks might dwell, and his eye fell on the park of Jetakumara.He bought the park at great expense and erected therein the famous Jetavanarama.As a result of this and of his numerous other benefactions in the cause of the Sasana,Anathapindika came to be recognised as the chief of alms-givers.

Anathapindika’s personal name was Sudatta, but he was always calledAnathapindika (feeder of the destitute) because of his munificence; he was, however,very pleased when the Buddha addressed him by his own name. He spent eighteencrores on the purchase of Jetavana and a like sum on the construction of the vihara;another eighteen crores were spent in the festival of dedication. He fed one hundredmonks in his house daily in addition to meals provided for guests, people of thevillage, invalids, etc. Five hundred seats were always ready in his house for anyguests who might come.

Anathapindika’s father was the setthi Sumana (AA. loc. cit). The name ofAnathapindika’s brother was Subhuti.

Anathapindika married a lady called Punnalakkhana; he had a son Kala andthree daughters, Maha-Subhadda, Cula-Subhadda and Sumana. (Besides Kala,Anathapindika had another son, who joined the Order under Subhuti Thera; AA.ii.865).Mention is also made of a daughter-in law, Sujata by name, daughter of Dhananjayaand the youngest sister of Visakha. She was very haughty and ill-treated theservants.

The son, in spite of his father’s efforts, showed no piety until he was finallybribed to go to the vihara and listen to the Buddha’s preaching. The daughters, onthe other hand, were most dutiful and helped their father in ministering to themonks. The two elder ones attained to the First Fruit of the Path, married, and wentto live with the families of their husbands. Sumana obtained the Second Fruit ofthe Path, but remained unmarried. Overwhelmed with disappointment because ofher failure in finding a husband, she refused to eat and died; she was reborn inTusita.

The Bhadraghata Jataka tells us of a nephew of Anathapindika who squanderedhis inheritance of forty crores. His uncle gave him first one thousand and thenanother five hundred with which to trade. This also he squandered. Anathapindikathen gave him two garments. On applying for further help the man was taken bythe neck and pushed out of doors. A little later he was found dead by a side wall.

The books also mention a girl, Punna, who was a slave in Anathapindika’shousehold. On one occasion when the Buddha was starting on one of his periodicaltours from Jetavana, the king, Anathapindika, and other eminent patrons failed tostop him; Punna, however, succeeded, and in recognition of this service Anathapindikaadopted her as his daughter. On uposatha days his whole household kept the fast;


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on all occasions they kept the pancasila inviolate. A story is told of one of hislabourers who had forgotten the day and gone to work; but remembering later, heinsisted on keeping the fast and died of starvation. He was reborn as a deva.

Anathapindika had a business village in Kasi and the superintendent of thevillage had orders to feed any monks who came there. One of his servants bore theinauspicious name of Kalakanni (curse); he and the banker had been playmates aschildren, and Kalakanni, having fallen on evil days, entered the banker’s service.The latter’s friends protested against his having a man with so unfortunate a namein his household, but he refused to listen to them. One day when Anathapindikawas away from home on business, burglars came to rob his house, but Kalakanniwith great presence of mind drove them away.

A similar story is related of another friend of his who was also in his service.

All his servants, however, were not so intelligent. A slave woman of his, seeingthat a fly had settled on her mother, hit her with a pestle in order to drive it away,and killed her.

A slave girl of his borrowed an ornament from his wife and went with hercompanions to the pleasure garden. There she became friendly with a man whoevidently desired to rob her of her ornaments. On discovering his intentions, shepushed him into a well and killed him with a stone.

The story of Anathapindika’s cowherd, Nanda, is given elsewhere.

All the banker’s friends were not virtuous; one of them kept a tavern. As a resultof Anathapindika’s selfless generosity he was gradually reduced to poverty. But hecontinued his gifts even when he had only bird-seed and sour gruel. The devata whodwelt over his gate appeared before him one night and warned him of his approachingpenury; it is said that every time the Buddha or his monks came to the house shehad to leave her abode over the gate and that this was inconvenient to her and causedher to be jealous. Anathapindika paid no attention to her warnings and asked herto leave the house. She left with her children, but could find no other lodging andsought counsel from various gods, including Sakka. Sakka advised her to recoverfor Anathapindika the eighteen crores that debtors owed him, another eighteen thatlay in the bottom of the sea, and yet eighteen more lying unclaimed. She did so andwas readmitted.

Anathapindika went regularly to see the Buddha twice a day, sometimes withmany friends, and always taking with him alms for the young novices. But we aretold that he never asked a question of the Buddha lest he should weary him. Hedid not wish the Buddha to feel obliged to preach to him in return for his munificence.But the Buddha of his own accord preached to him on various occasions; severalsuch sermons are mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya:

On the importance of having a well-guarded mind like a well-protected gablein a house; on the benefits the recipient of food obtains (life, beauty, happiness,


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strength); on the four obligations that make up the pious householder’s path of duty(gihisamikiccani-waiting on the Order with robes, food, lodgings, medicalrequirements. Referred to also in S. v.387, where Anathapindika expresses hissatisfaction that he had never failed in these obligations); on the four conditions ofsuccess that are hard to win (wealth gotten by lawful means, good report, longevity,happy rebirth); on the four kinds of happiness which a householder should seek(ownership, wealth, debtless ness, blamelessness). on the five kinds of enjoymentwhich result from wealth rightfully obtained (enjoyment-experienced by oneself andby one’s friends and relations, security in times of need, ability to pay taxes andto spend on one’s religion, the giving of alms to bring about a happy rebirth); thefive things which are very desirable but difficult to obtain (long life, beauty, happiness,glory, good condition of rebirths, A.iii.47-8); the five sinful acts that justify a man’sbeing called wicked; the inadvisability of being satisfied with providing requisitesfor monks without asking oneself if one also experiences the joy that is born of easeof mind.

The Buddha preached the Velama Sutta to encourage Anathapindika when hehad been reduced to poverty and felt disappointed that he could no longer provideluxuries for the monks. On another occasion the Buddha tells Anathapindika thatthe Sotapanna is a happy man because he is free from various fears: fear of beingborn in hell, among beasts, in the realm of Peta or in some other unhappy state;he is assured of reaching Enlightenment.

Elsewhere the Buddha tells Anathapindika that it is not every rich man whoknows how to indulge in the pleasures of sense legitimately and profitably.

There is, however, at least one sutta preached as a result of a question put byAnathapindika himself regarding gifts and those who are worthy to receive them;and we also find him consulting the Buddha regarding the marriage of his daughter,Cola Subhadda.

Anathapindika died before the Buddha. As he lay grievously ill he sent a specialmessage to Sariputta asking him to come (again, probably, because he did not wantto trouble the Buddha). Sariputta went with Ananda and preached to him theAnathapindikovada Sutta. His pains left him as he concentrated his mind on thevirtuous life he had led and the many acts of piety he had done. Later he fed theElders with food from his own cooking-pot, but quite soon afterwards he died andwas born in the Tusita heaven. That same night he visited the Buddha at Jetavanaand uttered a song of praise of Jetavana and of Sariputta who lived there, admonishingothers to follow the Buddha’s teaching. In heaven he will live as long as Visakhaand Sakka.

Various incidents connected with Anathapindika are to be found in the Jatakas.On one occasion his services were requisitioned to hold an inquiry on a bhikkhuniwho had become pregnant.


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Once when the Buddha went on tour from Jetavana, Anathapindika was perturbedbecause there was no one left for him to worship; at the Buddha’s suggestion, anoffshoot from the Bodhi tree at Gaya was planted at the entrance to Jetavana.

Once a brahmin, hearing of Anathapindika’s luck, comes to him in order to findout where this luck lay so that he may obtain it. The brahmin discovers that it layin the comb of a white cock belonging to Anathapindika; he asks for the cock andit is given to him, but the luck flies away elsewhere, settling first in a pillow, thenin a jewel, a club, and, finally, in the head of Anathapindika’s wife. The brahmin’sdesire is thus frustrated. On two occasions he was waylaid by rogues. Once theytried to make him drink drugged toddy. He was at first shocked by their impertinence,but, later, wishing to reform them, frightened them away.

On the other occasion, the robbers lay in wait for him as he returned from oneof his villages; by hurrying back he escaped them. Whenever Anathapindika visitedthe Buddha, he was in the habit of relating to the Buddha various things which hadcome under his notice, and the Buddha would relate to him stories from the pastcontaining similar incidents. Among the Jatakas so preached are: Apannaka,Khadirahgara, Rohini, Varuni, Punnapati, Kalakanni, Akatannu, Veri, Kusanali,Siri, Bhadraghata, Visayha, Hiri, Sirikalakanni and Sulasa.

Anathapindika was not only a shrewd business man but also a keen debater.The Anguttara Nikaya records a visit he paid to the Paribbajakas when he couldthink of nothing better to do. A lively debate ensues regarding their views and theviews of the Buddha as expounded by Anathapindika. The latter silences his opponents.When the incident is reported to the Buddha, he speaks in high praise of Anathapindikaand expresses his admiration of the way in which he handled the discussion.

During the time of Padumattara Buddha Anathapindika had been a householderof Hamsavati. One day he heard the Buddha speak of a lay-disciple of his as beingthe chief of alms-givers. The householder resolved to be so designated himself insome future life and did many good deeds to that end. His wish was fulfilled in thispresent life. Anathapindika is sometimes referred to as Maha Anathapindika todistinguish him from Cula Anathapindika.

Hatthaka of Alavi

Hatthaka of Alavi (given name Alavaka) was one of the Chief lay male disciplesof the Buddha, mentioned in text along with Citta in the Buddhavamsa xxvi.19 andconsidered the foremost in gathering a following using the “four bases of sympathy”which he describes as being:

1) he gives gifts,

2) he talks with kindly words,

3) he does kindly deeds,

4) he treats people with equality.


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He was the son of a ruler of Alavi. His given name was changed to “Hatthaka”after Buddha saved him from being eaten by a Yakkha (or Yaksha) spirit namedAlavaka. His name “Hatthaka” (hattha means hand) since he was handed over bythe yakha spirit to Buddha upon his conversion.

He was an Anagamin or a non-returner and was born in a heaven called “Aviha”where he would attain Arahant status.

Citta

Citta-one of the chief lay disciples of the Buddha. He was a wealthy merchantfrom Savatthi. His life and character were so pure that near his death, had he wishedto be a chakravartin, it would’ve been granted. However, he turned down this wishas it was temporal. He became a saint that became a non-returner.

Khujjuttara

Khujjuttara was one of the Buddha’s foremost (Pali: agga) female lay disciples(Pali: upasika, savaka).

According to commentaries to the Pali canon, Khujjuttara was a servant to oneof the queens of King Udena of Kosambi named Samavati. Since the queen wasunable to go listen to the Buddha, she sent Khujjuttara who went instead andbecame so adept that she was able to memorize the teachings and teach the queenand her 500 ladies in waiting. From these discourses of the Buddha, Khujjuttara,Queen Samavati and the queen’s 500 ladies in waiting all obtained the fruit (Pali:phalla) of the first stage of Enlightenment (“stream-enterer,” Pali: sotapanna).

In the Pali canon itself, Khujjuttara’s repute is mentioned in the SN 17.24,entitled “Only Daughter,” the Buddha states that faithful female lay disciples shouldurge their beloved daughters in the following manner:

“Dear, you should become like Khujjuttara the lay follower and Velukandakiya,Nanda’s mother – for this is the standard and criterion for my female disciples whoare lay followers, that is Khujjuttara the lay follower and Velukandakiya, Nanda’smother.”

A similar reference is made in AN 4.18.6. Additionally, in AN 1.14, verse 260,the Buddha declares Khujjuttara to be his “most learned” female lay disciple.

The Khuddaka Nikaya book Itivuttaka, a collection of 112 short discourses, isattributed to Khujjuttara’s recollection of Buddha’s discourses.

Ve lukandakiya

Velukandakiya is considered one of the two standard-bearer lay female disciplesof the Buddha, the other being Khujjuttara. She is known as the mother of Nanda(not the step-brother of Buddha with the same name). She is praised as the standardbearer lay female disciple in Samyutta Nikaya17.24, Only daughter.


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“Dear, you should become like Khujjuttara the lay follower and VelukandakiyaNanda’s mother – for this is the standard and criterion for my female disciples whoare lay followers, that is Khujjuttara the lay follower and Velukandakiya, Nanda’s

mother.

Visakha

Visakha-was one of the chief female lay disciples of the Buddha. She became

a stream-enterer and passed away at the age of 120.

Ro hini (Buddha’s Disc iple )

Rohini was one of Buddha’s chief lay female disciples. She was a cousin of

Buddha and sister of Anuruddha. She declined to enter the order of nuns withMahaPajapati Gotami. She attained stream entry and upon death entered heaven.

Sc hools of Buddhism

The Schools of Buddhism. An extensive list of historical schools is given belowaccording to lineage. Surviving schools can be roughly grouped under the categories

of Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Theravada and Mahayana share commonmethods as sutric schools, while Vajrayana can be seen as a tantric school.

Most of the sects encourage followers to adhere to certain practices andphilosophies, some shared, some unique to the particular school.

Nikaya Sc ho o ls

• Sthaviravada:

o Pudgalavada (‘Personalist’) (c. 280 BCE)

o Sarvastivada:

* Vibhajjavada (prior to 240 BCE; during Ashoka)

* Theravada (c. 240 BCE)

* Theravada subschools

* Mahiuasaka (after 232 BCE)

* Dharmaguptaka (after 232 BCE)

* Kauyapiya (after 232 BCE)

* Vatsiputriya (under Ashoka) later name: Sammitiya

* Dharmottariya

* Bhadrayaniya

* Sannagarika

* Mulasarvastivada (third and fourth centuries)

* Sautrantika (between 50 BCE and c. 100 CE).


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• Mahasamghika (‘Majority’, c. 380 BCE)

o Ekavyaharikas (under Ashoka)

* Lokottaravada

o Golulika (during Ashoka)

* Bahuurutiya (late third century BCE)

* Prajnaptivada (late third century BCE)

* Cetiyavada

o Caitika (mid-first century BCE)

* Apara Saila

* Uttara Saila

Influe nc e s o n East Asian Sc ho o ls

The following later schools used the Vinaya of the Dharmaguptaka:

• Chinese Vinaya School

• Korean Gyeyul

• Japanese Ritsu

• The Japanese Jojitsu is considered an offshoot of Sautrantika

• The Chinese/Japanese Kusha school is considered an offshoot of Sarvastivada,influenced by Vasubandhu

The ravada Sub sc ho o ls

The different schools in Theravada often emphasize different aspects (or parts)of the Pali Canon and the later commentaries, or differ in the focus on (andrecommended way of) practice. There are also significant differences in strictnessor interpretation of the Vinaya.

• Bangladesh:

o Sangharaj Nikaya

o Mahasthabir Nikaya

• Burma:

o Thudhamma Nikaya

* Vipassana tradition of Mahasi Sayadaw and disciples

o Shwekyin Nikaya

• Sri Lanka:

o Siam Nikaya

* Waturawila (or Mahavihara Vamshika Shyamopali VanavasaNikaya)


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o Amarapura Nikaya

* Kanduboda (or Swejin Nikaya)

* Tapovana (or Kalyanavamsa)

o Ramanna Nikaya

* Galduwa (or Kalyana Yogashramaya Samsthava)

* Delduwa

• Thailand

o Maha Nikaya

* Vijja Dhammakaya

o Thammayut Nikaya

* Thai Forest Tradition

* Tradition of Ajahn Chah

Mahayana Sc ho o ls

• Madhyamaka

o Prasangaka

o Svatantrika

• Yogacara

• Tathagatagarbha

o Sanlun (Three Treatise school)

* Sanron

• Dauabhumika (absorbed in to Huayan)

• Huayan (AvataCsaka)

o Hwaeom

o Kegon

• Chan/Zen/Seon/Thien

o Caodong

* Soto

o Linji

* Rinzai

* Obaku

* Fuke

* Won Buddhism: Korean Reformed Buddhism

• Pure Land (Amidism)

o Jodo


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o Jodo Shin

o Amida-shu

• Tiantai (Lotus Sutra School)

o Cheontae

o Tendai (also contained Vajrayana elements)

• Nichiren

o Nichiren Shu

o Nichiren Shoshu

o Nipponzan Myohoji

o Soka Gakkai

• Vijnanavada

Tantric Sc ho o ls

• Tibetan Buddhism

o Nyingmapa

o New Bon (synthesis of Yungdrung Bon and Nyingmapa)

o Kadampa

o Sakyapa

* Jonangpa

o Gelukpa

o Kagyupa

* Shangpa Kagyu

* Rechung Kagyu

* Dagpo Kagyu

* Karma Kagyu (or Kamtshang Kagyu)

* Tsalpa Kagyu

* Baram Kagyu

* Pagtru Kagyu (or Phagmo Drugpa Kagyu)

* Taglung Kagyu

* Trophu Kagyu

* Drukpa Kagyu

* Martsang Kagyu

* Yerpa Kagyu

* Yazang Kagyu


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* Shugseb Kagyu

* Drikung Kagyu

o Rime movement (ecumenical movement)

• Japanese Mikkyo

o Shingon

o Tendai (derived from Tiantai but added tantric practices)

Buddhism by Re gion

Buddhist beliefs and practices vary according to region. There are distinctionsbetween and within the Buddhism practised in various regions, including:

• South Asia

o India

o Bangladesh

o Sri Lanka

o Nepal

o Kashmir

• Central Asia

o Mongolia

o Tibet

• Southeast Asia

o Thailand

o Malaysia

o Cambodia

o Laos

o Myanmar

o Indonesia

o Singapore

o Vietnam

• East Asia

o China

o Korea

o Japan

• The West

o Europe

* Austria


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* Germany

* France

* Netherlands

* Switzerland

* U.K.

* Scotland

* Buddhism in Italy

* Russia

* Kalmykia

* Buryatia

* Tuva

o United States

o Brazil

o Canada

Buddhism by Country

The percentage of Buddhist population of each country was taken from the US

State Department’s International Religious Freedom Report 2004. Other sources

used were CIA Factbook and adherents.com. The total population of each country

was taken from census.gov (2005 estimates).

By Re g io n

These percentages were calculated by using the above numbers. The first

percentage, 4th column, all but last row, is the percentage of population that is

Buddhist in a region (Buddhists in the region * 100/total population of the region).

The last row shows the Buddhist percentage compared to the total Buddhist population

of the world (Buddhists in the region * 100/total Buddhist population of the world).

Buddhism in Afric a

Region Total Population Buddhists % of Buddhists % of Buddhist total

Central Africa 83,121,055 0 0% 0%

East Africa 193,741,900 36,766 0.019% 0.005%

North Africa 202,151,323 0 0% 0%

Southern Africa 137,092,019 48,035 0.035% 0.007%

West Africa 268,997,245 0 0% 0%

Total 885,103,542 84,801 0.01% 0.012%


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Buddhism in Asia


Central Asia 92,019,166 2,657,000 2.887% 0.375%

East Asia 1,527,960,261 502,345,411 32.877% 70.918%

Middle East 274,775,527 220,000 0.08% 0.031%

South Asia 1,437,326,682 27,187,525 1.892% 3.84%

Southeast Asia 571,337,070 166,920,075 29.216% 23.565%

Total 3,903,418,706 699,324,941 17.916% 98.73%

Buddhism in Euro pe


Balkans 65,407,609 1000 0% 0%

Central Europe 74,510,241 10,394 0.014% 0.001%

Eastern Europe 212,821,296 717,101 0.337% 0.101%

Western Europe 375,832,557 1,068,354 0.28% 0.254%

Total 728,571,703 1,795,849 0.244% 0.254%

Buddhism in the Ame ric as


Caribbean 23,809,622 0 0% 0%

Central America 42,223,849 27,941 0.066% 0.004%

North America 446,088,748 3,231,127 0.724% 0.456%

South America 371,075,531 351,511 0.095% 0.05%

Total 883,197,750 3,610,579 0.409% 0.51%

Buddhism in Oc e ania


Oceania 30,564,520 436,390 1.428% 0.062%

Abhidham ma

Abhidharma (Sanskrit) or Abhidhamma (Pali) is a category of Buddhist scripturesthat attempts to use Buddhist teachings to create a systematic, abstract descriptionof all worldly phenomena. The Abhidharma represents a generalization andreorganization of the doctrines presented piecemeal in the narrative sutra tradition.

The literal translation of the term Abhidharma is unclear. Two possibilities aremost commonly given: 1) abhi-higher or special + dharma-teaching, philosophy, thusmaking Abhidharma the ‘higher teachings’, or 2) abhi-about + dharma of the teaching,translating it instead as ‘about the teaching’ or even ‘meta-teaching’.


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Orig ins

Scholars generally believe that the Abhidharma emerged after the time of theBuddha, as the growth of monastic centres and support for the Buddhist saeghaprovided the resources and expertise necessary to systematically analyse the earlyteachings. However, some scholars believe that rather than being wholly createdby later thinkers, the Abhidharma represents an expansion of a set of mnemoniclists and categories that were employed by early Buddhists to preserve the oraltradition.

Numerous apparently independent Abhidharma traditions arose in India, roughlyduring the period from the 2nd or 3rd Century BCE to the 5th Century CE. The7th Century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang reportedly collected Abhidharma texts fromseven different traditions. In the modern era, only the Abhidharmas of theSarvastivadins and the Theravadins have survived intact, each consisting of sevenbooks. The Theravada Abhidharma, the Abhidhamma Pitaka, is preserved in Pali,while the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma is mostly preserved only in Chinese-the (likelySanskrit) original texts having been lost. A small number of other Abhidharma textsof unknown origin are preserved in translation in the Chinese canon.

Traditionally, Theravada Buddhists have been of the belief that the Abhidhammawas not a later addition to the tradition, but rather represented the first, originalunderstanding of the teachings by the Buddha. According to myth, shortly after hisawakening the Buddha spent several days in meditation, during which he formulatedthe Abhidhamma.

Later, he travelled to the heavenly realm and taught the Abhidhamma to thedivine beings that dwelled there, including his deceased mother Mahamaya, whoreincarnated as a celestial being. The tradition holds that the contents of theteachings given in the heavenly realm were related to the monk Uariputra, whopassed them on. The Abhidhamma is thus presented as a pure and undiluted formof the teaching that was too difficult for most practitioners of the Buddha’s timeto grasp. Instead, the Buddha taught by the method related in the various suttas,giving appropriate, immediately applicable teachings as each situation arose, ratherthan attempting to set forth the Abhidhamma in all its complexity and completeness.Thus, there is a similarity between the traditions of the Adhidhamma and that ofthe Mahayana, which also claimed to be too difficult for the people living in theBuddha’s time.

The ravada Ab hidhamma

The Abhidhamma Pimaka is the third pimaka, or basket, of the Tipimaka(Sanskrit: Tripimaka), the canon of the Theravada school of Buddhism. It consistsof the seven sections as described below.

1. Dhamma Saegani (‘Enumeration of Factors’)-Describes the fundamentalphenomena or dhamma which constitute human experience.


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2. Vibhaga (‘Analysis’)-An analysis of various topics by a variety of methods,including catechism using material from the Dhamma Sangani.

3. Dhatu Katha (‘Discussion of Elements’)-Some interrelations between variousitems from the first two books, formulated as sets of questions and answers.

4. Puggala Pannatti (‘Descriptions of Individuals’)-An enumeration of the qualitiesof certain different ‘personality types’. These types were believed to be usefulin formulating teachings that an individual would respond to positively.

5. Kathavatthu (‘Points of Controversy’)-A collection of debates on points ofdoctrine, traditionally said to have been compiled by Moggaliputta Tissa atthe Buddhist Council sponsored by King Ashoka, which took place in the 3rdCentury BCE.

6. Yamaka (‘The Pairs’)-Deals with various questions relating to interrelationswithin various lists of items; here the items belong to the same list, whereasin the Dhatu Katha they are in different lists.

7. Patthana (‘Foundational Conditions’ or ‘Relations’)-The laws of interactionby which the dhamma described in the Dhamma Sangani operate.

These have all been published in romanized Pali by the Pali Text Society, andmost have been translated into English as well. Some scholars date these works fromabout 400 BCE to about 250 BCE, the first being the oldest and the fifth the latestof the seven. Additional post-canonical texts composed in the following centuriesattempted to further clarify the analysis presented in the Abhidhamma texts. Thebest known such texts are the Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa and theAbhidhammavatara of Buddhadatta.

Early Western translators of the Pali canon found the Abhidhamma Pitaka theleast interesting of the three sections of the Tipimaka, and as a result this importantaspect of Buddhist philosophy was little studied in the West until the latter halfof the 20th Century. Caroline Rhys Davids, a Pali scholar and the wife of Pali TextSociety founder T. W. Rhys Davids, famously described the ten chapters of theYamaka as “ten valleys of dry bones”. Interest in the Abhidhamma has grown inthe West as better scholarship on Buddhist philosophy has gradually revealed moreinformation about its origins and significance.

Within the Theravada tradition, the prominence of the Abhidhamma has variedconsiderably from country to country, with Burma (Myanmar) placing the mostemphasis on the study of the Abhidhamma.

Sarvastivada Ab hidharma

The Sarvastivada Abhidharma also consists of seven texts. However, comparisonof the content of the Sarvastivada texts with that of the Theravada Abhidhammareveals that it is unlikely that this indicates that one textual tradition originatedfrom the other. In particular, the Theravada Abhidharma contains two texts (the


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Katha Vatthu and Puggala Pannatti) that seem entirely out of place in an Abhidharmacollection.

The texts of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma are:

• Sangitiparyaya (‘Discourses on Gathering Together’)

• Dharmaskandha (‘Aggregation of Dharmas’)

• Prajnaptiuastra (‘Treatise on Designations’)

• Dhatukaya (‘Body of Elements’)

• Vijnanakaya (‘Body of Consciousness’)

• Prakaranapada (‘Exposition’)

• Jnanaprasthana (‘Foundation of Knowledge’)

Agganna Sutta

Agganna Sutta is the 27th Sutta of Digha Nikaya collections. The sutta describesa discourse imparted from the Buddha to two Brahmins, Bharadvaja and Vasettha,who left their family and caste to become monks. The two brahmins are insultedand maligned by their own caste for their intention to become member of Sangha.Buddha firstly explains that the caste system has originated from the Truth (Dhamma).Caste and lineage can not be compared to the achievement of morality practice andthe Dhamma, as anyone from four castes can become monk and reached the stateof Arahant. Then, he explains about the beginning of the Earth, and the birth ofsocial order and its structure, including the castes. The Buddha emphasizes themessage of universality in Dhamma and how Dhamma is the best of all things.

The Be g inning

The Sutta begins when the Buddha is staying in Savatthi, in the temple donatedby Visakkha, the Mother of Migara. At that time, two brahmins, Bharadvaja andVasettha are training with the Monks (bhikkhu) and aim to be a member of Sangha.As usual in the evening, the Buddha raises from his meditation and strolls in theopen yard nearby his dwelling. Vasettha sees his Teacher strolling, and he tells hisfriend, Bharadvaja, and suggests to meet Buddha; see if they can hear a Dhammaexposition from the Buddha. They both approach the Buddha and after some formalproperieties, the Buddha asks the two if they received insults and denigration whenthey left their caste and layman’s life in order to join the order of Sangha. Vasetthaand Bharadvaja answer that they did receive a ‘flood of insults’. They say that theother Brahmins maintain that the Brahmin caste is the best, as the Brahmins areof high status and authority, pure-bred, have radiant complexion, born from themouth of God Brahma, unlike the other lower castes. So, by the opinion of the otherBrahmins, how can Vasettha and Bharadvaja leave this good caste and status, thusjoin together with fraud ascetics with shaven head from other castes, lower in statusas they are born from the feet of Brahma.


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To this remark, Buddha tell them that the Brahmins have indeed forgottenabout their past if they said such things. The fact is that the women in Brahmincaste can get pregnant, give birth, and take care of their children. But the Brahminsstill speak that they are born from the Mouth of God Brahma and other (castes)are born from Brahma’s feet. Thus the Brahmin’s words are untrue. Buddha speaksthat the Brahmins are not speaking truthfully and they will reap a bad result fromtheir own deeds.

The Buddha then elaborates that if any of the caste does the following deeds:killing, taking anything which is not given, do sexual misconduct, lying, slandering,speaking rough words or nonsense, greedy, cruel, and practise wrong beliefs (micchaditthi); people would still see that they do negative deeds and therefore doesn’tworthy of respect. They even will get trouble from their own deeds, whatever theircaste (Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa, and Sudda) might be.

While those who refrain themselves from: killing, taking anything which is notgiven, do sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, speaking rough words or nonsense,greedy, cruel, and practised wrong beliefs (miccha ditthi); will be seen by people aspositive and will earn respect from the people and the wise ones. They would beprofiting from their deeds, no matter what their caste might be.

Logically, as the four castes can do either the negative (demerit) or positive(merit) deeds, so will the wise reject the statement that only the Brahmins is thebest of caste. Why? Because anyone from the four castes; if they left the worldlyaffairs and become a monk, and due to their discipline and struggle, they becomearahant, people who conquered their mind’s stains, has done whatever it must bedone, has relieved themselves from burden, has broken the bondage of birth, achievedfreedom, freed due to achieved knowledge, then he is the best among others basedon Truth (Dhamma).

The Buddha quoted, “Dhamma is the best thing for people In this life and thenext as well.”

Further, Buddha proves that Dhamma is indeed the best thing of all things inlife. He took an example of King Pasenadi of Kosala Kingdom, who has now conqueredthe Sakyans. The Sakyans rever, praise, and serve him with respect.

But, towards the Buddha, who came from Sakyan people, King Pasenadi reveres,praises, and serves the Buddha with utmost respect. Even the monarch thinks likethis: “The Samana Gautama had perfect birth, while I am not perfect. The SamanaGautama is mighty, while I am weak. The Samana Gautama inspired awe andrespect, while I do not. The Samana Gautama is vastly influential and charming,while I only possess small influence.” As even the King respects Dhamma, reversDhamma, obeys Dhamma, therefore he bows and praises the [Tathagatha].

The Buddha then advises Vasettha that whoever has strong, deep rooted, andestablished belief in the Tathagatha, he can declare that he is the child of Bhagava,


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born from the mouth of Dhamma, created from Dhamma, and the heir of Dhamma.Because the titles of the Tathagatha are: The Body of Dhamma, The Body of Brahma,the Manifestation of Dhamma, and the Manifestation of Brahma.

The Be g inning o f Life o n Earth

In the second part of the Sutta, Buddha tells the story of how the human beingscame to dwell on Earth. The Buddha told that sooner of later, after a very long time,there would be a time when the world shrink. As the universe shrinks, many of itsinhabitants would die. Of these deceased creatures, some were born again (due togood karma) in the Heavenly realm of Abbhasara (Lucid Light). There, they floatedfor a very-very long time, as a bodiless, radiating extreme light. They don’t eat ordrink, as they nourish themselves from pure spiritual joy.

Then, after some very long time, when the World began to expand again, manyof this Abbhasara creatures were born to these newly formed Earth. They floatedabove and around the Earth. At this time, there were not yet seen the Moon andthe Sun, there were not yet Night and Day, there were not yet names and identityor female or male. The creatures were only known for creatures.

At that period, Vasettha, there was just one mass of water, and all was darkness,blinding darkness.... And sooner or later, after a very long period of time, savoryearth spread itself over the waters where those beings were. It looked just like theskin that forms itself over hot milk as it cools. It was endowed with colour, smell,and taste. It was the colour of fine ghee or butter and it was very sweet, like purewild honey.

Some of the creatures of light (the Abbhasaras) who had curiosity and greedynature began to dive and tasted the savory Earth’s substance. At that moment, thecreature found out that it tasted so delicious. Thus, greed started to seep in andit ate the substance voraciously, greedily, thus calling also its comrades (who wereflying above and on earth) to join in the feast. Not long afterwards, the creaturesbegan to eat so greedily and due to the huge amount of the mud substance, theycould feed on it for a very long time.

As they ate and ate, their luminous body began to be coated by the mudsubstance, formed a coarser body, then suddenly, the sun and moon were seen, sodid the stars, and also Night and Day began on Earth. The logical explanation ofthis was that the creatures were the self-luminating, so blinding and luminatingthat they didn’t notice the Sun. The Earth was covered in their light. So, when thematerialization took place, the light faded inside their newly conceived ‘body’ of mudand thus the night and day became apparent to them. Then, as the night and daybecame apparent, season and years also appeared.

Their body was still coarse and roughly shaped. Thus, after a very long time,the mud-like substance began to exhaust. Then, mushroom-like plants began to growso fast that it replaced the mud-like ocean. The creatures began to devour them as


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well, and they found it also so delicious as sweet honey and milk. Their bodyhardened more and details began to turn finer.

After another very long time, the mushrooms also began to exhaust, replacedby cassava or turnip-class plants. They also began to devour it night and day, andthus they began to notice differences amongst them. As the changes of their bodyvaries one another, concept of difference arised. The beautiful and the ugly conceptwas born. The beautiful scorns the ugly and they became arrogant of their appearance.

Then, after the turnips, the earth were grown with rice-plants. The first riceplants were without husk and kernels. The sweet and honey-like rice flourishedseeds abundantly. The people consumed them for a very long time. But there arepeople who became greedy and lazy. They took more rice than they needed for oneday’s meals. They began to take two, four, eight, and sixteen days’ of rice reservesas they were too lazy to take rice everyday. Owing to this, many other creaturesbegan to store and hoard the rice. The generation time rice plants became slowerand slower. Usually, it took only one night for the plant to grow and ready to beconsumed, but by the karmic power, the plant began to grow slower and slower. Alsothe rice grew in kernel and husks, scattered, of which the creatures must work,nurse, maintain, harvest, and cook them to obtain the white rice.

By this time, the body of the creatures had been finely evolved. There werealready distinction of male and female. The man became preoccupied with womenand vice versa. Then, as they were deeply attracted to one another, passion anddesire aroused, and they enganged in sexual relationship. The people who saw acouple doing sexual activity scold them, and usually the couple were forbidden ofentering the village for a certain period of time. Owing to this, the indulgent couplebuilt closed dwellings where they indulged in sexual activity.

The Birth o f So c ial Orde r and Caste s

In the third part, the Buddha explained about the origin of Castes, their titles,and their order in the society system which were still rigidly effective in Buddha’stime.

The Khattiya Caste (Rule rs)

The rice plants, as mentioned earlier, began to grow in separate plot and peoplebegan to divide lands and tend each other’s cluster of rice fief. They became preoccupiedin tending their own field. Then, as the evil and greed aroused, there were peoplewho begin stealing others’ crops. At first, the others only warn the culprit and theculprit promise that he will never repeat it again. But when it does repeat severaltimes, the people begin punishing him with fist, stones, and then sticks. That is theorigin of punishment forms. Then, people begin to think that they are too busy toheed every crime and abuse happen in their society. They grieved on the rising ofevil amongst their people. But most of their time had already been invested in


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tending their fief. So, they appointed someone to rectify what is right and what iswrong, give warnings to those who need it, give punishment to those who deserveit, and in return, they will give him share of their rice. So, they went to the fairest,ablest, most likeable, and most intelligent person and appointed him to do thejudging and passing out sentences on the reward of a share of rice. The appointedperson thus agreed and the people bestowed upon him the title : ‘Maha-Sammata’meaning: The People’s Choice. Then, they bestowed also the second title: ‘Khattiya’meaning the ‘Lord of the Rice Field’, and finally the third title: ‘Raja’ which means‘Who gladdens people with Dhamma (or Truth)’. This order was created by thepeople’s wish and need, based on the Dhamma and not from others. The Buddhastated again that Dhamma is indeed the best of all things.

The Brahmin Caste

Then, amongst the people, some of them begin to think like this: “Evil deedshave risen amongst us, like :theft, lies, murders, sexual abuses, punishment, andbanishment. Now let us set aside evil, unuseful, and impolite things.” The wordBrahmins came, as it meant: “They who put aside Evil and unwholesome things”(1). They set up retreats and huts in the forests and meditated there. They cometo the city at morning and evening only to gather food and after finished gatheringfood, they return to their huts and meditations. People notice this and ‘Those whomeditated’ were called ‘Jhayanti’ or ‘Jhayaka’.

There are other people, who can’t meditate or dwell in huts in the forest. So,they settled in the cities, not meditate, but compile books. The people called them‘Ajjhayaka’ which meant ‘They who don’t meditate’. At first the Ajjhayaka is viewedlower than Jhayaka but in the Buddha’s time, the Ajjhayaka has been viewed higherin status than the Jhayakas.

The Ve ssa (Trade rs) and the Suddha (Hunte rs)

Among the people who had settled and had family, some began to adopt varioustrade. From the word ‘Various’ comes the ‘Vessa’ or the merchant caste.

The remainder of these people preferred the work of hunting. The Sudda castecome from the word ‘Sudda’ which means: ‘They Are Base Who Live By The Chase’.

All of the castes, from Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa, and Suddha were originatedfrom these people, and not from others; in accordance to the Dhamma and not byothers.

The Asc e tic s

But from the four clans, there were people who were not satisfied with theirliving, left their home and became celibate ascetics. These are the origin of the fifthcaste formed from all the four castes’ people who left their lay life and became anascetic.


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Buddha’s Co nc lusio n

The Buddha then concluded his discourse to Vasettha and Bharadvaja: (Due tothe governance of Dhamma which became the root of all castes and people,) Anyone,from any the caste, did demerit and wrong doings, live a bad life of speech, thoughts,views, and wrong doings, they would end up after the death, in the realm ofsufferings, hell, loss, and torture.

But anyone, from any caste, did merit and good deeds, live a good life of speech,thoughts, and deeds; have the right view, after their death, they would end in realmof happiness and heaven.

Anyone, from any caste, did both merit and demerit, live a good and bad lifeof speech, thoughts, and deeds; have either right or bad view, after their death, theycould end in the realm of suffering or the realm of joy.

Anyone, from any caste, who lived a life of disciplined deeds, speeches, thoughts,who had trained and developed himself in the seven factors of Enlightenment, thenhe would attain the eradication from the of mind in this current life.

Anyone, from four castes, who became a bhikku (Monk), arahant, People whohad eradicated stains of Mind, had done what must be done, had relieved himselffrom burden, who had attained freedom, who had broken the bondage of birth, whohad been freed due to knowledge; then they would be declared as the best from allof them, in accordance to the Truth (Dhamma) and not from the basis of not Truth(adhamma).

The Buddha quoted, “Dhamma is the best thing for people In this life and thenext as well.”

The Buddha quoted the verses of Brahma Sandakumara: “The Khattiya is the

best among those who maintain their lineage; He with knowledge and conduct is bestof gods and men.” then, the Buddha asserted that the verse is indeed true, accordingto the Dhamma, profitable, and true.

The Khattiya’s best among those who value clan; He with knowledge and conductis best of gods and men.” Thus the discourse ended with Vasettha and Bharadvajarejoiced in hearing the words of Buddha.

Dig g ing De e pe r o n the Sutta

While the story of the world’s beginning is considered a myth, on the other hand,the Buddhist doctrine requires a constant sceptical approach, where one must seeand prove it before one believes it (ehipassiko). However, the profound insight ofthe Buddha in two major fields: science (cosmology) and social structure’s originindeed was revolutionary on his era.

On the science part, Buddha implied the theory of the Evolution of Universe,where it is said to shrink and then expand in repeated cycles.


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While on the social science part, the Buddha’s words implied on the equalityof origin in human race, whether by their sex, appearance, or by another categorieswhich founded later based on physiological differences. Buddha also emphasized thatthe social structure is formed voluntarily, based on righteousness and necessity, notbased on Divine Forces as some theories stated.

The Monarchy is also formed voluntarily, and the people elect the most righteousand capable person, which implied the Democracy concept. The Monarch accept‘share of rice’ as his reward to rectify the social order, which is the origin of voluntaryreward which evolves into taxation concept. However, the Buddha states that theMonarch is regarded worthy not of his divine right but due to his righteousness indeeds. The Buddha’s message was clear, however, that the best thing in the worldis Truth (Dhamma) and everything is created, measured, and valued based on Truthand not from other.

Ahim sa

Ahimsa is a religious concept which advocates non-violence and a respect forall life. Ahimsa is Sanskrit for avoidance of himsa, or injury. It is most ofteninterpreted as meaning peace and reverence toward all sentient beings. Ahimsa isan important doctrine of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. Its first mention inIndian philosophy is found in the Hindu scriptures called the Upanishads, the oldestof which date to about 800 BCE.

Ahimsa was introduced to the West by the Mahatma Gandhi. Inspired by hisactions, Western civil rights movements, led by such people as Martin Luther KingJr., engaged in non-violent protests. The more recent popularity of yoga and meditationin the West has also served to introduce many westerners to ahimsa and other Indianphilosophical concepts. Nonviolent Communication, developed by Dr. MarshallRosenberg and practiced and taught around the world, is inspired by Gandhi’sexample.

Hinduism

Through non-violence, most Hindus have made world examples of how goals canbe achieved through non-violent means. There are more vegetarians in Hinduismthan any other religion because animals are considered sacred in Hinduism andhence, vegetarianism is a part of ahimsa. Even the animal that was being sacrificedin rituals was greatly honoured. Ahimsa is a very important part of karma.

Quo te s

“This is the sum of duty; do naught onto others what you would not have themdo unto you.” “One should not behave towards others in a way which is disagreeableto oneself. This is the essence of morality. All other activities are due to selfishdesire.” “What is religion? Compassion for all things, which have life.”


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De e pe r in Hinduism

In Hinduism non-violence goes on to believe that a devotee of God should nevergive immoral advice or encourage immoral behaviour. This is essental for theachievement of Moksha.

Jainism

Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Humanlife is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment; to kill anyperson, no matter what crime he may have committed, is considered unimaginablyabhorrent. It is a religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects andtraditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions, such as Gujarat, have beenstrongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local non-Jain populationhas also become vegetarian.

Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi drew many of his concepts of truth, nobility and ethics fromthe Bhagavad Gita and his personal love of Lord Rama, an avatara of God in theHindu faith. Gandhi’s concept of life and ahimsa, which led to his concept of satyagraha,or peaceful protest, primarily stem from his association with Hindu and Jainphilosophy. Quotations from Gandhi on the subject: Nonviolence is the greatest forceat the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destructiondevised by the ingenuity of man.

Literally speaking, ahimsa means non-violence towards life but it has muchhigher meaning. It means that you may not offend anybody; you may not harbouruncharitable thought, even in connection with those whom you consider your enemies.To one who follows this doctrine, there are no enemies. A man who believes in theefficacy of this doctrine finds in the ultimate stage, when he is about to reach thegoal, the whole world at his feet. If you express your love—ahimsa—in such amanner that it impresses itself indelibly upon your so-called enemy, he must returnthat love.

This doctrine tells us that we may guard the honour of those under our chargeby delivering our own lives into the hands of the man who would commit thesacrilege. And that requires far greater courage than delivering of blows.

Ahimsa or non-injury, of course, implies non-killing. But, non-injury is notmerely non-killing. In its comprehensive meaning, ahinsa or non-injury means entireabstinence from causing any pain or harm whatsoever to any living creature, eitherby thought, word, or deed. Non-injury requires a harmless mind, mouth, and hand.

Aja hn

“Ajahn” is “teacher” in the Thai language derived from the (Pali) word acarya.Ajahn is often used interchangeably with Kruu although it is often more respectful


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and reserved for older teachers or post-secondary teachers, including universityprofessors and lecturers.

In the Thai Theravada tradition it is generally a title given to a Bhikkhu or(less frequently because there are fewer of them) Bhikkhuni who has been fullyordained for ten years, measured as ten rain retreats (vassas). More senior monksare also referred to by the title Luang Por “Venerable Father.”

Ajahn Chah

Venerable Ajahn Chah Subhatto (Chao Khun Bodhinyanathera) (alternativelyspelled Achaan Chah, occasionally with honorific titles Luang Por and Phra) (17June 1918, Thailand – 16 January 1992), was one of the greatest meditation mastersof the twentieth century. Known for his informal and direct style, he was a majorinfluence on Theravada Buddhism around the world.

Venerable Ajahn Chah was an influential and perhaps the most famous monkof the Thai Forest tradition of Theravada. The monks of this tradition use variousascetic practices, known as dhutanga, on an occasional or regular basis to deepentheir devotional practice. They might, for example, eat only one meal a day, sleepoutside under a tree, or visit fearsome forests or graveyards. They also use meditation,for calming (samatha) and for insight (vipassana).

Ajahn Chah established the monasteries of Wat Nong Pah Pong and Wat PahNanachat in Northeast Thailand, the grounds of which contain some of the lastremaining forest land in Thailand. Wat Pah Pong now includes over 250 branchesin Thailand, as well as over 15 associated monasteries and ten lay practice centresaround the world.

Ajahn Chah himself did not write much if anything for publication, but his talkswere recorded, transcribed, translated and published as books and as free materialsavailable on the Internet.

Over a million people attended Ajahn Chah’s funeral in 1992, including the Thairoyal family. He left behind a legacy of Dhamma talks, students, and monasteries.

Quo te s

“When one does not understand death, life can be very confusing.”

“The Dhamma has to be found by looking into your own heart and seeing thatwhich is true and that which is not, that which is balanced and that which is notbalanced.”

“Only one book is worth reading: the heart.”

“Don’t think that only sitting with the eyes closed is practice. If you do thinkthis way, then quickly change your thinking. Steady practice is keeping mindful inevery posture, whether sitting, walking, standing or lying down. When coming outof sitting, don’t think that you’re coming out of meditation, but that you are only


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changing postures. If you reflect in this way, you will have peace. Wherever you are,you will have this attitude of practice with you constantly. You will have a steadyawareness within yourself.”

“When sitting in meditation, say, “That’s not my business!” with every thoughtthat comes by.”

“The heart of the path is quite easy. There’s no need to explain anything atlength. Let go of love and hate and let things be. That’s all that I do in my ownpractice.”

“We practice to learn how to let go, not how to increase our holding on to things.Enlightenment appears when you stop wanting anything.”

“If you let go a little, you will have a little peace. If you let go a lot, you willhave a lot of peace. If you let go completely, you will have complete peace.”

“You are your own teacher. Looking for teachers can’t solve your own doubts.Investigate yourself to find the truth-inside, not outside. Knowing yourself is mostimportant.”

“Try to be mindful and let things take their natural course. Then your mindwill become still in any surroundings, like a clear forest pool. All kinds of wonderful,rare animals will come to drink at the pool, and you will clearly see the nature ofall things. You will see many strange and wonderful things come and go, but youwill be still. This is the happiness of the Buddha.”


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4

Edic ts of Ashoka

The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka,as well as boulders and cave walls, made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryandynasty during his reign from 272 to 231 BCE. These inscriptions are dispersedthroughout the areas of modern-day Pakistan and northern India, and represent thefirst tangible evidence of Buddhism.

The edicts describe in detail the first wide expansion of Buddhism through thesponsorship of one of the most powerful kings of Indian history. According to theedicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as theMediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.

The inscriptions proclaim Ashoka’s beliefs in the Buddhist concept of dharma

(“righteousness”) and his efforts to develop the dharma throughout his kingdom.Although Buddhism and the Buddha are mentioned, the edicts of Ashoka tend tofocus on social and moral precepts rather than religious practices. No mention ismade of the philosophical dimension of Buddhism, such as the Four Noble Truthsor the Eightfold Path.

This could possibly be because Ashoka wanted to remain simple in his messageto the public, because these notions may have been formalized at a later date, orsome combination of the two.

In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as “Beloved of the Gods” and“King Priya-darshi.” The identification of King Priya-darshi with Ashoka wasconfirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915. The inscriptions found in the easternpart of India were written in the Magadhi language, using the Brahmi script. Inthe western part of India, the language used is closer to Sanskrit, using the Kharoshthiscript, and one bilingual edict (Edict 13) was written in Greek and Aramaic.

The inscriptions revolve around a few repetitive themes: Ashoka’s conversionto Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral andreligious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.

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Ashoka ’s Conve rsion

Ashoka explains that he converted to Buddhism out of remorse for his conquestof the Kalingas around 264 BCE in eastern India (near the present-day state ofOrissa): “Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight yearsafter his coronation.

One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousandwere killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had beenconquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma,a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Godsfeels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.” Rock Edict Nb13 (S.Dhammika).

Following his conversion, Ashoka travelled throughout India and visited sacredBuddhist locations, where he would typically erect a pillar bearing his inscriptions:

“Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,

visited this place and worshipped because here the Buddha, the sage

of the Sakyans, was born. He had a stone figure and a pillar set up

and because the Lord was born here, the village of Lumbini was

exempted from tax and required to pay only one eighth of the produce.”

Minor Pillar Edict Nb1 (S. Dhammika).

Asho ka’s Pro se ly tism

In order to propagate the Buddhist faith, Ashoka explains he sent emissariesto the Hellenistic kings as far as the Mediterranean, and to the peoples throughoutIndia, claiming they were all converted to the Dharma as a result. He names theGreek rulers of the time, inheritors of the conquest of Alexander the Great, fromBactria to as far as Greece and North Africa, displaying an amazingly clear graspof the political situation at the time.

Pro se ly tism Be yo nd India

“Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be thebest conquest. And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders,even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond therewhere the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewisein the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.” Rock EdictNb13 (S. Dhammika).

The distance of 600 yojanas (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponds to thedistance between the centre of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).

• Antiochos refers to Antiochus II Theos of Syria (261-246 BC), who controlledthe Seleucid Empire from Syria to Bactria, in the east from 305 BC to 250BC, and was therefore a direct neighbour of Ashoka.


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• Ptolemy refers to Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285-247 BCE), king ofthe dynasty founded by Ptolemy I, a former general of Alexander the Great,in Egypt.

• Antigonos refers to Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedon (278-239 BC).

• Magas refers to Magas of Cyrene (300-258 BCE).

• Alexander refers to Alexander II of Epirus (272-258 BCE).

In the Gandhari original Antiochos is referred as “Amtiyoko nama Yona-raja”

(lit. “The Greek king by the name of Antiokos”), beyond whom live the four other

kings: “param ca tena Atiyokena cature 4 rajani Turamaye nama Amtikini nama

Maka nama Alikasudaro nama” (lit. “And beyond Antiochus, four kings by the nameof Ptolemy, the name of Antigonos, the name of Magas, the name Alexander”.

It is not clear in western records whether these emissaries were actually received,

or had any influence on the western world. Some scholars however point to thepresence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world from that time, in particularin Alexandria (mentioned by Clement of Alexandria). The pre-Christian monasticorder of the Therapeutae may have drawn inspiration for its ascetic lifestyle from

contact with Buddhist monasticism.

Buddhist gravestones from the Ptolemaic period have also been found inAlexandria, decorated with depictions of the Wheel of the Law (Tarn, “The Greeks

in Bactria and India”). Commenting on the presence of Buddhists in Alexandria,some scholars have even pointed out that “It was later in this very place that someof the most active centres of Christianity were established” (Robert Linssen).

Ashoka’s proselytism also expanded to the south of the Indian subcontinent:

• The Cholas and Pandyas were south Indian peoples living outside Asoka’sempire.

• Tamraparni is the ancient name for Sri Lanka.

Pro se ly tism within Asho ka’s Te rrito rie s

Inside India proper, in the realm of Ashoka, many different populations werethe object of the King’s proselytism:

“Here in the king’s domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas,

the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywherepeople are following Beloved-of-the-Gods’ instructions in Dhamma.” Rock Edict Nb13(S. Dhammika).

Gre e k Communitie s

Greek communities within the Mauryan Empire probably lived in northwestern

India, in the region of Gandhara, and in southern Afghanistan in the region ofGedrosia, following the conquest and the colonization efforts of Alexander the Great


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around 323 BCE. In particular several cities were built on the Greek model, suchas in Taxila. These communities therefore seem to have been still significant duringthe reign of Ashoka. Ashoka also clearly knows about Greek ways:

“There is no country, except among the Greeks, where these two groups,

Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and there is no country where

people are not devoted to one or another religion” Rock Edict Nb13 (S.

Dhammika).

Ashoka also issued Edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. Oneof them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of “Piety” (using the Greek termEusebeia for Dharma) to the Greek community:

“Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka)

made known (the doctrine of) Piety to men; and from this moment he

has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the

whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and

other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king

have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have

ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient

to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past

also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better

and more happily.” (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli).

Othe r Co mmunitie s

• Kambojas are a people of Central Asian origin who had settled first inArachosia and Drangiana (today’s southern Afghanistan), and then in thenorthwestern Indian subcontinent in Sindhu, Gujarat and Sauvira. TheKambojas also later designated populations in northwestern Thailand, sothere is a possibility that this mention relates to the prolytisation of theMons.

• The Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhrasand the Palidas are other people under Ashoka’s rule.

Mo ral Pre c e pts

The Dharma preached by Ashoka is explained mainly in term of moral precepts,based on the doing of good deeds, respect for others, generosity and purity.

Rig ht Be havio ur

“Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little

evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity.” Pilar

Edict Nb2 (S. Dhammika).

“And noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma consist of

having kindness, generosity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and

goodness increase among the people.” Rock Pilar Nb7 (S. Dhammika).


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Be ne vo le nc e

Kindne ss to Priso ne rs

Ashoka showed great concern for fairness in the exercise of Justice, caution andtolerance in the application of sentences, and regularly pardoned prisoners.

“It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law and uniformity insentencing. I even go this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who havebeen tried and sentenced to death. During this time their relatives can make appealsto have the prisoners’ lives spared. If there is none to appeal on their behalf, theprisoners can give gifts in order to make merit for the next world, or observe fasts.”Pilar Edict Nb4 (S. Dhammika).

“In the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have been given amnestyon twenty-five occasions.” Pilar Edict Nb5 (S. Dhammika).

Re spe c t fo r Animal Life

Ashoka did not completely prohibit the killing of animals, but he prohibitedgratuitous killings (such as for sacrifices), he advocated restraint in the number thathad to be killed for consumption, protected some of them, and in general condemnedviolent acts against animals, such as castration.

“Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to beprotected — parrots, mainas, //aruna//, ruddy geese, wild ducks,//nandimukhas,gelatas//, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, //vedareyaka//, //gangapuputaka//, //sankiya// fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, //okapinda//, wild asses,wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither usefulnor edible. Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milkto their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocksare not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forestsare not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is notto be fed to another.” Pillar Edict Nb5 (S. Dhammika).

Re lig ious Pre c e pts

Buddhism

Beyond spreading the moral virtues of Buddhism, Ashoka also insisted that theword of the Buddha be read and followed, in particular in monastic circles (theSanghas):

“Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them

good health and happiness, speaks thus: You know, reverend sirs, how

great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and Sangha is. Whatever,

reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is well-

spoken.” Minor Rock Edict Nb3 (S. Dhammika).


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“These Dhamma texts — Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way

of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse

on the Pure Life, Upatisa’s Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which

was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech — these Dhamma

texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly

listen to and remember. Likewise the laymen and laywomen.” Minor

Rock Edict Nb3 (S. Dhammika).

Be lie f in a Ne xt Wo rld

“One benefits in this world and gains great merit in the next by giving

the gift of the Dhamma.” Rock Edict Nb11 (S. Dhammika)

“Happiness in this world and the next is difficult to obtain without

much love for the Dhamma, much self-examination, much respect,

much fear (of evil), and much enthusiasm.” Pilar Edict Nb1 (S.

Dhammika).

Re lig io us Exc hang e

Far from being sectarian, Ashoka, based on a belief that all religions shared

a common, positive essence, encouraged tolerance and understanding of other religions.

“All religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-

control and purity of heart.” Rock Edict Nb7 (S. Dhammika).

“Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered

in sacrifice.” Rock Edict Nb1 (S. Dhammika).

“Contact (between religions) is good. One should listen to and respect

the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi,

desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other

religions.” Rock Edict Nb12 (S. Dhammika).

So c ial and Animal We lfare

According to the edicts, Ashoka took great care of the welfare of his subjects(human and animal), and those beyond his borders, spreading the use of medicinaltreatments, improving roadside facilities for more comfortable travel, and establishing“officers of the faith” throughout his territories to survey the welfare of the population

and the propagation of the Dharma.

Me dic inal Tre atme nts

“Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi’s domain, and amongthe people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, theKeralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, andamong the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical


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treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbssuitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported andgrown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them importedand grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit ofhumans and animals.” Rock Edict Nb2 (S. Dhammika).

Ro adside Fac ilitie s

“Along roads I have had banyan trees planted so that they can give shade toanimals and men, and I have had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight//krosas//, I have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering-places made for the use of animals and men. But these are but minor achievements.Such things to make the people happy have been done by former kings. I have donethese things for this purpose, that the people might practice the Dhamma.” PilarEdict Nb7 (S. Dhammika).

Offic e rs o f the Faith

“In the past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officers were appointedby me thirteen years after my coronation. Now they work among all religions forthe establishment of Dhamma, for the promotion of Dhamma, and for the welfareand happiness of all who are devoted to Dhamma. They work among the Greeks,the Kambojas, the Gandharas, the Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other peoples on thewestern borders. They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders, thepoor, the aged and those devoted to Dhamma — for their welfare and happiness— so that they may be free from harassment.” Rock Edict Nb5 (S. Dhammika).

Eka vyaharaka

The Ekavyaharaka school of Buddhism split from the Mahasamghikas duringthe reign of Ashoka. The Ekavyaharikas emphasized the transcendence of theBuddha, asserting that he was eternally enlightened and essentially non-physical.

The Lokottaravada may be an offshoot of the Ekavyaharikas.

Ashtam anga la

“Ashtamangala” or the Eight Auspicious Objects or Signs are endemic to anumber of cultures including Buddhist symbolism, etc.

The Eig ht Auspic io us Symb o ls o f Vajrayana and Himalayan Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhists make use of a particular set of eight auspicious symbols,ashtamangala, in household and public art. Some common interpretations are givenalong with each symbol although different teachers may give different interpretations:

• The right-turning white conch shell, representing the beautiful sound of thespread of the Buddhadharma;


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• The endless knot, representing the inter-twining of wisdom and compassion;also symbolic of knot symbolism in linking ancestors and omnipresence andthe magical ritual and meta-process of binding (refer etymology of Tantra);

• The golden fish (matsya), representing the state of fearless suspension in aharmless ocean of samsara, metaphorically often refer to Buddha-eyes orrigpa sight;

• The victory banner, representing the victory of one’s body, speech, and mindover negative obstacles. It also represents the victory of Buddhist doctrineover all harmful and pernicious forces;

• The lotus flower, representing purity of body, speech, and mind, floatingabove the muddy waters of attachment and desire;

• The Precious Parasol or Sacred Umbrella which is similar in ritual functionto the baldachin. The Sacred Parasol (which has origins in the sacredmushroom), representing the protection of beings from harm and the canopyor firmament of the sky and therefore the expansiveness and unfolding ofspace and the element other;

• The treasure vase or Urn of Wisdom (Sanskrit “Bumpa”) representing health,long life, wealth, wisdom and the phenomenon of space which is the containerand conduit of everything that is manifest or incarnate;

• The Wheel of Law (Sanskrit Dharmacakra), sometimes representingSakyamuni Buddha and the dharma teaching; also representing the mandala.This symbol is commonly used by Tibetan Buddhists, but in Nepal the Wheelof Law is not used by Nepalese Buddhists in the eight auspicious symbols.Instead of the Dharma wheel, a Fly Whisk may be used as one of theashtamangala symbolizing Tantric manifestations and is made of a yak’s tailattached to a silver staff and used during ritual recitation and fanning thedeities in an auspicious religious ceremony (puja).

Se que nc e s o f Symb o ls

Different traditions have different “orders” of the eight symbols.

Here is the sequential order of the Eight Auspicious Symbols of Nepali Buddhism:

1. Endless knot

2. Lotus flower

3. Victory Banner

4. Wheel of Dharma or Chamaru in Nepali Buddhism

5. Treasure Vase

6. Golden Fish pair

7. Parasol

8. Conch shell


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The sequential order for Chinese Buddhism was defined in the Qing Dynastyas:

1. Wheel of Dharma

2. Conch shell

3. Victory Banner

4. Parasol

5. Lotus flower

6. Treasure Vase

7. Golden Fish pair

8. Endless knot

No n-Buddhist Symb o ls

In Indian and Hindu tradition, the Ashtamangala may be used during certainoccasions including: pujas, weddings (of Hindus), and coronations.

The ashtamangala finds wide mention in the texts associated with Hinduism,Buddhism, and Jainism. They have been depicted in decorative motifs and culturalartifacts.

• The northern Indian tradition lists them as:-

o lion

o bull

o elephant

o water jar or a vessel filled with gems

o flywhisk

o flag

o trumpet

o lamp

• The southern Indian tradition lists them as:-

o flywhisk

o full vase

o mirror

o ankus

o drum

o lamp

o flag

o a pair of fishes

• The list also differs depending on the place, region, and the social groups.


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Sa ddha

Faith is an important constituent element of the teachings of the Buddha-bothin the Theravada tradition and especially in the Mahayana. It betokens faith in thereliability of the Buddha as a truly Awakened guide and confident trust in the truthof the Buddha’s teachings (his Dharma). It can be inspired in part by the charismaof the Buddha himself. It is certainly not “blind faith” in just anyone and anything.

In the Kalama Sutta the Buddha effectively argues against “blind faith” basedsimply on authority, tradition or specious reasoning. One’s own experience and thecounsel of the wise (implicitly meaning a Buddha or a Buddhist master well versedin Dharma) should always be borne in mind. Nevertheless, there remains arequirement for a degree of trusting confidence and belief in Buddhism itself,primarily in the spiritual attainment and salvational knowledge of the Buddha.Faith in Buddhism centres on belief in the Buddha as a supremely Awakened being,on his unexcelled role as teacher of both humans and gods, in the truth of his Dharma(spiritual Doctrine), and in his Sangha (community of spiritually developed followers).Faith in Buddhism functions as a form of motor, which propels the Buddhistpractitioner towards the goal of Awakening (bodhi) and Nirvana.

Faith in The ravada Buddhism

The Pali suttas (scriptures) list faith as one of the seven Treasures (dhanas),one of the five “spiritual faculties” (indriyas), one of the four “streams of merit”, andone of the “spiritual powers” (balas).

When a person decides to give up domestic life and live as a monk or nun, itis said to be out of faith (“through faith in the Lord”) that he/she does so: first comesthe hearing of Dhamma (verbalised spiritual Truth) from the Buddha or one of hisdisciples, and then follows faith in the Buddha’s teaching and reflection upon thevalue of its application.

Faith is primarily faith in the Buddha himself as the Teacher of supremespiritual realisation and accomplishment. The Buddha extols such faith as befittinga “noble” Buddhist disciple: “The ariyan [noble] disciple is of faith; he has faith inthe Awakening of the Tathagata [Buddha], and thinks: He is indeed Lord, perfectedone, fully Self-Awakened One, endowed with right knowledge and conduct, well-farer, knower of the world(s), matchless charioteer of men to be tamed, teacher ofdevas [gods] and men, the Awakened One, the Lord.”

In the Kasibharadvaja Sutta of the Samyutta Nikaya, we have the relationshipof faith, practice and wisdom:

Faith is the seed, practice the rain,

And wisdom is my yoke and plough.

Modesty’s the pole, mind the strap,

Mindfulness my ploughshare and goad.


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In this the seed of faith only grows bigger with practice and wisdom of discernment.

Such faith, it is said, can lead towards Liberation. Indeed, a person who is“released by faith” can well, in consequence, be “on the path to arahantship” (spiritualadeptship) (according to the Buddha of the Anguttara-Nikaya, Book of Threes, 21).It is for such reasons that faith is stated by the Buddha to be appropriate as “aperson’s partner” (Samyutta-Nikaya, Sagathavagga, 200) and to be “a man’s besttreasure”. The Buddha even quotes with evident approval the god Sakka’s Dharma-charged words:

“… faith in the Tathagata unshakable and well established … … the

person of intelligence, remembering the Buddha’s Teaching, should be

devoted to faith and virtue, to confidence and vision of the Dhamma

[Dharma].”

Faith in Mahayana Buddhism

The role of faith in Mahayana Buddhism is, if anything, even stronger. Its depthand range become intensified, particularly in the tathagatagarbha sutras and the“Pure Land” literature. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha accords afoundational position to faith. He states: “we say that unsurpassed Awakening[bodhi] has faith as its cause. The causes of Awakening are innumerable, but if statedas faith, this covers everything.”

Faith as understood in this, the Buddha’s final Mahayana sutra, is belief in theteachings of the Buddha and in the Buddha’s own eternality. More specifically, itis belief in such doctrines as the law of karma, in the reality and eternity of theThree Jewels (i.e. the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha), as well as in theefficacy of the Buddhist Path. The Buddha comments: “All that is said in theseMahayana sutras is the truths of the Way [marga]... As I have already stated, ifone believes in the Way, such a Way of faith is the root of faith. This assists theWay of Awakening... The Way begins with the root of faith … (Yamamoto/Page.

The Buddha further notes that a person possessed of faith is superior to onelacking in it:

“There are two kinds of men: one who has faith, and the other who

has not. O Bodhisattva! Know that he with faith is one who is good,

and that he who has no faith is one who is not good.” (Yamamoto/

Page).

Faith in the Buddha is seen as a positive virtue as it leads to more attentiveabsorption in Dharma, which in turn strengthens faith still further. The Buddharemarks: “Faith arises out of listening to Dharma, and this listening is [itself]grounded in faith.” (Yamamoto/Page).

Through such faith, along with other spiritual practices, the Buddhist aspirantis enabled to attain Nirvana, so the Buddha of the Mahaparinirvana Sutra teaches.


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Faith is the first step for the Bodhisattva to tread along that path to Nirvana. Itis viewed as a basic requirement, and crucially entails the understanding that the“real” Buddha is not a being of flesh and blood who can bleed and who dies, or whoseTruth (Dharma) perishes with his physical body. The true Buddha and his Dharmaare utterly deathless and eternal, so the Mahaparinirvana Sutra insists. This theBodhisattva is urged to believe:

“First, he [ i.e. the Bodhisattva] is perfect in faith. How is faith perfect? Thisis believing deeply that the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are Eternal, that allBuddhas of the ten directions [ = everywhere] make use of expedients [effectivelyto convey Dharma to the different types of being], and that beings and icchantikas

[ = the most spiritually depraved of persons] all possess the Buddha-dhatu [Buddha-Principle, Buddha-nature ]. It is not believing that the Tathagata is subject to birth,old age, illness, and death, that he has undergone austerities, and that Devadatta[ = Buddha’s cousin] really caused blood to flow from the Buddha’s body, that theTathagata ultimately enters Nirvana [ = finally dies], and that authentic Dharmadies out. This is where we speak of the Bodhisattva’s being perfect in faith.” (Yamamoto/Page).

Yet faith in the Buddha should not be blind. The Mahayana not infrequentlylinks faith with discernment and spiritual insight (prajna)-spiritual penetration. Thefollowing words of the Buddha’s indicate the need for a balance:

“If a person does not possess faith and insight [prajna], such a person

increases his ignorance. If a person possesses insight, but not faith,

such a person will increase [his/her] distorted views.... A person who

has no faith will say, out of an angry mind: ‘There cannot be any

Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha!” (Yamamoto/Page).

The Nirvana Sutra is not alone in according a foundational position to faith.The “Tathagatagarbha” sutra entitled, Anunatva-Apurnatva-Nirdesa (“Exposition ofNon-Decrease, Non-Increase”) tells of how the essence of Ultimate Truth, the“Tathagatagarbha”, can be perceived by means of faith. This matter of theTathagatagarbha lies beyond the reach of the foolish, of the ordinary person, unlessthat person possess faith, which will gain him or her entry into the realm of theTathagatagarbha:

“No sravakas [ = elementary students of the Buddha’s] or

pratyekabuddhas [ = “private” Buddhas, who usually sequester

themselves away from people and generally do not teach] are able to

know, see or investigate this matter with their insight. How much less

able to do so are foolish ordinary people, except when they directly

realise it by faith!”

Faith is thus presented as a powerful means for the Buddhist practitioner topenetrate through to, and realise for him/herself, deep spiritual truths.


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It is not only in the tathagatagarbha literature that faith is lauded. In theprajnaparamita scriptures, too, faith is extolled. Here it is usually in connection withtrust and belief in the sutra which is at that moment being expounded. Thus in thePrajnaparamita Sutra on How Benevolent Kings May Protect Their Countries, theBuddha declares that even if living beings were to give away the most precioussubstances known to humanity in a huge act of generosity, still “their merit wouldnot be such as that of the production of one single thought of serene faith in thisSutra” (Conze II). This and other prajnaparamita sutras explain that such personswho naturally engender faith in these texts are those who have worshipped andrevered countless Buddhas in past incarnations. Faith comes naturally to them.Moreover, faith in, and reverence towards, such sutras is tantamount to faith andreverence directed towards all Buddhas. The Buddha asserts in the 18,000-Line

Prajnaparamita Sutra:

“If anyone, when this deep perfection of wisdom is being preached, feels

respect, affection, and serene faith for it, then he feels respect, affection

and serene faith also for the Buddhas and Lords of the past, future,

and present.” (Conze I).

It is perhaps in the “Pure Land” sutras that faith and devotion reach a pinnacleof soteriological importance. Here it is one’s faith in the salvific compassion of theBuddha Amitabha, coupled with one’s development of “roots of goodness” and theearnest wish to enter the Buddha’s happy land, that is said to bring deliverance intoBuddha Amitabha’s Western Paradise, the “land of bliss”, preparatory to entry intoAwakening and Nirvana. In the Contemplation of Amitayus Sutra, the Buddha tellsof the types of being who gain birth in this happy realm-and they are all characterisedby faith:

“Those born in the Western Land are of nine grades. Those who attain

birth on the highest level of the highest grade are sentient beings who

resolve to be born in that land, awaken the three kinds of faith and

so are born there. What are the three? They are, first, the sincere faith,

second, the deep faith; and third, the faith that seeks birth there by

transferring one’s merit. Those who have these three kinds of faith will

certainly be born there.”

However, even in these faith-oriented sutras of “Pure Land” Dharma, faith isoften linked with understanding (it is not totally “blind faith”). The Buddha of theSmaller Pure Land Sutra speaks of faith allied with understanding as a prerequisitefor the attainment of supreme Awakening (bodhi), when hearing this text. Thus:

“Furthermore … if there is a good son or good daughter, whether

having already heard this, or shall hear it, or who is now hearing it

– once hearing this Sutra, profoundly is there born an understanding

faith. Once there is born an understanding faith, a certainty about the

accumulations of merit residing in the ten directions with the Buddha


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World-Honoured Ones, whose number is like the sands of ten River

Ganges, and they practice as instructed, all will be firmly in the

supremely unexcelled Bodhi.”

This teaching of faith, originally advocated in conjunction with discernment andDharmic practice, received a new interpretation in the teachings of the JapaneseBuddhist saint, Shinran Shonin (1173-1262 CE), who taught that just one recitationof the mantra, “Homage to Amida Buddha”, with deep faith, would be enough tosecure the faithful person entrance into the Western Paradise. Subsequent utterancesof that formula would be expressions of gratitude to Buddha Amida (Amitabha).Deep understanding of the Buddha’s teachings and Buddhic practice were notnecessary, Shinran claimed. This interpretation of the “Pure Land” sutras representsperhaps the zenith of faith-oriented Buddhism and remains controversial, althoughShinran’s school of “Jodo Shinshu” is today perhaps the largest Buddhist sect inJapan.

One of the most famous of Mahayana sutras, the Lotus Sutra, also embracesthe ideal of faith, but links it to discernment (which would appear to be more inharmony with the Buddha’s general doctrines). The Buddha tells his audience inthe Lotus Sutra:

“If any living beings who seek after the Buddha-way either see or hear

this Law-Flower Sutra [i.e. the Lotus Sutra], and after hearing it

believe and discern, receive and keep it, you may know that they are

near Perfect Enlightenment.”

The same sutra asserts that the Dharma as a whole is difficult to grasp withmere words, and that ultimately only those Bodhisattvas who believe with firm faithcan penetrate its nature. The Buddha says:

“This Law [Dharma] is inexpressible,

It is beyond the realm of terms;

Among all the other living beings

None can apprehend it

Except the bodhisattvas

Who are firm in the power of faith.”

Thus faith is a major element within Buddhism. While it is rarely (if ever) taughtby the Buddha in any “blind” form and is often linked to discernment andunderstanding, it is nevertheless viewed as a powerful force which can start theBuddhist practitioner on his or her spiritual journey and convey him or her towardsAwakening itself. Perhaps the most enthusiastic paean to faith can be found in themassive Avatamsaka Sutra, where, to the delight of all the Buddhas, the BodhisattvaChief-in-Goodness proclaims the following verses in a great eulogy of bodhisattvas’Faith:


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“Deep faith, belief, and resolution always pure,

They [ = bodhisattvas] honour and respect all Buddhas...

Deeply believing in the Buddha and the Buddha’s teaching,

They also believe in the Way traversed by buddhas-to-be,

And believe in unexcelled great enlightenment:

Thereby do enlightening beings [ = bodhisattvas] first rouse their will.

Faith is the basis of the Path, the mother of virtues,

Nourishing and growing all good ways,

Cutting away the net of doubt, freeing from the torrent of passion,

Revealing the unsurpassed road of ultimate peace.

When faith is undefiled, the mind is pure;

Obliterating pride, it is the root of reverence,

And the foremost wealth in the treasury of religion...

Faith is generous …

Faith can joyfully enter the Buddha’s teaching;

Faith can increase knowledge and virtue;

Faith can ensure arrival at enlightenment …

Faith can go beyond the pathways of demons,

And reveal the unsurpassed road of liberation.

Faith is the unspoiled seed of virtue,

Faith can grow the seed of enlightenment.

Faith can increase supreme knowledge,

Faith can reveal all Buddhas …

Faith is most powerful, very difficult to have;

It’s like in all worlds having

the wondrous wish-fulfilling pearl.”

Five Hindranc e s

In Buddhism, the five hindrances (or five nivarana) are negative mental statesthat impede success with meditation (“Jhana”) and lead away from enlightenment.

1. Sensual desire (kamacchanda): Craving for pleasure to the senses.

2. Anger or ill-will (vyapada): Feelings of malice directed toward others.

3. Sloth, torpor and boredom (thina-middha): Half-hearted action with little orno concentration.

4. Restlessness and worry (uddhacca-kukkacca): The inability to calm the mind.

5. Doubt (vicikiccha): Lack of conviction or trust.


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Five Dhyani Buddhas

In Vajrayana Buddhism, the Five Dhyani Buddhas, also known as the FiveWisdom Buddhas, the Five Great Buddhas and the Five Jinas, are representationsof the five qualities of the Buddha. These five Buddhas are a common subject ofVajrayana mandalas.

The Five Wisdom Buddhas are a later development, based on the Yogacaraelaboration of concepts concerning the jnana of Buddhas, of the Trikaya (Skt. Triis “three”, kaya is “body”) theory, which posits three “bodies” of the Buddha. TheWisdom Buddhas are all aspects of the dharmakaya or “reality-body”, which embodiesthe principle of enlightenment. Initially two Buddhas appeared which representedwisdom and compassion-they were, respectively, Akcobhya and Amitabha. A furtherdistinction embodied the aspects of power, or activity, and the aspect of beauty, orspiritual riches. In the Sutra of Golden Light (an early Mahayana Sutra) the figuresare named Dundubishvara, and Ratnaketu, but over time their names changed tobecome Amoghasiddhi, and Ratnasambhava.

The Five Wisdom Buddhas are protected by the Five Wisdom Kings, and inJapan are frequently depicted together in the Mandala of the Two Realms.

Each of the five Buddhas first identifies a specific human failing and then helpsus in transforming it into a positive attribute, bringing about the spiritual evolutionrequired for enlightenment.

Buddha Footprint

The footprint of the Buddha, Buddhapada, is an early aniconic and symbolicrepresentation of the Buddha.

Fo ur He ave nly King s

In the Buddhist faith, the Four Heavenly Kings are four guardian gods, eachof whom watches over one cardinal direction of the world. They are collectivelynamed as follows:

• Sanskrit – Devaraja “king of gods” or Lokapala “guardian of the world”

• Chinese – Tianwang “Heavenly kings” or Sì Tianwang “Four heavenly kings”

• Korean – Cheonwang “Heavenly kings” or Sacheonwang “Four heavenlykings”

• Japanese – Shitenno “Four heavenly kings”

• Tibetan – rgyal.chen bzhi “Four great kings”

They reside in the Caturmaharajika heaven on the lower slopes of MountSumeru, which is the lowest of the six worlds of the devas of the Kamadhatu. Theyare the protectors of the world and fighters of evil, each able to command a legionof supernatural creatures to protect the Dharma.


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Further associations between the four directions and elements, seasons, planets,animals, internal organs, etc. can be found at Five elements (Chinese philosophy).Note, however, that the colours assigned to the Four Heavenly Kings represent anindependent tradition and do not correspond to the traditional Chinese associationof colours and directions.

All four serve Shakra, the lord of the devas of Trayastrimsha. On the 8th, 14thand 15th days of each lunar month, the Four Heavenly Kings either send outmessengers or go themselves to see how virtue and morality are faring in the worldof men. Then they report upon the state of affairs to the assembly of the Trayastrimshadevas.

On the orders of Shakra, the four kings and their retinues stand guard to protectTrayastrimsha from another attack by the Asuras, which once threatened to destroythe kingdom of the devas. They are also vowed to protect the Buddha, the Dharma,and the Buddha’s followers from danger.

According to Vasubandhu, devas born in the Caturmaharajika heaven are 1/4 of a krosa in height (about 750 feet tall). They also have a five-hundred yearlifespan, of which each day is equivalent to 50 years in our world; thus their totallifespan amounts to about nine million years (other sources say 90,000 years).

In Chinese they are known collectively as “Fong Tiao YO Shun”, which translatesinto “Good Climate”. This mnemonic reminds one of the symbols the Heavenly Kingscarry. For instance, “Fong” sounds like the Chinese word for “edge”, hence thecorresponding symbol is a sword. “Tiao” sounds like “Tune”, hence the correspondingsymbol is a musical instrument. means “rain”, hence the corresponding symbol isan umbrella. “Shun” refers to the symbol of a crimson dragon.

These symbols also link the deities to their followers; for instance, the nagas,magical creatures who can change form between human and serpent, are led byVirupakca, represented with a snake; the gandharvas are celestial musicians, ledby Dhritaracmra, represented with a lute. The umbrella was a symbol of regalsovereignty in ancient India, and the sword is a symbol of martial prowess.Vaishravana’s mongoose, which ejects jewels from its mouth, is said to representgenerosity in opposition to greed.

Fo urte e n Unanswe rab le Que stio ns

The phrase fourteen unanswerable questions, in Buddhism, refers to fourteencommon philosophical questions that Buddha refused to answer.

Fo urte e n Que stio ns

Questions referring to the world: concerning the existence of the world in time;

• Is the world eternal?

• or not?


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• or both?

• or neither?

Questions referring to the world: concerning the existence of the world in space;

• Is the world finite?

• or not?

• or both?

• or neither?

Questions referring to what is beyond the world;

• Does the Tathagata exist after death?

• or not?

• or both?

• or neither?

Questions referring to personal experience;

• Is the self identical with the body?

• or is it different from the body?

Buddha’s Answe r to the Que stio ns

The Buddha remained silent when asked these fourteen questions. He describedthem as a net and refused to be drawn into such a net of theories, speculations, anddogmas. He said that it was because he was free of bondage to all theories anddogmas that he had attained liberation. Such speculations, he said, are attendedby fever, unease, bewilderment, and suffering, and it is by freeing oneself of themthat one achieves liberation.

Implic ations

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The fourteen questions imply two basic attitudes toward the world. The Buddhaspoke of these two attitudes in his dialogue with Mahakashyapa, when he said thatthere are two basic views, the view of existence and the view of nonexistence. Hesaid that people are accustomed to think in these terms, and that as long as theyremain entangled in these two views they will not attain liberation.

The propositions that the world is eternal, that the world is infinite, that theTathagatha exists after death, and that the self is independent of the body reflectthe view of existence. The propositions that the world is not eternal, that the worldis finite, that the Tathagata does not exist after death, and that the self is identical


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with the body reflect the view of nonexistence. These two views were professed byteachers of other schools during the time of the Buddha. The view of existence isgenerally the view of the Brahmins; that of nonexistence is generally the view ofthe materialists and hedonists.

When the Buddha refused to be drawn into the net of these dogmatic views ofexistence and nonexistence, he had two things in mind: the ethical consequencesof these two views, and the fact that the views of absolute existence and nonexistencedo not correspond to the way things really are. The eternalists view this self aspermanent and unchanging. When the body dies, this self will not die because theself is by nature unchanging. If that is the case, it does not matter what this bodydoes: actions of the body will not affect the destiny of the self. This view is incompatiblewith moral responsibility because if the self is eternal and unchanging, it will notbe affected by wholesome and unwholesome actions. Similarly, if the self wereidentical with the body and the self dies along with the body, then it does not matterwhat the body does. If you believe that existence ends at death, there will be noconstraint upon action. But in a situation where things exist through interdependentorigination, absolute existence and nonexistence are impossible.

Another example drawn from the fourteen unanswerable questions also showsthat the propositions do not correspond to the way things really are. Take theexample of the world. According to Buddhist teaching, the world does not existabsolutely or does not exist absolutely in time. The world exists dependent on causesand conditions—ignorance, craving, and clinging. When ignorance, craving, andclinging are present, the world exists; when they are not present, the world ceasesto exist. Hence the question of the absolute existence or nonexistence of the worldis unanswerable. Existence and nonexistence, taken as absolute ideas, do not applyto things as they really are. This is why the Buddha refused to agree to absolutestatements about the nature of things. He saw that the absolute categories ofmetaphysics do not apply to things as they really are.

Frie nds of the We ste rn Buddhist Orde r

Friends of the Western Buddhist Order (FWBO) is a Buddhist movement foundedby Sangharakshita in 1967 in the UK. It was followed by the foundation of theWestern Buddhist Order (WBO) in 1968.

The Friends of the Western Buddhist Order is one of the main Buddhistmovements in the UK. There are around eighty FWBO public centres and retreatcentres in over twenty countries. These centres teach Meditation, Buddhism, Yoga,and other forms of personal development.

In India the FWBO is known as Trailokya Bauddha Mahasangha SahayakaGana (TBMSG), in Spanish speaking countries as Los Amigos de la Orden Budistade Occidente (AOBO), and in France as Les Amis de l’Ordre Bouddhiste Occidental(AOBO).


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The FWBO’s approach to teaching Buddhism is based on a recognition that thereis an underlying unity in the Buddhist traditions as a whole. It seeks to find waysof living a genunine Buddhist life regardless of lifestyle, and to do so in ways suitableto the conditions of contemporary society.

The We ste rn Buddhist Orde r

The WBO is a network of individuals who have made personal commitmentsto practice the Dharma and who have been witnessed to effectively go for refugeto the Three Jewels. Despite the name, the WBO is based not only in the West butis now a worldwide Buddhist movement. Membership of the order is limited by onemain criterion, the ability to Go for Refuge to the Three Jewels; that is the Buddha,Dharma, and the Sangha. According to Sangharakshita, it is the act of Going For

Refuge that makes one a Buddhist. Order members are known as Dharmacharis(masculine) or Dharmacharinis (feminine) and they are ordained on an equal basis,taking the same precepts at ordination. There are no higher ordinations, while asmall number of order members take vows of celibacy and adopt a simpler life style,this is not accorded a higher status.

Sangharakshita rejected the traditional Buddhist structure of separating layand monastic members and founded a new type of combined order, which emphasisedcommitment to Buddhist practice. This innovation was rationalised by reference toReginald Ray’s Buddhist Saints in India, which suggests that organised monasticismwas a later development and the divide between lay and monastic members wasoriginally considered less important. Others, basing their opinions on the traditionsfound in the Dhammapada, consider a clear distinction between lay or monastic lifeto be necessary. Consequently, few traditional monastic organisations are preparedto grant members of the WBO equal status. Although there is no divide betweenthe those who permanently reside in spiritual retreats and those who visit, thereis a distinction between ordained members of the WBO and novices. Novices arereferred to as mitras, which is often translated as “friends”, they are part of FWBO,but are not members of the WBO.

Order members undertake to observe a set of ten precepts (ethical trainingrules). These are different from monastic vows, but the set is mentioned in the PaliCanon (e.g. MN 41:8-14). Beyond this, a commitment to personal Dharma practiceand to remain in communication with other members to the best of one’s ability arethe only requirements. Ordination confers no special status, nor any specificresponsibilities, although many order members do choose to take on responsibilitiesfor such things as teaching meditation, and the Buddhadharma. There are nowaround 1400 members of the order, in over 20 countries in Europe, India, Africa,Australasia, and elsewhere in Asia. Mitras are people who consider themselvesBuddhists, who make an effort to live in accordance with the five ethical precepts,and who feel that the FWBO is the appropriate spiritual community for them, atleast for the time being.


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Distinc tive Emphase s o f the FWBO

According to the FWBO, there are six characteristics that define the movement.

1. The movement is ecumenical. The FWBO is not identified with any particularstrand of Buddhism or Buddhist school, but draws inspiration from the wholearray of existing schools, while at the same time not losing track of thefundamental teachings of the historical Buddha.

2. The movement is unified. The FWBO ordains men and women on an equalfooting, unlike most traditional Buddhist schools. The movement does regardsingle-sex activities as vital to spiritual growth, but men and women areconsidered equally able to practise and develop spiritually.

3. The act of Going for Refuge is central. Going for Refuge to the Three Jewels

(i.e., the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha), is considered to be whatmakes someone a Buddhist.

4. Spiritual friendship. Spiritual friendship is friendship based on shared values,especially the Three Jewels. The FWBO teaches that spending time withfriends who share the same ideals supports ethical living.

5. Team based right-livelihood. Working together in teams, in the spirit ofgenerosity and with a focus on ethics, is considered a transformative practice.

6. Art. The arts are considered to broaden sympathies and to extend experience.The many forms of art also helps people to find an expression for theirdevotion, just like meditation, devotional rituals (pujas), and Dharma studymight do.

Ac tivitie s

From the beginning there was an emphasis on teaching meditation in urbancentres. Retreats in the countryside followed, as did lecture series on aspects ofBuddhist thought and practice. Residential communities developed out of retreats,when people decided they wanted to live together, and team-based right-livelihoodprojects were started to fund activities. Eventually, permanent retreat centres wereestablished. Centres were established in countries outside the UK including NewZealand and Australia. The FWBO is now actively teaching Buddhism and meditationin England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Spain, Belgium, France, The Netherlands,Germany, Poland, Estonia, Sweden, Finland, Norway, South Africa, Mexico, USA,Canada, Venezuela, India and Malaysia.

More recently FWBO activities have diversified to include outdoor festivals,online meditation teaching, arts festivals, poetry and writing workshops, yoga, taichi, karate, and pilgrimages to Buddhist holy sites in India. For many years theFWBO charity Karuna Trust has raised money for aid projects in India, includingsupporting the small school for Tibetan refugees established by Dhardo Rimpoche,and a range of projects to assist the Dalit or ex-Untouchable community.


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Prac tic e

Because it draws on the whole of the Buddhist tradition there is a wide varietyof practices current in the FWBO.

Me ditatio n

Many meditation practices are current within the FWBO. Sangharakshitadescribed meditation as having four phases. The first two are, calming or samathapractices and the last two are insight or vipassana practices.

• Integration-The main practice at this stage is the Mindfulness of Breathing,which has the effect of “integrating the psyche” (improving mindfulness andconcentration).

• Positive Emotion-The second aspect of calm is developing positivity. TheBrahmavihara meditations, especially the ‘metta bhavana’ or cultivation ofloving kindness meditations, are the key practices for developing positiveemotion.

• Spiritual Death-The beginning of insight is to examine aspects of reality andto see how all things are impermanent, lacking an essential nature, and leadto dissatisfaction. A key Buddhist technique for developing this insight hasalways been the breaking of things into parts. In the Six Element practicethe individual looks at their whole psychophysical organism in terms of earth,water, air, fire, space, and consciousness. Other techniques are contemplatingimpermance, especially of the body; contemplating suffering; and contemplatingShunyata. This leads to a spiritual death, as through insight into the natureof things, one’s sense of oneself as a separate, isolated being is broken down.It is considered important to approach these meditation practices from astrong base of integration and positivity.

• Spiritual Rebirth-With the development of insight, and the death of thelimited ego-self a person is spiritually reborn. In the ultimate sense this isBodhi or enlightenment. Practices which involve the visualization of Buddhasand Bodhisattvas are the main practices used in the FWBO in this phase.

Othe r Co mmo n Me ditatio n Prac tic e s

• Just sitting, a formless meditation with no focus where one just sits andnothing else. Just sitting can be a good practice to help assimilate experiencefrom other meditation practices. The just sitting practice is akin to thepractice of zazen in the Zen tradition.

• Pure Awareness, though not practice, has recently become popular. Here,there is no focus of meditation; whatever happens to appear is secondary andjust allowed to happen. Primary is recognition of the basic space of nondualawareness-emptiness in which all phenomena arise. This is essentially aTathagatagarbha view within just sitting.


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• Walking meditation is popular on retreats and in between series of severalsitting sessions. The primary focus in this case is usually the physicalmovements of the body, or the soles of the feet (touch), but could also bewhatever one might notice through the other senses while mindfully walking(sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and thoughts). This is an integrative practice.

Ritual

Worship or Puja is a devotional practice that may be thought of as a collectiveact of poetry, in which one recites verse, performs physical acts such as mudra andprostrations, and uses imaginative imagery to evoke a particular experience. Theexperience is one which includes compassion for all living beings, and a desire toliberate them from suffering. The FWBO has a range of pujas but the most commonone is composed of the anuttara puja sections that form the beginning of theBodhicaryavatara of Shantideva. It consists of seven stages: worship, salutation,going for refuge, confession of faults, rejoicing in merit, entreaty and supplication,and transference of merit and self-surrender.

These verses can be thought of as evoking a series of seven steps that cultivatethe “two accumulations” of punya (merit, positive mental states) and jnana(transcendental insight). After first welcoming the Buddhas and bodhisattvas ashonoured guests (section one, Worship), and recognizing the worth of the spiritualideal by making repeated salutations (section two, Salutation), one then takes thisideal of Awakening as a personal goal by Going for Refuge and taking the five (orfor Order members, ten) precepts as a blueprint for ethical living (section three,Going for Refuge). Having undertaken the precepts one is naturally more aware ofone’s ethical shortcomings. The most ethical response to this is to openly admit toone’s failure to live up to the ideal (section four, Confession). As a result of thiscontinued effort on the path one develops increasing levels of merit and becomesmore emotionally positive (section five, Rejoicing in Merit). However, merit in itselfis a necessary but not sufficient basis for Awakening, and one needs to develop anopenness to transcendental insight. This openness is expressed in asking the Buddhasand bodhisattvas for instruction (section six, Entreaty and Supplication). Havinggained Insight, one’s life is now dedicated to alleviating the sufferings of others, andall one has gained on the path is now dedicated to the welfare of all living beings(section seven, Transference of Merit, and Self Surrender).

Re tre ats

Retreats provide an opportunity for practitioners to focus on their practice withlittle or no interruption, away from the busy life of work and families. Retreats areof several kinds and may be on a varietry of topics, but they can all be broadlycategorized into meditation retreats, study retreats, and solitary retreats. Retreatlengths varies from short weekend retreats to one or two weeks. The length of asolitary retreat is left up to the retreatant to decide. On non-solitary retreats, there


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is often a structured program that may include meditation, rituals, discussiongroups, workshops on specific topics, other activities (such as yoga), and free time,depending on the form and topic of the retreat.

Rig ht Live liho o d

Early on in the history of the FWBO it became apparent that it needed to raisefunds for various projects. This became especially apparent with the decision topurchase and renovate a disused fire station in Bethnal Green. At this time severalsmall businesses were set up including a wholefood shop and a building team. Thesewere run by collectives of people who almost immediately discovered that workingtogether as a team seemed like a very good spiritual practice in itself. Right livelihoodis listed in the Buddha’s Noble Eightfold Path and consists essentially in applyingBuddhist ethics to work. Right livelihood businesses contribute funds for the movementas well as providing environments for spiritual growth.

Co mmunitie s

Another practice that emerged from the early milieu of the FWBO is residentialspiritual communities. The first community was formed after a retreat when severalof the participants decided they wanted to try to continue the retreat-style living.The most stable communities tended to be single sex and this has become the mainparadigm for their communities ever since. Some of the most effective situationsfor Buddhist practice can occur when people live and work together. The supportfrom fellow practitioners in a community is seen to be effective in helping itsmembers make spiritual progress.

Dive rsity

As an international movement diversity is a distinguishing feature. WhileEngland remains the main base of the movement, the TBMSG is growing rapidlyin India. Most Indian members come from the lowest strata of Indian society, fromthe castes that were formerly known as untouchables (even though untouchabilitywas outlawed by the first Independent Indian government).

The FWBO claims a wide range of people involved, from academics to working-class trades, to artists, accountants, and doctors. The majority of people involvedwith the FWBO live conventional lives. A small number live in communities andwork in right-livelihood businesses-a lifestyle which has come to be called ‘semi-monastic’. The majority involved with the FWBO are people leading regular lifestyleswho endeavour to integrate their Buddhist practice into the rest of their lives.

A group of people who are involved in the festival scene in the UK run a projectcalled Buddhafield. Buddhafield both attends festivals such as the GlastonburyFestival where they teach meditation, and socially aware Buddhism. They runoutdoor events under canvas and often attract large numbers.


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The FWBO afte r Sang harakshita

In the 1990s Sangharakshita began handing over spiritual and administrativeresponsibility for the FWBO and WBO to a group of senior men and women disciples.This transfer was completed by 2000. Since then Sangharakshita’s health hasdeclined, but the movement continues to thrive.

Leadership was vested in the College of Public Preceptors, a group of men andwomen who take overall responsibility for ordaining new members. With over 1,000members, and a continuing commitment to consensus decision-making, the orderis now having to explore new ways of communicating on issues of concern to all.One such issue, which has highlighted the need for change, is the name of the order,which is now considered to be inappropriate since the movement is no longer a purelyWestern one.

However, getting consensus from 1,000+ people is a difficult business andprogress in making the change has been slow.

In 2003 the Public Preceptors, responding to feedback from the Order and themovement, but also following their own inclinations and pressures on their resources,decided to move away from having a formal relationship to the Order and movement,and to concentrate on what they see as their primary role in regard to the ordinationof the new members of the Order. Many of the preceptors want to focus on teachingand Dharma practice. At the same time they have expanded the number of preceptorsto introduce flexibility.

Change has also been fuelled by allegations of sexual misconduct bySangharakshita during the 1970s and early 1980s. He has not responded directlyto these allegations, but they brought widespread debate within the FWBO. A smallnumber of order members have resigned, but most have stayed on and take advantageof a more relaxed and flexible atmosphere, in which they feel free to question andupdate the way things have been done, and even to question Sangharakshita.

The WBO and FWBO are exploring ways to organise themselves and developtheir work in a more decentralised way. Debates continue about how to ensure bothcoherence and flexibility, as well as spiritual depth in the order.

Chro no lo g y

1964 - Sangharakshita returns to England after 20 years in India.

1967- Founding of the FWBO.

Aspects of Buddhist Psychology Lecture series.

1968 - Founding of the Western Buddhist Order.

7 April: 12 men and women ordained Noble Eightfold Path Lectureseries (later published as Vision & Transformation).

1969 - Aspects of the Bodhisattva Ideal Lecture series.


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1971 - Sangharakshita takes a year off, leaving order members to run thingson their own.

1972 - First single-sex retreats.

1975 - First ordinations in New Zealand.

Sukhavati project started — a derelict fire station is transformed intothe London Buddhist Centre and a residential community. Out of thisproject would also come the first team-based right-livelihood businesses.

1976 - Padmaloka Buddhist Retreat Centre purchased, Sangharakshita makesit his base.

1978 - Indian wing of the FWBO founded. Known as the Trailokya BuddhaMahasangha Sahayaka Gana (TBMSG).

1980 - Formation of Aid for India, now known as the Karuna Trust, to raisefunds for aid projects in India, particularly amongst the so called “ex-untouchable” Buddhists.

1990 - Death of Dhardo Rimpoche, one of Sangharakshita’s main teachers.

1992 - Sangharakshita addresses the European Buddhist Union.

1997 - The Guardian publishes an article critica of the FWBO.

1998 - The FWBO issue their response to criticism in The Guardian article.

2000 - Sangharakshita hands on the headship of the order to the College ofPublic Preceptors.

2002 - The order reaches 1,000 members. Major changes announced in the“mitra system”.

2003 - A letter is published by an order member alleging unwelcome sexualadvances and a cult-like situation at times in the past. The result isa wide ranging debate about the past of the FWBO, and questioningof attitudes, institutions and practices. Sangharakshita is seriously ill,his role in the movement is now minimal.

2004 - The Council of the College of Public Preceptors (the effective leadershipof the FWBO), an administrative body set up to support the leadersof the FWBO dissolves itself. Plans are in place to rapidly expand thenumber of Public preceptors and to move away from them beingadministrators towards their spiritual role as guardians of the orderwhose primary function is to ordain new members of the order.Administrative functions are decentralised to more accurately reflectthe ethos of the movement, giving centres greater autonomy.

Critic ism o f the FWBO

Since its inception the FWBO has been a focus of controversy in the BritishBuddhist community, particularly regarding their non-traditional views and practices


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of Buddhism. Criticism in general has been focused on Sangharakshita and someother order members. Sangharakshita’s views are often expressed in a provocativeway, and have therefore received much attention from critics. For example, in oneof his writings he states:

The ‘couple’ is the enemy of the spiritual community. By couple, in this

context, one means two people, usually of the opposite sex, who are

neurotically dependent on each other and whose relationship, therefore,

is one of mutual exploitation and mutual addiction. A couple consists,

in fact, of two half-people, each of whom unconsciously invests part

of his or her total being in the other: each is dependent on the other

for the kind of psychological security that can be found, ultimately,

only within oneself.’ (Sangharakshita, 1986, Alternative Traditions).

Although this has been taken by some critics as a wholesale condemnation ofsexual relationships, it should be noted that Sangharakshita is not using the word“couple” in the conventional sense, but in a more restrictive way in order to examinehow neurotic relationships conflict with spiritual practice. Additionally, sincetraditional Buddhist texts from the Pali canon to the Mahayana Bodhicaryavataratake a much stronger stand against sexual relationships, Sangharakshita’s viewsare hardly out of line with the wider Buddhist tradition in this regard.

More out of line with traditional Buddhism are some views expressed by Subhuti,a senior order member, in his paper presented to ‘The Conference on the OrdinationProcess for Men’, held at Padmaloka Retreat Centre 9th-10th July 1986. Thisconference was attended by a number of senior order members, and the papers theypresented, together with a list of 37 proposals and recommendations arrived at asa result of the discussions between the conference participants, were published inShabda in September 1986. ‘Sexual interest on the part of a male Order memberfor a male mitra [novice] can create a connection which may allow kalyana mitrata[spiritual friendship] to develop. Some, of course, are predisposed to this attraction,others have deliberately chosen to change their sexual preferences in order to usesex as a medium of kalyana mitrata-and to stay clear of the dangers of male-femalerelationships without giving up sex.’

Some Buddhists feel that justifying or promoting homosexual relations betweenteachers and students as ‘a medium of kalyana mitrata’ is contrary to Buddhistteaching. For example, Rev. Daishin Morgan, of Throssel Hole Priory inNorthumberland, UK speaking on BBC East’s ‘Going for Refuge’ TV programme(part of their ‘Matter of Fact’ series), broadcast on 12 Nov 1992, made the followingcomment on Subhuti’s above statement :

‘To me this is totally contrary to the Buddhist precepts, it’s totally

contrary to the Buddhist scriptures, and it’s absolutely contrary to any

sort of good practice. It to me is a form of manipulation.’


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The FWBO claim in Wikipedia that: ‘It should though be noted that in the courseof the discussion this internal document [Subhuti’s paper] engendered, a consensuswas reached within the Order that sexual activity in the context of a kalyana mitratarelationship was in fact deeply inadvisable. For the last 20 years of the FWBO’shistory, this kind of behaviour has been strongly discouraged, and the vast majoritylook upon the experiments of the 1970’s and 80’s as a mistake.’ However, the FWBOhas not provided any evidence or citation to support this claim.

There is no suggestion that ‘sexual activity in the context of a kalyana mitratarelationship’ might be in any way inadvisable among the 37 proposals andrecommendations arrived at as a result of the discussions between the ordinationconference participants. It may be that there is some other evidence of the claimedconsensus, but the FWBO has not provided it.

In fact, there is some evidence that the claimed consensus does not exist. Forexample, order member Jayamati writes in Shabda in August 1998 (12 years afterSubhuti’s paper):

‘The real beauty of a sexual relationship between an Order Member and a Mitrais that if the OM is sufficiently mature then the other person stands to gainconsiderably from the experience. This was the basis for the famed Greek model oflove between the older man and the younger one which served that society so wellfor so long.

And Yashomitra, writing in 2003, commented that : ‘[FWBO] Members were

‘converted’ to homosexuality through coercive psychological means.... There is no

doubt in my mind that many Order members were responsible for all of the above.’

The Guardian

In 1997, a British newspaper, The Guardian published an article titled “TheDark Side of Enlightenment”. The article alleged serious cases of sexual abuse inthe FWBO centre in Croydon, with one person later committing suicide. Moreover,the article also cited allegation of sexual manipulation of younger male order membersby Sangharakshita.

The FWBO issued an official response to the article, stating that FWBO centresare largely autonomous, and to a large extent set their own agendas and standardsand that Sangharakshita himself was largely responsible for bringing this episodeto an end. It was widely known that Sangharakshita had been having sexualrelationships with order members and he has always insisted that the relationshipswere consensual, supportive and not manipulative.

The official response from FWBO to the allegations made in the Guardian articleis available at. The text also touches on some of the other issues laid out in the aboveparagraphs. There are several misquotations in the article, which seem to makeSangharakshita say things which he had definitely not intended.


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Drug s

Sangharakshita has admitted to having experimented with drugs on two occasionsin 1969 and 1970, believing that since he was so often asked for his opinion on thetopic he should be able to speak from experience. His own retrospective account ofthese experiences is stated in ‘1970.

Yasho mitra’s Expe rie nc e

In March 2003 an order member called Yashomitra wrote a personal accountof his sexual relationship with Sangharakshita and published this in Shabda, theinternal newsletter of Western Buddhist Order. In the article, he described how hewas manipulated in having sex with Sangharakshita. He went on to state that “[t]heFWBO did seek to undermine heterosexual relationships and family life. It did teachthat homosexuality was superior to heterosexuality. Members were ‘converted’ tohomosexuality through coercive psychological means. Coercion of any sort was notanathema within the FWBO.” Yashomitra resigned from the order shortly after thepublication of the article.

False We aring o f Ro b e s

Another allegation made by the FWBO-Files is that Sangharakshita wore therobes of a celibate Buddhist monk while on tour in India in the 1980’s, and thathe did so with the intention of deceiving Indian members of the TBMSG intobelieving that he was still a celibate monk. This episode led to a number of mitras(friends) denoucing him by and rejecting the TBMSG en masse in 1999. A lettersigned by the 88 Indian mitras, all from the Mumbai (Bombay) area stated:

“While claiming to be a properly ordained Buddhist monk, a Bhikshu, you showed no respect for the devout feelings Buddhists associated with the robe by indulging in sexual misconduct, experimenting with drugs and teaching the ‘neutrality’ of sexual activities. In our opinion, this final act of yours was nothing more than an attempt to cover up your misbehaviour as a monk while still holding onto the power and prestige which the yellow robe along with the epithets Bhikshu and Mahasthavir held in the eyes of the common people. Thus you have cheated us. Why didn’t you tell us right from the beginning that you weren’t a monk? Why didn’t you feel ashamed appearing before us in the yellow robe between 1979 and 1993?How can this falsehood be considered spiritual, nay, even common human behaviour?Yet you and your disciples talk of being a spiritual movement, a misnomer which amounts to a denigration of the truly spiritual.”

Ga mpopa

Gampopa (1079-1153), also known as Dagpo Lhaje (“physician from Dagpo”) andDakpo Rinpoche (“Precious Master from Dagpo”), founded the Kagyu school, one ofthe four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. In many ways the establishment of the


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Kagyu school marks the beginning of the distinct institution we now recognize asTibetan Buddhism, even as the Indian Tantric Buddhism model that inspired itfaded away.

Gampopa, a physician from Dagpo region in Kham, was the foremost studentof the Tibetan Buddhist teacher Milarepa. Gampopa was renowned for the clarityof his perception and his knowledge of both Kadampa and, later, Mahamudramethods.

Gampopa’s position in the transmission lineage of the esoteric Mahamudrateaching is as follows:

1. Tilopa (988-1069), the Indian yogi who experienced the original transmissionof the Mahamudra.

2. Naropa (1016-1100), who perfected the methods of accelerated enlightenment,described in his six yogas of Naropa.

3. Marpa (1012-1097), the first Tibetan in the lineage, who translated theVajrayana and Mahamudra texts into Old Tibetan.

4. Milarepa (1052-1135), poet and master who overcame Marpa’s reluctance toteach but nonetheless attained enlightenment in a single lifetime.

5. Gampopa, Milarepa’s best student, who integrated Atisha’s Kadampa teachingand Tilopa’s Mahamudra teaching to establish the Kagyu school.

This lineage sequence, taken together, is called the “Five Founding Masters”by the Kagyu followers.

Prior to studying under Milarepa, Gampopa had studied the kadampa traditions,which is a gradual path based on the lamrim teachings. He searched for, andeventually met Milarepa, and attained realization of ultimate reality under hisguidance.

Gampopa wrote The Jewel Ornament of Liberation and founded the DagpoKagyud school in 1125. This school merged with the older but less influentialShangpa Kagyud school, founded circa 1050, also dependent on Naropa), to form themajor Kagyu school. While the Shangpa school was the first Kagyupa school, it wasthe integrative teaching of Gampopa which unified Kadampa and Mahamudrateachings into the Kagyu approach. Gampopa also established various monasticinstitutions, taught extensively, and attracted many students. Four of his disciplesfounded the four major Kagyu schools:

• Babrom Kagyu founded by Babrom Dharma Wangchuk.

• Pagdru Kagyu founded by Phagmo Trupa Dorje Gyalpo.

• Tsalpa Kagyu founded by Shang Tsalpa Tsondru Drag.

• Karma Kagyu, also known as the Kamtsang Kagyu School, founded byDusum Khyenpa the 1st Karmapa.


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Gandhara

Gandhara is the name of an ancient Indian Mahajanapada, currently in northernPakistan (the North-West Frontier Province and parts of northern Punjab andKashmir) and eastern Afghanistan. Gandhara was located mainly in the vale ofPeshawar, the Potohar plateau and on the northern side of the Kabul River. Its maincities were Purushapura (modern Peshawar) and Takshashila (modern Taxila).

The Kingdom of Gandhara lasted from the 6th century BC to the 11th centuryAD. It attained its height from the 1st century to the 5th century AD under BuddhistKushan Kings. After it was conquered by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1021 AD, the nameGandhara disappeared. During the Muslim period the area was administered fromLahore or from Kabul. During Mughal time the area was part of Kabul province.

Ge o g raphy

The Gandharas were settled since the Vedic times on the banks of Kabul River(river Kubha or Kabol) up to its mouth into Indus. The region is known as PeshawarValley. Later the Gandharas crossed the Indus and included parts of northwestPunjab of Pakistan. Gandhara was located on the grand northern high road

(Uttarapatha) and was a centre of international commercial activities. It was animportant channel of communication with ancient Iran and Central Asia.

The boundaries of Gandhara varied throughout history. Sometime the Peshawarvalley and Taxila collectively referred to as Gandhara. The Swat valley was alsosometimes included. However, the heart of Gandhara was always the Peshawarvalley. The kingdom was ruled from capitals at Pushkalavati (Charsadda), Taxila,Purushapura (Peshawar) and in its final days from Udabhandapura (Hund) on theIndus.

Anc ie nt Gandhara

Pre Histo ric Pe rio d

Evidence of Stone Age human inhabitants of Ghandhara, including stone toolsand burnt bones, was discovered at Sanghao near Mardan in area caves. Theartifacts are approximately 15,000 years old.

To date no evidence of Harappan Culture of Indus Valley Civilization has beenfound in Gandhara. The Aryans moved into Gandhara and the rest of North WesternPakistan around 1500BC. The region shows an influx of southern Central Asianculture in the Bronze Age with the Gandhara grave culture, likely correspondingto immigration of Indo-Aryan speakers and the nucleus of Vedic civilization. Thisculture survived till 600 BC. Its evidence has been discovered in the Hilly regionsof Swat and Dir, and even at Taxila.

The name of the Gandharis is attested from the Rigveda (RV 1.120.1). TheGandharis, along with the Mujavantas, Angas and the Magadhas, are also mentioned


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in the Atharvaveda (AV 5.22.14), but apparently as a despised people. Gandharasare included in the Uttarapatha division of Puranic and Buddhistic traditions.Aitareya Brahmana refers to king Naganajit of Gandhara who was contemporaryof Janaka, king of Videha.

Gandharas and their king figure prominently as strong allies of the Kurusagainst the Pandavas in Mahabharata war. The Gandharas were a furious people,well trained in the art of war. According to Puranic traditions, this Janapada wasfounded by Gandhara, son of Aruddha, a descendant of Yayati. The princes of thiscountry are said to have come from the line of Druhyu who was a famous king ofRigvedic period. The river Indus watered the lands of Gandhara. According to VayuPurana (II.36.107), the Gandharas were destroyed by Pramiti aka Kalika, at the endof Kalyuga.

The Gandhara kingdom sometimes also included Kashmira (Jataka No 406).Hecataeus of Miletus (549-468) refers to Kaspapyros (Kasyapura i.e. Kashmira) asGandaric city. According to Gandhara Jataka, at one time, Gandhara formed a partof the kingdom of Kashmir. Jataka also gives another name Chandahara for Gandhara.Buddhist texts like Anguttara Nikaya refer to sixteen great nations (solasMahajanapadas) which flourished in Indian sub-continent during Buddha’s time,only two of which viz. the Gandhara and the Kamboja were located in the Uttarapathaor the north-western division.

Gandhara is also thought to be the location of the mystical Lake Dhanakosha,birthplace of Padmasambhava, founder of Tibetan Buddhism. The bKa’ brgyud(Kagyu) sect of Tibetan Buddhism identifies the lake with Andan Dheri stupa,located near the tiny village of Uchh near Chakdara in the lower Swat Valley. Aspring was said to flow from the base of the stupa to form the lake. Archaeologistshave found the stupa but no spring or lake can be identified.

The primary cities of Gandhara were Purushpura (now Peshawar), Takshashila(Prakrit Taxila) and Pushklavati. Last two cities are said to have been named afterTaksa and Pushkara, the two sons of Bharata, a prince of Ayodhya.

Pushkalavati & Prayag

Pushkalavati remained the capital of Gandhara from the 6th century BC to the2nd century AD, when the capital moved to Peshawar. An important Buddhist shrinekept the city as a centre of pilgrimage until 7th century AD. Pushkalavati had somesignificance for earlier Aryans. This city in Peshawar Valley is situated at theconfluence of Swat and Kabul rivers. Three different branches of the River Kabulmeet there. That specific place is still called Prang and considered sacred. The localpeople still bring their dead for burial. Aryans found similar geographicalcharacteristics at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna and founded a sacred cityby the name of Prayag near Benares. This is one of the ancient pilgrim centres ofIndia.


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Taxila

The Gandharan city of Taxila was an important Buddhist centre of learningfrom the 5th century BCE to the 2nd century CE.

Pe rsian Rule

Cyrus the Great (558-530 BCE) built first universal empire of the world stretchingfrom Greece to the Indus River. Both Gandhara and Kamboja soon fell a prey tothe Achaemenian Dynasty of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great or in thefirst year of Darius I. The Gandhara and Kamboja had constituted the seventhsatrapys (upper Indus) of the Achaemenid Empire.

When Achamenian took control of this kingdom, Pushkra-sakti a contemporaryof king Bimbisara of Magadha was the king of Gandhara. He was in power struggleagainst kingdoms of Avanti and Pandavas.

The inscription on Darius’ (521-486 BC) tomb at Naqsh-i-Rustam near Persepolisrecorded GADARA (Gandhara) along with HINDUSH (West Punjab) in the list ofsatrapies. The Greek historian Herodotus (490-420 ? BC) in his book The Histories

gave list of twenty provinces of Persian Empire. He reported Gandhara as Paktuike

(3:93) and in another passage identified this territory with Peshawar Valley (4:44).The word Paktuike is interesting since present inhabitants of Gandhara are knownas Pakhtun.

Under Persian rule system of centralized administration and bureaucratic systemintroduced to the region. Influenced by the Persians and access to Western Asianscivilization, the great scholars like Panini and Kautaliya born in this cosmopolitanenvironment. Kharosti alphabet derived from Aramaic (official language ofAchaemenians) alphabet developed here and remained national script of Gandharauntil third century AD.

By about 380 BC Persian hold weakened. Many small kingdoms sprang inGandhara. Around 327 BC Alexander the Great invaded Gandhara and IndianSatrapies of Persian Empire. His stay in this area was merely less than a year. Thisdid not have any immediate administrative or cultural effect. The expeditions ofAlexander were recorded by Arrian (around 175 AD) in Anabasis and other chroniclersmany centuries after the event. The names of places and personalities described inthese chronicles are difficult to identify.

The companions of Alexander the Great did not record the names of Kambojaand Gandhara and rather located a dozen small political units in their territories.Alexander conquered most of these political units of the former Gandhara andKamboja Mahajanapadas.

According to Greek chroniclers, at the time of Alexander’s invasion, hyparchsKubhesha, Hastin (Astes) and Ambhi (Omphes) were ruling lower Kabul valley,Puskalavati (modern Charasadda) and Taxila respectively, while Ashvajit (chief of


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Aspasios or Ashvayanas) and Assakenos (chief of Assakenois or Ashvakayanas) (bothbeing sub-units of the Kambojas) were ruling upper Kabul valley and Mazaga(Mashkavati) respectively.

Gandhara unde r the Mauryas

Chandragupta, the founder of Mauryan dynasty was living in Taxila whenAlexander captured this city. Here he met Kautilya, who remained his chief adviserthroughout his career. Gandhara was won back from the Greeks by ChandraguptaMaurya. Having defeated Seleucus Nicator (Alexander’s successor in Asia) in 305BCE, the Mauryan Emperor extended his domains up to and including SouthernAfghanistan. Using this Gandhara as his base Chandragupta led a rebellion againstMagadha Empire and ascended to the throne at Pataliputra in 321 BC. [comment:There is very little known about the sequence of events leading to Chandragupta’sdefeat of the Nanda emperors of Magadha. There are no contemporary Indianrecords of Chandragupta Maurya and almost all that is known is based on the diariesof Megasthenes, the ambassador from Seleucus.] He was the first ruler of Mauryandynasty.

Maurya inherited and incorporated many Iranian traditions of AchaemenidEmpire, which later, became the basis of Kautaliya’s book on statecraft. [Anothermade-up statement. There is no evidence, either internal or external, that theMauryan empire incorporated anything from the Achaemenids, or that Kautilya’sbook used any such traditions. Kautilya’s book, of which decent translations areavailable, extensively quotes and comments on past experts on statecraft, with noreference to any external references or practices.] With the completion of the Empire’sGrand Trunk Road, the region presumably prospered as a centre of trade. Gandhararemained a part of the Mauryan Empire for close to a century and a half.

Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta was the one of the greatest rulers theworld has ever known. Like his grandfather, Ashoka also started his career fromGandhara as a governor. Later he became Buddhist and promoted this religion inhis empire. He built many stupas in Gandhara. Mauryan control over northernfrontagers including the Yonas, Kambojas and the Gandharas is attested from theRock Edicts left by Ashoka, who shows special solicitude for these frontier highlanders.His successors, however, failed to cast such imperial shadows throughout the sub-continent.

It is also held by some scholars that the Gandharas and the Kambojas wereone people. Based on time and space contiguity, this view does not seem to be wideoff the mark.

Gandhara unde r Grae c o -Bac trians, Sakas and Indo -Parthians

The decline of the Empire left the sub-continent open to Greco-Bactrian expansion.Southern Afghanistan was absorbed by Demetrius of Bactria in 180 BCE. Around


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about 185 BCE, Demetrius, King of Bactria invaded and conquered Gandhara andthe Punjab. Later, wars between different groups of Greek settlers of Bactria,resulted in the independence of Gandhara from Bactria and the formation of theIndo-Greek kingdom. Menander was the most famous king. He ruled from Taxilaand later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila (Sirkap) and Pushkalavati. Hebecame Buddhist and remembered in Buddhists records due to his discussions witha great Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda Panha.

Around the time of Menander’s death in 140 BCE, Kushans overran Bactria andended Greek rule there. Around 80 BCE, Sakas, diverted by their Parthian cousinsfrom Iran moved into Gandhara and other parts of Pakistan and Western India. Themost famous king of Sakas was Maues who established himself in Gandhara. ThePashtu (or Pakhtu) now spoken in North Western Pakistan and Afghanistan is saidto be based on Saka’s language.

By 90 BCE Parthians took control of eastern Iran and around 50 BCE put anend to last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan. By around 7 CE an Indo-Parthiandynasty succeeded in taking control of Gandhara. Parthians continued to supportGreek artistic traditions in Gandhara. The start of the Gandharan Greco-Buddhistart is dated to the period between 50 BCE and 75 CE. Around 40 CE Thomas theApostle visited India and encountered the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares.

The Go lde n Ag e o f Kushans Rule

The Parthian dynasty fell about 75 AD to another horde from Central Asia.Kushans, known as Yueh-Chih in China moved from Central Asia to Bactria, wherethey stayed for a century. Around 75 AD, one of the tribe Kushan under theleadership of Kujula Kadphises gained control of Gandhara and other part of presentPakistan.

The Kushan period is considered the Golden Period of Gandhara. PeshawarValley and Taxila are littered with ruins of stupas and monasteries of this period.Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture of alltime. Many monuments were created to commemorate the Jataka tales.

Gandhara civilization peaked during the reign of the great Kushan king Kanishka(128-151-AD). This was the golden period of Gandhara. Cities of Taxila at Sirsukh,and Peshawar were built. Peshawar became the capital of a great empire stretchingfrom Bengal to Central Asia. Kanishka was a great patron of the faith and Buddhismspread to Central Asia and the Far East over the Pamir where his empire met theHan Empire of China.

Kanishka Empire was known as the Kingdom of Gandhara and under hisleadership it became the centre of civilization. The Buddhist art spread outward fromGandhara to other parts of Asia. He greatly encouraged Buddhism. Before KanishkaBuddha was not represented in human form. In Gandhara Mahayana Buddhismflourished and Buddha was represented in human form.


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Kanishka created big monuments of Arts. He built a great tower to a heightof 400 feet at Peshawar. This tower was reported by Fa-Hsien, Sun-Yun and Hsuan-Tsang. This structure was destroyed and rebuilt many times and remained in semiruins until it was finally destroyed by Mahmood in 11th century. Under him Gandharabecame a holy land of Buddhism and attracted Chinese pilgrimage to visit Gandharato see monuments associated with many Jataka tales.

After Kanishka, the empire started losing territories in the east. In the westit came under Sassanian (who took power from Parthians in Iran) suzerainty andbecame their vassal from 241-450AD. Under these Kushan chiefs new Buddhistsstupas continued to appear and old ones were enlarged. Huge statues of the Buddhawere erected in monasteries and carved into the hillsides.

Gandhara afte r Huns Invasio n

Huns captured Gandhara around 450 AD, and did not adopt Buddhism. Duringtheir rule, Hinduism revived and Gandharan Civilization declined. Sassanians aidedby Turks destroyed the Huns’ power base in Central Asia and Gandhara once againcame under Persian suzerainty in 568 AD. When the Sassanians were defeated byMuslim Arabs in 644 AD, Gandhara along with Kabul was ruled by Buddhist Turks.

The travel records of many Chinese Buddhists pilgrims record that Gandharawas going through a transformation during these centuries. Buddhism was decliningand Hinduism was rising. Fa-Hien travelled around 400 AD, when Prakrit was thelanguage of the people and Buddhism was flourishing. 100 years later, when Sung-Yun visited in 520 AD, a different picture is described: the area had been destroyedby Huns and was ruled by Lae-Lih who did not practice law of Buddha. Hiun-Tsangvisited around 644 and found Buddhism on the wane and Hinduism in the ascendant.Gandhara was ruled by a king from Kabul, who respected Buddha law, but Taxilawas in ruins and Buddhist monasteries were deserted. Instead, Hindu temples werenumerous and Hinduism was popular.

Gandhara unde r Turkshahi & Hindushahi

After the fall of the Sassnian Empire to Arabs in 644 AD Afghanistan andGandhara came under pressure from Muslims. But they failed to extend their empireto Gandhara. Gandhara was first ruled from Kabul and then from Udabhandapura(Hind). In 665 AD Kabul was put under siege by Arabs, but they never tried to crossHindu Kush. Arabs never fully subdued Kabul and Gandhara was ruled from thereby Turkshahi for next 200 years. Sometime in 9th century Hindushahi replacedTurkshahi. The date of Hindushahi takeover from Turkshahi (Also recorded asKabulshahi) is not certain. Based on various Muslim records the estimated date is870 AD.

According to Al-Biruni (973-1048 AD), Kallar a Brahmin minister of Turkshahifounded Hindushahi dynasty in 843 AD. The dynasty ruled from Kabul, later moved


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capital to Udabhandapura. They build great temples all over their kingdoms. Someof these buildings are still in good conditions in the Salt Range of the Punjab.

End o f Gandhara

Jayapala was the last great king of this dynasty. His empire extended from westof Kabul to the River Sutlej. However, timing of this expansion of Gandhara kingdomcoincided with the rising of a powerful Ghaznavid Empire under Sabuktigin. Defeatedtwice by Sabuktigin and then by Mahmud of Ghazni in Kabul valley. Jayapalacommitted suicide. Son of Jaypala, Anandpala moved his capital near Nandana inSalt Range. In 1021 AD the last king of this dynasty Trilocanpala assassinated byhis own troops. Name of Gandhara was forgotten for ever.

Kandhar in Afghanistan was probably named after Gandhara. According toH.W. Bellow, emigrant from Gandhara in fifth century AD brought this name tomodern Kandhar. Fa-Hien reported Buddha’s alms-bowl in Peshawar Valley whenhe visited around 400 AD. In 1872 Bellow saw this huge begging bowl 7 feet indiameter preserved in the shrine of Sultan Wais outside Kandhar, which wasprobably brought there by refuge Buddhists monks. When Caroe wrote his book in1958 (Caroe, pp170-171), this relic was reported to be at Kabul Museum Presentstatus of this bowl is not known due to the war in Afghanistan since last coupleof decades.

Disc o ve ry o f Gandhara

By the time Gandhara absorbed in to Mahmood of Ghazni Empire, Buddhistbuildings were already in ruins and Gandhara Art had been forgetton. After Al-Biruni, Kashmiri writer Kahana wrote his book Rajatarangini in 1148 AD. Herecorded events about Gandhara, its last royal dynasty and capital Udabhandapura.The history and art of the Gandhara remained unknown to the inhabitants of thearea and rest of the world until 19th century.

In 19th Century AD, British soldiers and administrators started taking interestin the ancient history of the Indian Subcontinent. In the 1830s coins of the postAshoka period were discovered and in the same period Chinese travelogues weretranslated. Charles Masson, James Prinsep and Cunningham deciphered theKharosthi script in 1838.

Chinese records provided locations and site plans of Buddhists shrines. Alongwith the discovery of coins, these records provided necessary clues to piece togetherthe history of Gandhara.

In 1848 Cunningham found Gandhara sculptures north of Peshawar. He alsoidentified the site of Taxila in the 1860s. From then on a large number of Buddhiststatues were being discovered in the Peshawar valley.

Marshal performed an excavation of Taxila from 1912 to 1934. He discoveredGreek, Parthian, and Kushan cities and large number of stupas and monastries.


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These discoveries helped to piece together much more of the chronology of the historyof Gandhara and its art.

After 1947 Ahmed Hassan Dani and the Archaeology Department of PeshawarUniversity made a number of discoveries in the Peshawar and Swat Valleys.Excavation on many sites of the Gandhara Civilzation are being done by researchersfrom many universities around the world.

Languag e

The Gandharan Buddhist texts are both the earliest Buddhist and Indianmanuscripts ever discovered. Most are composed on birch bark and were found inlabelled clay pots. Panini has mentioned both Vedic form Gandhari as well as thelater form Gandhari in his Ashtadhyayi.

Gandhara’s language was a collection of related Prakrit or “Middle Indo-Aryan”dialects. They were written right-to-left in the Kharocmhi script, which was ultimatelyadapted from the Aramaic alphabet. At the time of its adoption, Gandhara wascontrolled by the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian empire, which used a similarscript to write the related Iranian languages of the Empire. Semitic scripts werenot used to write Indian languages again until the arrival of Islam and subsequentadoption of the Persian-style Arabic alphabet for New Indo-Aryan languages likeUrdu, Punjabi, Sindhi and Kashmiri. Kharosthi script died out about the 4th century,though Hindko and Kohistani, dialects of the ancient Indo-Aryan Prakrit languageSiraiki are the dialects which are still spoken today.

Gandhara was a Indo-Aryan country, but Achamenian influence brought aboutthe birth of the Pakhtu language. The Afridi, Dilazak and Khattak tribes were theprominent Pashtun tribes of ancient Gandhara (called by them “Qandahar”. Thisname was later given by refugees from here, who founded the present day Afghancity of the same name). They were Buddhist and pagan rather than Hindu as theHindko speakers were, which is implied in the name of that language.

Gandharan Pro se ly tism

Gandharan Buddhist missionaries were active, with other monks from CentralAsia, from the 2nd century CE in the Chinese capital of Liaoyang, and particularlydistinguished themselves by their translation work. They promoted both Theravadaand Mahayana scriptures.

• Lokaksema, a Kushan and the first to translate Mahayana scriptures intoChinese (167-186).

• Zhi Yao (c. 185), a Kushan monk, second generation of translators afterLokaksema.

• Zhi Qian (220-252), a Kushan monk whose grandfather had settled in Chinaduring 168-190.


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• Zhi Yueh (c.230), a Kushan monk who worked at Nanjing.

• Dharmaraksa (265-313), a Kushan whose family had lived for generationsat Dunhuang.

• Jnanagupta (561-592), a monk and tranlator from Gandhara.

• Shikshananda (652-710), a monk and translator from Udyana, Gandhara.

• Prajna (c. 810). A monk and translator from Kabul, who educated the JapaneseKukai in Sanskrit texts.

Gandharan Art

Gandhara is noted for the distinctive Gandhara style of Buddhist art, aconsequence of merger of Greek, Syrian, Persian and Indian art traditions. Thedevelopment of this form of art started in Parthian Period (50BC – 75AD). Gandharanstyle flourished and achieved its peak during the Kushan period from 1st Centuryto 5th Century. It declined and suffered destruction after invasion of the White Hunsin the 5th century.

Time line

• c.2300-c.1700 BCE Indus Valley civilization.

• c.1700-c.520 BCE No records.

• c.520-c.400 BCE Persian Empire.

• c.329-c.316 BCE Occupied by Alexander the Great and Macedonian generals.

• c.316-c.180 BCE Controlled by the Maurya dynasty, founded by Chandragupta.Converted to Buddhism under King Asoka (273-232 BCE).

• c.185-c.97 BCE Under control of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, with some incursionsof the Indo-Scythians from around 100 BCE.

• c.97 BCE-c.07 CE (Common Era) Saka (Scythian) Rule.

• c.07-c.75 Parthian invasion and Indo-Parthian Kingdom. Rule of CommanderAspavarman?

• c.75-c.230 Kushan Empire.

• c.230-c.440 Kushanshahi under Persian Sassanian suzerainty.

• c.450-c.565 White Huns (Hephthalites).

• c.565-c.644 Local control under Sassanian suzerainty.

• c.650-c.870 Turkshahi, ruled from Kabul.

• c.870-1021 Hindushahi, ruled from Udabhandapura.

Gandharan Buddhist Te xts

The Gandharan Buddhist Texts are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yetdiscovered, and also the oldest Indian manuscripts yet discovered. They were sold


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to European and Japanese institutions and individuals, and are currently beingrecovered and studied by several universities.

The Gandharan texts are in a considerably deteriorated form (their survival atall is miraculous), but educated guesses about reconstruction have been possible inseveral cases using both modern preservation techniques and more traditionaltextual scholarship, comparing previously known Pali and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskritversions of texts.

Colle c tions

The British Lib rary Co lle c tio n

In 1994 the British Library acquired a group of some eighty Gandharanmanuscript fragments from the first half of the first century. They were written onbirch bark and stored in clay jars, which preserved them. They are thought to havebeen found in eastern Afghanistan (Bamiyan, Jalalabad, Hadda, which were partof Gandhara), and the clay jars were buried in ancient monasteries. A team has beenat work, trying to decipher the manuscript: three volumes have appeared. Themanuscripts ware written in Gandhari using the Kharocmhi script, and are thereforesometimes also called the Karoshti Manuscripts. The collection is composed of adiversity of texts: a Dhammapada, discourses of Buddha (for example the RhinocerosHorn Sutra), Avadanas and Purvayogas, commentaries and Abhidharma texts.

There is evidence to suggest that these texts may belong to the Dharmaguptakaschool, an offshoot of the Theravadins (Salomon 2000). There is an inscription ona jar to that school, and there is some textual evidence as well. On a semi-relatedpoint, the Gandharan text of the Rhinoceros Sutra contains what may be a polemicagainst the Mahayana. (Salomon, 2000).

The Se nio r Co lle c tio n

The Senior collection was bought by R. Senior, a British collector. The Seniorcollection may be slightly younger than the British Library collection. It consistsalmost entirely of canonical sutras, and, like the British Library collection, waswritten on birch bark and stored in clay jars.

The Sc ho ye n Co lle c tio n

The Schoyen collection consists of birch bark, palm leaf and vellum manuscripts.They are thought to have been found in the Bamiyan caves, where refugees wereseeking shelter. Most of these manuscripts were bought by a Norwegian collector,named Martin Schoyen, while smaller quantities are in possession of Japanesecollectors. These manuscripts date from the second to the eighth century AD.

The Schoyen collection includes fragments of canonical Suttas, Abhidharma,Vinaya and Mahayana texts. Most of these manuscripts are written in the Brahmiscripts, while a small portion is written in Gandhari/Karoshthi script.


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Unive rsity o f Washing to n

One more manuscript, written on birch bark in a Buddhist monastery of theAbhidharma tradition, from the 1st or 2nd century CE, was acquired from a collectorby the University of Washington Libraries in 2002. It is an early commentary onthe Buddha’s teachings, on the subject of human suffering.

The Kho tan Dharmapada

In 1892 a copy of the Dhammapada written in the Gandhari Prakrit wasdiscovered near Khotan in Xinjiang, western China. It came to Europe in parts, somegoing to Russia and some to France. In 1898 most of the French material waspublished in the Journal Asiatique. In 1962 John Brough published the collectedRussian and French fragments with a commentary.

Pub lishe d Mate rial

Scholarly critical editions of the texts of the University of Washington and theBritish Library are being printed by the University of Washington Press in the“Gandharan Buddhist Texts” series, beginning with a detailed analysis of the GhandariRhinoceros Sutra including phonology, morphology, orthography, paleography, etc.Material from the Schoyen Collection is published by Hermes Publishing, Oslo,Norway.

The following scholars have published fragements of the Gandharan manuscripts:Mark Allon, Richard Salomon, Timothy Lenz and Jenz Braarvig. Some of the publishedmaterial is listed below:

1999-Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara: The British Library Kharosthi

Fragments, by Richard Salomon, F. Raymond Allchin, and Mark Barnard.

2000-A Gandhari Version of the Rhinoceros Sutra: British Library Kharosthi

Fragment 5B, by Andrew Glass and Richard Salomon.

2000-Manuscripts in the Schoyen Collection I, Buddhist Manuscripts, Vol. 1.,by Braarvig, Jenz. Oslo: Hermes Publishing.

2003-A New Version of the Gandhari Dharmapada and a Collection of Previous-

Birth Stories: British Library Karosthi Fragments 16 + 25 (GBT vol. 3), TimothyLenz, Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Gandharva

In Hinduism

In Hinduism, the Gandharvas are male nature spirits, husbands of the Apsarases.Some are part animal, usually a bird or horse. They have superb musical skills. Theyguarded the Soma and made beautiful music for the gods in their palaces. Aconnection between their name and that of the Greek centaurs was proposed in the19th century, but has met with strong opposition from some Indo-Europeanists.


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In Hindu theology, Gandharvas act as messengers between the gods and humans.In Hindu law, a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual consent andwithout formality.

In Buddhism

A Gandharva (Sanskrit) or Gandhabba (Pali) is one of the lowest-ranking devasin Buddhist theology. They are classed among the Caturmaharajikakayika devas,and are subject to the Great King Dhritaracmra, Guardian of the East. Beings arereborn among the Gandharvas as a consequence of having practiced the most basicform of ethics (Janavasabha-sutta, DN.18). It was considered embarrassing for amonk to be born in no better birth than that of a gandharva.

Gandharvas can fly through the air, and are known for their skill as musicians.They are connected with trees and flowers, and are described as dwelling in thescents of bark, sap, and blossom. They are among the beings of the wilderness thatmight disturb a monk meditating alone.

The terms gandharva and yakca are sometimes used for the same person; yakcain these cases is the more general term, including a variety of lower deities. Amongthe notable gandharvas are mentioned (in DN.20 and DN.32) Panada, Opamanna,Na7a, Cittasena, Raja. Janesabha is probably the same as Janavasabha, a rebirthof King Bimbisara of Magadha. Matali the Gandharva is the charioteer for Shakra.

Timbaru was a chieftain of the gandharvas. There is a romantic story told aboutthe love between his daughter Bhadda Suriyavaccasa (Sanskrit: Bhadra Suryavarcasa)and another gandharva, Pancasikha. Pancasikha fell in love with Suriyavaccasawhen he saw her dancing before Uakra, but she was then in love with Sikhandi (orSikhaddi), son of Matali the charioteer. Pancasikha then when to Timbaru’s homeand played a melody on his lute of beluva-wood, on which he had great skill, andsang a love-song in which he interwove themes about the Buddha and his Arhats.

Later, Shakra prevailed upon Pancasikha to intercede with the Buddha so thatShakra might have an audience with him. As a reward for Pancasikha’s services,Uakra was able to get Suriyavaccasa, already pleased with Pancasikha’s display ofskill and devotion, to agree to marry Pancasikha. Pancasikha also acts as a messengerfor the Four Heavenly Kings, conveying news from them to Matali, the latterrepresenting Uakra and the Trayastrimsha devas.

Gandharva or gandhabba is also used in a completely different sense, referringto a being (or, strictly speaking, part of the causal continuum of consciousness) ina liminal state between birth and death.

Be lie f

There is a belief that these gandharvas will occasionally visit earth and persuadeyoung unmarried women and vanish after making them pregnant and leaving thelife of these women in grief.


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In Indian Classic al Music

There are many singers who were popularly known as Gandharvas for theirmastery of Indian Classical Music. All of them, at one time or another, were theatrepersonalities who acted in various musicals. Their style of Music is known as NatyaSangeet in Marathi Language, literally meaning Dramatic Music. They were notrelated to each other in any way except that the vast majority of the generalpopulation, dominantly in the State of Maharashtra of India, regarded them as themasters of the Indian Classical Music.

Gande n Tripa

The Ganden Tripa is the title of the spiritual leader of the Gelug (Dge-lugs)school of Tibetan Buddhism, the school which controlled central Tibet from the mid-1600s until 1950. The Dalai Lama is the temporal head of the school, a position ofgreater political authority but lower spiritual rank.

The Ganden Tripa is an appointed office, not a reincarnation lineage. It isawarded by the Dalai Lama on the basis of competitive examination. Since theposition is not a life-long one, there have been many more Ganden Tripas than DalaiLamas to date (101 as against 14).

Either Tsongkapa (Tsong-ka-pa) (1357–1419), who founded the Gelug sect, orhis successor, Gyaltsab Je (Rgyal-tshab-rje), may be considered to have been the firstGanden Tripa.

In January 2003, the Government of Tibet in Exile announced the nominationof the 101st Ganden Tripa. An excerpt from that press release gives his background:

“The 101st Ganden Tripa, the Venerable Khensur Lungri Namgyel rinpoche wasborn in 1927 in Kham (eastern Tibet). Ordained at eight years old, after fifty yearsof meditative practices and studies he was elevated by H.H. the Dalai-lama assuccessively abbot of Gyuto Tantric College (in 1983), and as abbot of GandenShartse Monastic University (in 1992). In 1986 he was the special envoy of H.H.the Dalai-lama to the ecumenical meetings of Assisi in Italy convened by H.H. thePope John Paul II. He is a French national and has been living in Paris, Francefor more than 20 years. He transmits the Buddhist teachings of his lineage in aDharma Centre, Thar Deu Ling which he founded in 1980.”

The 100th Ganden Tripa, Venerable Lobsang Nyingma Rinpoche, has sinceretired and now resides at Dharamsala together with HH 14th Dalai Lama.

Ge lug

The Gelug or Geluk, also known as the Yellow Hat sect, was a school ofBuddhism founded by Tsongkhapa (1357-1419), a philosopher and Tibetan religiousleader. The first monastery he established was at Ganden, and to this day theGanden Tripa is the nominal head of the school.


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Tso ngkhapa

A great admirer of the Kadampa (Bka’-gdams-pa) teachings, Tsongkhapa wasan enthusiastic promoter of the Kadam School’s emphasis on the Mahayana principlesof universal compassion as the fundamental spiritual orientation. He combined thiswith a strong emphasis on the cultivation of in-depth insight into the doctrine ofemptiness as propounded by the Indian masters Nagarjuna (2nd century) andCandrakirti (7th century). Tsongkhapa said that these two aspects of the spiritualpath, compassion and insight into wisdom, must be rooted in a wholehearted wishfor liberation, all impelled by a genuine sense of renunciation. He called these the“Three Principal Aspects of the Path”, and suggested that it is on the basis of thesethree that one must embark on the profound path of Vajrayana Buddhism.

The central teachings of the Gelug School are Lamrim, or the “Stages of thePath”, based on the teachings of the Indian master Atisha (circa 11th century) andthe systematic cultivation of the view of emptiness. This is combined with the deityyogas of Highest Yoga Tantra deities such as Guhyasamaja, Cakrasamvara,Yamantaka and Kalacakra, where the key focus is the realization of the indivisibleunion of bliss and emptiness.

Six scriptures by Tsongkhapa are the prime source for the studies of the Gelugtradition, as follows:

• The Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path (Lam-rim chen-mo),

• The Great Exposition of Tantras (sNgag-rim chenmo),

• The Essence of Eloquence on the Interpretive and Definitive Teachings (Drnng-nges legs-bshad snying-po),

• The Praise of Relativity,

• The Clear Exposition of the Five Stages of Guhyasamaja,

• The Golden Rosary.

Each Gelug monastery uses its own set of commentarial texts by differentauthors, known as monastic manuals. The teachigns of Tsongkhapa are seen as aprotection against misconceptions in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. It is saidthat his followers take The Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path as their heartteaching.


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5

God in Buddhism

Buddhism is generally viewed as a religion without a Supreme Being or CreatorGod. This is especially the case in connection with the Pali scriptures. Yet someMahayana sutras envision the Buddha as the “god above the gods”, as a primal,eternal, sustaining essence within all beings and phenomena, while some tantraspaint a portrait of the Buddha on a cosmological scale and in cosmogonic terms asthe emanator of all universes. To the extent that the Buddha is seen in this wayas the indestructible Ground of all, even as the progenitor of all persons andphenomena, he can be equated to a mystical notion of Godhead.

Gautama Buddha (as portrayed in the Pali scriptures/the agamas) set animportant trend in nontheism in Buddhism in the sense of denying the existenceof an omnipotent Creator God. Nevertheless, in many passages in the TripitakaGautama Buddha spoke about gods and gave specific examples of individuals whowere reborn as a god, or gods who were reborn as humans. Buddhist cosmologyrecognizes various levels and types of gods, but none of these gods is considered thecreator of the world or of the human race.

In Mahayana Buddhism there is far less reticence on the part of the Buddhato speak of metaphysical matters (including the all-pervasiveness of Buddha’s “body”throughout the universe). A distinction therefore needs to be drawn between theteachings ascribed to the Buddha in the Pali Canon or the Agamas, which do notspeak affirmatively of an omnipotent Creator God, and the more explicitly mysticalideas attributed to the Buddha in some Mahayana sutras and Tantras, whereexpression is given to an apparent Ultimate Ground of all things-the immanent,omniscient, and transcendent Reality of the Awakened Mind or the boundless sphereof the “Buddha Nature”.

In both the Pali suttas and the Mahayana sutras, the Buddha does teach theexistence of “gods” (devas). These are not, however, “God” but merely heavenlybeings who temporarily dwell in celestial worlds of great happiness. Such beings are

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not eternal in that incarnational form and are subject to death and eventual rebirthinto lower realms of existence.

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (e.g., thedevas, of which many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe powerfor creation, salvation or judgment to them. Like humans, they are regarded ashaving the power to affect worldly events and so some Buddhist schools associatewith them via ritual. All supernatural beings, as living entities, are a part of thesix-part reincarnation cycle.

Certain Buddhists (particularly in the modern West) hold to an interpretationof Buddhism that admits nothing of either the supernatural or divinity. In non-theistic views, realms and gods are viewed with a liberal dose of metaphor, as toolsto understand aspects of Mind, and indeed this is supported by some sutras suchas the Lankavatara Sutra.

First Cause in Buddhism-Ig no ranc e

What is deemed as “Creation of the world” by an all-powerful God in many otherreligions is not accepted by any school of Buddhism.

Avidya or ignorance is the closest thing to a “first cause” or principle of creationand not any God or Buddha. By removal of this ignorance with wisdom or prajna,we understand things as they really are and thus attain to Buddhahood.

The God Ide a in Early Buddhism

The Buddha of the Pali suttas (scriptures) dismisses as “foolish talk”, as“ridiculous, mere words, a vain and empty thing” (Digha-Nikaya No. 13, TevijjaSutta) the notion that Brahmins (the priestly caste), who according to the Buddhahave not in fact seen Brahma face to face, can teach others how to achieve unionwith what they themselves have never beheld. This is not a denial of the existenceof Brahma, however, but merely intended (by the Buddha) to indicate the folly ofthose religious teachers who would lead others to what they themselves do notpersonally know.

Yet Brahma himself, for example, while not denied by the Buddha, is in no wayviewed by him as a sovereign, all-knowing, all-powerful Creator God. Brahma (incommon with all other devas) is subject to change, final decline and death, just asare all other sentient beings in samsara (the plane of continual reincarnation andsuffering).

Instead of belief in such a would-be Creator God as Brahma (a benign heavenlybeing who is in reality not yet free from self-delusion and the processes of rebirth),the wise are encouraged to practise the Dharma (spiritual truth) of the Buddha, inwhich right vision, right thinking, right speaking, right acting, right living, righteffort, right attentive awareness, and right meditative absorption are paramount


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and are said to bring spiritual Liberation. The “God idea” forms no part of TheravadaBuddhism’s doctrine of release from suffering-although some see in the “deathlessrealm of Nirvana” a hint of an impersonal, transcendental Absolute.

Sir Charles Elliot in his Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch correctlydescribes God in early Buddhism as: The attitude of early Buddhism to the spiritworld—the hosts of deities and demons who people this and other spheres. Theirexistence is assumed, but the truths of religion are not dependent on them, andattempts to use their influence by sacrifices and oracles are deprecated as vulgarpractices similar to juggling.

The systems of philosophy then in vogue were mostly not theistic, and, strangeas the words may sound, religion had little to do with the gods. If this be thoughtto rest on a mistranslation, it is certainly true that the dhamma had very little todo with devas.

Often as the Devas figure in early Buddhist stories, the significance of theirappearance nearly always lies in their relations with the Buddha or his disciples.Of mere mythology, such as the dealings of Brahma and Indra with other gods, thereis little. In fact the gods, though freely invoked as accessories, are not takenseriously, and there are some extremely curious passages in which Gautama seemsto laugh at them, much as the sceptics of the 18th century laughed at Jehovah. Thusin the [Pali Canon] Kevaddha Sutta he relates how a monk who was puzzled by ametaphysical problem applied to various gods and finally accosted Brahma himselfin the presence of all his retinue. After hearing the question, which was “Where dothe elements cease and leave no trace behind?” Brahma replies, “I am the GreatBrahma, the Supreme, the Mighty, the All-seeing, the Ruler, the Lord of all, theController, the Creator, the Chief of all, appointing to each his place, the Ancientof days, the Father of all that are and are to be.” “But,” said the monk, “I did notask you, friend, whether you were indeed all you now say, but I ask you where thefour elements cease and leave no trace.” Then the Great Brahma took him by thearm and led him aside and said, “These gods think I know and understand everything.Therefore I gave no answer in their presence. But I do not know the answer to yourquestion and you had better go and ask the Buddha.”

Even more curiously ironic is the account given of the origin of Brahma. Therecomes a time when this world system passes away and then certain beings are rebornin the “World of Radiance” and remain there a long time. Sooner or later, the worldsystem begins to evolve again and the palace of Brahma appears, but it is empty.Then some being whose time is up falls from the “World of Radiance” and comesto life in the palace and remains there alone. At last he wishes for company, andit so happens that other beings whose time is up fall from the “World of Radiance”and join him. And the first being thinks that he is Great Brahma, the Creator,because when he felt lonely and wished for companions other beings appeared. Andthe other beings accept this view. And at last one of Brahma’s retinue falls from


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that state and is born in the human world and, if he can remember his previousbirth, he reflects that he is transitory but that Brahma still remains and from thishe draws the erroneous conclusion that Brahma is eternal.

He who dared to represent Brahma (for which name we might substitute Allahor Jehovah) as a pompous deluded individual worried by the difficulty of keepingup his position had more than the usual share of scepticism and irony. The compilersof such discourses regarded the gods as mere embellishments, as gargoyles andquaint figures in the cathedral porch, not as saints above the altar.

Mahayana and Tantric Mystic al Do c trine s

Although there are countless Buddhas, their essence is one-that of “Tathata”(“suchness” or “that-ness”)-, and it is in this sense that the Buddha proclaims himselfas “Tathagata” and exalts himself in theistic terms beyond all other “gods” whenhe declares: “I am the god above the gods, superior to all the gods; no god is likeme-how could there be a higher?” (Lalitavistara Sutra).

There are also many examples in the Pali Canon, where the Buddha shows hismagical superiority over the Brahma class of gods. So this was already present inthe Pali scriptures/agamas.

His realm (“dhatu”), of which he is the “Holy King” (Nirvana Sutra), is furthersaid to be inherent in all beings. This indwelling, indestructible, incomprehensible,divine sphere or essence is called the “Buddha-dhatu” (Buddha-sphere, Buddha-nature, Buddha-realm) or “Tathagatagarbha” in such sutras as the “MahaparinirvanaSutra” and the “Anunatva-Apurnatva-Nirdesa”. Further, the idea of an eternal, all-pervading, all-knowing, immaculate, uncreated and deathless Ground of Being (thedharmadhatu, inherently linked to the sattvadhatu, the realm of beings), which isthe Awakened Mind (bodhicitta) or Dharmakaya (“body of Truth”) of the Buddhahimself, is promulgated in such texts. This essence of nature is seen as Shunyata,the true reality. This is the seed from which Buddhahood arises. In the MahavairocanaSutra, this essence of the one ultimate Buddha, named Vairocana, is symbolised bythe letter “A”, which is said to reside in the hearts of all beings and of which BuddhaVairocana declares:

“[the mystic letter ‘A’] is placed in the heart location: it is Lord and

Master of all, and it pervades entirely all the animate and inanimate.

‘A’ is the highest life-energy …” (The Maha-Vairocana-Abhisambodhi

Tantra).

This great Vairocana Buddha is called: “the Bhagavat [= Blessed One-a termtraditionally linked in Indian discourse with “the Divine”], Master of the Dharma,the Sage who is completely perfect, who is all-pervasive, who encompasses all worldsystems, who is All-Knowing, the Lord Vairocana”.

The Tantric text, The Sarva-Tathagata-Tattva-Samgraha, eulogises the supremeBuddha Vairocana in the following theistic paeons:


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“He is universal Goodness, beneficial, destroyer [of suffering], the great

Lord of Happiness, sky womb, Great Luminosity … the great All-

perceiving Lord … He is without beginning or end … [He is] Vishnu

[God] … Protector of the world, the sky, the earth … The elements, the

good benefactor of beings, All things … the Blessed Rest, Eternal …

The Self of all the Buddhas … Pre-eminent over all, and master of

the world.”

Similar God-like descriptions are encountered in the All-Creating King Tantra

(Kunjed Gyalpo Tantra), where the universal Mind of Awakening (personified as“Samantabhadra Buddha”-the “All-Good”) declares of himself:

“I am the core of all that exists. I am the seed of all that exists. I am

the cause of all that exists. I am the trunk of all that exists. I am the

foundation of all that exists. I am the root of existence. I am ‘the core’

because I contain all phenomena. I am ‘the seed’ because I give birth

to everything. I am ‘the cause’ because all comes from me. I am ‘the

trunk’ because the ramifications of every event sprout from me. I am

‘the foundation’ because all abides in me. I am called ‘the root’ because

I am everything.” (The Supreme Source).

There is also in Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of an Adibuddha (Adi-Buddha).This being is the primordial, self-existent, self-created Buddha who is thepersonification of Shunyata or emptiness; that all phenomena lack true existenceyet still appear, this basis that is found in all phenomena. However, all these socalled God-like figures, i.e Samantabhadra, Vairochana, Vajradhara etc. aretraditionally understood to be personifications of emptiness, the true nature of allphenomena. Some Buddhists see the above Samantabhadra Buddha quote as radicallysubjective psychology, while still others will insist that the words mean what theysay and do communicate the sense of an actual sustaining Buddhic force or spiritualessence behind and within all phenomena.

God as Manife station of Mind

One of the more important Mahayana Sutras, the Lankavatara Sutra, statesthat the notions of a sovereign God, Atman are figments of the imagination ormanifestations of the mind and can also be an impediment to perfection as this leadsto attachment to the concept of “God”: All such notions as causation, succession,atoms, primary elements, that make up personality, personal soul, Supreme Spirit,Sovereign God, Creator, are all figments of the imagination and manifestations ofmind.

No, Mahamati, the Tathagata’s doctrine of the Womb of Tathagata-hood is notthe same as the philosopher’s Atman. However, the same sutra also sees the Buddhareveal that he is the One who is actually being addressed when beings project fromtheir unawakened minds notions of Divinity and address themselves to “God”. The


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many names for such ultimate Being or Truth are in fact said by the Buddha tobe unwitting appellations of the Buddha himself. He states: The same can be saidof myself as I appear in this world of patience before ignorant people and whereI am known by uncounted trillions of names.

They address me by different names not realizing that they are all names ofthe one Tathagata.

Some recognize me as Sun, as Moon; some as a reincarnation of the ancientsages; some as one of “ten powers”; some as Rama, some as Indra, and some asVaruna. Still there are others who speak of me as The Un-born, as Emptiness, as“Suchness,” as Truth, as Reality, as Ultimate Principle; still there are others whosee me as Dharmakaya, as Nirvana, as the Eternal; some speak of me as sameness,as non-duality, as un-dying, as formless; some think of me as the doctrine of Buddha-causation, or of Emancipation, or of the Noble Path; and some think of me as DivineMind and Noble Wisdom.

Thus in this world and in other worlds am I known by these uncounted names,but they all see me as the moon is seen in the water.

Though they all honour, praise and esteem me, they do not fully understandthe meaning and significance of the words they use; not having their own self-realization of Truth they cling to the words of their canonical books, or to what hasbeen told to them, or to what they have imagined, and fail to see that the namethey are using is only one of the many names of the Tathagata.

In their studies they follow the mere words of the text vainly trying to gain thetrue meaning, instead of having confidence in the one “text” where self-confirmingTruth is revealed, that is, having confidence in the self-realization of noble Wisdom.

In the “Sagathakam” section of the sutra, one also reads of the reality of thepure Self (atman), which (while not identical to the atman of the Hindus) is equatedwith the Tathagatagarbha (Buddha-Essence): “The atma [Self] characterised withpurity is the state of self-realisation; this is the Tathagatagarbha, which does notbelong to the realm of the theorisers.”.

This Tathagatagarbha is in the Lankavatara Sutra identified with the root orall-containing Consciousness of all beings, the Alaya-vijnana. This Tathagatagarbha-Alayavijnana is stated not to belong to the realm of speculation, but can be understooddirectly by:

“those Bodhisatva-Mahasattvas [great Bodhisattvas] who like you

[Mahamati] are endowed with subtle, fine, penetrative thought-power

and whose understanding is in accordance with the meaning...”.

Golula ka

The Golulaka (Cinder) sect of Buddhism split from the Mahasamghika duringthe reign of Ashoka. The Golulikas believed that all phenomena necessarily involve


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suffering and that the skandhas are mere cinders. The and Prajnaptivada split fromGolulikas in late third century BCE.

Gre c o- Buddhist Monastic ism

The role of Greek Buddhist monks in the development of the Buddhist faithunder the patronage of emperor Ashoka around 260 BCE, and then during the reignof Menander is described in an important non-canonical Theravada Buddhist historicaltext compiled in Sri Lanka in the 6th century CE, in the Pali language: the Mahavamsa.

The Mahavamsacovers the history of Buddhism from the 6th century BCE tothe 4th century CE. It was written in the 6th century CE by the monk Mahanama,brother of the Sri-Lankan King Dhatusena, and heavily relied on the Dipavamsa,written five centuries earlier.

Bac kgro und

Emperor Ashoka convened the third Buddhist council around 250 BCE atPataliputra (today’s Patna). It was held by the monk Moggaliputta.

The Pali canon (Tipitaka, or Tripitaka in Sanskrit, lit. the “Three Baskets”),which are the texts of reference of traditional Buddhism and considered to be directlytransmitted from the Buddha, was formalized at that time. They consist of thedoctrine (the Sutra Pitaka), the monastic discipline (Vinaya Pitaka) and an additionalnew body of subtle philosophy (the Abhidharma Pitaka).

Another objective of the council was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism,and to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions whichhad been attracted by the royal patronage.

Finally, the council also reported on the proselytizing efforts of Emperor Ashoka,who sought to expand the Buddhist faith throughout Asia and as far as theMediterranean. The contemporary stone inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka alsorelate this activity in detail.

Following these efforts, the Buddhist faith seems to have expanded amongGreek communities under the rule of Ashoka, and tens of thousands were converted.About 50 years laters, the Greco-Bactrians invaded northern India as far as Pataliputraand founded the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greekkings, and it has been suggested that their invasion of India was intended to showtheir support for the Mauryan empire, and to protect the Buddhist faith from thereligious persecutions of the new dynasty of the Sungas(185-73 BCE). Greek Buddhistmonks continued to play a key role during the time of Menander, as far as Sri Lanka.

Gre e k Mo nks unde r Asho ka

According to Edicts of Ashoka, Greek populations (generally described in ancienttimes throughout the Classical world as Yona, Yojanas or Yavanas, lit. “Ionians”)were under his rule in northwestern India.


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“Here in the king’s domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas,the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywherepeople are following Beloved-of-the-Gods’ instructions in Dhamma.” Rock Edict Nb13(S. Dhammika).

Far from just being on the receiving end of conversion to Buddhism, theMahavamsa indicates that Greeks took an active role in spreading the Buddhist faithas emissaries of Ashoka.

These Greek missionaries appear in the list of the “elders” (Pali: “thera”) sentfar and wide by Emperor Ashoka: “When the thera Moggaliputta, the illuminatorof the religion of the Conqueror, had brought the (third) council to an end (…) hesent forth theras, one here and one there:

• The thera Mahyantika he sent to Kasmira and Gandhara,

• The thera, MaMdeva he sent to Mahisamandala,

• To Vanavasa be sent the thera named Rakkhita,

• and to Aparantaka (he sent) the Yona named Dhammarakkhita,

• to Maharattha (he sent) the thera named Mahadhammarakkhita,

• but the thera Maharakkhita he sent into the country of the Yona,

• He sent the thera Majjhima to the Himalaya country,

• and to Suvambhurni he sent the two theras Sona and Uttara,

• The great thera Mahinda, the theras Utthiya, Uttiya, Sambala and Bhaddasalahis disciples, these five theras he sent forth with the charge: ‘Ye shall foundin the lovely island of Lanka the lovely religion of the Conqueror.’” (Mahavamsa,XII).

Dharmaraksita

Dhammarakkhita (Dharmaraksita in Sanskrit), was the Yona leader of themission to Aparantaka.

The country of Aparantaka has been identified as the northwestern part of theIndian subcontinent, and comprises Northern Gujarat, Kathiawar, Kachch, andSindh, the area where Greek communities were probably concentrated. To this day,a city in Gujarat is named Junagadh, originally “Yonagadh”, lit. “City of the Greeks”.

Dharmarashita is said to have preached the Aggikkhandopama Sutra, so that37,000 people were converted in Aparantaka and that thousands of men and womenentered the Order (Mahavimsa XII).

According to the Milinda Panha (I 32-35), the monk Nagasena, who famouslydialogued with the Greek king Menander I to convert him to Buddhism, was astudent of Dharmaraksita, and he reached enlightenment as an arhat under hisguidance.


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Mahyantika

The thera (“elder”) Mahyantika was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara, also areaswith strong Hellenic presence. Although he is not identified as Greek in theMahavamsa, his name probably means Maha (great) + Antika (Antiochos), a commonGreek first name.

Maharaksita

The thera (“elder”) Maharakkhita (Maharaksita in Sanskrit) is said to have beensent to the country of the Greeks. He would probably have been Greek as well dueto the nature of his mission, but this is unconfirmed.

Gre e k Mo nks unde r Me nande r

The Indo-Greek king Menander I (reigned 160-135 BCE) had his capital inSagala, in today’s northern Punjab, and is described by Strabo as one of the mostpowerful Greek kings of the period, even greater than Alexander the Great.

Menander probably converted to Buddhism, and seems to have encouraged thespread of the faith within the Indian subcontinent, and possibly into Central Asiaas well. A documented example of the influence of a Greek Buddhist monk is foundin the Mahavamsa again:

Mahadharmaraksita

During the time of Menander I, the Yona (Ionian) Mahadhammarakkhita(Sanskrit: Mahadharmaraksita) is said to have come from “Alasandra” (thought tobe Alexandria-of-the-Caucasus, the city founded by Alexander the Great, near today’sKabul) with 30,000 monks for the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa (“Greatstupa”) at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, during the 2nd century BCE. “From Alasandathe city of the Yonas came the thera Yona Mahadhammarakkhita with thirtythousand bhikkhus.” (Mahavamsa, XXIX)

These elements tend to indicate the importance of Buddhism within Greekcommunities in northwestern India, and the prominent role Greek Buddhist monksplayed in them, as well as throughout the Indian subcontinent and possibly as faras the Mediterranean, during the last centuries before the current era.

Guan Yin

Guan Yin is the bodhisattva of compassion as venerated by East Asian Buddhists,usually as a female. She is also known as the Chinese Goddess of Compassion bymany. Kuan Yin originated as the Sanskrit Avalokiteœvara, which is her male form.Commonly known in the West as the Goddess of Mercy, Guan Yin is also reveredby Chinese Taoists as an Immortal. The name Guan Yin is short for Kuan-shih Yinwhich means “Observing the Sounds of the World”. In Japanese, Guan Yin ispronounced Kannon or more formally Kanzeon; the spelling Kwannon, based on a


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pre-modern pronunciation, is sometimes seen. In Korean, this incarnation of Buddhais called Gwan-eum or Gwanse-eum, and in Vietnamese.

De pic tio n

Kuan Yin is the Chinese name for the Bodhisattva Avalokiteœvara. However,folk traditions in China and other East Asian countries have added many distinctivecharacteristics and legends. Avalokiteœvara was originally depicted as Buddhawhen he was still a prince, and therefore wears chest-revealing clothing and mayeven sport a moustache. However, in China, Kuan Yin is usually depicted as awoman. Also, some people believe that Kuan Yin is neither man nor woman.

In China, Kuan Yin is usually shown in a white flowing robe, and usuallywearing necklaces of Indian/Chinese royalty. In the right hand is a water jarcontaining pure water, and in the left, a willow branch. The crown usually depictsthe image of Amitabha Buddha, Kuan Yin’s spiritual teacher before she became aBodhisattva.

In some Buddhist temples and monasteries Kuan Yin images are occasionallydepicted as a young man dressed in Northern Song Buddhist robes sitting gracefully.He is usually depicted looking or glancing down, symbolising that Kuan Yin continuesto watch over the world.

There are also regional variations of Kuan Yin depictions. One of these is thatof Kuan Yin with fish. In this depiction Kuan Yin is depicted as a maiden dressedin Tang dynasty style clothing carrying a fish basket. This is popular in the Fukienregion of China.

In Chinese art Kuan Yin is often depicted either alone, standing atop a dragon,accompanied by a bird, flanked by two children or flanked by two warriors. The twochildren are her acolytes who came to her when she was meditating at Mount Putuo.The girl is called Long Nu and the boy Shan Tsai. The two warriors are the historicalcharacter Guan Yu who comes from the Three Kingdoms period and the mythologicalcharacter Wei Tuo who features in the Chinese classic Canonisation of the Gods.

Ve ne ratio n

In Chinese Buddhist iconography, Guan Yin is often depicted as meditating orsitting alongside one of the Buddhas and usually accompanied by another bodhisattva.Which Buddha or bodhisattva usually depends upon which school it represents. Inthe Pure Land school for example, Guan Yin is frequently depicted as standingalongside Amitabha Buddha and bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta. Temples thatrevere the bodhisattva Ksitigarbha usually depicts him meditating alongside theBuddha and Guan Yin.

Along with Buddhism, Guan Yin’s veneration was introduced into China as earlyas the 1st century CE, and reached Japan by way of Korea soon after Buddhismwas first introduced into the country in the mid-7th century.


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Guan Yin’s Re pre se ntatio n

Representations of the bodhisattva in China prior to the Song Dynasty (960-1279) were masculine in appearance. Images which later displayed attributes of bothgenders are believed to be in accordance with the Lotus Sutra, where Avalokitesvarahas the supernatural power of assuming any form required to relieve suffering andalso has the power to grant children. Because this bodhisattva is considered thepersonification of compassion and kindness, a mother-goddess and patron of mothersand seamen, the representation in China was further interpreted in an all femaleform around the 12th century. In the modern period, Kuan Yin is most oftenrepresented as a beautiful, white-robed woman, a depiction which derives from theearlier Pandaravasini form.

Le g e nds

Guan Yin and the Tho usand Arms

One Buddhist legend presents Kuan Yin as vowing to never rest until he hadfreed all sentient beings from samsara, reincarnation. Despite strenuous effort, herealized that still many unhappy beings were yet to be saved. After struggling tocomprehend the needs of so many, his head split into eleven pieces. AmitabhaBuddha, seeing his plight, gave him eleven heads with which to hear the cries ofthe suffering. Upon hearing these cries and comprehending them, Avalokitesvaraattempted to reach out to all those who needed aid, but found that his two armsshattered into pieces. Once more, Amitabha came to his aid and appointed him athousand arms with which to aid the many. Many Himalayan versions of the taleinclude eight arms with which Avalokitesvara skilfully upholds the Dharma, eachpossessing its own particular implement, while more Chinese-specific ones givevarying accounts of this number.

In China, it is said that fishermen used to pray to her to ensure safe voyages.The titles Kuan Yin of the Southern Ocean and ‘Kuan Yin the Island’ stem from thistradition.

Le g e nd o f Miao Shan

Another story, describes Kuan Yin as the daughter of a cruel king who wantedher to marry a wealthy but uncaring man. The story is usually ascribed to theresearch of the Buddhist monk Chiang Chih-ch’i in 1100 AD. The story is likely tohave a Taoist origin. Chiang Chih-ch’i however when he penned the work believedthat the Kuan Yin we know today was actually a Buddhist princess called Miao Shanwho had a religious following on Fragrant Mountain. Despite this however thereare many variants of the story in Chinese mythology.

The story surrounds is that of Miao Shan. Miao Shan who would later becomeKuan Yin told her father the king after he made his demands that she would obeycommand. That is so long as the marriage eases three misfortunes.


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The king asked his daughter what be the three misfortunes that the marriageshould ease. Miao Shan pointed out that the first misfortune to be eased was thatthe marriage should alleviate the suffering people endure as they get older in age.The second misfortune is that it should ease is the suffering people endure whenthey fall ill.The third misfortune it should ease is the suffering caused by death.If the marriage cannot ease any of the above then she would rather retire to lifeof religion forever.

When the father asked who could ease all the above, Miao Shan pointed outthat a doctor was able to do all the above.

The father grew angry as he wanted her to marry a person of power and wealth,not a healer. He forced her into hard labour and reduced her food and drinks butthis did not cause her to yield.

Everyday she begged to be able to enter a temple and become a nun instead.Her father eventually allowed her to work in the temple, but asked the monks togive her very hard chores in order to discourage her. The monks forced Kuan Yinto work all day and all night, while others slept, in order to finish her work. However,she was such a good person that the animals living around the temple began to helpher with her chores. Her father, seeing this, became so frustrated that he attemptedto burn down the temple. Kuan Yin put out the fire with her bare hands and sufferedno burns. Now struck with fear, her father ordered her to be put to death. Aftershe died she was made into a goddess for all of her kindness and began her journeyto heaven. She was about to cross over into heaven when she heard a cry of sufferingback on earth. When she turned around she watched the myriad of suffering beings.Filled with compassion, she asked to be sent back and vowed to stay until allsuffering had ended.

One version of this legend states that, at the point of Kuan Yin’s father’sexecution of her, a supernatural tiger took Kuan Yin to one of the more hell-likerealms of the dead. However, instead of being punished by demons like the otherinmates, Kuan Yin played music and flowers blossomed around her. This managedto completely surprise the head demon. The story says that Kuan Yin, by merelybeing in that hell, turned it into a paradise.

Another version of the same legend tells that upon entering hell Kuan Yin wasoverwhelmed with grief at the suffering souls must endure in hell. Out of compassion,she freed many of the souls from hell before being stopped by Yanluo, King of Hell.She then returned back alive on Earth and resided at Mount Putuo.

A variant of the legend says that Miao Shan allowed herself to die at the handof the executioner. The legend goes that as the executioner tried to carry out MiaoChuang Yen’s orders, his axe shattered into a thousand pieces. He then tried a swordwhich likewise shattered. He tried to shoot Miao Shan down with arrows but theyall veered off.


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Finally in desperation he used his hands. Miao Shan, realising the fate theexecutioner would meet at her father’s hand should she fail to let herself die, forgavethe executioner for attempting to kill her. It is said that she voluntarily took on themassive karmic guilt the executioner generated for killing her, thus leaving himguiltless. It is because of this she descended into the Hell-like realms. While in theHell-like realms she witnessed firsthand the suffering and horrors beings there mustendure. Filled with compassion she released all the good karma she had accumulatedthrough her many lifetimes, thus freeing many suffering souls back into Heaven andEarth. In the process that Hell-like realm became a paradise. Yama it is said senther back to Earth to prevent utter destruction of his realm. It is said that upon herreturn she appeared on Fragrant Mountain.

Another tale says that Miao Shan never died but was in fact transported bya supernatural tiger, believed to be the Deity of the Place to Fragrant Mountain.

Post her return to Earth or to the Fragrant Mountain Miao Shan was said tohave stayed for a few years on Putou Island where she practised meditation andhelped the sailors and fishermen who got stranded. Kuan Yin/Miao Shan is frequentlyworshipped as patron of sailors and fishermen due to this. She is said to frequentlybecalm the sea when boats are threatened with rocks. After some decades Miao Shanreturned to Fragrant Mountain to continue her meditation.

The Legend of Miao Shan usually ends with Miao Chuang Yen, the father ofMiao Shan falling ill with jaundice. It is said that no physician could cure him. Thena monk appeared saying that the jaundice could be cured by making a medicine outof the arm and eye of one without anger. The monk further suggested that sucha person could be found on Fragrant Mountain. Miao Shan when requested offeredup her eyes and arms willingly. Miao Chuang Yen was cured of the illness and wentto the Fragrant Mountain to give thanks to the person. When he discovered thathis own daughter gave up her arm and eyes for him, he begged for forgiveness. Thestory concludes with Miao Shan being transformed into the Thousand Armed KuanYin and the king, queen and her two sisters building a temple on the mountain forher. The story concludes with Kuan Yin hearing a cry from the world below turnedaround and saw the massive suffering endured by the people of the world. Out oflove for all man She returned to Earth, vowing never to leave till such time allsuffering has ended.

Guan Yin and Shan Tsai

Legend has it that Shan Tsai was a disabled boy from India who was veryinterested in studying the Buddhist dogma. When he heard that there was a Buddhistteacher on the rocky island of Putuo he quickly journeyed there to learn. Uponarriving the island, he managed to find Bodhisattva Kuan Yin despite his severedisability. Kuan Yin after having a discussion with Shan Tsai decided to test ShanTsai resolve to fully study the Buddhist teachings. She conjured the illusion of three


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sword wielding pirates running up the hill to attack her. Kuan Yin took off anddashed off to the edge of a cliff, the three illusions still chasing her.

Shan Tsai, seeing that his teacher was in danger hobbled uphill. Kuan Yin atthe time jumped over the edge of the cliff, and soon after the three bandits followed.Shan Tsai, still wanting to save the teacher managed to crawl his way over the cliffedge.

Shan Tsai fell down the cliff but was halted in midair by Kuan Yin, who nowasked him to walk. Shan Tsai found that he could walk normally and that he wasno longer crippled. When he looked into a pool of water he also discovered that henow had a very handsome face. From that day forth Kuan Yin taught Shan Tsaithe entire Buddha Dharma.

Guan Yin and Lung Nu

Many years after Shan Tsai became a disciple of Kuan Yin, a distressing eventwas happening in the South Sea. The sons of one of the Dragon Kings has beencaught by a fishermen while taking the form of a fish. Being stuck on land, he wasunable to transform back into his dragon form. Distressed, he called out to all ofHeaven and Earth. His father despite being a mighty Dragon King was unable todo anything when his son was on land.

Kuan Yin hearing this cry quickly sent Shan Tsai to recover the fish and gavehim all the money she had. The fish at this point was about to be sold in the market.It was causing quite a stir as it was alive hours after being caught. This drew amuch larger crowd than usual at the market. Many people decided that this prodigioussituation meant eating the fish will grant them immortality. With this all presentwanted the fish. Soon a bidding war started and Shan Tsai was easily outbid.

Shan Tsai begged the fish seller to spare the life of the fish. The crowd nowangry at someone so daring was about to prise him away from the fish when KuanYin projected her voice from far away saying “A life should definitely belong to onewho tries to save it, not one who tries to take it.”

The crowd realising their shameful actions and desire, dispersed. Shan Tsaibrought back the fish to Kuan Yin who returned it promptly to the sea. There thefish transformed back to a dragon and returned home.

But the story does not end here, as a reward for Kuan Yin saving his son theDragon King sent his granddaughter, a girl called Lung Nu to present to Kuan Yinthe Pearl of Light. The Pearl of Light is a precious jewel owned by the Dragon Kingthat constantly shone. Lung Nu, so overwhelmed by the presence of Kuan Yin askedto be her disciple so she may study the Buddha Dharma. Kuan Yin accepted heroffer with just one request, Lung Nu is to be the new owner of the Pearl of Light.

Lung Nu and Shan Tsai are often seen alongside Kuan Yin as two children inpopular iconography.


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Guan Yin and Ve g e tarianism

Due to her symbolising compassion, in East Asia Kuan Yin is associated withvegetarianism. Chinese vegetarian restaurants are generally decorated with herimage, and she appears in most Buddhist vegetarian pamphlets and magazines.

Guan Yin in Chine se Buddhism

In Chinese Buddhism, Guanyin/Kuan Yin/Kannon/Kwannon is synonymouswith the Bodhissatva Avalokitesvara, the pinnacle of Mercy and Compassion. Amongthe Chinese Avalokitesvara is almost exclusively called Kuanshih Yin Pusa. Chinesetranslation of many Buddhist sutras have in fact replaced the word Avalokitesvarawith Kuanshih Yin.

In Chinese Buddhism the popular myth and worship of Kuan Yin as a Goddessby the populace is generally not viewed to be in conflict with the BodhissatvaAvalokitesvara’s nature. In fact the widespread worship of Kuan Yin as a Goddessof Mercy and Compassion is seen as the boundless salvistic nature of BodhissatvaAvalokitesvara at work. The Buddhist canon states that Bodhissatvas can assumewhatsoever gender and form needed to liberate beings from ignorance and dukkha.With specific reference to Avalokitesvara, he has stated both in the Lotus Sutra andthe Surangama sutra as having appeared before as a woman or a Goddess to savebeings from suffering and ignorance. Some Buddhist schools refers to Kuan Yin bothas male and female interchangeably.

Also in Mahayana Buddhism to which Chinese Buddhism derives from genderis no obstacle to Enlightenment. The Buddhist concept of non-duality applies here.The Vimalakirti Sutra in the Goddess chapter clearly illustrates an Enlightenedbeing who is also a female and deity. In the Lotus Sutra a maiden became Enlightenedin a very short time span. That Bodhissatva Avalokitesvara is also the Goddess KuanYin is not seen as contradictory.

Given that Bodhissatvas are known to incarnate at will as living people accordingto the sutras, Miao Shan is generally viewed as an incarnate of Avalokitesvara.

Kuan Yin is immensely popular among Chinese Buddhist especially those fromdevotional schools. She is generally seen as a source of unconditional love and moreimportantly as a saviour. In the Bodhissatva Vow, Kuan Yin promises to answerthe cries and pleas of all beings and that she will liberate all beings from their ownkarmic woes. Based upon the Lotus Sutra and the Shurangama sutra, He is generallyseen as a saviour, both spiritually and physically. The sutras states that throughthe saving grace of Avalokitesvara even those who have no chance of being Enlightenedcan be Enlightened and those deep in negative karma can still find salvation throughthe compassion of Avalokitesvara. In Pure Land Buddhism Kuan Yin is describedas the “Bark of Salvation”. Alongside with Amitabha Buddha and BodhissatvaMahastamaprata She temporarily liberates being out of the Wheel of Samsara into


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the Pure Land where they will have the chance to accrue the necessary merit soas to be a Buddha in one lifetime.

Even among Chinese Buddhist schools that are non-devotional Kuan Yin is stillhighly venerated. Instead of being seen as an active external force of unconditionallove and salvation, the personage of Kuan Yin is highly revered as the principle ofcompassion, mercy and love. The act, thought and feeling of compassion and loveis viewed as Kuan Yin. A merciful, compassionate, loving individual is said to beKuan Yin. A meditative or contemplative state of being at peace with oneself andothers is seen as Kuan Yin. In Mahayana Canon the Heart Sutra is ascribed entirelyto the Bodhissatva Kuan Yin/Kwannon. This is unique as most Mahayana Sutrasare usually ascribed to the Shakyamuni Buddha and the teachings, deeds or vowsof the Bodhissatvas described by Shakyamuni Buddha. In the Heart Sutra KuanYin/Avalokitesvara describes to the Arhat Sariputra the nature of reality and theBuddhist teachings. The famous Buddhist saying, “Form is emptiness, emptinessis form” comes from this Sutra.

Guan Yin and Chine se Fo lk Be lie f

Kuan Yin is an extremely popular Goddess in Chinese folk belief and is worshippedin Chinese communities throughout East and South East Asia. Similar to Buddhism,Kuan Yin is revered in the general Chinese population due to her unconditional love,compassion and mercy. She is generally regarded by many as the protector of womenand children. By this association she is also seen as a fertility goddess capable ofgranting children. She is also seen as the champion of the unfortunate, the sick,the disabled, the poor, and those in trouble. Some coastal and river areas of Chinaregard her as the protector of fishermen, sailors, and generally people who are outat sea. Due to her association with the legend of the Great Flood where she sentdown a dog filled with rice grains in its tail after the flood, she is worshipped asa rice goddess. In some quarters, especially among business people and traders, sheis looked upon as a Goddess of Luck and Fortune. In recent years there have beenclaims of her being the protector of air travellers.

Guan Yin and the Virg in Mary

Many observers have commented on the similarity between Kuan Yin and theBlessed Virgin Mary of Christianity. The Tzu-Chi Foundation commissioned a portraitof Guan Yin and a baby that resembles the typical Madonna and Child painting.

Some Chinese of the overwhelmingly Roman Catholic Philippines, in an act ofsyncretism, have identified Kuan Yin with the Virgin Mary.

During the Edo Period in Japan, when Christianity was banned and punishableby death, some underground Christian groups venerated the Virgin Mary disguisedas a statue of Kannon; such statues are known as Maria Kannon. Many had a crosshidden in an inconspicuous location.


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Guan Yin in Po pular Culture

• Guan Yin plays a central role in the plot of the classic Chinese novel Journey

to the West.

• In the manga/anime titled Gensoumaden Saiyuki (based on the Chinese taleJourney to the West), Kuan Yin appears as Kanzeon Bosatsu, who appearsas a minor, but still relevant, character. In this unorthodox take on Buddhism,Kanzeon is a smart-talking hermaphrodite who guides the Sanzo-ikkou ontheir quest to Shangri-La.

• In the X-Men comic books, there are two characters named after the deity:Kwannon and Kuan-Yin Xorn.

• The name of the Japanese company Canon Inc. derives from the Japanesename of the deity.

• Her birthday, the 19th day of 2nd lunar month, based on Chinese calendaris a holiday in the Republic of China.

• In several comic books by Adam Warren Kuan Yin is the name of a high-tech weapons maker.

• Gotenks from Dragonball Z uses an attack called “Senju Kannon Punch”(translated as Thousand Hand Guan Yin Punch) in which he launches aflurry of blows similiar to a syogekiha while his arms move so fast that heappears to have hundreds of them.

Ha c him an

Hachiman is the Shinto god of war, and divine protector of Japan and theJapanese people. The name means God of Eight Banners, referring to the eightheavenly banners that signalled the birth of the divine Emperor Ojin. His symbolicanimal and messenger is the dove.

Since ancient times Hachiman was worshipped by peasants as the god ofagriculture and by fishermen who hoped he shall fill their nets with much fish. Inthe Shinto religion, he became identified by legend as the Emperor Ojin, son ofEmpress Consort Jingu, from the 3rd-4th century CE. However, after the arrivalof Buddhism in Japan, Hachiman became a syncretistic deity, a harmonization ofthe native Shinto religion with Buddhism. In the Buddhist pantheon in 8th centuryCE he became associated with the great bodhisattva Daibosatsu.

Hachiman also came to be noted as the guardian of the Minamoto clan ofsamurai. Minamoto no Yoshiie, upon coming of age at Iwashimizu Shrine in Kyoto,took the name Hachiman Taro Yoshiie and through his military prowess and virtueas a leader, became regarded and respected as the ideal samurai through the ages.After his descendant Minamoto no Yoritomo became shogun and established theKamakura shogunate, he rebuilt Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrine in Kamakura, Japan


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and started the reverence of Hachiman as the guardian of his clan. Throughout theJapanese medieval period, the worship of Hachiman spread throughout Japan amongnot only samurai, but also the peasantry. So much so was his popularity thatpresently there are over 30,000 shrines in Japan dedicated to Hachiman, the secondmost numerous after shrines dedicated to Inari. Usa Shrine in Usa, Oita prefectureis head shrine of all of these shrines and together with Tsurugaoka Hachiman Shrineand Iwashimizu Shrine, are noted as the most important of all the shrines dedicatedto Hachiman.

The crest of Hachiman is in the design of a tomoe, a round whirlpool or vortexwith three heads swirling right or left. Many samurai clans used the tomoe crestas their own, and ironically, by some that traced their ancestry back to the mortalenemy of the Minamoto, the Taira of the Emperor Kammu line (Kammu Heishi).

Ha e insa

Haeinsa (Temple of Reflection on a Smooth Sea) is one of the foremost Buddhisttemples in South Korea. It is most notable for being the home of the Tripitaka

Koreana, the whole of the Buddhist Scriptures carved onto 81,258 wooden printingblocks, which it has housed since 1398.

Haeinsa is one of the Three Jewel Temples of Korea, and represents Dharmaor the Buddha’s teachings. It is located on Gaya Mountain in South GyeongsangProvince. It is still an active Seon practice centre in modern times, and was the hometemple of the influential Rev. Seongcheol, who died in 1993.

The temple was first built in 802. Legend says that two Korean monks returnedfrom China, Suneung and Ijeong, and healed King Aejang wife’s of her illness. Ingratitude of the Buddha’s mercy, the king ordered the construction of the temple..Another account, by Choe Chi-Won in 900 states that Suneung and his discipleIjeong, gained the support of a queen dowager who converted to Buddhism and thenhelped to finance the construction of the temple.

The temple complex was renovated in the 900s, 1488, 1622, and 1644. Hirang,the temple abbot enjoyed the patronage of Taejo of Goryeo during that king’s reign.Haiensa was burned down in a fire in 1817 and the main hall was rebuilt in 1818..Another renovation in 1964 uncovered a royal robe of King Gwanghaegun, who wasresponsible for the 1622 renovation, and an inscription on a ridge beam.

The main hall, Daejeokkwangjeon (Hall of Great Silence and Light), is unusualbecause it is dedicated to Vairocana where most other Korean temples houseSeokgamoni in their main halls.

The Temple of Haeinsa, the Depositories for the “Tripitaka Koreana” Woodblocks,was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995. The UNESCO committeenoted that the buildings housing the Tripitaka Koreana are unique because no otherhistorical structure was specifically dedicated to the preservation of artifacts and


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the techniques used were particularly ingenuous.. The temple also holds severalofficial treasures including a realistic wooden carving of a monk and interestingBuddhist paintings, stone pagodas, and lanterns.

Jang g ye o ng Panje o n (Natio nal Tre asure No .52)

The storage halls, known as the Janggyeong Panjeon complex, is the depositoryfor the Tripitaka Koreana woodblocks at Haeinsa Temple are also designated by theKorean government as a national treasure of Korea. They are some of the largeststorage facilities made of wood.. The halls were designated on December 20, 1962.Remarkably, the halls were untouched during the Japanese invasion during theSeven-Year War and the halls were spared from the fire that burnt most of thetemple complex down in 1818. All told, the storage halls have survived seven serioustemple fires and even a near bombing during the Korean War when a pilot disobeyedorders because he remembered that the temple held a priceless treasure.

Janggyeong Panjeon complex is the oldest part of the temple and houses the81,258 wooden printing blocks from the Tripitaka. Although when the hall whichhouses the Tripitaka Koreana was first built is uncertain, it is believed that KingSejo expanded and renovated the hall in 1457.

The storage complex is made up of four halls arranged in a rectangle and thestyle is very plain because of its use as a storage facility. The northern hall is calledBeopbojeon (Hall of Dharma) and the southern hall is called Sudarajang (Hall ofSutras). These two main halls are 60.44 meters in length, 8.73 meters in width, and7.8 meters in height. They both have fifteen rooms with the two adjoining rooms.Additionally, there are two small halls in the east and west which are two smalllibraries.

Several ingeniuous preservation techniques are utilized to preserve the woodenprinting blocks. The architects also utilized nature to help preserve the Tripitaka.The storage complex was built at the highest point of the temple and is 655 metersabove sea level. Janggyeong Panjeon faces the southwest to avoid damp southeasternlywinds of the valley below and uses the mountain peaks to block the cold north wind.Different sized windows in the north and south of both main halls are used toventilate the halls and the they utilize principles of hydrodynamics. The windowswere installed in every hall to maximize ventilation and moderate temperature. Theclay floors were filled with charcoal, calcium oxide, salt, lime, and sand whichreduces humidity when it rained by absorbing excess moisture while retainingmoisture during the dry winter months.

The roof is also made with clay and the bracketing and wood rafters preventsudden changes in temperature. Additionally, no part of the complex is exposed toshade. Apparently, animals, insects, and birds avoid the complex but the reason forthis is unknown. These sophisticated preservation measures are widely credited asthe reason the woodblocks have survived in such fantastic condition to this day.


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In 1970, a modern storage complex was built utilizing modern preservationtechniques but when test woodblocks were found to have mildew, the intended movewas canceled and the woodblocks are still stored at Haeinsa.

Hamsa Bird

The Hamsa bird is a swan, typically the mute swan (cygnus olor), used in ancientIndian religions as a symbol and a decorative element.

Ide ntific atio n with the Swan

The word is cognate with Latin “anser”, German “Gans” and English “goose”(all meaning a goose). Hamsa also refers to a goose, flamingo or other water birds.Some historains wrongly always translate hamsa as goose. This maybe so becausetoday in India swans are never found in feral populations, domesticated flocks andhardly ever in zoos. But ornithological checklists about India like this clearly statethat swans are a vagrant species in India, ie, wintering in India very rarely (as ofnow). The hamsa, in the sense of a swan, is said to reside in the Manasarovar lakein Tibet and would migrate to the Indian lakes in the winter. It is said to eat pearlsand separate milk from water from a mixture of both. In many texts it is extolledas the king of birds. In one of the Upanishad, a swan is also said to possess thesacred knowledge of the Brahman, it is also the vehicle of goddess Saraswati.

Ide ntific atio n with Brahman

The Hamsa represent perfect union, balance and life. A constant repetition ofthe word “hamso” changes it to “Soaham”, which means “That I am”. Hence thehamsa is often identified with the Supreme Spirit or Brahman. The flight of theHamsa also symbolizes the escape from the cycle of samsara. The bird also hasspecial connotations in the monistic philosophy of Advaita Vedanta-just as the swanlives on water but its feathers are not wetted by water, similarly an Advaitin triesto live in this material world full of Maya, but is unsoiled by its illusionary nature.

The Hamsa was also used extensively in the art of Gandhara, in conjunctionwith images of the Buddha. It is also deemed sacred in Buddhism.

Hariti

Hariti is a Buddhist goddess for the protection of children, easy delivery, happychild rearing and parenting, harmony between husband and wife, love, and the well-being and safety of the family. Women without children also pray to Kishimojin tohelp them become pregnant.

Originally, Kishimojin/Hariti was a cannibalistic demon. She had hundreds ofchildren whom she loved and doted upon, but to feed them, she abducted and killedthe children of others. The bereaved mothers of her victims pleaded to UakyamuniBuddha to save them.


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Uakyamuni stole Aiji, youngest of Kishimojin’s sons, and hid him under his ricebowl. Kishimojin desperately searched for her missing son throughout the universe.Finally, she pleaded with Shakyamuni for help. The Buddha pointed out that shewas suffering because she lost one of hundreds of children, and asked if she couldimagine the suffering of parents whose only child had been devoured. She repliedcontritely that their suffering must be many times greater than hers, and vowedto protect all children.

Kishimojin became the goddess of easy birthing and the protection and parentingof children.

Some stories describe her as an aspect of Kannon. She is also sometimesidentified with the Hindu goddess Kali.

Pancika was her consort, and he fathered her children. He was one of the 28Yakca generals in the army of Vaishravana (Bishamonten).

In Gandhara, depictions of Hariti take on many attributes of the Greek goddessTyche; like Tyche, she is often depicted holding a cornucopia and dressed in Greekattire.

He rmann He sse

Hermann Hesse was a German-born poet, novelist, and painter. In 1946, hereceived the Nobel Prize in Literature. His best known works include Steppenwolf,Siddhartha, and The Glass Bead Game (also known as Magister Ludi).

Life

Yo uth

Hermann Hesse was born on July 2, 1877, in the Black Forest town of Calwin Wurttemberg, Germany to a Christian Missionary family. Both of his parentsserved with a Basel Mission to India, where Hesse’s mother Marie Gundert was bornin 1842. Hesse’s father, Johannes Hesse, was born in 1847 in Estonia, the son ofa doctor. The Hesse family had lived in Calw since 1873, where they operated amissionary publishing house under the direction of Hesse’s grandfather, HermannGundert.

Hermann Hesse spent his first years of life surrounded by the spirit of Swabianpiety. In 1881 the family moved to Basel, Switzerland, for five years, then returnedto Calw. After successful attendance at the Latin School in Goppingen, Hesse beganto attend the Evangelical Theological Seminary in Maulbronn in 1891. Here inMarch 1892, Hesse showed his rebellious character: he fled from the Seminary andwas found in a field a day later.

During this time, Hesse began a journey through various institutions andschools, and experienced intense conflicts with his parents. In May, after an attemptat suicide, he spent time at an institution in Bad Boll under the care of theologian


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and minister Christoph Friedrich Blumhardt. Later he was placed in a mentalinstitution in Stetten im Remstal, and then a boys’ institution in Basel.

At the end of 1892, he attended the Gymnasium in Cannstatt. In 1893, he passedthe One Year Examination, which concluded his schooling.

After this, he began a bookshop apprenticeship in Esslingen am Neckar, butafter three days he left. Then in the early summer of 1894, he began a fourteenmonth mechanic apprenticeship at a clock tower factory in Calw. The monotony ofsoldering and filing work made him resolve to turn himself toward more spiritualactivities. In October 1895, he was ready to begin wholeheartedly a new apprenticeshipwith a bookseller in Tubingen. This experience from his youth he returns to laterin his novel, Beneath the Wheel.

To ward a Write r

On October 17, 1895, Hesse began working in the bookshop Heckenhauer inTubingen, which had a collection specializing in theology, philology, and law. Hesse’sassignment there consisted of organizing, packing, and archiving the books. Afterthe end of each twelve hour workday, Hesse pursued his own work further, and heused his long, free Sundays with books rather than social contacts. Hesse studiedtheological writings, and later Goethe, Lessing, Schiller, and several texts on Greekmythology. In 1896, his poem ‘Madonna’ appeared in a Viennese periodical.

By 1898, Hesse had a respectable income that enabled his financial independencefrom his parents. During this time, he concentrated on the works of the GermanRomantics, including much of the work from Clemens Brentano, Joseph Freiherrvon Eichendorff, Friedrich Holderlin and Novalis. In letters to his parents, heexpressed a belief that “the morality of artists is replaced by aesthetics.”

In the fall, Hesse released his first small volume of poetry, Romantic Songs andin the summer of 1899, a collection of prose, entitled One Hour After Midnight. Bothworks were a business failure. In two years, only 54 of the 600 printed copies ofRomantic Songs were sold, and One Hour After Midnight received only one printingand sold sluggishly. Nevertheless, the Leipzig publisher Eugen Diederichs wasconvinced of the literary quality of the work and from the beginning regarded thepublications more as encouragement of a young author than as profitable business.

Beginning in the fall of 1899, Hesse worked in a distinguished antique book shopin Basel. There the contacts of his family with the intellectual families of Baselhelped open for him a spiritual-artistic environment with rich stimuli for his pursuits.At the same time, Basel offered the solitary Hesse many opportunities for withdrawalinto a private life of artistic self-exploration through journeys and wanderings. In1900, Hesse was exempted from compulsory military service due to an eye condition,which, along with nerve disorders and persistent headaches, affected him his entirelife. In 1901, Hesse undertook to fulfil a grand dream and travelled for the first timeto Italy. In the same year, Hesse changed jobs and began working at the antiquarium


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Wattenwyl in Basel. Hesse had more opportunities to release poems and smallliterary texts to journals. These publications now provided honorariums. Shortly thepublisher Samuel Fischer became interested in Hesse, and with the novel Peter

Camenzind, which appeared first as a pre-publication in 1903 and then as a regularprinting by Fischer in 1904, came a breakthrough: From now on, Hesse could liveas a free author.

Be twe e n Lake Co nstanc e and India

With the literary fame, Hesse married Maria Bernoulli in 1904, settled downwith her in Gaienhofen on Lake Constance, and began a family, eventually havingthree sons. In Gaienhofen, he wrote his second novel Beneath the Wheel, whichappeared in 1906. In the following time he composed primarily short stories andpoems. His next novel, Gertrude, published in 1910, revealed a production crisis —he had to struggle through writing it, and he later would describe it as “a miscarriage.”

Gaienhofen was also the place where Hesse’s interest in Buddhism was resparked.After a letter to Kapff in 1895 entitled Nirwana, Hesse’s Buddhist references wereno longer alluded to in his works. This was rekindled, however, in 1904 when ArthurSchopenhauer and his philosophical ideas started receiving attention again, andHesse discovered theosophy. Schopenhauer and theosophy are what renewed Hesse’sinterest in India. Although 1904 was many years before the publication of Hesse’sSiddhartha (1922), this masterpiece was derived from these new influences.

During this time, there also was increased dissonance between him and Maria,and in 1911, Hesse left alone for a long trip to Sri Lanka and Indonesia. Any spiritualor religious inspiration that he was looking for eluded him, but the journey madea strong impression on his literary work. Following Hesse’s return, the family movedto Bern in 1912, but the change of environment could not solve the marriageproblems, as he himself confessed in his novel Rosshalde from 1914.

The First Wo rld War

At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, Hesse registered himself asa voluntary with the German government, saying that he could not sit inactivelyby a warm fireplace while other young authors were dying on the front. He was foundunfit for combat duty, but was assigned to service involving the care of war prisoners.

On November 3, 1914, in the Neuen Zuricher Zeitung, Hesse’s essay O Friends,

Not These Tones (O Freunde, nicht diese Tone) appeared, in which he appealed toGerman intellectuals not to fall for nationalism. What followed from this, Hesse laterindicated, was a great turning point in his life: For the first time he found himselfin the middle of a serious political conflict, attacked by the German press, therecipient of hate mail, and distanced from old friends. He did receive continuedsupport from his friend Theodor Heuss, and also from the French writer RomainRolland, whom Hesse visited in August 1915.


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This public controversy was not yet resolved, when a deeper life crisis befellHesse with the death of his father on March 8, 1916, the difficult sickness of hisson Martin, and his wife’s schizophrenia. He was forced to leave his military serviceand begin receiving psychotherapy. This began for Hesse a long preoccupation withpsychoanalysis, through which he came to know Carl Jung personally, and waschallenged to new creative heights: During a three-week period during Septemberand October 1917, Hesse penned his novel Demian, which would be publishedfollowing the armistice in 1919 under the pseudonym Emil Sinclair. (Emil Sinclairwas a friend of the German Romantic poet Novalis, who was an influence on Hesse).

Casa Camuzzi

When Hesse returned to civilian life in 1919, his marriage was shattered. Hiswife had a severe outbreak of psychosis, but even after her recovery, Hesse saw nopossible future with her. Their home in Bern was divided, and Hesse resettled alonein the middle of April in Ticino, where he occupied a small farm house near Minusiobei Locarno, and later lived from April 25 until May 11 in Sorengo. On May 11, hemoved to the town Montagnola and rented four small rooms in a strange castle-likebuilding, the ‘Casa Camuzzi’.

Here he explored his writing projects further; he began to paint, an activitywhich is reflected in his next major story Klingsor’s Last Summer, published in 1920.In 1922, Hesse’s novel Siddhartha appeared, which showed the love for Indianculture and Buddhist philosophy, which had already developed at his parents’ house.In 1924, Hesse married the singer Ruth Wenger, the daughter of the Swiss writerLisa Wenger and aunt of Meret Oppenheim. This marriage never attained any truestability, however.

In this year, Hesse received Swiss citizenship. His next major works, Kurgast

from 1925 and The Nuremberg Trip from 1927, were autobiographical narrativeswith ironic undertones, and which foreshadowed Hesse’s following novel, Steppenwolf,which was published in 1927. In the year of his 50th birthday, the first biographyof Hesse appeared, written by his friend Hugo Ball. Shortly after his new successfulnovel, he turned away from the solitude of Steppenwolf and married a Jewishwoman, Ninon Dolbin Ausländer. This change to companionship was reflected in thenovel Narcissus and Goldmund, appearing in 1930.

In 1931, Hesse left the Casa Camuzzi and moved with Ninon to a large house(Casa Hesse) near Montagnola, which was built according to his wishes.

The Glass Be ad Game

In 1931, Hesse began planning what would become his last major work, The

Glass Bead Game. In 1932 as a preliminary study, he released the novella, Journey

to the East. Hesse observed the rise to power of Nazism in Germany with concern.In 1933, Bertolt Brecht and Thomas Mann made their travels in exile, and in both


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cases, were aided by Hesse. In this way, Hesse attempted to work against Hitler’ssuppression of art and literature that protested Nazi ideology.

Since the 1910s, he had published book reviews in the German press, and nowhe spoke publicly in support of Jewish artists and others pursued by the Nazis.However, when he wrote for the Frankfurter Zeitung, he was accused of supportingthe Nazis, whom Hesse did not openly oppose. From the end of the 1930s, Germanjournals stopped publishing Hesse’s work, and his work was eventually banned. Asspiritual refuge from these political conflicts and later from the horror of the SecondWorld War, he worked on the novel The Glass Bead Game which was printed in1943 in Switzerland. For this work among his others, he was awarded the NobelPrize in Literature in 1946.

After World War II, Hesse’s productivity declined. He wrote short stories andpoems, but no more novels. He occupied himself with the steady stream of lettershe received as a result of the prize and as a new generation of German readersexplored his work. He died on August 9, 1962, and was buried in the cemetery atSan Abbondio in Montagnola, where Hugo Ball is also buried.

Highe r Evolution

The term higher evolution is used in Theosophy and in Buddhism to indicatethe development of consciousness in human beings, as distinct from, althoughcontinuous with, the ‘lower’ or biological evolution within the animal kingdom upto the human level. Whereas the lower evolution is a biological (and largelyunconscious) process, the higher evolution is a psychological, even spiritual, process.

Because the higher evolution is a conscious and individual (as opposed tocollective) process, it is possible, for example through meditation, to reach fulldevelopment within a single lifetime.

Hsi Lai Te mple

Hsi Lai Temple (approximate pronunciation She Lye) is a traditional ChineseBuddhist mountain monastery. It is located on the foothill region of HaciendaHeights, California, USA, a suburb of Los Angeles. The name “Hsi Lai” meansComing West, by which they mean the “Great Buddhadharma Coming West.”

The temple is affiliated with Taiwan’s largest religious organization, the FoGuang Shan Buddhist order, founded by Venerable Master Hsing Yun. It is one ofthe first branch temples the order has built. Hsi Lai was the site of the foundingof Buddha’s Light International Association, which was established in 1991. Thetemple, like its mother temple in Taiwan, follows the Rinzai Zen school of Buddhism,and also follows the Pure Land School.

The current abbot of the temple is Venerable Hui Chi, and the current deputyabbot is Venerable Hui Sheng.


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Histo ry

In 1976, Master Hsing Yun represented a Buddhist group from Taiwan toparticipate in America’s bicentennial celebration. Many American friends askedMaster Hsing Yun to build a monastery in the US. Therefore, Fo Guang Shan askedthe Venerable Tzu Chuang (Upon the inception of the temple, became the foundingand first abbess of Hsi Lai Temple) and Yi Heng to plan and organize the constructionof the temple in the Greater Los Angeles area. It was officially registered under thename of International Buddhist Progress Society. Until the temple was complete,Ven. Tzu Chuang bought an old church building, which was to be Hsi Lai’s temporaryheadquarters. The original temple, located in the city of Maywood was called Bai

Ta (White Pagoda) Temple.

The planning and construction of the temple in the 1980s was met with suspicionand resistance from local residents outside of the Asian/Buddhist community, manyof whom knew little about Buddhism or had negative attitudes. Some main reasonsfor resistance against the building of the temple was the promise of weekly services,heavy traffic, and noise.

Originally, they had planned to build the temple in the South Bay, Los Angelesarea, but was blocked from acquiring land. They also tried to acquire Pyrenees Castlein Alhambra (formerly the residence of Phil Spector), but to no avail. The buildingof the temple survived six public hearings and 165 explanatory sessions. Finally in1985, the temple was finally granted a building permit. The groundbreaking ceremonywas held the following year, and was completed on November 26th, 1988.

The temple was finished at a cost of $10 million. Such negative feelings aboutthe building of Hsi Lai have diminished as the general level of awareness has beenraised and as the temple and its residents have proven to be good neighbors. Inaddition, when the temple opened, the Master blessed the land from the highestpoint on the property, and some believe that the blessing brings good fortune andwill raise property values.

Immediately after its opening, Hsi Lai was the venue of many important events.The 16th General Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists and the 7thconference of the World Fellowship of Buddhist Youth was held from November 19thto the 26th, an international Triple Platform Full Ordination Ceremony for monasticswas held for over a month, and a Liberation Rite of Water and Land, the first ofits kind in North America, was held prior to the temple’s opening.

Unive rsity o f the We st

In 1990, in conjunction to the completion of Hsi Lai Temple, Master Hsing Yunfounded Hsi Lai University, one of sixteen Buddhist colleges and universities operatedby Fo Guang Shan. The university was relocated in Rosemead, California in 1996.It is one of the first Buddhist colleges in the United States.


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There are departments for Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts in Buddhiststudies, comparative religious studies, and a Master of Business Administrationprogram is also offered. In 2004, the university changed its name to the University

of the West and appointed Dr. Lewis Lancaster, a religion professor at UC Berkeleyand longtime member of Fo Guang Shan, as president. Dr. Roger Schmidt becameLancaster’s successor in 2006.

Site s

• The Bodhisattva Hall: The first shrine before entering the temple. It is a largehall that honors five Bodhisattvas, Samantabhadra, Ksitigarbha, Maitreya(Mile), Avalokitesvara (Guan Yin), and Manjushri (Wenshu). Outside theshrine, on each side, honors the Bodhisattvas Skanda (Weituo) and Sangharama(Qielan).

• The Arhat Garden: Located on the left of the temple, it contains 18 statuesof the earliest known disciples of the Buddha.

• The Avalokitesvara Garden: Located on the right of the temple, it is alsoknown as the “Salvation Garden”. It contains the acolytes of Avalokitesvara(Guan Yin) and statues of the Four Heavenly Kings.

• Founder’s Statue : A statue of Venerable Master Hsing Yun. It is a bronzeeffigy of the master in a very lifelike pose, stepping forward with a heroicstride. The statue is behind the Bodhisattva hall, facing the main shrine.

• Main Shrine : The heart of the temple’s activities. It contains the statuesof the historical Sakyamuni Buddha (Shijiamounifo), Amitabha Buddha(Omituofo), and Bhaisajyaguru Buddha (Yaoshifo). Thousands of nichescontaining an image of the Buddha can be seen on the walls. Outside, a largebell and drum can be seen on either side. Traditionally in many ChineseCh’an temples, they are played daily to ready monastics for daily practice.Hsi Lai does not use these instruments regularly because of their loud volumewhen played, and there are residential areas at the foot of the temple. Thebell and drum are only used to mark special occurrences.

• Requiem Pagoda: Located at the summit of Hsi Lai, it honors those who havedied. In the past, it was also a mausoleum, but since there was no more roomfor urns to be interred, the urns were moved to a new Buddhist mausoleumbuilt by Hsi Lai Temple in 1999, located at Rose Hills Memorial Park inWhittier. The Requiem Pagoda is now for people who entered their loved one’snames in the pagoda, and can only be accessed by request.

• Meditation Hall : Located on the back of the main shrine, and next to themonastic dorm rooms, meditation classes are held here.

• Dining Hall : Vegetarian buffets are served here every day for lunch only,and sometimes dinner on special days. Each person can make a voluntarydonation for their lunch.


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• Translation and Publishing Centre : The Fo Guang Shan International

Translation Centre and Buddha’s Light Publishing are located on the verytop of the temple complex cross facing to the Requiem Pagoda. BLP wasestablished to publish Buddhist books translated by F.G.S.I.T.C. as well asother valuable Buddhist works. BLP is committed to building bridges betweenEast and West, Buddhist communities, and cultures.

Attrac tio n and Se rvic e s Offe re d

Because of the temple’s beautiful surroundings and various facilities, Hsi Laiis a popular venue for tourists interested in knowing more about Chinese cultureand Buddhism, even being coined the “Forbidden City of America”. Over the yearssince its foundation, Hsi Lai has been a favourable site for school field trips, businesstrips, organization meets, and a centre for interreligious dialogue. The templefacilities have been utilized for over ten thousand occasions and group activities withfavourable feedback.

Not only does Hsi Lai have workshops on Buddhism, the temple also holdsworkshops on a wide range of topics including taxation, legal issues, education,immigration, marriage, family discipline, etc. Many of the temple’s invited speakersor members are experts in their respective fields who are willing to share theirknowledge for the benefit of others.

Dharma Se rvic e s

Regular Dharma services are held on some Sunday and weekday mornings,usually chanting various sutras such as the Diamond Sutra or the Amitabha Sutra.Meditation sessions, retreats and Buddhism classes, are held on some days of theweek, which are offered in both English and Chinese.

Monks and nuns who reside at the temple speak a variety of languages besidesMandarin, primarily English and Cantonese, are available to perform weddings orfunerals services.

Many larger services Hsi Lai holds annually mostly revolve around filial piety,the Buddhist and Taoist philosophy of love and respect for one’s parents and ancestors.In the spring, they hold a large service in commemoration of Ching Ming, a traditionalChinese festival where many pay respects to deceased relatives by cleaning theirgraves. In the summer, they hold a large service in commemoration of Ullambana.During this time, they also hold a ceremony known as Sangha Day, where devoteesgather to honour the monastics by offering food to them, as well as offer a publiccultural performance, performing classical and traditional Chinese music or elegantsolo dances.

Annually, they also have retreats and services for those who wish to take refugein the Triple Gem, retreats and services for those who wish to receive the fiveprecepts, and even offer a short-term monastic retreat.


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Larg e r Dharma Func tio ns He ld

• Water Repentance Service : A one day repentance service for filial piety. Heldduring the Qingming Festival.

• Emperor Liang Repentance Service : A week long repentance service heldduring Ullambana.

• Amitabha 7-day Retreat : Seven days of mindful recitation of the AmitabhaSutra and Amitabha’s name.

• Yogacara Flaming Mouth : A Tantric ceremony inviting and feeding sentientspirits. Held in the afternoon after Sangha Day, and at the end of theEmperor Liang Repentance service.

• Great Compassion Repentance Service : Monthly service held in the eveningon the second Friday. A popular service at Hsi Lai, it involves the recitationof the Great Compassion Mantra, elaborate bowing, offering, andcircumbulations.

• Grand Offering to Celestial Beings : A ceremony of Taoist origin. Payshomage to the deity Sakra (Otherwise known as the Jade Emperor in Chinesemythology). Held on Chinese New Year’s eve and Chinese New Year day.

• Bathing the Buddha Ceremony : Celebration of the Buddha’s Birthday heldoutside Hsi Lai, and is hosted by other temples in Southern California.

• Thousand Buddha Repentance Service : Bowing to a total of 3,000 Buddhas;held during the Chinese New Year celebrations.

• Waterland Dharma Function: The largest Buddhist ritual in ChineseBuddhism. Held every four years, Hsi Lai last held this service in 2000 tocelebrate the millennium. However because of lack of staff, Waterland hasyet to have been initiated and planning of the ceremony was postponedseveral times. This service involved the invitations of beings of the higherrealms to help the beings in the lower realms get out of their sufferings.

1996 Pre side ntial Ele c tio n Co ntro ve rsy

During the 1996 presidential campaign, Vice President Al Gore held a fundraiserat the Hsi Lai Temple. The temple fundraising luncheon attended by Gore wasorganized by Democratic National Committee fund-raisers John Huang and MariaHsia. It is illegal under U.S. law for religious organizations to donate money topoliticians or political groups due to their tax-free status. The U.S. Justice Departmentalleged Hsia facilitated $100,000 in illegal contributions to the 1996 Clinton-Gorere-election campaign through her efforts at the Temple. Hsia was eventually convictedby a jury in March 2000. The Democratic National Committee eventually returnedthe money donated by the Temple’s monks and nuns. Twelve nuns and employeesof the Temple refused to answer questions by pleading the Fifth Amendment whenthey were subpoenaed to testify before Congress in 1997.


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Claims o f the Larg e st Mo naste ry in the We ste rn He misphe re

Since 1988, members of Hsi Lai and others have claimed that their temple isthe largest temple in the Western Hemisphere. However, the City of Ten ThousandBuddhas situated in Talmage, Northern California has over 80 acres of built-up landon 488 acres of property as compared to Hsi Lai Temples’ 15 acres, but rather thana temple complex as is Hsi Lai Temple, the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas is moreof an entire community with several large buildings clustered together. Therefore,it is unclear which is the largest, as there is a significant difference between thestructure and location of the two Buddhist organizations.

Past Ab b o ts and Ab b e sse s o f Hsi Lai

• 1978-1989: Ven. Tzu Chuang (1st term)

• 1989-1993: Ven. Hsin Ting

• 1993-1994: Ven. Tzu Chuang (2nd term)

• 1994-1995: Ven. Yi Kung

• 1995-2000: Ven. Tzu Jung

• 2000-2003: Ven. Hui Chuan (1st term)

• 2003: Ven. Yi Heng (acting abbess)

• 2003-2005: Ven. Hui Chuan (2nd term)

• 2005-Present: Ven. Hui Chi

Ic c hantika

The icchantika is, according to some Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, the mostbase and spiritually deluded of all types of being. The term implies being given overto total hedonism and greed.

In the Tathagatagarbha sutras, some of which pay particular attention to theicchantikas, the term is frequently used of those persons who do not believe in theBuddha, his eternal Selfhood and his Dharma (Truth); who seriously transgressagainst the Buddhist moral codes and vinaya; and who speak disparagingly anddismissively of the reality of the immortal Buddha-nature (Buddha-dhatu) or(essentially the same thing) the Tathagatagarbha present within all beings (including,paradoxically, icchantikas themselves).

The two shortest versions of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra-one translatedby Fa-xian, and the other a middle-length Tibetan version of the sutra-indicate thatthe icchantika has so totally severed all his/her roots of goodness that he/she cannever attain Liberation and Nirvana. The full-length Dharmakshema version of theMahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, in contrast, insists that even the icchantika caneventually find release into Nirvana, since nothing phenomenal is fixed (includingthis type of allegedly deluded person) and that change for the better and best is


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always a possibility. Other scriptures (such as the Lankavatara Sutra) indicate thatthe icchantikas will be saved through the liberational power of the Buddha-who, itis claimed, will never abandon any being.

Janwille m Van De We te ring

Janwillem van de Wetering (Middle name: Lincoln, recently also uses JanwillemVandewetering as a “pen and reference name”; born 12 February 1931) is the authorof a number of works in English and Dutch; he is particularly noted for his detectivefiction. His most popular creations are Grijpstra and de Gier, a pair of Amsterdampolice officers who figure in a lengthy series of novels and short stories. He has alsowritten stories for children and nonfiction works. He usually writes in Dutch andthen in English; the two versions often differ considerably.

Van de Wetering was born and raised in Rotterdam, but in later years he livedin South Africa, Japan, London, Colombia, Peru, Australia, Amsterdam and mostrecently in Maine, the setting of two of his Grijpstra and de Gier novels and hischildren’s series about the porcupine Hugh Pine. His many travels and his experiencesin a Zen Buddhist monastery and as a member of the Amsterdam Special Constabulary(“being a policeman in one’s spare time” as he phrased it in his introduction toOutsider in Amsterdam) lend authenticity to his works of fiction and nonfiction.

Bib lio graphy

Grijpstra and de Gie r No ve ls

• Outsider in Amsterdam, 1975

• Tumbleweed, 1976

• The Corpse on the Dike, 1976

• Death of a Hawker, 1977

• The Japanese Corpse, 1977

• The Blond Baboon, 1978

• The Maine Massacre, 1979

• The Mind-Murders, 1981

• The Streetbird, 1983

• The Rattle-Rat, 1985

• Hard Rain, 1986

• Just A Corpse at Twilight, 1994

• The Hollow-Eyed Angel, 1996

• The Perfidious Parrot, 1997

• The Amsterdam Cops: Collected Stories, 1999 (anthology)

o replaces the anthology The Sergeant’s Cat and Other Stories


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Childre n’s Bo o ks

• Little Owl, 1978

• Hugh Pine, 1980

• Hugh Pine and the Good Place, 1981

• Hugh Pine and Something Else, 1983

Othe r Fic tio n

• The Butterfly Hunter, 1982

• Bliss and Bluster, 1982

• Inspector Saito’s Small Satori, 1985 (anthology)

• Murder by Remote Control, 1986 (graphic novel, with Paul Kirchner)

• Seesaw Millions, 1988

• Mangrove Mama and Other Tropical Tales of Terror, 1995 (anthology)

• Judge Dee Plays His Lute: A Play and Selected Mystery Stories, 1997 (anthology;includes the original play Judge Dee Plays his Lute and a selection from otheranthologies)

No n- fic tio n

• The Empty Mirror: Experiences in a Japanese Zen Monastery, 1971

• A Glimpse of Nothingness: Experiences in an American Zen Community, 1975

• Robert Van Gulik: His Life, His Work, 1988

• Afterzen: Experiences of a Zen Student out on His Ear, 1999

Artic le s/ Sto rie s no t Inc lude d in Bo o ks

• The Way Life Should Be-Maine: coastline on a clean, cold sea. The Nation,September 1, 2003.

Translatio ns

• Alexandra David-Neel and Lama Yongden: The Power of Nothingness. Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1982 (French to English, with an intodruction by thetranslator)

• Van de Wetering also translated many books from English to Dutch and twobooks from French to Dutch

Unpub lishe d in Eng lish

• De doosjesvuller en andere vondsten, 1984 (essays in Dutch)

• Waar zijn we aan begonnen?, 1985 (essays on the stages of life with thepsychologist Hans van Rappard)

• Eugen Eule und der Fall des verschwundenen Flohs, 2001 (children’s bookin German)


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• Die entartete Seezunge, 2004 (inspired by the World War 2 bombing ofRotterdam and the 9/11 disaster in NYC) (a novel in German)

Filmog raphy

• Grijpstra and de Gier (Netherlands, 1979), based on the novel Outsider in

Amsterdam, script by Wim Verstappen

• Rattlerat (Netherlands, 1987), script by Wim Verstappen

• Der blonde Affe (Germany, 1985), based on the novel The Blond Baboon

• Forthcoming: Just a Corpse at Twilight (Lagestee Film, Amsterdam, possibleshow date in 2006), in progress, script by Janwillem van de Wetering

Te le visio n

• A TV series based on the Grijpstra and de Gier characters started airing onDutch TV in 2004, 30 episodes are made, another 15 are ordered. Roef Hagasand Jack Wouterse play youthful versions of de Gier and Grijpstra

• CBS aired a TV special featuring the original Hugh Pine novel (Storybreak

#12)

Radio

Van de Wetering wrote 4 radio plays for German TV, again based on theGrijpstra and de Gier series. The plays were aired during the early nineties. Amongthese is Das Koan (1994), based on Van de Wetering’s biography of Robert van Gulik,creator of the Judge Dee series. The English version, Judge Dee Plays His Lute, wasincluded in the anthology with the same name.

Jataka

The Jataka is a voluminous body of folklore and mythic literature, primarilyassociated with the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as written in the Pali languageusually dated between 300 BC and 400 AD.; however, the stories found in the Jatakahave been found in numerous other languages and media — many of them beingtranslations from the Pali but others are instead derived from vernacular traditionsprior to the Pali compositions. Sanskrit and Tibetan Jataka stories tend to maintainthe Buddhist morality of their Pali equivalents, but re-tellings of the stories inPersian and other languages sometimes contain significant amendments to suit theirrespective cultures.

The word most literally refers to a Buddhist Scripture or a book of the PaliCanon of Theravada Buddhism, included in the Sutta Pitaka and Khuddaka Nikaya.Jataka also refers to the traditional commentary on the Scriptures anything in thesame literary genre.

In the 6th century, some of the stories were translated to Persian at thecommand of the Zoroastrian king Khosrau I. This translation was later retranslated


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to Greek, Latin and Hebrew. Some people believe that they formed the basis forAesop’s Fables, Sindbad the Sailor and The Arabian Nights. Generally, the Jatakastories have disseminated from India to become part of the world’s folk-literature,in numerous variations, with the Pali recensions representing one cultural (andreligious) notion of what the stories “ought” to be. The term “Jataka” refers to theBuddhist trope of treating each story as an incarnation of the Buddha-to-be priorto his enlightenment.

Within the Pali tradition, there are also many apocryphal Jatakas of latercomposition (some dated even to the 19th century) but these are treated as aseparate category of literature from the “Official” Jataka stories that have beenmore-or-less formally canonized from at least the 5th century — as attested to inample epigraphic and archaeological evidence, such as extant illustrations in basrelief from ancient temple walls. Some of the apocryphal Jatakas (in Pali) showdirect appropriations from Hindu sources, with amendments to the plots to betterreflect Buddhist morals. A comprehensive review of the Pali tales and their relationto monastic Buddhism can be found in Tales and Teachings of the Buddha by GarrettJones.

Jataka tales are not considered Buddha-vacana, i.e., generally, TheravadaBuddhists do not accord them the authority of being the actual word of the Buddha,and orthodoxy maintains that they are not canonical writings. However, most of theverses embedded in them, and a small amount of prose, are regarded as part of thePali canon, and these tales have been among the more popular and influentialsegments of Buddhist literature, irrespective of their noncanonical status.

In Theravada countries, several of the longer Jataka tales are still performedin dance, theatre, and formal (quasi-ritual) recitation to this day, and several areassociated with particular holidays on the Lunar Calendar used by Cambodia,Thailand and Lao.

Je btsundam ba

The Khalkha Jebtsundamba Khutughtu is the spiritual head of the Geluglineage of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia. He also holds the title of Bogd Gegeen,making him the top-ranked lama in Mongolia.

The first Jebtsundamba, also known as Bogdo Zanabazar (1635-1723), wasidentified as the reincarnation of the scholar Taranatha of the Jonang school ofTibetan Buddhism. Zanabazar was the son of Prince Tosiyetu Khan, ruler of theKhan Uula district of Mongolia, and himself became the head of the KhalkhaMongols and the spiritual leader of northern Mongolia.

The first two Jebtsundambas were direct descendants of Genghis Khan. On theintervation of the Qing Dynasty, which was afraid of Mongol reunification, the restwere chosen from among the population of Tibet.


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When northern Mongolia began its independence movement, the eighthJebtsundamba (1869-1924) assumed the title of Emperor of Mongolia, calling himselfBoghda Khan. He was the head of state until his death in 1924. The Communistgovernment declared the end of his reincarnation.

The present Jebtsundamba Khutughtu’s original name is Jampal Namdol ChokyeGyaltsen, born in Lhasa, Tibet. At the age of four, he was recognized as thereincarnation of the 8th Jebtsundamba. In 1959 he fled to Dharamsala in Indiawhere he now lives in exile.

His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama has appointed the present Jebtsundamba asrepresentative of the Jonang tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. It should be noted thatJebtsundamba is considered a reincarnation of Tarantha, an important master ofthe Jonang tradition.

Jodo Shinshu

Jodo Shinshu, also known as Shin Buddhism, was founded by the once TendaiJapanese monk Shinran Shonin. In modern times Jodo Shinshu can be contrastedwith Jodo Shu, founded by Shinran’s teacher Honen. Today Shin Buddhism isconsidered the most widely practiced branch of Buddhism in Japan, along with JodoShu.

Histo ry

Shinran Sho nin (Fo unde r)

Shinran Shonin (shonin means eminent priest) (1173-1263) lived during theKamakura period (1185-1333), a time of turmoil for Japan when the Emperor wasstripped powerless by the Shoguns. Shinran’s family had a high rank at the imperialcourt in Kyoto, but given the times many families were sending sons off to beBuddhist monks instead of having them participate in government. When Shinranwas nine (1181) he was sent by his father to Mt. Hiei, where he was ordained asa Tendai monk. Over time Shinran became disillusioned with what Buddhism inJapan had become, foreseeing a decline in the potency and practicality of theteachings espoused. At this time Amida Buddhism had a few established movementswithin the Tendai tradition, but Shinran was disllusioned nonetheless.

Shonin left his role as doso at Mt. Hiei and did a 100 day retreat at Rokkakudotemple in Kyoto, where Shonin had a dream on the 95th day. In this dream PrinceShotoku (in Japan he is synonymous with Kannon Bosatsu) appeared to him,espousing a pathway to enlightenment through verse. So the next day, in 1201,Shonin leaves to train under Honen for the next six years. Honen (1133-1212) wasonce a Tendai monk as well, whom left the tradition in 1175 to found his own sect,Jodo Shu. During this period Honen and Shonin espoused unto others the conceptof nembutsu and amassed a somewhat substantial following. In 1207, sensing a


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threat, the Buddhist establishments of Kyoto persuaded the Shoguns to implementa nembutsu ban, a ruling which prohibited others from spreading Honen and Shinran’steachings. Honen and Shinran were forced into exile, and Shinran was given acriminal’s name and had to live in Echigo province (today Niigata).

It was during this exile that Shonin cultivated a deeper understanding of hisown beliefs and in 1210 he married his wife Eshinni. Shinran and Eshinni hadseveral children, one of whom he later disowned in 1256 (his oldest son Zenran).In 1211 the nembutsu ban was lifted and Shinran was pardoned. In (1212) Honendied in Kyoto. Shonin never saw Honen following their exile. The year of Honen’sdeath, Shinran set out for the Kanto area of Japan, where he established a substantialfollowing. In 1224 he wrote his most significant piece, Kyogyoshinsho, which containedseveral excerpts from the Pure Land sutras along with his own commentaries.

In 1234, at the age of sixty, Shonin left Kanto for Kyoto (Eshini stayed inEchigo), where he dedicated the rest of his years to writing. It was during this timehe wrote the Wasan, a collection of hymns summarizing his teachings for hisfollowers to recite. In his last years of life his daughter Kakushinni cared for him,and the shrine built on Shonin’s tomb later became Honganji (‘The Temple of theOriginal Vow’). Shinran died at the age of 90 in 1263.

Re vival and Fo rmalizatio n

Early Shin Buddhism did not truly flourish until the time of Rennyo (1415-1499), who was 8th in line from Shinran. Through his charisma and prostelytizingShin Buddhism was able to amass a greater following and grow in strength. Sostrong did the sect become that in 1602, through mandate of the Shogun TokugawaIeyasu, the main temple Hongwanji in Kyoto was broken off into two sects to curbthe organizations power.

During the time of Shinran Shonin, followers would gather in meeting houses,similar to Christian Quakers and had an informal liturgical structure. Anyone couldget up and give a Buddhist talk, or discuss some other matter at hand. However,as time went on, this lack of cohesion and structure caused Jodo Shinshu to graduallylose its identity as a separate sect, as people began mixing other Buddhist practicesinto it. One common example was the Mantra of Light popularized by Myoe andShingon Buddhism. Rennyo helped turn this around by formalizing much of JodoShinshu, it’s practices and liturgy, and revived the thinning community at theHongwanji temple while asserting newfound political power.

Rennyo Shonin is generally credited by Shin Buddhists for reversing the gradualdecay of the early Jodo Shinshu community.

Do c trine / Be lie fs

Shinran’s thought was strongly influenced by the doctrine of mappo, or thedecline of the Dharma (the Buddhist teachings). Shinran saw the age he was living


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in as being a degenerate one where beings cannot hope to be able to extricatethemselves from the cycle of birth and death through their own power, or jiriki. ForShinran, all conscious efforts towards achieving enlightenment and realizing theBodhisattva ideal were contrived and rooted in selfish ignorance; for humans of thisage are so deeply rooted in karmic evil as to be incapable of developing the trulyaltruistic compassion that is requisite to becoming a Bodhisattva. It should be notedhowever that many modern commentators feel that Shinran’s understanding ofmappo is highly psychological and subjective, rather than eschatological, though thisis a point of some controversy.

Due to his consciousness of human limitations, Shinran advocates reliance ontariki (Other Power) — the power of Amida Buddha’s limitless and infinite compassionmade manifest in Amida Buddha’s Primal Vow — in order to attain liberation. ShinBuddhism can therefore be understood as a “practiceless practice,” for there are nospecific acts to be performed such as there are in the “Path of Sages” (the otherBuddhist schools of the time that advocated ‘jiriki’ (‘self-power’). In Shinran’s ownwords, Shin Buddhism is considered the “Easy Path” because it one is not compelledto perform many difficult, and often esoteric, practices in order to attain higher andhigher mental states.

The Ne mb utsu

Like other Pure Land Buddhist schools, Amida is a central focus of the Buddhistpractice, and Jodo Shiinshu expresses this devotion through a chanting practicecalled the nembutsu, or “Mindfulness of the Buddha [Amida]. The nembutsu issimply reciting the phrase Namu Amida Butsu (“I take refuge in Amida Buddha”).Jodo Shinshu is not the first school of Buddhism to practice the nembutsu but itis seen in a new light. The nembutsu becomes understood as an act that expressesgratitude to Amida Buddha — furthermore, it is evoked in the practitioner throughthe power of Amida’s unobstructed compassion. Therefore in Shin Buddhism, thenembutsu is not considered a practice, nor does it generate karmic merit. It is simplyan affirmation of one’s gratitude.

Note that this is in contrast to the related Jodo Shu school which promoted acombination of repetition of the nembutsu and devotion to Amida as a means to birthin the Pure Land. It also contrasts with other Buddhist schools in China and Japan,where the nembutsu was part of a more elaborate ritual.

The Pure Land

In another departure from more traditional Pure Land schools of Buddhism,Shinran advocated that birth in the Pure Land happened here and now rather thanafter death. When one entrusts themselves to Amida (shinjin), one is awakened tothe Pure Land at that very moment, and sees the world around them as the PureLand itself.


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Many Pure Land Buddhist schools in the time of Shinran felt that birth in thePure Land was a literal rebirth that occurred upon death. Elaborate rituals wereused to guaranteed rebirth in the Pure Land, including a common practice whereone’s fingers were tied by strings to a painting of Amida Buddha. From the perspectiveof Jodo Shinshu such rituals betrayed a lack of trust in Amida Buddha and reliedon self-power, rather than Amida Buddha. Such rituals also favoured those whocould afford the time and energy to practice them.

True Entrusting

The goal of the Shin path, or at least the practicer’s present life, is the attainmentof shinjin in the Other Power of Amida. To achieve shinjin is to unite one’s mindwith Amida through the total renunciation of self effort in attaining enlightenment;to take refuge entirely in Other Power. Shinjin arises from jinen and cannot beachieved solely through conscious effort. One is letting go of conscious effort in asense, and simply trusting Amida Buddha, and the nembutsu.

For Jodo Shinshu practitioners, shinjin develops over time through “deep hearing”of Amida’s call of the nembutsu. Jinen also describes the way of naturalness wherebyAmida’s infinite light illumines and transforms the deeply rooted karmic evil ofcountless rebirths into good karma.

It is of note that such evil karma is not destroyed but rather transformed: Shinstays within the Mahayana tradition’s understanding of sunyata, or non-duality/emptiness, and understands that samsara and Nirvana are not separate. Once thepracticer’s mind is united with Amida and Buddha nature gifted to the practicerthrough shinjin, the practicer attains the state of non-retrogression, whereuponafter his death he will achieve instantaneous and effortless enlightenment. He willthen return to the world as a Bodhisattva, that he may work towards the salvationof all beings.

The Tannisho

The Tannisho is a 13th century book of recorded sayings attributed to Shinran,transcribed with commentary by Yuien (a disciple of Shinran). Tannisho means “Arecord of the words of Shinran set down in lamentation over departures from histeaching”. While not the largest, nor the most scholarly Jodo Shinshu text, it is oneof the most popular because practitioners see Shinran in a more informal setting,and can relate to Shinran’s teachings more readily.

For centuries, the text was almost unknown to the majority of Shin Buddhists.In the 15th century Rennyo Shonin, Shinran’s descendent, wrote of it, “This writingis an important one in our tradition. It should not be indiscriminately shown toanyone who lacks the past karmic good”. Kiyozawa Manshi (1863-1903) revitalizedinterest in the Tannisho, which indirectly helped to spawn the Dobokai Movementof 1962.


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Sub je c ts

Jodo Shinshu itself has 10 sub-sects which tend to be either independent, basedon Shinran’s family lineage, or centred on places he lived. The largest branch is theHonganji sect. The Honganji sub-sect was split in two by the Shogun TokugawaIeyasu in 1602 to diminish it’s political powers, creating both the Nishi Honganji(or, ‘The Western Temple of the Original Vow’) and the Higashi Honganji (or, ‘TheEastern Temple of the Original Vow’). Neither of these can be broken down further,and Nishi is the larger of the two. In the United States, Nishi-Hongwanji operatesas the Buddhist Churches of America and Honpa Hongwanji Mission of Hawai’.

Excepting certain Jodo Shinshu inspired New Religious Movements the varioussub-sects hardly differ on doctrinal matters but have a wide variety of liturgicalstyles.

In the Co nte xt o f Japane se Culture

Earlier schools of Buddhism that came to Japan, including the Tendai andShingon sects, gained acceptance because of the way they meshed the Buddhistpantheon with the native Japanese Shinto pantheon. For example, a Shinto godcould be seen as a manifestation of a bodhisattva. It is common even to this dayto have Shinto shrines within the grounds of some traditional Buddhist temples.

Jodo Shinshu, on the other hand, intentionally separated itself from the Shintoreligion, and left out many superstitious practices of the day. Shinran had felt thatsuch practices would make Jodo Shinshu unnecessarily complicated, and wouldconfuse the self-power found in rituals and superstition with the other-power ofAmida.

Jodo Shinshu traditionally had an uneasy relationship with older Buddhistschools because its doctrine was often seen as a challenge to their own. On the otherhand, newer Buddhist schools in Japan, such as Zen, tended to have a more positiverelationship and occasionally shared practices. In popular lore, Rennyo Shonin wasgood friends with a famous Zen master at the time in Kyoto.

Throughout history, Jodo Shinshu drew much of its support from lower socialclasses in Japan who could not devote the time or education to other esotericBuddhist practices. Famous figures such as the myokonin came from the largelyilliterate peasant society, yet left their mark on Japanese literature and spirituality.

Mo de rn Shin Thinke rs

• Taitetsu Unno

• Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1870-1966)

• Kiyozawa Manshi (1863-1901)

• Yamaguchi Susumu

• Soga Ryojin (1875-1971)


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• Kaneko Daiei (1881-1976)

• Sasaki Gessho

• Nanjo Bunyu (1848-1927)

• Hirose Takashi (1924-present)

• Kasahara Kenju

Shin Patriarc hs

• Nagarjuna (150-250)

• Vasubandhu (ca. 4th Century)

• T’an-luan (476-542?)

• Tao-Ch’o (562-645)

• Shan-tao (613-681)

• Genshin (942-1017)

• Honen (1133-1212)

Jokha ng

The Jokhang, also called the Jokhang Temple or the Jokhang Monastery, is afamous Buddhist temple located on Barkhor Square in Lhasa, Tibet. Along with thePotala Palace, it is probably the most popular tourist attraction in Lhasa. It is partof the UNESCO World Heritage Site “Historic Ensemble of the Potala Palace” anda spiritual centre of Lhasa.

Jokhang temple was constructed by King Songtsen Gampo starting in the year639. This temple has remained a centre of Buddhist pilgrimage for centuries. In thepast several centuries the temple complex was expanded and now covers an areaof about 25,000 sq. meters. Jokhang temple is a four-story construction, with roofscovered with gilded bronze tiles. The architectural style is based on the Indian viharadesign, and was later extended resulting in a blend of Indian, Nepalese, and TangDynasty styles. The rooftop statues of two golden deer flanking a Dharma wheelis iconic.

Jokhang temple complex has several decorated shrines and rooms. The mainhall of the temple houses the Jowo Shakyamuni Buddha statue, perhaps the singlemost venerated object in Tibetan Buddhism. There are also statues of King SongtsanGambo and his two famous foreign brides, Princess Wen Cheng (daughter of EmperorTaizong of Tang China) and Princess Bhrikuti of Nepal.

Jona ng

The Jonang or Jonangpa school of Tibetan Buddhism became widely known atthe end of the 13th century. Its origins in Tibet can be traced to early 12th centurymaster Yumo Mikyo Dorje, but became much wider known with the help of Dolpopa


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Sherab Gyeltsen, a monk originally trained in the Sakyapa school. The Jonangpaschool was widely thought to have become extinct in the late 17th century at thehands of the Fifth Dalai Lama who forcibly annexed the Jonangpa monasteries tohis Gelugpa school. Recently, however, it was discovered that some remote Jonangpamonasteries escaped this fate and have continued practicing uninterrupted to thisday. An estimated 5,000 monks and nuns of the Jonangpa tradition practice todayin areas at the edge of historic Gelugpa influence.

Histo ry o f the Jo nang pa

In 1294, the monk Kunpang Tukje Tsondru established the Puntsok Cholingmonastery at ‘Jomonang’, about 160 km northwest of the Tashilhunpo monasteryin Shigatse, and since then, the sprititual tradition became known as Jonang.

The Jonang tradition combines two specific teachings; the so-called zhentong(or shentong) philosophy of emptiness, and the ‘Dro-lineage’ of the Kalachakratantra. The origin of this combination in Tibet can be found with the master YumoMikyo Dorje-an 11th/12th century pupil of the Kashmiri master Somanatha.

The Jonangpa school has generated a number of renowned Buddhist scholars,like Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen (1292-1361), but the most famous was Jetsun Taranatha(1575-1634). Taranatha placed great emphasis on the Kalachakra system of tantrawhich became an important part of Gelugpa teaching after the Gelugpa absorbedthe Jonangpa monasteries. Taranatha’s influence on Gelugpa thinking continueseven to this day in the teaching of the present 14th Dalai Lama who activelypromotes initiation into Kalachakra.

After several centuries of independence, however, in the late 17th century theJonangpa order came under attack by the Fifth Dalai Lama who forcibly convertedtheir monasteries to the Gelugpa order.

State d Re aso n fo r Jo nang pa Suppre ssio n: The She ntong He re sy

While the Gelugpa embraced the Jonangpa teaching on the Kalachakra, theyultimately opposed the Jonangpa over a difference in philosophical view. YumoMikio Dorje (11th/12th century), Dolpopa Sherab Gyeltsen (1292-1361) and subsequentlamas maintained a teaching known as Shentong, which holds that only the clear-light, non-dual nature of the mind is ‘real’, and everything else is empty. The Gelugpaschool held the distinct but related Rangtong view where all phenomena are seenas empty (of inherent existence) and no thing or process (including Mind and itsqualities) may be asserted as independent or inherently real (neither may phenomenabe asserted as “unreal”-in short, all assertions are seen to be groundless). Anadditional motivation in criticizing the Jonangpa sect as Chan-followers was thatit enabled the Gelugpa to lay claim to the high moral ground previously held onlyby the rival Nyingmapa sect who were proud of their ancient transmission from theIndian saints.


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Ac tual Re aso ns: Mo naste ry Financ ial Re fo rm and Tib e tan Ge o po litic s

Modern historians have identified two other reasons which more likely led the

Gelugpa to suppress the Jonangpa: First, the Jonangpa taught that large gifts ofproperty to monasteries did not help one achieve enlightenment. This undercut thefinancial practices of the Gelugpa who were growing rapidly through exactly thosemeans at the time.

Second, and more significantly, the Jonangpa had political ties that were veryvexing to the Gelugpa. The Jonangpa, along with the Kagyupa, were historical allieswith the powerful house of Tsang which was vying with the Dalai Lama and hisGelugpa school for control of central Tibet.

This was bad enough, but soon after the death of Taranatha an even moreominous event occurred: Taranatha’s reincarnation was discovered to be a youngboy named Zanabazar the son of Prince Tosiyetu Khan, ruler of the Khan Uuladistrict of Outer Mongolia.

Tosiyetu and his son were of Khalkha lineage, meaning they had the birthauthority to become Khan. When the young boy was declared the spiritual leaderof all of Mongolia, suddenly the Gelugpa were faced with the possibility of war withthe former military superpower of Asia. While the Mongol Empire was long past

its zenith, this was nonetheless a frightening prospect and the Dalai Lama soughtthe first possible moment of Mongol distraction to take control of the Jonangpamonasteries.

His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama confirmed this view in Glenn Mullin’s The

Fourteen Dalai Lamas (Clear Light Publishers):

“These monasteries were closed for political reasons, not religious ones,

and their closing had nothing to do with sectarianism. They had

supported the Tsangpa king in the uprising, thus committing treason.

The Great Fifth believed that they should be closed in order to insure

the future stability of the nation, and to dissuade other monasteries

from engaging in warfare.”

His Holiness continued :

“The fact is that the Great Fifth passed laws outlawing sectarian

skirmishes, and passed laws ensuring the freedom of religion. This

freedom was extended to not only the Buddhist schools, but also to the

non-Buddhist ones. For example, he kept a Bonpo lama in his entourage

to speak for the interests of the Bon movement. And on a personal level,

he himself practiced so many non-Gelukpa lineages that the Gelukpas

criticized him for straying from his roots.”

(Then Glenn goes on to offer historical evidence supporting His Holiness’sstatements.)


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Re disc o ve ry b y the Outside Wo rld and Curre nt Status

In accordance with the observation that “victors write history” the Jonangpa

were until recently thought to be an extinct heretical sect. Thus, Tibetologists wereastonished when fieldwork turned up several active Jonangpa monasteries, includingthe main monastery called Tsangwa located in Tibet, Dzamthang County, Sichuan,China.

Almost 40 monasteries, comprising about 5,000 monks, have subsequently beenfound, including some in the Amdo and Gyarong districts of Qinghai and the TibetAutonomous Region. Presumably these remnants survived because they were farfrom the Gelugpa capital at Lhasa and closer to sympathetic powers in Qing Dynasty

China.

Interestingly, one of the primary supporters of the Jonang lineage in exile hasbeen the 14th Dalai Lama of the Gelugpa. The Dalai Lama donated buildings inHimachal Pradesh state in Shimla, India for use as a Jonang monastery (now known

as Thakten Puntsok Ling) and has visited during one of His recent teaching tours.The Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu lineage has visited there as well. The Jonangtradition has recently officially registered with the Tibetan Government in exile tobe recognized as the fifth living Buddhist tradition of Tibet. The 14th Dalai Lama

assigned Khalkha Jetsun Dampa Rinpoche or the ‘Bogd Gegeen’ of Mongolia (whois an incarnation of Taranatha) as the leader of the Jonangpa tradition.

Ka da mpa

The Kadampa Tradition was a Tibetan Mahayana Buddhist school. Dromtonpa,a Tibetan lay master and the foremost disciple of the great Indian Buddhist Master

Atisha (982-1054), founded it and passed three lineages to his disciples. The Kadampaswere quite famous and respected for their proper and earnest Dharma practice. Themost evident teachings of that tradition were the teachings on Bodhichitta (laterthese special presentations became known as Lojong (Blo-ljong)) and Lamrim (Stages

of the Path) by Atisha.

Tsongkhapa (Btsong-ka-pa) a reformer, collected all the three Kadampa lineagesand integrated them, along with Sakya, Kagyu and other teachings, into hispresentation of the Doctrine. The pervasive influence of Tsongkhapa was such that

the Kadampas that followed were known as “New Kadampas” or, more commonly,as the Gelug school, while those who preceded him became retroactively known as“Old Kadampas,” or simply as “Kadampas.”

All of the other three Tibetan Buddhist schools (Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyu) also

integrated the Lojong (Blo-sbyong) teachings into their lineages. Gampopa (Sgam-po-pa), who studied for six years within the Kadampa Tradition and became laterthe main disciple of Milarepa (Mi-la ras-pa), included the Lojong and Lamrimteachings in his lineage, the Karma Kagyu (Ka-rma Bka’-brgyud) Lineage.


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Nowadays the Gelug Tradition keeps and transmits the Kadampa-lineage of theScriptural Traditions of the Six Canonical Texts. Together with Dagpo Kagyu Traditionthey keep and transmit The Pith Instructions of the Sixteen Essences, and the Dagpo

Kagyu Tradition keeps and transmits the Key Instructions of the Four Noble Truths.

The Kadampa Line age

After the death of Atisha (1054) his main disciple Lama Dromtonpa (Drom-tonGyal-we Jungne, 1005-1054) organized his transmissions into the legacy known as“The Four Divinities and Three Dharmas”-a tradition whereby an individual

practitioner could perceive all doctrines of the sutras and tantras as non-contradictoryand could personally apply them all as complementary methods for the accomplishmentof enlightenment.

Eventually this lineage came to be known as Atisha’s Kadam Tradition, the

Marvellous Legacy of Seven Divine Dharmas.

Lama Dromtonpa transmitted the various lineages of Atisha by dividing thembetween The Three Noble Brothers. To one he gave the scriptural traditions, to thesecond the oral transmissions, and to the third the pith instructions. The Three Noble

Brothers are: Geshe Putowa (Puto Rinchen Sal), Geshe Chenngawa (ChengawaTsultrim Bar) and Geshe Phuchungwa (Phuchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen).

The Sc riptural Traditio ns Line ag e

Geshe Putowa (1031-1106) received the transmission and responsibility to holdthe teachings of the scriptural traditions, the six Kadampa treatises and hiddenverbal transmission of both sutra and tantra from Dromtonpa.

The six Kadampa treatises he held are:

• The Bodhisattva Stages (Skt. Bodhisattvabhumi) by Asanga

• An Ornament of the Mahayana Sutras (Skt. Mahayanasutraalamkara) byMaitreya/Asanga

• A Compendium of Bodhisattva Trainings (Skt. Shikshasamucchaya) byShantideva

• A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way (Skt. Bodhisattvacharyavatara) by Shantideva

• A Garland of Birth Stories (Skt. Jatakamala) by Aryasura,

• The Collected Sayings of the Buddha (Skt. Udanavarga)-the TibetanDhammapada by Dharmatrata

It is the tradition to read at the Great Prayer Festival (Monlam) the fifth of

these, A Garland of Birth Stories, during the morning session. It was also thetradition of the Kadampas to teach the two texts Jatakamala and Udanavarga

together and when they taught Shantideva’s Bodhisattvacharyavatara they taughtthe Shikshasamucchaya too.


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The scriptural traditions were of two main types: those dealing with ultimatereality and the wisdom of emptiness; and those dealing with conventional realityand the vast Bodhimind (Skt. Bodhicitta) activities.

The six Kadampa treatises were mainly used to elucidate the nature of thebodhisattva’s vast activities. Those dealing with the ultimate wisdom of emptiness,the principal texts stressed here were Nagarjuna’s six treatises on emptinessphilosophy, such as The Root of Wisdom (Skt. Mulamadhyamakakarika) and so forth,

together with the commentaries to them by the later Indian masters; and alsoAtisha’s own commentaries on the middle view and on the nature of the two truths.

These were the principal scriptures studied in the Old Kadam School.

Oral Transmissio ns Line ag e

Geshe Chenngawa (Chengawa Tsultrim Bar) received the transmission andresponsibility to hold the oral tradition of instructions (oral transmission). Theseteachings were mainly dealing with the Four Noble Truths. One of his students,

Jayulwa, inherited a special practice lineage which was called Chenga Kague andbecame a part of the Dagpo Kagyu lineage.

The Pith Instruc tio ns Line ag e

Geshe Phuchungwa (Phuchungwa Shonu Gyaltsen) received the transmissionand responsibility to hold the teachings of the pith instructions of the Sixteen Circlesof the Kadampa. As a support he received also the empowerments, instructions, and

secret teachings of the Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Sanskrit: Bodhi Pradipa,

Tib: byang chhub lam gi rdon mey).

The pith instructions lineage has its root in the secret oral teachings of Atishaand are embodied in The Precious Book of the Kadampa Masters: A Jewel Rosary

of Profound Instructions on the Bodhisattva Way. This text is seen as the main textof the Kadampas. These instructions were passed down only to one student in eachgeneration in a single transmission until the secrecy was lifted at the time ofNarthang Shonu Lodro. Later these teachings were incorporated into the Karma

Kamtsang Kagyu lineage by Pal Tsuglak Trengwa and Gelug lineage by the FirstDalai Lama, Gyalwa Gedun Drup.

The Lo jo ng Line ag e

These oral tradition teachings are generally known as “The Instructions forTraining the Mind in the Mahayana Tradition” (Tib., Theg-chen-blo-sbyong-gi-gdampa-pa). According to the 1st Dalai Lama Atisha has received three lines of of Lojongtransmission: one from the Indonesian master Serlingpa, also known as Suvarnadvipa,

one from the Indian master Maitriyogi and the third from the Indian masterDharmarakshita. Atisha secretly transmitted them to his main disciple, LamaDromtonpa.


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During the time of The Three Noble Kadampa Brothers many of these oralteachings were collected together and compiled into the text Stages of the Doctrine.Yet at the time the lineages from Atisha’s Indonesian master Dharmakirti (the

Lojong-Teachings on how to train in Bodhichitta) were still kept secret.

When the time was sufficiently mature, the Lojong Teachings were publiclyrevealed. First Geshe Kham Lungpa published Eight Sessions for Training the Mind,then Geshe Langri Tangpa (1054-1123) wrote Eight Verses for Training the Mind.

After this, Sangye Gompa composed A Public Explanation and Geshe Chekhawa(1102-1176) wrote Seven Points for Training the Mind. In this manner, the LojongOral Transmission Teachings gradually emerged and became known to the public.Before being revealed, the secret lineage was as follows: Dharmakirti-> Atisha->

Dromtonpa-> Potowa-> Sharawa (1070-1141)-> Chekhawa (1101-1175). FromKhamlungpa, Langri Tangpa and Chekhawa onwards they became public and laterthey were integrated into all four Tibetan Buddhist Schools. (These Kadampa-Lojongtexts were brought together into the anthology. A Hundred Texts on Training the

Mind).

Atisha’s Le g ac y

Je Atisha had three chief students, beside the famous Dromtonpa (Dronton

Gyalwe Jungne) who established the Radreng monastery there were Khu (KhutonTsondru Yungdrang) and Ngok (Ngok Legpe Sherap). Ngok established the dharmacentre of Sangphu Neuthok and this institute was later developed further by his

nephew, the translator, Ngok Loden Sherap and it became the source of all theTibetan centres for advanced study (Shedra). Ngatso Lotsawa Tsultrim, a translatorwho brought Atisha to Tibet, and served him for 19 years was another importantstudent of Atisha. Ngatso Lotsawa Tsultrim received teachings from Atisha, Jnana

Akara and others, and his main lineage is called the Ngatso Kagyu.

It is said in the Tibetan Tradition of Buddhism that the holder of the Kadampalineage have their bodies adorned with the four deities (Shakyamuni, Avalokiteshvara,Tara and Achala), their speech adorned with the three Pitakas (Vinaya, Sutra,

Abidharma) and their minds adorned with the practice of the three trainings (ethicaldiscipline, meditation and wisdom). It is said the Kadmapas practiced Seven DivineDharmas: The four deities and the three trainings of the three pitikas. The Kadampasmainly emphasised the Sutra Path (The Union of Compassion and Wisdom).

In general it can be stated the Teachings of the Kadampas are upheld by thefour schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

The “Ne w Kadampa Traditio n” o f Ge she Ke lsang Gyatso

In 1991, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso (Dge-shes Bskal-bzang Rgya-mtsho), a Buddhistmonk trained at Sera Monastery, a Gelug university, founded a new westernorganisation which he named the “New Kadampa Tradition.”


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Ka lac hakra

Kalacakra is a term used in Tantric Buddhism that means “time-wheel” or“time-cycles”. It refers both to a Tantric deity (Tib. yidam) of Vajrayana Buddhismand to the philosophies and meditation practices contained within the Kalachakra

Tantra and its many commentaries. The Kalachakra Tantra is more properly calledthe Kalachakra Laghutantra, and is said to be an abridged form of an original text,the Kalachakra Mulatantra which is no longer extant. Some Buddhist masters assertthat Kalachakra is the most advanced form of Vajrayana practice; it certainly is one

of the most complex systems within tantric Buddhism.

The Kalachakra tradition revolves around the concept of time and cycles: fromthe cycles of the planets, to the cycles of human breathing, it teaches the practiceof controlling the most subtle energies within one’s body on the path to enlightenment.

The Kalachakra deity represents a Buddha and thus omniscience. Since Kalachakrais time and everything is under the influence of time, he knows all. Similarly, thewheel is without beginning or end.

The Kalac hakra Tantra

The Kalachakra Tantra is divided into five chapters, the first two of which areconsidered the “ground Kalachakra.” The first chapter deals with what is called the“outer Kalachakra”—the physical world– and in particular the calculation system

for the Kalachakra calendar, the birth and death of universes, our solar system andthe workings of the elements.

The second chapter deals with the “inner Kalachakra,” and concerns processesof human gestation and birth, the classification of the functions within the human

body and experience, and the vajra-kaya—the expression of human physical existencein terms of channels, winds, drops and so forth. Human experience is described asconsisting of four mind states: waking, dream, deep sleep, and a fourth state whichis sexual orgasm. The potentials (drops) which give rise to these states are described,

together with the processes that flow from them.

The last three chapters describe the “other” or “alternative Kalachakra,” anddeal with the path and fruition. The third chapter deals with the preparation forthe meditation practices of the system: the initiations of Kalachakra. The fourth

chapter explains the actual meditation practices themselves, both the meditationon the mandala and its deities in the generation stage practices, and the perfectionor completion stage practices of the Six Yogas. The fifth and final chapter describesthe state of enlightenment (fruition) that results from the practice.

Initiatio n

The Kalachakra initiations empower the disciple to practice the Kalachakratantra in the service of attaining Buddhahood. There are two main sets of initiations


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in Kalachakra, eleven in all. The first of these two sets concerns preparation forthe generation stage meditations of Kalachakra. The second concerns preparationfor the completion stage meditations known as the Six Yogas of Kalachakra. Attendees

who don’t intend to carry out the practice are generally only given the lower seveninitiations.

Astro lo g y

The phrase “as it is outside, so it is within the body” is often found in theKalachakra tantra to emphasize the similarities between human beings and thecosmos; this concept is the basis for Kalachakra astrology, but also for even moreprofound connections and interdependence as taught in the Kalachakra literature.

In Tibet, the Kalachakra astrological system is one of the main building blocksin the composition of Tibetan astrological calendars. The astrology in the Kalachakrais not unlike the Western system, in that it employs complicated (and surprisinglyaccurate) astronomical calculations to determine, for example, the exact location of

the planets.

Histo ry

Indian Orig in

According to the Kalachakra Tantra, King Suchandra (Tib. Dawa Sangpo) ofthe northeastern Indian Kingdom of Shambhala requested teaching from the Buddha

that would allow him to practice the dharma without renouncing his worldlyenjoyments and responsibilities. In response to his request, the Buddha taught thefirst Kalachakra root tantra in Dhanyakataka (present day Amaravati), a small townin Andhra Pradesh in southeastern India, supposedly bilocating (appearing in two

places at once) at the same time as he was also delivering the Prajnaparamita sutrasat Vulture Peak Mountain in Bihar. Along with King Suchandra, ninety-six minorkings and emissaries from Shambhala were also said to have received the teachings.The Kalachakra thus passed directly to Shambhala, where it was held exclusively

for hundreds of years. Later Shambhalian kings, Manjushrikirti and Pundarika, aresaid to have condensed and simplified the teachings into the “Sri Kalachakra” or“Laghutantra” and its main commentary the “Vimalaprabha”, which remain extanttoday as the heart of the Kalachakra literature.

There are presently two main traditions of Kalachakra, the Ra lineage (Tib. Rva-

lugs) and the Dro lineage. Although there were many translations of the Kalachakratexts from Sanskrit into Tibetan, the Ra and Dro translations are considered to bethe most reliable (more about the two lineages below). The two lineages offer slightly

differing accounts of how the Kalachakra teachings returned to India from Shambhala.

In both traditions, the Kalachakra and its related commentaries (sometimesreferred to as the Bodhisattvas Corpus) were returned to India in 966 AD by an


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Indian Pandita. In the Ra tradition this figure is known as Chilupa, and in the Drotradition as Kalachakrapada the Greater. Scholars such as Helmut Hoffman havesuggested they are the same person. The first masters of the tradition disguised

themselves with pseudonyms, so the Indian oral traditions recorded by the Tibetanscontain a mass of contradictions.

Chilupa/Kalachakrapada is said to have set out to receive the Kalachakrateachings in Shambhala, along the journey to which he encountered the Kulika

(Shambhala) king Durjaya manifesting as Manjushri, who conferred the Kalachakrainitiation on him, based on his pure motivation.

Upon returning to India, Chilupa/Kalachakrapada is said to have defeated indebate Nadapada (Tib. Naropa), the abbot of Nalanda University, a great centre of

Buddhist thought at that time. Chilupa/Kalachakrapada then initiated Nadapada(who became known as Kalachakrapada the Lesser) into the Kalachakra, and thetradition thereafter in India and Tibet stems from these two. Nadapada establishedthe teachings as legitimate in the eyes of the Nalanda community, and initiated into

the Kalachakra such masters as Atisha (who, in turn, initiated the Kalachakramaster Pindo Acharya (Tib. Pitopa)).

The Kalachakra tradition, along with all Vajrayana Buddhism, vanished fromIndia in the wake of the Muslim invasions.

Spre ad to Tib e t

The Dro lineage was established in Tibet by a Kashmiri disciple of Nalandapa

named Pandita Somanatha, who travelled to Tibet in 1027 (or 1064 AD, dependingon the calendar used), and his translator Droton Sherab Drak Lotsawa, from whichit takes its name. The Ra lineage was brought to Tibet by another Kashmiri discipleof Nadapada named Samantashri, and translated by Ra Choerab Lotsawa (or Ra

Dorje Drakpa).

The Ra lineage became particularly important in the Sakya order of TibetanBuddhism, where it was held by such prominent masters as Sakya Pandita (1182-1251), Drogon Chogyal Pagpa (1235-1280), Budon Rinchendrup (1290-1364), and

Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292-1361). The latter two, both of whom also held theDro lineage, are particularly well known expositors of the Kalachakra in Tibet, thepractice of which is said to have greatly informed Dolpopa’s exposition of theShentong view. A strong emphasis on Kalachakra practice and exposition of the

Shentong view were the principal distinguishing characteristics of the Jonang schoolthat traces its roots to Dolpopa.

The teaching of the Kalachakra was further advanced by the great Jonangscholar Taranatha (1575-1634). In the 17th century, the Gelug-led government of

Tibet outlawed the Jonang school, closing down or forcibly converting most of itsmonasteries. The writings of Dolpopa, Taranatha, and other prominent Shentong


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scholars were banned. Ironically, it was also at this time that the Gelug lineageabsorbed much of its Kalachakra tradition from the Jonang.

Today Kalachakra is practiced by all four Tibetan schools of Buddhism, although

it appears most prominently in the Gelug lineage. It is also remains very importantto the Jonang school, which persists to this day with a small number of monasteriesin eastern Tibet. Efforts are under way to have the Jonang tradition be recognizedofficially as a fifth tradition of Tibetan Buddhism.

Kalac hakra Prac tic e To day in the Tib e tan Buddhist Sc ho o ls

Buton had considerable influence on the later development of the Gelug andSakya traditions of Kalachakra, and Dolpopa on the development of the Jonang

tradition on which the Kagyu and Nyingma draw. The Kagyu and Nyingma relyheavily on the extensive, Jonang-influenced Kalachakra commentaries of Ju Miphamand Jamgon Kongtrul the Great, both of whom took a strong interest in the tradition.It should be noted, however, that there were many other influences and much cross-

fertilization between the different traditions, and indeed His Holiness the DalaiLama has asserted that it is acceptable for those initiated in one Kalachakratradition to practice in others.

Ge lugpa

The Dalai Lamas have had specific interest in the Kalachakra practice,particularly the First, Second, Seventh, Eighth, and the current (Fourteenth) Dalai

Lamas. The present Dalai Lama has given thirty Kalachakra initiations all over theworld, and is the most prominent Kalachakra lineage holder alive today. Billed asthe “Kalachakra for World Peace,” they draw tens of thousands of people. Generally,it is unusual for tantric initiations to be given to large public assemblages, but the

Kalachakra has always been an exception. The Dalai Lama, Kalu Rinpoche andothers have stated that the public exposition of this tantra is necessary in the currentdegenerate age. The initiation may be received as a blessing for the majority of thoseattending, although many attendees do take the commitments and subsequently

engage in the practice.

Kalachakra Initiations given by H.H. XIV Dalai Lama:

• Norbu Lingka, Lhasa, Tibet, in May 1954

• Norbu Lingka, Lhasa, Tibet, in April 1956

• Dharamsala, India, in March 1970

• Bylakuppe, South India, in May 1971

• Bodh Gaya, India, in December 1974

• Leh, Ladakh, India, in September 1976

• Madison, USA, in July 1981


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• Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh, India, in April 1983

• Lahaul & Spiti, India, in August 1983

• Rikon, Switzerland, in July 1985

• Bodh Gaya, India, in December 1985

• Zanskar, Ladakh, India, in July 1988

• Los Angeles, USA, in July 1989

• Sarnath, India, in December 1990

• New York, USA, in October 1991

• Kalpa, HP, India, in August 1992

• Gangtok, Sikkim, India, in April 1993

• Jispa, HP, India, in August 1994

• Barcelona, Spain, in December 1994

• Mundgod, South India, in January 1995

• Ulanbaator, Mongolia, in August 1995

• Tabo, HP, India, in June 1996

• Sydney, Australia, in September 1996

• Salugara, West Bengal, India, in December 1996

• Bloomington, Indiana, USA, in August 1999

• Key Monastery, Spiti, Himachal Pradesh, India, in August 2000

• Bodhgaya, Bihar, India, in January 2002 (postponed)

• Graz, Austria, in October 2002

• Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India, in January 2003

• Toronto, Canada, in April 2004

• Amaravati, Guntur, India in January 2006

Ven. Kirti Tsenshab Rinpoche, The Ninth Khalkha Jetsun Dampa Rinpoche,Ven. Jhado Rinpoche, and late Ven. Gen Lamrimpa are also among the prominentKalachakra masters of the Gelug school.

Kag yu

The Kalachakra tradition practiced in the Karma and Shangpa Kagyu schoolsis derived from the Jonang tradition, and was largely systematized by Jamgon

Kongtrul the Great, who wrote the text that is now used for empowerment. TheSecond and The Third Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoche (1954-1992) were also prominentKalachakra lineage holders. The chief Kalachakra lineage holder for the Kagyulineage was H.E. Kalu Rinpoche (1905-1990), who gave the initiation several times

in Tibet, India, Europe and North America. Upon his death, this mantle was assumed


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by his heart son the Ven. Bokar Rinpoche (1940-2004), who in turn passed it on toVen. Khenpo Lodro Donyo Rinpoche. Bokar Monastery, of which Donyo Rinpocheis now the head, features a Kalachakra stupa and is a prominent retreat centre for

Kalachakra practice in the Kagyu lineage. Ven. Tenga Rinpoche is also a prominentKagyu holder of the Kalachakra; he gave the initiation in Grabnik, Poland in August,2005. Chogyam Trungpa Rinpoche, while not a noted Kalachakra master, becameincreasingly involved later in his life with what he termed Shambhala teachings,

derived from the Kalachakra tradition, in particular, the mind terma which heclaimed to have received from the Kulikas.

Nyingma

Among the prominent recent and contemporary Nyingma Kalachakra mastersare H.H. Dzongsar Khyentse Chokyi Lodro (1894-1959), H.H. Dilgo Khyentse Rinpoche(1910-1991), and H.H. Penor Rinpoche.

Sakya

His Holiness Sakya Trizin, the present head of the Sakya lineage, has giventhe Kalachakra initiation many times and is a recognized master of the practice.The Sakya master H.E. Chogye Trichen Rinpoche is one of the main holders of the

Kalachakra teachings. Chogye Rinpoche is the head of the Tsharpa School, one ofthe three main schools of the Sakya tradition of Tibetan Buddhism. One of theprevious Chogye Trichen Rinpoches, Khyenrab Choje (1436-97), beheld the sustained

vision of the female tantric deity Vajrayogini at Drak Yewa in central Tibet, andreceived extensive teachings and initiations directly from her.

Two forms of Vajrayogini appeared out of the face of the rocks at Drak Yewa,one red in colour and the other white, and they bestowed the Kalachakra initiation

on Khyenrab Choje. When asked if there was any proof of this, his attendant showedvarious masters the kusha grass Khyenrab Choje had brought back with him fromthe initiation. It was unlike any kusha grass found in this world, with rainbow lightssparkling up and down the length of the dried blades of grass.

This direct lineage from Vajrayogini is the‘shortest’, the most recent and direct,lineage of the Kalachakra empowerment and teachings that exists in this world. Inaddition to being known as the emanation of Manjushri, Khyenrab Choje hadpreviously been born as many of the Rigden kings of Shambhala as well as numerous

Buddhist masters of India. These are some indications of his unique relationshipto the Kalachakra tradition.

Chogye Trichen Rinpoche is the holder of six different Kalachakra initiations,four of which, the Bulug, Jonang, Maitri-gyatsha, and Domjung, are contained

within the Gyude Kuntu, the Collection of Tantras compiled by Jamyang KhyentseWangpo and his disciple Loter Wangpo. Rinpoche has offered all six of theseempowerments to H.H. Sakya Trizin, the head of the Sakya School of Tibetan


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Buddhism. Rinpoche has given the Kalachakra initiation in Tibet, Mustang,Kathmandu, Malaysia, the United States, Taiwan, and Spain, and is widely regardedas a definitive authority on Kalachakra.

In 1988 he travelled to the United States, giving the initiation and completeinstructions in the practice of the six-branch Vajrayoga of Kalachakra according tothe Jonangpa tradition in Boston. Chogye Rinpoche has completed extensive retreatin the practice of Kalachakra, particularly of the six-branch yoga (sadangayoga) in

the tradition of the Jonangpa school according to Jetsun Taranatha. In this way,Chogye Rinpoche has carried on the tradition of his predecessor Khyenrab Choje,the incarnation of the Shambhala kings who received the Kalachakra initiation fromVajrayogini herself. When Chogye Rinpoche was young, one of his teachers dreamed

that Rinpoche was the son of the King of Shambhala, the pure land that upholdsthe tradition of Kalachakra.

Jonang

Though not (yet) officially recognized as the fifth school of Tibetan Buddhism,the Jonang tradition is very important in that it has preserved the Kalachakrapractice lineage, especially of the completion stage practices. In fact, the Kalachakrais the main tantric practice in the Jonang tradition. Khenpo Kunga Sherab Rinpoche

is one contemporary Jonangpa master of Kalachakra.

Co ntro ve rsy

The Kalachakra Tantra has occasionally been a source of controversy in the westbecause the text contains passages which are sometimes interpreted as demonizingthe Abrahamic religions, particularly Islam. This is principally because it containsthe prophecy of a “holy” war between Buddhists and so-called “barbarians” (Skt.

mleccha). Upon close inspection, however, it is clear that the Buddha was notpreaching against any particular tradition but rather against intolerance, hatred,violence and war in the name of any organized religion. All mainline Buddhisttraditions teach tolerance of other religions (so long as they do not endorse harming

beings as a precept of their religion) as well as the avoidance of harm by allBuddhists. This prophecy could be understood to refer in part to the Islamic incursionsinto central Asia and India which deliberately destroyed the Buddhist religion inthose regions. The prophecy includes detailed descriptions of the future invaders as

well as suggested (non-violent) ways for the Buddhist teachings to survive theseonslaughts.

It could not be the intention of the Buddha to advocate a religious war, sincethe vows of Mahayana (and Theravada) Buddhist teachings prohibit harming any

sentient being. Buddhist teachings that portray military conflict-such as elementsof the Kalachakra Tantra and the Gesar Epic-are often said to be taught for thesake of those who possess a karmic tendency towards militancy, for the purpose of


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taming their minds. The passages of the Kalachakra Tantra that address religiouswarfare should be viewed as an admonition by the Buddha to the followers of allreligions to turn away from any religious justification of war and violence, and to

embrace the precepts of love and compassion-which are explicitly found within theteachings of all religions. The Kalachakra masters take the description of “holy war”symbolically, teaching that it mainly refers to the inner battle of the religiouspractitioner against inner demonic and barbarian tendencies. This is the solution

to violence in the world, since according to the Kalachakra tantra, the outer conditionsfound in the world depend on the inner condition of the minds of beings in the world.Viewed in this light, the prophesied Shambhala war takes place on the plane of ideas.It depicts the transformation of the archaic mentality of violence in the name of

religion and ideology into a higher form of moral power and spiritual wisdom.

The prophecy of the Shambhala war represents the triumph of the human raceover religious militarism and materialistic reification and/or nihilism. The KalachakraTantra offers a vision of the elevation of the human spirit beyond these forces. It

envisions a uniting of humanity into a single “vajra” race, through theacknowledgement that each and every being possesses the same essence or “Buddhanature”, beyond any conceptual notion of a “self” that is based on cultural, ethnic,and emotional affiliations, and thus beyond historical and religious enmities.


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6

Schools of Buddhism

Theravada is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries hasbeen the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population) andcontinental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, and parts ofsouthwest China and of Vietnam and Bangladesh). It is also found in Malaysia andIndonesia. It is also gaining popularity in Singapore and Australia. Today TheravadaBuddhists number over 100 million worldwide, and in recent decades Theravada hasbegun to take root in the West.

History

Orig in o f the Sc ho o l

The Theravada school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavada groupingwhich emerged amongst the older Sthavira group at the time of the Third BuddhistCouncil (circa 250 BCE), during the reign of Emperor Asoka in India. After the ThirdCouncil, the Vibhajjavadins gradually evolve into four groups: the Mahiuasaka,Kauyapiya, Dharmaguptaka and the Tamraparniya. Theravada is descended fromthe Tamraparniya, which means ‘the Sri Lankan lineage’. On the other hand, somesources claimed that Mahiuasaka, Kauyapiya and Dharmaguptaka did not evolvedirectly from Vibhajjavadins.

The name of Tamraparniya was given to the Sri Lankan lineage in India, andthere is no indication that this referred to any change in doctrine or scripture, sincethe name points only to geographical location. The Theravadin accounts of its originsmention that it received the teachings that were agreed upon during the ThirdBuddhist Council, and these teachings were known as the Vibhajjavada.

Vibhajjavadins see themselves as the continuation of orthodox Sthaviras andafter the Third Council continued to refer to their school as the Sthaviras/Theras(‘The Elders’), although their doctrines is probably similar with the older Sthavirasbut it is likely not identical. In the 7th century, Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and

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Yi Jing refer to the Buddhist school in Sri Lanka as‘Sthaviravada’. As the usageof Pali re-emerge to prominences, around the 11th century the Pali name ‘Theravada’is use instead of their Sanskrit name.

Histo ry o f the Traditio n

According to Sinhalese tradition, Buddhism was first brought to Sri Lanka in246 BCE by Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of the Mauryan emperorAsoka, as a part of the missionary activities of the Asokan era. In Sri Lanka,Mahinda established the Mahavihara Monastery of Anuradhapura. Later it becamedivided into three subgroups, known after their monastic centres as the Mahavihara,the Abhayagirivihara, and the Jetavanavihara. In 1164, with the guidance of twomonks from a forest branch of the Mahavihara, Sri Lanka King reunited all bhikkhusin Sri Lanka into the Mahavihara school.

A few years after the arrival of Mahinda, Sanghamitta, who is also believed tobe the daughter of Emperor Asoka, came to Sri Lanka. She started the first nunorder in Sri Lanka, but the nun order died out around the middle of first millenniumCE. In 429 CE, on the request of China Han Dynasty emperor the nun fromAnuradhapura was sent to China to establish the Nun Order. The order was thenspread to Korea. In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lanka nuns were ordained fully asBhikkhunis by a team of Theravada monks in concert with a team of Korean Nunsin India.

During the Asoka reign period, a missionary was also sent to Suvannabhumiwhere two monks Sona and Uttara, are said to have proceeded. Scholar opinionsdiffer as to where exactly this land of Suvannabhumi is located, but Suvannabhumiis believed to be located somewhere in the area which now includes lower Myanmar,Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Malay peninsula.

The Mon were one of the earliest people to inhabit lower Myanmar and arebelieved to have been Theravadin since 3rd century BCE. Archaeological findingshave shown that the Mon had close contact with South India and Sri Lanka. TheBurmese adopted the Mon religion and writing script (which is Pali) when theyconquered Thaton the Mon Kingdom in 1057. According to the local traditions, thiswas the area of Suvarnabhumi that was visited by missionaries from the Asokancourt. The Mon were also one of the earliest people to inhabit Thailand. The Thaiadopted the Mon religion when they conquered Haripunjaya, the Mon Kingdom in1292.

Philoso phy

Theravada promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally “Teaching ofAnalysis.” This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant’s experience,critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scripturesof the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering


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such advice and evaluation of one’s own experiences to be the two tests by whichpractices should be judged.

The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to theFour Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding,which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death. Theravadateaches that Nibbana is most quickly attained as an enlightened noble disciple ofBuddha: an Arhat (lit. “worthy one”, “winner of Nibbana”).

In the Theravadin view, the Nibbana attained by Arahats is the same as thatattained by the Buddha himself. The difference was that the Buddha was superiorto Arahats because the Buddha had discovered the path and was able to teach thepath he had discovered to others which required omniscience and supreme compassion.Theravadins revere the Buddha as a single supremely gifted yet mortal teacher.

In Theravadin belief, someone who practices with earnestness and zeal canachieve Enlightenment (Nibbana) within a single lifetime, as did many of the firstfew generations of Lord Buddha disciples.

Sc ripture s

The Theravada school upholds the Pali Canon or Tipitaka as the mostauthoritative collection of texts on the teachings of Gautama Buddha. The Tipitakais the oldest historical collection of texts on Buddhism, having its roots in the FirstBuddhist Council of the 5th century BCE. The Sutta and Vinaya portion of theTipitaka shows considerable overlap in content to the Agamas, the parallel collectionsused by non-Theravada schools in India which are preserved in Sanskrit, Prakrit,Chinese and Tibetan, and the various non-Theravada Vinayas. On this basis, boththese sets of texts are generally believed to be the oldest and most authoritativetexts on Buddhism by scholars. It is also believed that the Pali Canon, which is stillused by Theravada communities, was transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign ofAsoka. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom in those days for religioustexts) for about 4 centuries, it was written down in about 30 BCE, in Sri Lanka.

The Pali Tipitaka consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka andAbhidhamma Pitaka. Of these, the Abhidhamma Pitaka is believed to be a lateraddition to the first two pitakas, which, in the opinion of many scholars, were theonly two pitakas at the time of the First Buddhist Council. The Pali Abhidhammawas not recognized outside the Theravada school.

In the 4th or 5th century CE Buddhaghosa Thera wrote the first Pali commentariesto much of the Tipitaka (which were based on much older manuscripts), and afterhim many other monks wrote various commentaries, which have become part of theTheravada heritage. These texts, however, do not enjoy the same authority as theTipitaka does. The Tipitaka is composed of 46 large individual books in the Thaiedition, and a full set of the Tipitaka is usually kept in its own (medium-sized)cupboard.


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The commentaries, together with the Abhidhamma, define the specific Theravadaheritage. Related versions of the Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka were common toall the early Buddhist schools, and therefore do not define only Theravada, but alsothe other early Buddhist schools, and the teaching of Gautama Buddha himself.

Praxis

Lay and Mo nastic Life

Traditionally, Theravada Buddhism has observed a distinction between thepractices suitable for a lay person and the practices undertaken by ordained monks(and, in ancient times, nuns). While the possibility of significant attainment bylaymen is not entirely disregarded by the Theravada, it occupies a position ofsignificantly less prominence than in the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions. Thisdistinction-as well as the distinction between those practices advocated by the PaliCanon, and the folk religious elements embraced by many monks-have motivatedsome scholars to consider Theravada Buddhism to be composed of multiple separatetraditions, overlapping though still distinct. Most prominently, the anthropologistMelford Spiro in his work Buddhism and Society separated Burmese Theravada intothree groups: apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evilspirits), kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making merit for a future birth), andNibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of nibbana, as describedin the Tipitaka). These categories are not accepted by all scholars, and are usuallyconsidered non-exclusive by those who employ them.

The role of lay people has traditionally been primarily occupied with activitiesthat are commonly termed ‘merit making’ (falling under Spiro’s category of kammaticBuddhism). Merit making activities include offering food and other basic necessitiesto monks, making donations to temples and monasteries, burning incense or lightingcandles before images of the Buddha, and chanting protective or merit-makingverses from the Pali Canon. Some lay practitioners have always chosen to take amore active role in religious affairs, while still maintaining their lay status. Dedicatedlay men and women sometimes act as trustees or custodians for their temples, takingpart in the financial planning and management of the temple. Others may volunteersignificant time in tending to the mundane needs of local monks (by cooking,cleaning, maintaining temple facilities, etc.). Lay activities have traditionally notextended to study of the Pali scriptures, nor the practice of meditation, though inthe 20th Century these areas have become more accessible to the lay community,especially in Thailand. A number of senior monastics in the Thai Forest Tradition,including Ajahn Buddhadasa, Luang Ta Maha Bua, Ajahn Pasanno, and AjahnJayasaro, have begun teaching meditation retreats outside of the monastery for laydisciples. Amongst westerners it is very common for the focus to be more to the actualpractice and theory of Theravada Buddhism, and this attitude is spreading amongstAsians as well.


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Nibbana, the highest goal of Theravada Buddhism, is attained through studyand the practice of morality, meditation and wisdom (sila, samadhi, panna). The goalof Nibbana (and its associated techniques) have traditionally been seen as thedomain of the fully ordained monastic, whereas many of the same techniques canbe used by laypeople to generate happiness in their lives, without focusing onNibbana. Monastic roles in the Theravada can be broadly described as being splitbetween the role of the (often urban) scholar monk and the (often rural or forest)meditation monk. Both types of monks serve their communities as religious teachersand officiants by presiding over religious ceremonies and providing instruction inbasic Buddhist morality and teachings.

Scholar monks undertake the path of studying and preserving the Pali literatureof the Theravada. They may devote little time to the practice of meditation, but mayattain great respect and renown by becoming masters of a particular section of thePali Canon or its commentaries. Masters of the Abhidhamma, called Abhidhammika,are particularly respected in the scholastic tradition.

Meditation monks, often called forest monks because of their association withcertain wilderness-dwelling traditions, are considered to be specialists in meditation.While some forest monks may undertake significant study of the Pali Canon, ingeneral meditation monks are expected to learn primarily from their meditationexperiences and personal teachers, and may not know more of the Tipitaka thanis necessary to participate in liturgical life and to provide a foundation for fundamentalBuddhist teachings. More so than the scholastic tradition, the meditation traditionis associated with the attainment of certain supernatural powers described in bothPali sources and folk tradition. These powers include the attainment of Nibbana,mind-reading, supernatural power over material objects and their own materialbodies, seeing and conversing with gods and beings living in hell, and rememberingtheir past lives. These powers are called the abhinyanas.

Me ditatio n

By meditating, a practitioner can gain valuable insight on himself/herself as wellas understanding the concepts of Dhamma better. Meditation techniques include:

• Jhana

• Anapana

• Vipassana

• Metta

Le ve ls o f Attainme nt

Through practice, (Theravadin) practitioners can achieve four degrees of spiritualattainment, which reflect on the state of mind:

1. Stream-Enterers-Those who have destroyed the first three fetters (self-belief,doubt, and faith in the efficacy of rituals and observances), will be safe from


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falling into the states of misery (they will not be born as an animal, peta(hungry ghost), or hell being). At most they will have to be reborn only sevenmore times before attaining Nibbana.

2. Once-Returners-Those who have destroyed the three fetters (self-belief, doubt,and faith in the efficacy of rituals and observances), and the lessening of lustand hatred. They will attain Nibbana after being born once more in the world.

3. Non-Returners-Those who have destroyed the five lower fetters (that bindbeings to the world of the senses). They will never again return to the humanworld and after they die, they will be born in the high heavenly worlds, thereto attain Nibbana.

4. Arahants-Those who have reached Enlightenment, attained Nibbana, andhave reached the quality of deathlessness, free from all the fermentationsof defilement; whose ignorance, craving and attachments have ended.

Fe stivals and Custo ms

Theravada Religious festivals:

1. Magha Puja

2. Vesakha Puja

3. Asalha Puja

4. Uposatha

5. Vassa (Rain Retreat)

Ordinatio n

The minimum age for ordaining as a Buddhist monk is 20 years, reckoned fromconception. However, boys under that age are allowed to ordain as novices (samanera).Novices shave their heads, wear the yellow robes, and observe ten basic precepts.Although no specific minimum age for novices is mentioned in the scriptures,traditionally boys as young as seven are accepted. This tradition follows the storyof the Lord Buddha’s son, Rahula, who was allowed to become a novice at the ageof seven. Monks follow 227 rules of discipline, while nuns follow 311 rules.

In most Theravada countries, it is a common practice for young men to ordainas monks for a fixed period of time. In Thailand and Myanmar, young men typicallyordain for the 3 month Rain Retreat (vassa), though shorter or longer periods ofordination are not rare. Traditionally, temporary ordination was even more flexibleamong Laotians. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men,Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, thoughmarried men were expected to seek their wife’s permission. Throughout SoutheastAsia, there is little stigma attached to leaving the monastic life. Monks regularlyleave the robes after acquiring an education, or when compelled by family obligationsor ill-health.


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Ordaining as a monk, even for a short period, is seen as having many virtues.In many Southeast Asian cultures, it is seen as a means for a young man to ‘repay’his parents for their work and effort in raising him, because the merit from hisordination accrues to them as well. Thai men who have ordained as a monk maybe seen as more fit husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have servedas monks with a colloquial term meaning ‘cooked’ to indicate that they are moremature and ready for marriage. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordinationof boys and young men traditionally gave peasant boys an opportunity to gain aneducation in temple schools without committing to a permanent monastic life.

In Sri Lanka, temporary ordination is not practiced, and a monk leaving theorder is frowned upon. The continuing influence of the caste system in Sri Lankamay play a role in the taboo against temporary ordination and leaving the monkhood.Though Sri Lankan monastic nikayas are often organized along caste lines, men whoordain as monks temporarily pass outside of the conventional caste system, and assuch during their time as monks may act (or be treated) in a way that would notbe in line with the expected duties and privileges of their caste.

Some well-known Theravadin monks are: Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta, Ajahn Chah,Ajahn Sumedho, Ajahn Khemadhammo, Ajahn Brahm, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Buddhadasa,Mahasi Sayadaw, Nyanaponika Thera, Preah Maha Ghosananda, Sayadaw U Pandita.

Prac tic e s

The practices usually vary in different sub-schools and monasteries withinTheravada. But in the most orthodox forest monastery, the monk usually modelsits practice and lifestyle on that of the Buddha and his first generation of disciplesby living close to nature in forest, mountains and caves. Forest monasteries still keepalive the ancient traditions through following the Buddhist monastic code of disciplinein all its detail and developing meditation in secluded forests.

In a typical daily routine at the monastery during the 3 month vassa period,the monk will wake-up before dawn and will begin the day with group chanting andmeditation. At dawn the monks will go out to surrounding villages bare-footed onalms-round and will have the only meal of the day before noon by eating from thebowl by hand. Most of the time is spent on Dharma study and meditation. Sometimesthe abbot or a senior monk will give a Dharma talk to the visitors. Laity who stayat the monastery will have to abide by the traditional eight Buddhist precepts.

After the end of the Vassa period, many of the monks will go out far away fromthe monastery to find a remote place (usually in the forest) where they can hangtheir umbrella tents and where it is suitable for the work of self-development. Whenthey go wandering, they walk barefoot, and go wherever they feel inclined, and thoserequisites which are necessary will be carried along. These generally consist of thebowl, the three robes, a bathing cloth, an umbrella tent, a mosquito net, a kettleof water, a water filter, razor, sandals, some small candles, and a candle lantern.


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The monks do not fix their times for walking and sitting meditation, for as soonas they are free they just start doing it; nor do they determine for how long theywill go on to meditate. Some of them sometimes walk from dusk to dawn whereasat other times they may walk from between two to seven hours. Some may decideto fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animal live, to help theirmeditation effort.

Those monks who have been able to attain a high level of attainment will beable to guide the junior monks and lay Buddhists toward the four degrees of spiritualattainment.

Lay De vo te e

In Pali the word for a male lay devotee is Upasaka. Upasika is its femaleequivalent. One of the duties of the lay followers, as taught by the Buddha, is tolook after the needs of the monk/nuns. They are to see that the monk/nuns do notsuffer from lack of the four requisites: food, clothing, shelter and medicine. Asneither monks nor nuns are allowed to have an occupation, they depend entirelyon the laity for their sustenance. In return for this charity, they are expected tolead exemplary lives.

In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seatof learning. In fact today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are locatedin monasteries. Religious rituals and ceremonies held in monastery are alwaysaccompanied by social activities. In times of crisis, it is to the monks that peoplebring their problems for counsel.

Traditionally, a ranking monk will deliver a sermon four times a month: whenthe moon waxes and wanes and the day before the new and full moons. The laityalso have a chance to learn meditation from the monks during these times.

Buddhist orders within Theravada Different orders, which are referred to as nikayas, has not resulted in the development of separate doctrines. Historically, the Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, the highest ranking monk in a country, may come from any of these Nikayas, and is appointed by the king. The demise of monarchies has resulted in the suspension of these posts in some countries, but there is still a supreme Patriarch in the Kingdom of Thailand.

Ma ha ya na

Mahayana is one of two major branches of Buddhism, the other being Theravada.Mahayana originated in the Indian subcontinent of what is today northern Pakistanand spread to China during the first century CE where it was Sinicized and thenspread throughout East Asia in its Sinicized form. The main countries in which itis practiced today are China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam.


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From Mahayana developed the esoteric Vajrayana found mainly in Tibet andMongolia, but also in adjacent areas of China, and even Buddihism in India Buddhismin Russia. The Vajarana school claims to encompass all previous schools. The mostcomplete Mahayana Canon today is written in the Chinese language. In East Asia,Mahayana scriptures and terminology are traditionally written in Chinese charactersand based upon classical Chinese. Two mainstream subsets of Mahayana Buddhismtoday are Amidism or Pure Land.

Mahayana is an inclusive faith characterized by the adoption of new texts, inaddition to the traditional Pali canon, and a shift in the understanding of Buddhism.It goes beyond the traditional nontheist Theravada ideal of the release of sufferingand personal enlightenment, to instead elevate the Buddha to a God-like status andto create a pantheon of quasi-divine Bodhisattvas that devote themselves to personalexcellence, ultimate knowledge and the salvation of humanity and all other sentientbeings (animals, ghosts, etc.).

In Mahayana, the Buddha became an idealized man-god and the Bodhisattvacame to represent the universal ideal of excellence.

The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based around thepossibility of universal salvation for all beings (hence “great vehicle”) and theexistence of Buddhas and Bodhisattva embodying transcendent Buddha-nature-theeternal Buddha Essence present but hidden in all beings-who strive to achieve sucha goal. Mahayana also simplified the expression of faith for the common lay peopleby allowing salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the BuddhaAmitabha by having faith and devoting oneself in prayer to Amitabha. This devotionallifestyle of Buddhism is most strongly emphasized by the Pure Land schools andhas greatly contributed to the success of Mahayana in East Asia, where spiritualelements traditionally relied upon prayer and mysticism.

Doc trine

Mahayana, in contrast to the Theravada school of Buddhism, can be characterizedby:

• Universalism, in that everyone will become a Buddha;

• Enlightened wisdom as the main focus of realization;

• Compassion through the transferal of merit;

• Salvation-as opposed to liberation-supported by a rich cosmography, includingcelestial realms and powers, with a spectrum of bodhisattvas, both humanand seemingly godlike, who can assist followers.

“Philosophical”, Mahayana tends to focus on the first three characteristics(universalism, enlightened wisdom, compassion) without showing much interest insupernatural constructions, while “devotional” Mahayana focuses mainly on salvationtowards other-worldly realms.


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Unive rsalism

Mahayana traditions generally consider that Buddhahood is not final. This isbased on a subtle doctrinal distinction between the Mahayana and the early Buddhistschools concerning the issues of nirvana-with-remainder and nirvana-without-

remainder. The early schools considered that nirvana-without-remainder alwaysfollows nirvana-with-remainder (buddhas first achieve enlightenment and then, at‘death’, mahaparinirvana) and that nirvana-without-remainder is final; whereas theMahayana traditions consider that nirvana-without-remainder is always followedby nirvana-with-remainder – the state of uravakabuddhahood is not final, and iseventually succeeded by the state of Buddhahood, or total enlightenment.

This distinction is most evident regarding doctrinal concerns about the capabilityof a Buddha after nirvana (which is identified by the early schools as being nirvana-without-remainder). Most importantly, amongst the early schools, asamyaksambuddha is not able to directly point the way to nirvana after death. Thisis a major distinction between the early schools and the Mahayana, who converselystate that once a samyaksambuddha arises, he or she continues to directly andactively point the way to nirvana until there are no beings left in samsara. Becausethe views of early schools and Mahayana differ in this respect, this is exactly whythe Mahayana do not talk about a bodhisattva postponing nirvana, and exactly whythe early schools do.

For example, the early schools held that Maitreya will not attain nirvana whileGautama Buddha’s teachings still exist. While the Mahayana schools hold thatMaitreya will be the next Buddha manifest in this world and will introduce thedharma when it no longer exists, he is not postponing his nirvana to do so, and whenhe dies (or enters mahaparinirvana), he will likewise continue to teach the dharmafor all time. Moreover, Mahayana argues that although it is true that for this world-system, Maitreya will be the next Buddha to manifest, there are an infinite numberof world-systems, many of which have currently active buddhas or buddhas-to-bemanifesting.

So, based on the doctrinal distinctions between the early schools and theMahayana concerning the meaning of nirvana-without-remainder, we see two distinctviews concerning the path of the bodhisattva, with the early schools stating thatbodhisattvas postpone their own nirvana, whereas the Mahayana schools state thatbodhisattvas attempt to reach nirvana as soon as possible, just as sravakas do, butwith the motive to continue to effortlessly benefit all beings for all time due to thedistinction of views regarding the ability of a Buddha after mahaparinirvana.

Because the Mahayana traditions assert that eventually everyone will achievesamyaksambuddhahood or total enlightenment, the Mahayana is labelled universalist,whereas because the Nikaya traditions assert that there are three routes to nirvana,which are distinct, they are considered not to be universalist.


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Enlig hte ne d Wisdo m

According to Mahayana, traditional Buddhism tends to focus on an ascetic,individual approach to the attainment of nirvana: suppression of desire, removalfrom the world, solitude. Its followers are uravakas and pratyekabuddhas.

The primary focus of Mahayana is bodhicitta, the vow to strive for Buddhahoodor awakened mind (bodhicitta) both for oneself and for the benefit of all othersentient beings. Being a high-level bodhisattva involves possessing a mind of greatcompassion conjoined with insight into reality, realizing emptiness, and/or thetathagatagarbha. With this mind the practitioner will realize the final goal of fullenlightenment, or Buddhahood: an omniscient, blissful mind completely free fromsuffering and its causes, that is able to work tirelessly for the benefit of all livingbeings. Six virtues or perfections (paramitas) are listed for the bodhisattva: generosity,patience, meditation, morality, energy and wisdom.

Many “philosophical” schools and sutras of Mahayana Buddhism have focusedon the nature of enlightenment and nirvana itself, from the Madhyamika and itsrival, Yogacara, to the Tathagatagarbha teachings and Zen.

Co mpassio n

Compassion, or Karuna, is the other key concept of Mahayana, and is consideredthe indispensable complement to enlightened wisdom. Compassion is important inall schools of Buddhism, but is particularly emphasized in Mahayana. It relies onthe idea that excess acquired merit can be transmitted to others. The bodhisattvasare the main actors of compassion, Avalokitesvara being foremost among them.Although having reached enlightenment, bodhisattvas usually make a vow to postponeentering into nirvana until all other beings have also been saved. They devotethemselves to helping others reach enlightenment.

The Mahayana idea also that salvation is universal allowed for one to focus lesson the release of personal sufferring and more on humanity’s salvation, and isconsequently described to be more compassionate and caring for the welfare of othersthan other traditions of Buddhism.

A comparison between Hinayana (earlier Buddhist traditions) and Mahayanamade by the 10th century Tibetan author Je Gampopa in The Jewel Ornament of

Liberation follows: ‘Clinging to the well-being of mere peace’ signifies the lowercapacity [Hinayana] attitude wherein the longing to transcend suffering is focusedon oneself alone. This precludes the cherishing of others and hence there is littledevelopment of altruism. [...] When loving kindness and compassion become partof one, there is so much care for other conscious beings that one could not bear toliberate oneself alone. [...] Master Manjushriikiirti has said: ‘A Mahayana followershould not be without loving kindness and compassion for even a single moment’,and ‘It is not anger and hatred but loving kindness and compassion that vouchsafethe welfare of others’.


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Salvatio n

“Devotional” Mahayana developed a rich cosmography, with various supernaturalbuddhas and bodhisattvas residing in paradisiacal realms. The concept of trinity,or trikaya, supports these constructions, making the Buddha himself into atranscendental god-like figure.

Under various conditions, these realms could be attained by devotees after theirdeath so that when reborn they could strive towards Buddhahood in the best possibleconditions. Depending on the sect, this salvation to “paradise” can be obtained byfaith, imaging, or sometimes even by the simple invocation of the Buddha’s name.This approach to salvation is at the origin of the mass appeal of devotional Buddhism,especially represented by the Pure Land.

This rich cosmography also allowed Mahayana to be quite syncretic andaccommodating of other faiths or deities. Various origins have been suggested toexplain its emergence, such as “popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), and Persianand Greco-Roman theologies, which filtered into India from the northwest” (TomLowenstein, “The vision of the Buddha”).

Mahayana Sc ripture s

The Mahayana scriptures were written probably around the 1st century BCE.Some of them, such as the Perfection of Wisdom sutras, are presented as actualsermons of the Buddha that had been hidden.

By some accounts, these sermons were passed on by oral tradition, as with othersutras; other accounts state that they were hidden and then revealed several centurieslater by some mythological route. In addition to sutras, some Mahayana texts areessentially commentaries.

Among the earliest major Mahayana scriptures attested to historically are thePerfection of Wisdom (Prajna-Paramita) sutras, the Avatamsaka Sutra, the LotusSutra, the Vimalakirti Sutra, and the Nirvana Sutra.

The Mahayana sometimes divide Shakyamuni Buddha’s teachings into threegeneral categories, known as “turnings of the wheel of dharma (truth)”: the Hinayana,the Prajna Paramita, and the Tathagatagarbha teachings.

The Mahayana canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted toother countries such as China and Tibet, where the existing texts were translated.New texts, such as the Platform Sutra and the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment wereexplicitly not of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on theirown merits. Other later writings included the Linji Lu, a commentary by Chanmaster Linji Yixuan. In the course of the development of Korean Buddhism andJapanese Buddhism, further important commentaries were composed. These included,for example, in Korea, some of the writings of Jinul, and in Japan, works such asDogen’s Shobogenzo.


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Orig ins

Mahayana as a distinct movement began around the 1st century BCE in thearea around the Kushan Empire (now part of Pakistan) before it was transmittedin a highly evolved form to China in the second century CE. Mahayana’s exact originis unknown, however, a number of common elements and background are suggestedby various scholars and theologians.

The Abhidharma in the modern Theravada Pali canon and a SarvastivadaAbhidharma composed in Sanskrit that survives in both the Chinese and Tibetantraditions, has no common order of composition. This indicates that overall, Buddhismbecame increasingly fragmented and that this might have led to a widening distancebetween laity and sangha, who were increasingly preoccupied with theologicalspeculation.

The Mahayana movement, on the other hand, was ecumenical, reflecting a widerange of theology from both the Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika sects. Moreover,those who believe that Mahayana sutras were invented during this period speculatethat the process of reshuffling sutras in terms of relevance to various Abbhidharmaeventually led to editing itself. This process slowly eroded the taboo regarding thecomposition of new sutras.

Another important element is the lay practice of stupa devotion, which wasactively encouraged by Ashoka. According to Akira Hirakawa (A History of IndianBuddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana), stupas — which were initiallymere monuments to Gautama Buddha — increasingly became the place of devotionand of spreading Buddhism to the masses, the majority of whom were illiterateHindus. On the inside wall of the stupa, pictures were drawn or sculpted depictingthe life of Buddha and his previous lives as a bodhisattva. This has given rise todevotion to the trancendent omnipresent and always-present Buddha and thebodhisattvas, distinct from the purely monastic sangha.

Epig raphic al Evide nc e

One of the first known mentions of the Buddha using the word Bhagavat orBhagavan (“Supreme Lord”) is a dedication on a relic vase inserted in a stupa inGandhara, written in kharoshthi by an Indo-Greek meridarch (civil governor of aprovince) named Theodorus in the 1st century BCE:

“Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa

bhagavato bahu-jana-stitiye”:

“The meridarch Theodorus has enshrined relics of Lord Shakyamuni,

for the welfare of the mass of the people”

(Swat relic vase inscription of the Meridarkh Theodoros).

The earliest stone inscriptions containing recognizably Mahayana formulationsand a mention of the Buddha Amitabha were found in the Indian subcontinent in


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Mathura and dated to around 180 CE. Remains of a statue of a Buddha bear theBrahmi inscription:

“Made in the year 28 of the reign of king Huvishka,... for the Buddha

Amitabha” (Mathura Museum).

Such inscriptions in Indian proper (Mathura) are rather late and few (the nextknown one is dated to the end of the 3rd century), in comparison to the multiplicityof Mahayana writings transiting from Central Asia to China at that time, and theinvolvement of Central Asian Buddhist monks, suggesting the focus of Mahayanadevelopment was probably in the northwest.

Sc ripture s

The first known Mahayana texts are translations made into Chinese by theKushan monk Lokaksema in the Chinese capital of Luoyang, between 178 and 189CE.

Lokaksema’s work includes the translation of the Pratyutpanna Sutra, containingthe first known mentions of the Buddha Amitabha, said to be at the origin of PureLand practice in China, and the first known translations of the PrajnaparamitaSutra, a founding text of Mahayana Buddhism.

The 4th Buddhist Co unc il

The formal rise of Mahayana Buddhism has been dated to around the middleof the 2nd century CE, when the Kushan emperor Kanishka convened the 4thBuddhist Council in Gandhara, which confirmed the formal scission of MahayanaBuddhism from the traditional Nikaya schools of Buddhism.

This was also the time and place of a rich cultural interaction between Buddhismand Hellenistic culture, which influenced the early representations of buddhas, inwhat is known as Greco-Buddhist art.

Expansio n (1st c .CE–10th c .CE)

From the 1st century CE and within the space of a few centuries, Mahayanawas to flourish and spread in from India to South-East Asia, and towards the northto Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan.

Mahayana disappeared from India during the 11th century, and consequentlylost its influence in South-East Asia where it was replaced by Theravada Buddhismfrom Sri Lanka.

Mahayana remains, however, the most followed of the Buddhist doctrines to thisday in Eastern Asia and the world.

Vajraya na

Vajrayana Buddhism is an extension of Mahayana Buddhism consisting ofdifferences in the adoption of additional techniques (upaya, or‘skillful means’) rather


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than in philosophy. The Vajrayana is often viewed as the third major ‘vehicle’ (Yana)of Buddhism, alongside the Theravada and Mahayana.

Sub sc ho ols

Vajrayana exists today in the form of two major sub-schools:

• Tibetan Buddhism, found in Tibet, Bhutan, northern India, Nepal Buddhismof Nepal, southwestern and northern China, Mongolia and various constituentrepublics of Russia that are adjacent to the area, such as: Amur Oblast,Buryatia, Chita Oblast, Tuva Republic, and Khabarovsk Krai. There is alsoKalmykia, another constituent republic of Russia that is the only Buddhistregion in Europe, located in the north Caucasus. While Vajrayana Buddhismis a part of Tibetan Buddhism (in that it forms a core part of every majorTibetan Buddhist school), it is not identical with it, as the Vajrayana is seenas additional part to the general Mahayana teachings for somewhat advancedstudents. Vajrayana in Tibetan Buddhism, properly speaking, refers to tantra,Dzogchen (mahasandhi), and Chagchen (mahamudra).

• Shingon Buddhism, found in Japan, includes many esoteric practices whichare similar to those used in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism.

Etymo lo g y

Vajrayana literally means “the vajra vehicle”.

The term “vajra” refers to the thunderbolt of Indra, a weapon that was supposedlymade from an indestructible substance, and which could therefore pierce any obstacle.As a secondary meaning, “vajra” therefore also refers to this indestructible substance,and so is sometimes translated as “adamantine” or “diamond”. So the vajrayana issometimes called “The Adamantine Vehicle” or “The Diamond Vehicle”.

A vajra is also a ritual object that represents the thunderbolt of Indra. It usuallytakes the form of a yellow-metal rod, like a mace; it has a sphere at its centre, andsome number of flame-like protuberances at either end, enfolding either end of therod. The object can be seen as a representation of a scepter, and is usually madein various sizes that would fit in a human hand. The vajra is used in tantric ritualsin combination with the traditional bell; symbolically, the vajra represents methodand the bell stands for wisdom.

Disting uishing Fe ature s o f Vajrayana

Vajrayana Buddhism claims to provide an accelerated path to enlightenment.This is achieved through use of tantra techniques, which are practical aids tospiritual development, and esoteric transmission (explained below). Whereas earlierschools might provide ways to achieve nirvana over the course of many lifetimes,Vajrayana techniques are said to make full enlightenment or Buddhahood possiblein a shorter time, perhaps in a single lifetime. Vajrayana Buddhists do not claim


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that Theravada or Mahayana practices are invalid; in fact, the teachings from thosetraditions are said to lay an essential foundational practice on which the Vajrayanapractices may be built. While the Mahayana and Theravada paths are said to bepaths to enlightenment in their own right, the teachings from each of those vehiclesmust be heeded for the Vajrayana to work. It should also be noted that the goalof the Mahayana and Vajrayana sects is to become a bodhisattva, whereas the goalfor Theravada practice is liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) by achievingnirvana.

Tantra Te c hnique s

Vajrayana relies partially on various tantric techniques rooted in scripturesknown as tantras, written in India. The most important aspect of the tantric pathis to ‘use the result as the Path’, which means that, rather than placing fullenlightenment as a goal far away in the future, one tries to identify with theenlightened body, speech and mind of a Buddha. The Buddha-form which one canbest relate to is called the yidam (Tibetan) or ishtadevata (Sanskrit) or ‘personalBuddha-form’. In order to achieve this self-identification with a Buddha-form, muchsymbolism and visualization is used in Buddhist tantric techniques.

Secrecy is a cornerstone of tantric Buddhism, simply to avoid harming oneselfand others through practising without proper guidance. It is not even allowed toexplain the full symbolism and psychology of the practice to the uninitiated, whichleads to misunderstanding and dismissal.

Tantric techniques may appear initially to consist of ritualistic nonsense, butall parts of the ritual have extensive symbolic meanings. As all the symbolism isnot allowed to be explained to the uninitiated, confusion can easily arise about therituals. Tradition teaches that tantra should only be practiced on the basis of athorough understanding of Buddhist philosophy, and strict adherence to the adviceof a teacher and the traditional commentaries.

Tantric techniques include:

• The repetition of special ritual phrases (mantras),

• The use of various yoga techniques, including breath control (Pranayama),yantra and the use of special hand positions (mudras),

• The use of an extensive vocabulary of visual aids, such as cosmic mandaladiagrams which teach and map pathways to spiritual enlightenment,

• The use of ritual objects such as the vajra and bell (ghanta), hand drum(damaru), and many other symbolic tools and musical instruments,

• The use of specialized rituals rooted in Vajrayana cosmology and beliefs,

• A guru-disciple relationship, which provides, for example, ritual‘empowerments’ or ‘initiations’ whereby the student obtains permission topractice a particular tantra.


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• the oral transmissions given by a tantric master. These are the most importanttantric techniques and are only given personally from teacher to student andare secret, because they demand a certain level of maturity of the student.Otherwise, they might have a negative effect. Such teachings describe certainaspects of the mind and how to attain them, realize them by certain practicesthat can be dangerous to one’s health without thorough preparation, as suchstates of mind are normally experienced at the time of death. A mature yogi‘dies’ in the meditation and comes back again, experiencing all the levels ofmind.

• the possible use of psychedelics, although this is controversial.

There is an aspect of sex in Highest Yoga Tantra practice that is both symbolicas well as descriptive of the practice of using sexual intercourse to transform one’ssexual energy into a blissful consciousness directed towards achieving enlightenment.This controlling and directing of one’s sexual energies towards the greater goal ofenlightenment is one of the central features of Vajrayana. Sexual symbolism iscommon in Vajrayana iconography, where it basically represents the marriage ofwisdom and compassion or method.

It is from the tantra that Vajrayana Buddhism gets the alternative names ofMantrayana and Tantrayana. The word “Vajrayana” itself comes from vajra, aSanskrit word which can mean “diamond”, “indestructible” or “thunderbolt” andwhich also has the connotation of “reality”. This gives rise to two more names forVajrayana Buddhism: Diamond Vehicle, and Adamantine Vehicle (adamantine means“diamond-like”). The vajra (or dorje in Tibetan) is an important ritual object whichsymbolizes compassion/method, while the bell symbolizes wisdom.

The vajra is also believed to be the weapon of the ancient Hindu god Indra andwas made out of the sacrificial offering of the bones of Rishi Dadhichi.

Le ve ls o f Tantra

The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug, Sakya, andKagyu) divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely:

• Kriyayoga

• Charyayoga

• Yogatantra

• Anuttarayogatantra

o further divided into “mother”, “father” and “non-dual” tantras.

A different division is used by the Nyingma or Ancient school:

• Three Outer Tantras:

o Kriyayoga

o Charyayoga


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o Yogatantra

• Three Inner Tantras, which correspond to the Anuttarayogatantra:

o Mahayoga

o Anuyoga

o Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen)

Eso te ric Transmissio n (Initiatio n) and Samaya (Vo w)

The other conspicuous aspect of Vajrayana Buddhism is that it is esoteric. Inthis context esoteric means that the transmission of certain accelerating factors onlyoccurs directly from teacher to student during an initiation and cannot be simplylearned from a book. Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but someVajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only aside-effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher-student lineage.

If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselvesphysically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept “secret”outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the studentto the vajra guru are aspects of the samaya (Tib. damtsig), or “sacred bond”, thatprotects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings.

The esoteric transmission framework can take varying forms. The Nyingma andBon school of Tibetan Buddhism uses a method called Dzogchen. Other Tibetanschools use an alternative method called Mahamudra.

Re latio nship with Mahayana

While tantra and esoterism distinguish Vajrayana Buddhism, it is, from theTibetan Buddhist point of view, nonetheless primarily a form of Mahayana Buddhism.Sutras important to Mahayana are generally important to Vajrayana, althoughVajrayana adds some of its own. The importance of bodhisattvas and a pantheonof deities in Mahayana carries over to Vajrayana, as well as the perspective thatBuddhism and Buddhist spiritual practice are not intended just for ordained monks,but for the laity too.

The Japanese Vajrayana teacher Kukai expressed a view contrary to this bymaking a clear distinction between Mahayana and Vajrayana. Kukai characterisesthe Mahayana in its entirety as exoteric, and therefore provisional. From this pointof view the esoteric Vajrayana is the only Buddhist teaching which is not a compromisewith the limited nature of the audience to which it is directed, since the teachingsare said to be the Dharmakaya (the principle of enlightenment) in the form ofMahavairocana, engaging in a monologue with himself. From this view the Hinayanaand Mahayana are provisional and compromised aspects of the Vajrayana-ratherthan seeing the Vajrayana as primarily a form of Mahayana Buddhism.


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Some aspects of Vajrayana have also filtered back into Mahayana. In particular,the Vajrayana fondness for powerful symbols may be found in weakened form inMahayana temples where protector deities may be found glaring down at visitors.

The Vajrayana has a rich array of vows of conduct and behaviour which is basedon the rules of the Pratimoksha and the Bodhisattva code of discipline. The Ornament

for the Essence of Manjushrikirti states:

Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows

who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma,

and who engage in actions that should be forsaken.

Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result.

This expresses as well as other sources the need to build the Vajrayana on thefoundation of the Pratimoksha and Bodhisattva vows. Lay persons can follow thelay ordination. The Ngagpa Yogis from the Nyingma school keep a special layordination.

History of Va jrayana

India

There are differing views as to where Vajrayana started, some claiming thatit began in Udyana-the modern day Swat valley in Pakistan, while others say thatit began in southern India. In the Tibetan tradition, it is claimed that the historicalShakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but as these are ‘secret’ teachings outside theteacher/disciple relationship, they were written down generally long after the Buddha’sother teachings, known as sutras.

The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nalanda Universityin northern India became a centre for the development of Vajrayana theory, althoughit is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early Tantric movement.India would continue as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up throughthe 11th century.

(Vajrayana) Buddhism had mostly died out in India by the 13th century, itspractices merging with Hinduism, and both tantric religions were experiencingpressure from invading Islamic armies. By that time, the vast majority of thepractices were also made available in Tibet, where they were preserved until recently,although the Tibetan version of tantra differs from the original Indian form in manyrespects.

In the second half of the 20th century a sizeable number of Tibetan exiles fledthe oppressive, anti-religious rule of the Communist Chinese to establish TibetanBuddhist communities in northern India, particularly around Dharamsala. Theyremain the primary practitioners of Tantric Buddhism in India and the entire world.


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China

Vajrayana followed the same route into northern China as Buddhism itself,arriving from India via the Silk Road some time during the first half of the 7thcentury. It arrived just as Buddhism was reaching its zenith in China, receivingsanction from the emperors of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang capital at Chang’an(modern-day Xi’an) became an important centre for Buddhist studies, and Vajrayanaideas no doubt received great attention as pilgrim monks returned from India withthe latest texts and methods.

Tib e t and o the r Himalayan King do ms

In 747 the Indian master Padmasambhava travelled from Afghanistan to bringVajrayana Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan, at the request of the king of Tibet. Thiswas the original transmission which anchors the lineage of the Nyingma school.During the 11th century and early 12th century a second important transmissionoccurred with the lineages of Atisa, Marpa and Brogmi, giving rise to the otherschools of Tibetan Buddhism, namely Kadampa, Kagyupa, Sakyapa, and Gelukpa(the school of the Dalai Lama).

Japan

In 804, Emperor Kammu sent the intrepid monk Kukai to the Tang Dynastycapital at Chang’an (present-day Xi’an) to retrieve the latest Buddhist knowledge.Kukai absorbed the Vajrayana thinking and synthesized a version which he tookback with him to Japan, where he founded the important Shingon school of Buddhism,a school which continues to this day.

Indo ne sia and Malaysia

In the late 8th century, Indian models of Vajrayana travelled directly to theIndonesian island of Java where a huge temple complex at Borobudur was soon built.The empire of Srivijaya was a centre of Vajrayana learning and Atisha studied thereunder Serlingpa, an eminent Buddhist scholar and a prince of the Srivijayan rulinghouse. Vajrayana Buddhism survived in Indonesia and Malaysia until eclipsed byIslam in the 13th century.

Mongo lia

In the 13th century, long after the original wave of Vajrayana Buddhism haddied out in China itself, two eminent Tibetan Sakyapa teachers, Sakya PanditaKunga Gyaltsen and Chogyal Phagpa, visited the Mongolian royal court. Marco Polowas serving the royal court at about the same time. In a competition betweenChristians, Muslims, and Buddhists held before the royal court, Prince Godan foundTibetan Buddhism to be the most satisfactory and adopted it as his personal religion,although not requiring it of his subjects. As Kublai Khan had just conquered China(establishing the Yuan Dynasty), his adoption of Vajrayana led to the renewal of


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Tantric practices in China as the ruling class found it useful to emulate their leader.Vajrayana would decline in China and Mongolia with the fall of the Yuan Dynasty,to be replaced by resurgent Daoism, Confucianism, and Pure Land Buddhism.However, Mongolia would see yet another revival of Vajrayana in the 17th century,with the establishment of ties between the Dalai Lama in Tibet and the remnantsof the Mongol Empire. This revived the historic pattern of the spiritual leaders ofTibet acting as priests to the rulers of the Mongol empire. Tibetan Buddhism is stillpracticed as a folk religion in Mongolia today despite more than 80 years of state-sponsored communism.


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the story of buddhism

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