the propaganda of the edicts of ashoka

The Propaganda of the Edicts of Ashoka

Martti Kalda

The Ancient Indian emperor Ashoka (ruled ca 274/268 –

234/232 BC) and his edicts have intrigued researchers for

almost two centuries. It is difficult to assess what is more

fascinating: the Buddhist legend of a profoundly religious

ruler, or the edicts advocating inept humanism. This paper

focuses mainly on the edicts of the Emperor, Beloved of the

Gods, and their content, which is regarded as political

propaganda here.

The edicts of Ashoka (about 45 different texts) have to

date been found on rocks and pillars from forty to fifty

different places in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan.

The texts can be easily dated1:

1. Minor Rock Edicts (2 text versions in 18 places)

1 Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (ed). Age of the Nandas and

Mauryas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, [1951] 1996: 207; Hultzsch, Eugen.

Inscriptions of Aśoka. (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Vol I.) New Delhi:

Director General Archaeological Survey of India, [1925] 2007: XXXV-XXXVI; Thapar,

Romila. Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. New Delhi: Oxford University

Press [1961] 2002: 40-41; Barua, Beni Madhab. Asoka and His Inscriptions.

Calcutta: New Age Publishers, 1946: 7-8; Mookerji, Radhakumud. Asoka. New Delhi:

Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, [1928] 2007: 16, 29, 32, 37.

(And the Bhābrū Edict?2)

261-259 BC or 259-257 BC or 255-252 BC (10th - 11

th of reign)

2. Barābār Rock Inscriptions I and II (2 different texts

in 2 caves)

259-258 BC or 257-256 BC or 253-251 BC (12th year of reign)

3. Major Rock Edicts (14 different texts in 9 places)

And Kaliṅga Edicts (2 different texts in 3 places)

259-257 BC or 257-255 BC or 253-250 BC (12th - 13

th year of

reign)

4. Laghmān Inscriptions I and II


5. Kandahār Inscriptions I, II and III

(And Aramaic Inscription from Taxilā?)


6. Barābār Cave Inscription III


7. Lumbinī and Niglivā Pillar Inscriptions


8. Major Pillar Edicts (7 texts on 6 pillars)

And Minor Pillar Inscriptions (4 texts on 3 pillars)

(And Pūl-i-Darūnta Stone Inscription?)

245-243 BC or 243-241 BC or 239-236 BC (26th-27

th year of reign)

2 This and the two following question marks in the list of texts note that

it is uncertain if the mentioned text belongs periodically to the same

group.

Almost all of Ashoka’s edicts are stylistically didactic

monologues, and also the emperor’s orders or at least pressing

suggestions at the same time. Different from the rest of (and

later) Indian epigraphy, Ashoka uses first person in his

texts. The following rulers prefer to let the texts speak of

them in third person. The educational moment (moralising

epistle) can be followed very well.3

Ashoka’s most favoured method is contrast, mainly creating

an opposition between the past and the present. The past is

depicted as bad to exhibit the present of Ashoka in a positive

light.4 There will be no contrast with the future because it

is bright: In the emperor’s vision, Ashoka’s sons, his

grandsons, and his grandsons’ sons will carry on the golden

age he started, the situation can only get better.5

Contrasting has also been used to oppose the internal and

external.6

There are instances of figurative expressions, such as

„all men are my children“7, or „Truly, that which is bad,

3 Minor Rock Inscription I and II; Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict

III, IV and XI; Major Pillar Edict I, II, III and VII; Aramaic Inscription

from Taxilā; Pūl-i-Darūnta Stone Inscription; Kandahār Inscription III)

4 Minor Rock Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict I, IV, VI and VIII; Major

Pillar Edict VII; Kandahār Inscription I

5 Major Rock Edict IV, V, VI and XIII; Sañcī Pillar Inscription; Aramaic

Inscription from Taxilā

6 Major Rock Edict IX and XII

7 Kaliṅga Edict II

shall be trampled under feet“8. The Minor Rock Edicts I and II

talk about (probably symbolically) „mixing with gods“.

Reiterations occur often, it is deliberate repetitiveness.9

The description of Kaliṅga war in the Major Rock Edict XIII is

probably given not just as a horrible example but as an

allegory (of war as universal suffering).

Three aspects need to be observed when analysing Ashoka’s

edicts textually (author, text and auditorium).

The first issue that arises regarding Ashoka’s edicts is

the subject of an author. Roland Barthes’ (1915-1980) and

Michel Foucault’s (1926-1984) ideas in their essays about

“author” are both relevant and irrelevant here. Why? Because

the legend of Ashoka’s person and the content of the edicts

represent different traditions and do not link, and that is

why it would be dubious to use them to define one another. The

Ashoka in the legends does not define the message in the

edicts, nor does the content of the text give information

about the myth surrounding the ruler.

Barthes claims in The Death of Author (La mort de

l’auteur, 1968) that the author is irrelevant and only the

text should be listened to, for each text is a collection of

quotes and ideas borrowed from an earlier tradition anyway. It

can be agreed upon that the edicts of Ashoka contain a number

of references to an even more ancient world-view (despite its

8 Major Rock Edict V (Mānsehrā version)

9 Minor Rock Edict I and II; Kaliṅga Edict I and II

relative age), gaining inspiration mainly from the Early

Buddhist literature, and perhaps a little from other Ancient

Indian lore as well. At the same time, the edicts lose a big

part of their significance when we discard Ashoka as the

author. The text alone speaks significantly less than together

with Ashoka as the author. Also, it is not quite right to

claim about texts that ancient that there is no innovativeness

in them, and that the author merely compiled the text.

The ideas presented in Foucault’s essay What is an author?

(Qu'est-ce qu'un auteur?, 1969) are a bit more suitable.

Foucault thinks that the main function of an author is to

advertise the text and add authority and that the author is

not all that relevant in interpreting the content of the text.

This is only partly true in Ashoka’s case. The regal authority

is definitely relevant for edicts, but not only that. The

message of the edicts is intimate (for example the hint to

Ashoka’s remorse in the Major Rock Edict XIII), and the manner

is personal enough to find the author relevant when analysing

the content of the text as well.

In most cases, the emperor’s title in the edicts is „the

king, the Beloved of the Gods” (Prakrit10 devanaṃpria(sa)

lājā; Sanskrit devānāṃpriya rājā)11. The epithet name

10 Prakrit (Sanskrit Prakṛta „natural“) is the common name for the spoken

and written languages in India, which was opposed to the scholarly Sanskrit

11 Minor Rock Edict I and II; Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Major Rock edict I to

XIV; major Pillar edict I to VII; Kauśāmbī and Sārnāth Pillar Inscriptions;

Priyadarśin (Prakrit Priadraśi; „lovingly looking“) is also

used quite often.12 The name Aśoka (Prakrit Asok[a]) comes up

only in the Maskī version of the Minor Rock Edict.

A far more intriguing question on the subject of Ashoka’s

edicts’ authorship is to what extent are those texts really

compiled by the emperor himself and how much by the advisors.

Is the I in the edicts a carefully cultivated literary-

propagandist ploy, or is Ashoka really earnestly talking to us

from behind two thousand two hundred and fifty years? I

suspect the former. Just as the presidents of the world show

whole-heartedness and care for their subordinates in their

speeches, although the text has been composed by professional

speechwriters, Ashoka’s texts, too, have only been presented

as the emperor’s own creation. And some bastings still show;

some texts use third person when talking about Ashoka, and the

introduction to a monologue is often in third person. So

delving into the author’s persona can disturb understanding

the text and make it harder.

The most important part for a translator and interpreter

is the intention of the author(s) (whoever they were), the

Lumbinī and Niglivā Pillar Inscriptions; Aramaic Inscription from Taxilā;

Pūl-i-Darūnta Stone Inscription

12 Bhābrū Edict; Barābār Cave Inscriptions; Major Rock Edict I to XIV; Major

Pillar Edict I to VII; Lumbinī and Niglivā Pillar Inscriptions; Aramaic

Inscription from Taxilā; Laghmān Inscription I and II; Kandahār Inscription

I

intents and aims of the writers and composers lurking behind

the text. Because if the politicians and statesmen in today’s

world are always suspected (oftentimes preventatively and with

a prejudice) in abusing power and lying in various ways, why

should historical figures be treated differently?

This brings forth a conclusion that because the main

interest (that encompasses all of their actions and words) of

the person in power is the selfish desire to be in power, then

any action or message derived from that predisposition (no

matter how positive the outcome) is always lopsided. Meaning,

power is always bad, even when it does well. And that person

in power always lies, even when it tells the truth.

Having taken the previous notion into consideration, let

us delve into the methods of propaganda that Ashoka used. And

if Ashoka’s real intention was civilising the society

(spreading humanism) or obedience (a society better

controlled). Propaganda is not necessarily a negative keyword,

merely the best and most accurate definition to the means used

to present the ideology. We are basically talking about

rhetoric, however, in this case about obviously swayed

elocution skills.

We draw methodological support from Propaganda: The

Formation of Men’s Attitudes ([1965] 1975; originally

Propagandes 1962) by Jaques Ellul.13 Ellul stresses that

13 Ellul, Jaques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York:

Vintage Books, [1965] 1975.

propaganda is the weapon of the ruling regime ([1965] 1973:

XVIII), which relies on positivist ideas, idealism and

collective myths (ibid 39-40), and that aims to affect masses

psychologically, consciously and subconsciously (ibid 11, 162-

163). A great help in analysing the techniques of propaganda

is Henry T. Conserva’s Propaganda Techniques (2003).14

Dennis Cheatham15 makes an interesting attempt to analyse

Ashoka’s edicts in the light of the propaganda techniques of

the 20th century, however, since the author of the article

evidently lacks knowledge of edicts, the analysis remains

superficial. We will try to fix this by scrutinising the

obvious propagandist techniques and methods of ideological

sway used in Ashoka’s texts.

The first and most obvious method of propaganda that

Ashoka applies is repeating the same message over and over

again (the so-called ad nauseam method)16. Placing the same set

of edicts to various places – 14 Major Rock Edicts to nine

different places and 6 Major Pillar Edicts in six places –

points to a desire to empower the message to the maximum. The

edict texts also display a repetitive nature.

In several different, yet in essence similar versions,

manuals of good behaviour, or list of virtues

14

Conserva, Henry T.. Propaganda Techniques. Bloomington: Authorhouse, 2003.

15 Cheatham, Dennis 2012. Ashokan Edicts as Propaganda.

http://www.academia.edu/1906640/Ashokan_Edicts_as_Propaganda [18.03.2013].

16 Conserva 2003: 45.

http://www.academia.edu/1906640/Ashokan_Edicts_as_Propaganda

(Prakrit/Sanskrit sādhu) are given; Radhakumud Mookerji17 and

Beni Madhab Barua18 bring attention to their complexity:

1. Obedience (Prakrit susrūsā; Sanskrit śuśrūṣā), to:

1.1. Mother and father (Minor Rock Edict I; Major Rock

Edict III, IV, XI, XIII; Major Pillar Edict VII; Aramaic

Inscription from Taxilā; Kandahār Rock Inscription I and III);

1.2. Elders (Major Rock Edict IV; Major Pillar Edict VII;

Aramaic Inscription from Taxilā; Kandahār Rock Inscription I

and III);

1.3. Teachers (Major Rock Edict XIII; Major Pillar Edict

VII; Kandahār Rock Inscription III);

1.4. Leaders (Major Rock Edict XIII; Kandahār Rock

Inscription I);

2. Respect (Prakrit/Sanskrit apaciti), towards teachers (Minor

Rock Edict II; Major Rock Edict IX; Major Pillar Edict VII);

3. Proper treatment (Prakrit/Sanskrit sampratipatti), towards:

3.1. Priests and wandering ascetics (Major Rock Edict IV;

Major Pillar Edict VII; Aramaic Inscription from Taxilā;

Kandahār Rock Inscription III);

3.2. Relatives (Minor Rock Edict II; Major Rock Edict IV

and XIII; Aramaic Inscription from Taxilā);

3.3. Slaves and servants (Major Rock Edict IX, XI, XIII;

Major Pillar Edict VII; Kandahār Rock Inscription III);

17 [1928] 2007: 69-71.

18 1946: 268-270.

3.4. The poor (Major Pillar Edict VII; Kandahār Rock

Inscription III);

3.5. Friends, acquaintances and companions (Major Rock

Edict XIII);

4. Donation (Prakrit/Sanskrit dāna), towards:

4.1. Priests and wandering ascetics (Major Rock Edict III,

VIII, IX and XI);

4.2. Friends, acquaintances and relatives (Major Rock

Edict III and XI);

4.3. The aged (Major Rock Edict VIII);

5. Abstention from slaughter of living beings (Major Rock

Edict III, IV, XI; Major Pillar Edict VII; Aramaic Inscription

from Taxilā) and violence (Minor Rock Edict II; Major Rock

Edict IV, IX, XIII; Major Pillar Edict VII; Aramaic

Inscription from Taxilā);

6. Speaking of truth (Minor Rock Edict I).

The best lists are in the Major Rock Edicts XI and XIII,

and Major Pillar Edict VII; the latter two recap their text

sets, a summa summarum in a way.

1. [...] Therefore let there be:

Proper treatment of slaves [and] servants;

Obedience to mother [and] father;

Liberality towards friends, acquaintances [and] relatives,

Wandering ascetics [and] priests

2. [And] abstaining from killing of living beings.

[...] „This is merit, this ought to be done”

[Major Rock Edict XI]

3. [...] But [the king], beloved of the gods [considers] it

even more deplorable when

4. Priests [and] wandering ascetics who live there, members of

other sects and householders, who are obedient to highborn,

obedient to mother [and] father, obedient to teachers, [and]

treat properly [and] with courtesy friends, acquaintances,

companions, [and]

5. Relatives, slaves [and] servants, will get hurt or will be

slaughtered or will be separated from their loved ones.

[Major Rock Edict XIII]

18. [...] And therefore there has been growth in

19. Obedience to mother [and] father, obedience to teachers,

reverence to honourable elderly, to priests [and] wandering

ascetics, poor [and] wretched, [and] even proper treatment of

slaves [and] servants.

[Major Pillar Edict VII]

Ashoka’s references to influential people and texts should

be considered the second propaganda method.19 The most

19 Conserva 2003: 45, 55, 73.

important authority that Ashoka mentions by name is the

historical Śākyamuni Buddha (568/563 - 488/483 BC)20. Once,21

the mythological Kanakamuni Buddha is also mentioned. Ashoka

himself, “the author” of the edicts, should also be considered

an authority. The edicts’ attempt to point to the Buddhist

sources, to which Ashoka’s dharma is based upon, is no less

important. Bhābrū Edict names seven texts altogether:

1. Vinaya-samutkarṣa (Prakrit Vinaya-samukaṣa; „Best of

Rules“) or probably Buddha’s first sermon in

Dhammacakkapavattana sutta (Sutta piṭaka, Saṃyutta nikāya,

Sacca saṃyutta or saṃyutta No. 56, sutta No. 11);

2. Ārya-vaṃśa („Noble Lineage“; Prakrit Aliya-vasāṇi –

„Noble Way of Life“) or Ariyavaṃsa sutta (Sutta piṭaka,

Aṅguttara nikāya, Cattuka nipāta);

3. Anagāta-bhayāni (Prakrit Anāgata-bhayāni; „Future

Fears“) or Anāgatabhayāni sutta (Sutta piṭaka, Aṅguttara

nikāya, Pañcaka nipāta);

4. Muni-gāthā (Prakrit Muni-gāthā; „Verses from the Wise“)

or Muni sutta (Sutta piṭtaka, Khuddaka nikāya, Sutta nipāta);

5. Mauneya-sūtra (Prakrit Mauneya-sūte; „Sutra of

Silence“) or Nāla sutta (Sutta piṭaka, Khuddaka nikāya, Sutta

nipāta);

20 Bhābrū Edict; Rummindeī Pillar Inscription; Minor Rock Edict II

21 Nigālīsāgar Pillar Inscription

6. Upatiṣya-praśna (Prakrit Upatisa-pasine; „Upatiṣya’s

Questions“) or Sāriputta sutta (Sutta piṭaka, Khuddaka nikāya,

Sutta nipāta);

7. Rāhula-vāda (Prakrit Lāghulo-vāde; „The sermon to

Rāhula“) or Rāhulovāda sutta (also Cūla Rāhulovāda sutta or

Ambalaṭhika Rāhulovāda sutta; Sutta piṭaka, Majjhima nikāya,

sutta No. 61).

The idea of mentioning exact texts (Ashoka’s edicts are

usually quite vague and lack details) is undoubtedly there to

point out popular Buddhist texts, broaden the reach of the

Edicts and the dharma, and increase credibility through that.

Since Buddha is Ashoka’s only authority figure, and the

Buddhist texts are the only mentioned sources, there is

probably no point in asking which religion the king preferred.

Ashoka also publicly declares his belonging among Buddha’s lay

followers (Prakrit/Sanskrit upāsaka),22 and lets everyone know

that he believes in Buddha, dharma and the congregation

(Sanskrit saṅgha)23.

The Rummindeī and Nigālīsāgar Pillar Inscriptions are

additional proof to Ashoka’s respect towards sites related to

Buddhism, and as a sign of the pilgrimages that have taken

place. The Major Rock Edict VIII opposes the pleasure trips of

the ancient kings (Prakrit vihara-yatra; Sanskrit vihāra-

22 Minor Rock Edict I and II

23 Bhābrū Edict

yātrā) and hunting trips, comparing them to Ashoka’s

pilgrimages or the dharma journeys (Prakrit dhamma-yatra;

Sanskrit dharma-yātrā). It is likely that Minor Rock Edict I

and II also mention pilgrimages. The king also interfered the

congregation’s work24, having the troublemaking – probably

those monks and nuns whose ideas did not match Ashoka’s ideas

with Buddhism - excommunicated.

The third tool of ideological influence is the black-and-

white approach (based on opposites)25 on the principle of: The

past was bad; the present is good, the future is even better.

Of course Ashoka himself is to blame for the improvement of

the situation. With this, Ashoka tries to rewrite the history

despite objectivity, just like many of the world’s rulers

before and after him.

Minor Rock Edicts I and II talk about effort (Prakrit

pakama, palākama, pakara; Sanskrit prakrama). Ashoka did not

achieve anything without effort, but as soon as he made an

effort (in the name of dharma) people started „mixing with the

gods“. Even more so: increased efforts in the future bring

forth passage to heaven for all. Major Rock Edict VII

contrasts the pleasure trips of the ancient kings to Ashoka’s

pilgrimages. Major Rock Edict IX opposes meaningless rituals

to the traditions related to dharma. The method of contrasting

the past and the present has also been used in Major Pillar

24 Kauśāmbī, Sāñcī and Sārnāth Inscriptions

25 Conserva 2003: 6.

Edict VII, where the activities of the ancient kings in

improving dharma are compared to Ashoka’s deeds.

The most influential black-and-white contrasting of the

past, present (and the future) is found in Major Rock Edict

IV:

1. In times past, for many hundreds of years, there has been

increase in the acts of killing animals, hurting living

beings,

2. and improper treatment of relatives, priests [and]

wandering ascetics.

But since the king Priyadarśin, the Beloved of the Gods

started following the dharma [...]

5. [...] there has been increase in

6. Abstention from killing animals, hurting living beings,

improper treatment of relatives, improper treatment of priests

[and] wandering ascetics, disobedience to

7. Mother [and] father, disobedience to elderly.

This and many other ways of following to dharma has been

increased.

And the Beloved of the Gods

8. The king Priyadarśin will increase the following of dharma

even more.

And the sons, grandsons, and great-grandsons of the Beloved of

the Gods, the king Priyadarśin

9. Will increase the following of dharma until the end of

time.

Fourthly, Ashoka uses himself as a guiding light to spread

and advocate his ideas.26 As mentioned earlier, using first

person is rare in Ancient Indian inscriptions. It was not

customary for kings to directly address their subordinates.

Egoism or heightened self-awareness can be seen in it. Even

when the king does not use first person, it is stressed what

„the king, the beloved by the gods, Priyadarśin” wishes or

wants, and that this particular edict is indeed inscribed on

his orders. Ashoka’s person is obviously used to promote his

message, instead of allowing the rational arguments of his

message to have plain effect on the subordinates.

The emperor takes on a role of a bodhisattva and father of

underlings in his inscriptions. „All men are my children”

states Kaliṅga Edict I and II. „The king is like a father to

us. He feels compassion for us just like for himself, just

like for his children” adds Kaliṅga Edict II. Major Pillar

Edict IV figuratively states the job of Ashoka’s

administrators as follows: It is like handing over my people

to the hands of efficient nurse and to make them comfortable.

Like accomplished nurse who quickly makes child happy,

similarly they look after my subjects and make them happy

26 Conserva 2003: 29.

(compare Mahābhārata XII,28,51 and XII,68,29; Arthaśāstra II,1

and IV,3).

As an additional method, a direct order or commandment

often appears in the inscriptions.27 Strict language

emphasises Ashoka’s wishes, why else use it; all edicts are

the king’s laws in essence. Laghmān Inscription I and II refer

to the highpoint of Ashoka’s power’s imposition, revealing

Ashoka’s true colours – following the king’s dharma is no

longer recommended but mandatory:

1. In the year 16, king Prydarš dispersed [and] expelled

3a. From among [his] prosperous [subjects] those who love

2. To hunt living beings, [and catch] fish,

3b. Those who [love] to engage worthless work.

[Laghmān Inscription I]

As a fifth method of propaganda, Ashoka’s edicts knowingly

use simple language and words; the message is clear and aims

to spread the ideology from a layman’s perspective28. The

chosen language itself (local Prakrits) suggests that Ashoka

intentionally uses an easier medium than the sacred Sanskrit

of the priests. Of course, the reason might also be merely

27 Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict I, III, VI and XII; Major Pillar

Edict I, IV and V; „The Queen’s Edict“; Kauśāmbī and Sārnāth Pillar

Inscription

28 Conserva 2003: 1, 48.

wanting to stand out or fear of defiling the sacred (edicts

were not sacred enough to use the language of gods to put them

in writing).

Probably the most obvious example of simplifying the

message is replacing the actual aim of Buddhism, achieving

nirvāṇa with merits for the listeners, mixing with gods, and

going to heaven. It would probably not be wrong to claim that

Ashoka was the first one to popularise Buddhism and turn it

into a native mass religion. It could also be said that Ashoka

is not a Buddhist, and that his goal is a Brahmanistic

liberation and paradise, however, with the Buddhism-soaked

texts it is not very likely.

Some of Ashoka’s edicts29 promise merits (Prakrit puña;

Sanskrit puṇya) to the dharma followers, i.e. a collection of

positive karma, gained with good deeds, etc., that enhances

enlightenment. Others promise mixing with the gods.30 It is

not completely clear if mixing with the gods means harmony and

belief or something else. Only one thing is certain: Ashoka

claims to have settled relations between people and gods, and

with that the king himself has become a demigod, a saint, and

bodhisattva, who makes the world a better place, and who

affects the entire human world (Jambudvīpa). Major Rock Edict

IV draws probably the most fantastic picture of what Ashoka’s

activities have brought forth:

29 Major Rock Edict IX and XI; Laghmān Rock Edict II

30 Minor Rock Edict I and II, and Major Rock Edict IV

2. [...] But, in consequence of the practice of dharma

3. on the part of the king Priyadarśin, the Beloved of the

Gods, the sound of [war] drum has now become the sound of the

dharma, showing to the people [divine] chariots, [divine]

elephants,

4. fireballs, and other divine figures.

Basically they are saying that Ashoka has magic powers.

Major Pillar Edict II seconds that, in which Ashoka personally

states, „I have been granted the gift of wide acumen”.

And the followers of dharma are promised a passage to

heaven and well-being in the afterlife31, thus taking a simple

moral lesson to a cosmic level.

Sixth, it is worth mentioning the edicts creators’ skill

of using keywords with an influential positive meaning,

affirmative terms32 that deepen the credibility of the text a

great deal:

1. Kindness or compassion (Prakrit/Sanskrit dayā: Major

Pillar Edict II and VII);

2. Liberality or donation (Prakrit/Sanskrit dāna: Major

Pillar Edict II and VII; Major Rock Edict VII);

31 Minor Rock Edict I and II; Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict VI,

IX, X and XI; Pillar Edict III

32 Conserva 2003: 25.

3. Truthfulness or honesty (Prakrit sacha; Sanskrit satya:

Minor Rock Edict II; Major Pillar Edict II and VII);

4. Purity (Prakrit sochava; Sanskrit śauca: Major Pillar

Edict II and VII);

5. Gentleness or pliancy (Prakrit madava; Sanskrit

mārdava: Major Rock Edict XIII; Major Pillar Edict VII);

6. Rightness or saintliness (Prakrit sādhava; Sanskrit

sādhutā: Major Pillar Edict VII);

7. Moderation or self-control (Prakrit sayama; Sanskrit

saṃyama: Major Rock Edict VII and XIII);

8. Purty of mind (Prakrit bhava-śudhi; Sanskrit bhāva-

śuddhi: Major Rock Edict VII);

9. Gratitude (Prakrit kiṭra-ñata; Sanskrit kṛta-jñatā:

Major Rock Edict VII);

10. Firm devotion (Prakrit driḍha-bhatita; Sanskrit dṛḍha-

bhaktitā: Major Rock Edict VII and XIII);

11. Joy or favour (Prakrit priti, rati; Sanskrit prīti,

rati: Major Rock Edict XIII).

Major Pillar Edict II and VII present the longest lists.

Major Rock Edict XIII has a variety of interesting keywords

that are not found anywhere else. The idea of the Major Rock

Edict VII seems to prefer internal virtues to the external;

good deeds are not enough if your mind is not pure.

The keyword of Ashoka’s edicts is definitely dharma

(Prakrit dhaṃma; Sanskrit dharma). How to define that?

Furthermore, how do define that not in the Ancient Indian or

Sanskritic sense, but in Ashoka’s edicts’ context? What is

Ashoka’s dharma? Is it the teaching of Buddha or universal

humanism? Or a world-view that is common to all Ancient Indian

beliefs and philosophies?

Beni Madhab Barua33 disserts the same subjects in great

length in his writing, pondering if Ashoka’s teaching is

rājadharma (the art of governing a state), upāsaka dharma (the

dharma of Buddha’s lay follower), or a universal religion. The

researcher’s own final opinion remains unrevealed. Eugen

Hultzsch34 tends to believe in the preface of the originals and

translations of Ashoka’s edicts that Ashoka’s teaching is

directly derived from Buddha’s teaching, and can thus only be

disserted in its light. Radhakumud Mookerji35 believes that

Ashoka’s dharma is the intersection of all religions,

something of a universal religion. But how do the edicts

define dharma?

In Bhābrū Edict, dharma is one of the three diamonds of

Buddhism (Sanskrit triratna; Pali tiratana), one of the three

main assets in addition to Buddha (the Enlightened) and saṅgha

(the congregation). It is the real dharma (Prakrit sa-dhaṃma;

Sanskrit sad-dharma), the definition to Buddha’s teaching

common to Buddhist texts.

33 1946: 225-282.

34 [1925] 1991: XLVII-LIV.

35 [1928] 2007: 69-76.

The reader should take note that the term dharma is

mentioned in almost all of Ashoka’s edicts36, while the

congregation37 and Buddha38 are mentioned in significantly

fewer.

The Brahmagiri version of Minor Rock Edict I defines

dharma as a moral code, a compilation of good manners:

9. [...] Obedience must be rendered to mother [and] father,

likewise to teachers, let there be firm [protection] of living

beings, truth

10. Must be spoken – these virtues of the dharma must be

proclaimed!

In the same manner,

11. Let the pupil show reverence towards teacher, and let [the

people] treat relatives in proper manner.

12. This is ancient custom, which brings a long life. Thus one

must act.

The understanding of dharma is almost the same in Major

Rock Edict III and IV. It becomes clear in Major Rock Edict

III that dharma is a benefit, and in Major Rock Edict X that

36 Except Major Rock Edict II and VII; Major Pillar Edict III and V; Minor

Pillar Inscriptions; Laghmān Inscription I and II

37 Bhābrū Edict; Minor Pillar Inscriptions; Minor Rock Edict I and II

38 Bhābrū Edict; Lumbinī and Niglivā Pillar Inscriptions; the Maski version

of the Minor Rock Edict II

dharma is the liberation from everything bad. Major Pillar

Edict I is unclear, and Major Pillar Edict II is extremely

laconic.

9. [...] For this is [my] instruction: to guard with the

dharma, to direct with the dharma,

10. To make happy with the dharma, to protect with the dharma.

[Major Pillar Edict I]

2. [...] The dharma is good.

But what is the dharma?

A little vices [and] a lot of good.

3. Compassion, charity, truth [and] purity.

[Major Pillar Edict II]

Major Rock Edict XI defines donating dharma (Prakrit

dhamma-dana), respecting dharma (Prakrit dhamma-saṃstava),

right behaviour (Prakrit dhamma-saṃvibhaga) and participation

in dharma (Prakrit dhamma-saṃbaṃdha; probably meant as unity

of the community) as the main components of dharma. In Major

Rock Edict XIII, Ashoka describes his own behaviour in dharma

as abiding by dharma, loving dharma and preaching dharma.

Major Pillar Edict VII brings in two new terms related to

dharma: self-control through dharma (Prakrit dhamma-niyama;

Sanskrit dharma-niyama) and meditating (Prakrit ni + √jhai;

Sanskrit ni + √dhyai).

19. [...] But this growth of the dharma among men happens in

two ways, by self-control through dharma and by meditation.

20. But there, where from self-control through dharma is

little use, the mediation helps considerably more.

But, truly, self-control through dharma means, that I have not

allowed killing certain beings.

And I have given orders to restrict through dharma in many

other ways.

But meditation has helped to promote the growth of dharma,

leading to abstention from hurting animals

21. [and] abstention from killing living beings.

The most interesting term in Ashoka’s edicts is dharma’s

victory (Prakrit dhrama-vijaya; Sanskrit dharma-vijaya), that

is used in Major Rock Edict XIII. It is likely that a similar

idea of subsuming the world using dharma was introduced

earlier on, since already Arthaśāstra (XII,1) categorises

conquerors into three: dharma-vijayin (a conqueror, for whom

surrender is enough), lobha-vijayin (a conqueror, who wants

surrendering and profit), asura-vijayin (a conqueror, who

enslaves the women and children and kills the men in addition

to surrendering and profit). A similar idea is also found in

the Mahābhārata (XII,59,38-39). Radhakumud Mookerji39 and Beni

39 [1928] 2007: 166.

Madhab Barua40 guide our attention to the fact that Ashoka

behaved as an asura-vijayin when conquering Kaliṅga, but that

he later started advocating the dharma-vijayin behaviour.

Thus, Ashoka continued his conquests, but he just did it in a

different field and register.

There are at least two practical applications to Ashoka’s

dharma theory – preaching dharma aka mission, and the

activities of the dharma officials. Of course, part of the

mission was to carve edicts into rocks and pillars, and this

is something Ashoka keeps stressing41. The goal is the growth

of dharma (Prakrit dhamma-vadhi; Sanskrit dharma-vṛddhi)42.

Major Rock Edict II and XIII show that Ashoka’s mission work

was aimed outside his state, reaching all the way to the

Mediterranean Sea.

The most interesting passage talking about mission is

found in the Major Pillar Edict VII43. It has to be noted that

the message of dharma (Prakrit dhaṃma-sāvana; Sanskrit dharma-

śrāvaṇa) and the proclamation of dharma (Prakrit dhaṃma

40 1946: 234.

41 Minor Rock Edict I; Bhābrū Edict; Pūl-i-Darūnta Stone Inscription; Major

Rock Edict IV, V, VI, XIV; Sārnāth Pillar Inscription; Major Pillar Edict

II, VI and VII

42 Major Rock Edict IV and V; Major Pillar Edict VII; Pūl-i-Darūnta Stone

Inscription

43 Although there is talk of proclaiming the dharma in Major Rock Edict III,

IV, VIII and XIII; Kaliṅga Edict II

anusathi; Sanskrit dharma anuśasti) (i.e. info and propaganda)

are two separate things for Ashoka.

10. [...] Therefore it occurred to me to let to proclaim the

message of the dharma [and] to make the proclamations of the

dharma

11. audible.

Therefore, those who have heard [the dharma] will follow [the

dharma], will esteem [the dharma],

12. and will help to grow the dharma for sure.

Therefore, I have let to proclaim the message of the dharma

[and] have ordered to make the proclamation of the dharma

audible, so [my] kinsmen, who rule over many thousands on men,

will be those, who will let to teach [the message of the

dharma], to extend [the proclamation of the dharma].

And to kinglings, who rule over many thousands of living

souls, I have given orders to teach every way [the message of

dharma]

13. to the people devoted to the dharma.


The high-ranking officials of dharma (Prakrit dhamma-

mahāmata; Sanskrit dharma-mahāmātra)44 are the most important

tools of Ashoka’s dharma. It is possible that they are also

44 Major Rock Edict V and XII; Major Pillar Edict VII

referred to simply as mahāmātra („high-official“; Prakrit

mahāmāta, mahamata)45. However, the high-ranking officials of

dharma, according to Major Rock Edict V, are not so much

advocates of Buddhism, as they are social workers, whose aim

is to ensure the humanist principles (that are based on

Buddhism) in the state:

3. [...] Thirteen years after my consecration I appointed the

high officials of the dharma.

They are employed

4. to establish the dharma and to grow the dharma, to insure

the wellbeing and happiness among those, who are devoted to

the dharma in all the sects; among the Greeks, the Kambojas

[and] the Gandhāras; among the Rāṣṭrikas [and] the Pitnikas;

and among the other [peoples] of Aparānta.

Among the low [and] highborn,

5. among the priests [and] rich, among the destitute [and]

elderly they work to ensure the wellbeing [and] happiness

among those, who are devoted to the dharma.

They work for the better treatment and release of imprisoned,

6. if they have numerous offspring, or if they are in trouble,

or if they are very old.

Here [in Pāṭaliputra], and outside, in all the cities, among

the courts of [my] brothers and sisters,

45 Major Rock Edict VI; Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Minor Rock Edict I; „The

Queen’s Edict“; Sārnāth Pillar Inscription

7. and even among [my] relatives, they are at work everywhere.

The high officials of the dharma work for the support of the

dharma, to secure the dharma, and for distributing charity in

all my conquered lands among those,

8. who are devoted to the dharma.

The influential symbols complement the positive keywords.

The Girnār, Kālsī and Dhaulī Rock Edicts are supplemented with

elephant symbols. The text Truly, a white elephant brings

happiness to the entire world, is written below the edict in

Girnār.46 In Dhaulī, 1.2 m tall elephant statue carved out of

the rock is situated above the edicts.47 An elephant figure

(approx. 30 x 50 cm) is near the Kālsī edicts, with the text

gajatame („best elephant“) below it.48 Ashoka’s edict pillars

were also embellished with small caps with lotus flowers and

animals on them. Researchers believe the animals symbolised

stages of Buddha’s life (elephant = birth, fertilisation, bull

= birth, layman’s life, horse = renouncement, asceticism, lion

= life as a buddha).49

46 Chakrabarti, Dilip K. Royal Messages by the Wayside. Historical Geography

of the Asokan Edicts. New Delhi: Aryan Books International, 2011: 55.

47 ibid: 66-67.

48 Hultzsch [1925] 1991: 50; Falk, Harry. Aśokan Sites and Artefacts. A

Source-book with bibliography. (Monographien zur indichen Archäologie,

Kunst und Philologie, Band 18.) Mainz am Rhine: Von Zabern 2006: 125.

49 Mookerji [1928] 2007: 61-62; Falk 2006: 145.

As the seventh and last method to win the wider public

over to his ideology with propaganda, Ashoka presents a

positive programme in his edicts by listing out specific

actions he has done or plans to do (Conserva 2003: 58). In

essence, they resemble a typical election programme with

promises to the electors.

The first, and probably most important humanist step, is

to forbid needless violence towards living beings. The edicts

forbid animal sacrifice50, hunting and fishing51, killing

living beings52 and eating them53. The umbrella organisation

joining the world’s vegetarians, International Vegetarian

Union (IVU; founded in 1908 in Dresden), praises Ashoka as one

of the earliest advocates for vegetarianism54.

In Major Rock Edict XIII, Ashoka basically forbids any and

all war activities by convincing his successors that no

further conquests are needed, and uses the Kaliṅga war as an

example to the horrible consequences war brings. Interestingly

enough, Ashoka’s humanist war ideology has been discussed even

50 Major Rock Edict I

51 Kandahār Inscription I; Laghmān Inscription I and II; Major Pillar Edict

V

52 Major Rock Edict III, IV, XI; Major Pillar Edict V and VII; Aramaic

Inscription from Taxilā

53 Major Pillar Edict V; Major Rock Edict I

54 Howard Williams. The Ethics of Diet.

http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/asoka.html [01.06.2013]

http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/asoka.html

in the International Red Cross magazine55. There is also a good

will organisation that carries Ashoka’s name.56

Due to the pacifism of the edict ideology, researchers

have found it necessary to discuss whether or not the fast

decline and falling apart of the Maurya dynasty (185 BC) after

Ashoka’s death (approx. 234-232 BC) could have been a direct

consequence of the dharma he advocated. Haraprasad Sastri

(1853-1931) was convinced that Ashoka is obviously guilty, Hem

Chandra Raychaudhuri (1892-1957) argues against.57 The question

is still actual even today, as Romila Thapar has dedicated the

entire monograph “Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas” on the

topic.

Probably related to ending the war activities, the king

tries to appease the citizens of the border-areas, attempting

to win them over peacefully58. The king’s will is clearest in

the Kaliṅga Edict II:

4. [...] If it might to occur to unconquered people of the

borderlands,

55 Draper , Gerald I. A. D. The Contribution of the Emperor Asoka Maurya to

the development of the humanitarian ideal in warfare. (International Review

of the Red Cross. 03.-04.1995; nr 305): 192-206.

56 http://asokamission.in/ [10.06.2013].

57 Thapar [1961] 2002: 198-199.

58 Minor Rock Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict II, V and XIII; Major Pillar

Edict I

http://asokamission.in/

5. “What does the king desire whom us?”, then I want that the

people of the borderlands will learn, that the king desires,

that they may not be afraid,

6. and that they may trust; and that they would receive from

me only happiness, not misery; and that they will understand,

that the king will forgive to them,

7. if forgiveness is possible; and that they would follow the

dharma for me; [and] that they will attain peace in this world

and in the other.

Ashoka demands fair and good treatment of prisoners,

giving the officials an order for an equable administration of

justice59, forbidding torture60, giving those sentenced to

death time to appeal61, and freeing prisoners when chance

arose, for example on his birthday62. So Ashoka does not ban

death sentence as such nor liberate all prisoners from jail.

He simply alleviates the situation.

Free medical care for people and animals and planting

medicinal herbs63, and digging wells and planting trees on

roadsides64 is also important. Ashoka is also the first

59 Major Pillar Edict IV

60 Kaliṅga Edict I

61 Major Pillar Edict IV

62 Major Rock Edict V; Major Pillar Edict V

63 Major Rock Edict II

64 Major Rock Edict II; Major Pillar Edict VII

emperor in the world to set the rules of nature preservation,

forbidding the (controlled) burning of forests and

grasslands65.

Ashoka has appointed a vast number of officials to achieve

the activities mentioned with dharma, whose main goal is to

assure people’s wellbeing66. Ashoka’s wish is an effective

state (Major Rock Edict VI); the officials are obligated to

constantly take trips to the countryside, be active67 (compare

Arhaśāstra I,19; Mahābhārata XII,57,13). The best guidelines

are found in the Kaliṅga Edict I:

9. [...] Therefore you must strive to

10. act impartially.

But those, who are making mistakes, cannot act [impartially];

those, who envy, who are quick to infatuate,

11. who are cruel, hurry, are reluctant, lazy [or] fatigued.

Therefore [you should wish] to

12. avoid those mistakes.

For all the root [of acting impartially] is patience [and]

thoroughness.

Those who are fatigued,

65 Major Pillar Edict V

66 Minor Rock Edict II; Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict V; Major

Pillar Edict I, IV and VII

67 Kaliṅga Edict I and II; Major Rock Edict III and VI

13. are not successful. But [you should] move, act [and]

advance.

Ashoka has been considered one of the first advocates of

freedom of religion in the world. This is probably a slightly

exaggerated and forceful definition; the emperor simply aims

for an equal treatment of religious groups. He allows all

sects to practice anywhere (Major Rock Edict VII), respects

all sects equally (Major Rock Edict XII; Major Pillar Edict V

and VII) and demands that all sects had mutual respect for

each other (Major Rock Edict XII). In addition to the

aforementioned support to the Buddhist community, the emperor

also favours Brahmins (Major Rock Edict IV; Major Pillar Edict

VII; Aramaic Inscription from Taxilā; Kandahār Inscription

III), Jains (Major Pillar Edict VII) and the supporters of

Ājīvika (Major Pillar Edict VII; Barābār Cave Inscriptions).

Kandahār Inscriptions forbid putting holy men to trial, not

specifying, unfortunately, which holy men is meant.

Regardless of the „freedom of religion“, the edicts forbid

religious meetings and suspicious entertainment (Major Rock

Edict I), and advise not to keep useless (read: those opposing

or different from Ashoka’s dharma) traditions.

Ashoka also intrudes actively into the activities of

Buddhist congregations, wanting to keep the teaching clean

(Bhābrū Edict) and excommunicating the monks and nuns who sway

from the main line (Kauśāmbī, Sāñcī and Sārnāth Pillar

Inscription).

4. [...] Those

5. Who split the congregation, a monk or nun, they should be

[sent],

6. After robing him to the white, to live

7. Elsewhere.

Because, truly, I want

8. The congregation to be united [and] last long.

[Sāñcī Pillar Inscription]

There can be no talk of the classical notion of freedom of

religion. This freedom was simply Ashoka’s whim. This also

points out that this was not real humanism, but merely an

improvement compared to the earlier times when the ruler only

supported one or the other community and oppressed others.

No doubt that it was important for Ashoka to save his

message to the coming generations as well68.

21. [...] For this purpose, I have made this [inscription of

dharma], that it will last [as long as my sons and] grandsons

[and] great-grandsons [will rule], [and as long as] Moon [and]

Sun [will shine], and that [people will] follow [the dharma].

68 Major Rock Edict IV, V, VI, XIII; Major Pillar Edict VII; Sāñcī and

Taxilā Pillar Inscription


The reader, addressee, is the most difficult part when

talking about Ashoka’s edicts. The creators (creator?) of the

text definitely aspire for universality, wanting to include

everyone. Not with each individual edict, but the aim of the

edicts as a textual whole is definitely the spiritual

inclusion of the nation (or the entire world?). On the other

hand, the chosen medium grants few readers to the text. Edicts

of Ashoka are the first written texts in India and literacy

was the privilege of a few. At the same time, the texts

themselves hint that they were read out regularly and

announced to the wider public69. Thus, the edicts were a

conspectus to the distributers of Ashoka’s message,

missionaries of humanism. The auditorium for the readers and

high-ranking officials of dharma consisted of Buddhist monks

and nuns (1), members of all other religious groups (2),

citizens of the peripheral areas (3), officials (4), all of

his subordinates (5).

Carving it in stone preserved the message to the coming

generations, because even all the people who read this very

text should be considered Ashoka’s readers-addressees. He

would surely be happy if he knew how far his propagandist

69 Major Rock Edict III, IV, VIII and XIII; Major Pillar Edict VII; Kaliṅga

Edict I and II; Minor Rock Edict II, Sārnāth Pillar Inscription; Bhābrū

Edict

message has travelled in time and space. And even if it is

difficult to assess the functioning or dysfunctioning of

Ashoka’s other ideologies applied with propagandist methods in

the past, the emperor’s wish that his message be saved in the

future has come true.

Ashoka was a humanist despite the propaganda; and despite

the fact that his advocacy to the ideals of freedom of

religion, nonviolence and vegetarianism are highly doubtful.

What is important, however: Ashoka tried and succeeded in

turning Buddha’s teaching into a social ideology, a

functioning moral teaching, suitable for everyone. He

distilled the ethics from philosophy and forced the

subordinates to follow it. And there is not lack of it in the

chaotic, rapacious and violent work. Ashoka did not speak of a

utopian heaven on earth (like Jesus and Mohammed, Marx and

Lenin), he was talking about a modern welfare society. Where

mindfulness to others is a norm, where disputes are not

settled with violence, where the power of state treats

everyone equally. At least in ideal. And this is his value

even nowadays.

References

Barua, Beni Madhab 1946. Asoka and His Inscriptions.

Calcutta: New Age Publishers

Chakrabarti, Dilip K 2011. Royal Messages by the Wayside.

Historical Geography of the Asokan Edicts. New Delhi: Aryan

Books International

Cheatham, Dennis 2012. Ashokan Edicts as Propaganda.


[18.03.2013].

Conserva, Henry T. 2003. Propaganda Techniques.

Bloomington: Authorhouse

Draper , Gerald I. A. D. 1995. The Contribution of the

Emperor Asoka Maurya to the development of the humanitarian

ideal in warfare. (International Review of the Red Cross. 03.-

04.1995; nr 305; lk 192-206

Ellul, Jaques [1965] 1975. Propaganda: The Formation of

Men’s Attitudes. New York: Vintage Books

Falk, Harry 2006. Aśokan Sites and Artefacts. A Source-

book with bibliography. (Monographien zur indichen

Archäologie, Kunst und Philologie, Band 18.) Mainz am Rhine:

Von Zabern

Hultzsch, Eugen [1925] 1991. Inscriptions of Aśoka.

(Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Vol I.) New Delhi: Director

General Archaeological Survey of India

Mookerji, Radhakumud [1928] 2007. Asoka. New Delhi:

Motilal Banarsidass Publishers


Sastri, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta (ed) [1951] 1996.

Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass

Publishers

Thapar, Romila [1961] 2002. Aśoka and the Decline of the

Mauryas. New Delhi: Oxford University Press

Williams, Howard. The Ethics of Diet.

http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/asoka.html [01.06.2013].

http://asokamission.in/ [10.06.2013].

http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/asoka.html

http://asokamission.in/

the propaganda of the edicts of ashoka

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