“the cause and consequences of rural urban migration: the case of wolatia soddo town, snnpr...
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Mekelle University
College Of Business and Economics
Department Of Management
Development Studies Program
The Causes and Consequences of Rural Urban Migration:
The Case of Wolaita Soddo Town, SNNPR Ethiopia
By
Wesen Altaye Aydiko
(CBE PS 143/04)
A Thesis Submitted To Mekelle University Department of Management in Partial
Fulfillment of Master of Art Degree in Developmental Studies Specialization In
(Local and Regional Development)
Principal Advisor: - Kahsu Mebrathu (Assistant Professor)
Co-Advisor:- Mebrat Aregawi (MBA, Lecturer)
Mekelle, Ethiopia.
January 2015
Mekelle University
College of Business and Economics
Department of Management
The Cause and Consequences of Rural Urban Migration:
The Case of Wolatia Soddo Town, SNNPR Ethiopia
By Wesen Altaye
Approved by: Signature Date___________________ ___________ ____________Advisor ___________________ ____________ _____________Co-Advisor___________________ _____________ ____________Internal examiner ___________________ _____________ ____________External examiner
Declaration
I, Mr. Wesen Altaye hereby declare that the thesis entitled “The Cause and Consequences of
Rural Urban Migration: The Case of Wolatia Soddo Town, SNNPR Ethiopia “submitted by me
for the award of Master Degree in Developmental Studies of Mekelle university at Mekelle is my
original work and it has not been presented for the award of any other degree, Diploma,
Fellowship or any other similar titles of any other university or institutions.
Place: Mekelle University, Tigray, Ethiopia
Signature________________
Date: January, 2015 Name: Wesen Altaye
Certification
This is to certify that this thesis is entitled “The Cause and Consequences of Rural Urban
Migration: The Case of Wolatia Soddo Town, SNNPR Ethiopia” submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the award of masters degree in developmental studies to the college of
Business and Economics, Mekelle university, through the department of management done by
Wesen Altaye, Id. No. (CBE PS143/04) is an authentic work carried out by him under our
guidance. The matter embodied in this work has not been submitted earlier for awards of any
degree or diploma to the best of our knowledge and belief.
Principal Advisor: Kahsu Mebrathu (Assistant Professor) Signature___________Date_____2015
Co-advisor: Mebrat Aregawi (MBA, Lecturer) Signature___________Date_____2015
Mekelle University
Mekelle Tigray
Table of ContentsDeclaration................................................................................................................................................... i
Certification.................................................................................................................................................. i
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURE...........................................................................................................................................vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS.............................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................1
1. INTRODUCATION.............................................................................................................................1
1.1. Back ground of the study.........................................................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the Problem.........................................................................................................3
1.3. Objective of study....................................................................................................................6
1.3.1 General objective........................................................................................................................6
1.4. Research Question...................................................................................................................7
1.5. Significance of the Study.........................................................................................................7
1.6. Limitation of the Study............................................................................................................8
1.7. Scope of the study....................................................................................................................8
1.8. Definitions of Key Terminology and Key Concepts................................................................9
1.9. Organization of the Paper.............................................................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................11
2. LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................................................................11
2.1. Theoretical Framework..........................................................................................................11
2.1.1 Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration...............................................................................................11
2.1.2. Lee’s Theory of Migration.......................................................................................................12
2.1.3 Sjaastad’s Human Investment Theory.......................................................................................13
2.1.4 Harris-Todaro Model of Migration...........................................................................................13
2.1.5 New Economies Models of Rural-urban Migration..................................................................14
2.2. The Empirical Framework..........................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Causes of Migration..................................................................................................................14
2.2.2 Consequences of Migration......................................................................................................18
i
2.2.3. The Nature of Rural-Urban Migration in Africa and Ethiopia.................................................23
2.2.4. Migration in Ethiopia...............................................................................................................26
2.2.5. Causes of Migration in Ethiopia..............................................................................................28
3. Conceptual Framework......................................................................................................................29
Chapter Three............................................................................................................................................32
3. Research Methodology......................................................................................................................32
3.1. Description of the Study Area.........................................................................................................32
3.2. Research Strategy and Design........................................................................................................35
3.3. Data Type and Source.....................................................................................................................35
3.3.1. Methods of Primary Data Collection.......................................................................................35
3.3.2. Sources of Secondary Data......................................................................................................36
3.4. Sampling Methods..........................................................................................................................36
3.5. Data Processing and Analysis..........................................................................................................38
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................................39
4. The Process of Migration, the Characteristics of Migrants and Causes of Migration to Wolaita Soddo Town......................................................................................................................................................39
4.1. The Overall Process of Migration...............................................................................................39
4.2. The Characteristics of Migrants..................................................................................................48
4.2.1 Age and Sex Structure of Migrants...........................................................................................48
4.2.2 Marital status............................................................................................................................50
4.3. The Socio-Economic Characteristics of Migrants.......................................................................51
4.3.1 Educational Characteristics.......................................................................................................51
4.3.2 Occupational Status..................................................................................................................52
4.4. The Causes for Migration...........................................................................................................54
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................57
5. CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION...................................................................................................57
5.1. Problems Encountered by Migrants while adjusting themselves to the New Environment ( Wolaita Soddo Town).....................................................................................................................57
Table 8 The Availability of Relatives, Friends or Parents, Assistance For Migrants and Type of Assistant............................................................................................................................................58
5.2. Current Occupational Status, Educational and Income Level of Migrants..................................60
5.2.1 Current Occupational Status of Migrants..................................................................................60
ii
5.2.3 Current Income Level of Migrants............................................................................................62
5.3. Access of Migrants to Housing Facilities and Amenities............................................................63
5.4 Access of Migrants to Water and Electricity Services.................................................................65
5.5. Ownership of Durable Consumer Items......................................................................................66
5.6. A Comparison of the Socio-Economic Condition of Migrants before and After Migration........67
5.7. Current Problems of Migrants and Their Future Plan of Migration............................................68
CHAPTER SIX..........................................................................................................................................71
6. Conclusion and Recommendation.....................................................................................................71
6.1. Summary....................................................................................................................................71
6.2 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................72
6.3. Recommendations......................................................................................................................74
References.........................................................................................................................................76
Appendix I..............................................................................................................................................85
Appendix I I........................................................................................................................................91
iii
ABSTRACT
In developing countries like Ethiopia rural-urban migration affects socio –economic realities in
both urban and rural areas. This study aims at identifying the major causes and consequences
of the movement of people from rural to urban areas. To achieve the objective 282 migrant
household heads were selected purposively from four Kebeles of the town. Both primary and
secondary data were employed and were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively by using
SPSS version 17th.
Structured questionnaires and FGD were used on the demographic and socio-economic
characteristics of migrant households.
Most of the migrants move to the town alone. They had some information about the town and the
decision of their migration is mostly made by themselves.
However, most of them migrated decide to migrate not in planned way. A greater number of the
migrants are young adults, males, and unmarried and had some form of education before they
decided to migrate.
There are many causes for the movement of the people to the town. Among them the search for
job, to gain education and training, and problem related with land and agricultural productivity
was the major one. Many of the migrants encountered problems at the initial period of
adjustment and adaptation and even currently.
In line with this, some useful points of recommendations for effective urban management and
rural development activities are suggested.
Key words: Migration, Rural Urban Migration, Migrants
iii
Acknowledgment
The successful completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support,
encouragement and cooperation from many individuals who assist me in diverse ways from the
beginning to the end.
First of all, my hearty thanks go to Almighty God for His blessing-full knowledge, inspiration
and diligence required for the successful completion of this Thesis and for making my dream a
reality.
Next, I would like to express my heartfelt and sincere gratitude to my Principal Advisor
Kahsu Mebrathu (Assistant Professor) for diligent paternal and professional assistance and
dedication of his precious time in reading and correcting this research from commencement to
the end.
My appreciation also goes to my co-advisor Mebrat Aregawi (MBA, Lecturer) for her invaluable
support and constructive comments.
Last but not least, my heart-felt thanks goes to my wife Mimiye and my children Omode and
Egoroo, who in one way or the other shared my pains in the course of the preparation of research
work.
iv
LIST OF TABLESPages
Table 1 Distribution of Sample Migrant Households..................................................................................36
Table 2 Distribution of Migrants by Year of Last Arrival in Wolaita Soddo............................................40
Table 3 Distribution of the Migrants Accompaniment from the Birth Place by Sex..................................41
Table 4 Migration Decision as Reported by the Respondents.....................................................................42
Table 5 Percentage Distributions of Migrants by Sources of Information..................................................44
Table 6 The Population Composition of Migrants Based On Sex and Age before Arrival to Wolaita Sod……46
Table 7 Distributions of migrants by Sex and Marital Status at Time of Migration..................................48
Table 8 The Availability of Relatives, Friends or Parents, Assistance For Migrants and
Type of Assistant………………………………………………………….……………………58
Table 9 Current occupational status and the nature of employment of migrants........................................57
Table 10 Educational attainment of migrant’s before and after arrival of migrants to Soddo....................58
Table 11 Distribution of Migrants by Monthly Average Income...............................................................59
Table 12 Accesses to Housing Facilities.....................................................................................................60
Table 13 Sources of Water Supply and Electricity......................................................................................62
Table 14 Distributions of Households by Ownership of Durable Consumer Items,...................................63
Table 15 Comparison of Socio-economic Condition of Migrants before and after Migration...................64
Table 16 Distributions of Respondents of Migrants by Future Plan...........................................................65
v
LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1 .Conceptual Frame Work of Rural Urban Migration...................................................................29
Figure 2 Map of the Study Area.................................................................................................................31
Figure 3 Adminisrative Map Of Wolaita Zone............................................................................................32
Figure 4 The Number Of Migrants To Wolaita Soddo Town By Sex...........................................................38
Figure 5 The Availability of Relative, Friend Or Parents Before You Moved To Live In Soddo..................44
Figure 6 After the Migrants Move to Soddo Person Who Join Him/her From the Place of Birth.............45
Figure 7 Distributions of Migrants by Educational Attainment before Migration by Sex..........................50
Figure 8 Occupational Statuses of Respondents before Migration at Place of Origin................................51
Figure 9 causes of migration by sex...........................................................................................................52
Figure 10 Problems faced by Migrants during the Initial Period of In-migration to Soddo........................55
vi
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CSA Central Statistical Agency ETUMS Ethiopian Urban Migration Survey FDRE Federal Democratic Republic Of Ethiopia FGD Focus Group Discussion GNP Growth National Products ICPS Inter-Censal Population Survey IOM International Organization of Migration LDCs Least Developed Countries ORAAMP Offices for the Revision of Addis Ababa Master Plan PA Peasant Association SNNPR Southern Nation Nationalities People RegionSPSS Statically Program For Social Sciences SSA Sub Saharan Africa UN United Nation UN-HABITAT United Nation Habitat UNDEP Untied Nation Development Economic Program USAD Untied State of America DollarWPA Workers Party Association WHO World Health Origination
vii
CHAPTER ONE1. INTRODUCATION
1.1. Back ground of the study
Since Homo erectus left Africa over a million years ago, the constant transfer of people between
different countries were not halted. Migration has been a key human response to environmental,
social, political, and economic changes (Hall, et.al, 2010). Since the creation of the state at about
3500 B.C, the mobility continued with different magnitude and nature.
Population dynamics happens over time and spaces on the population .The very reasons for the
happening of change of Population size, composition and distribution are migration, fertility and
mortality .Particularly, migration has a direct effect on the geographic distribution of population.
Also it has direct link with other demographic forces as well as other aspects of social and
economic changes. (Gimba 2010)
The causes for the migration is economic and none –economic. However, wide spread agreement
now exists among social sciences researchers, that rural urban migration can be explained
primarily as the result of economic factor .This include not only the push from the subsistence
agriculture and pull of relatively high urban wages but also the potential push back towards rural
areas as the result of high urban unemployment.. (Adepoju, 2008)
The rate of urbanization in developing nations has increased in alarming rate. The cause for the
process of urbanization has in the developed Western state and developing countries has differed
greatly. The underlying factor in the case of the former was industrialization but rural-urban
migration due to population presser on the rural land for the latter group (Kassahun, 2000, ILO,
2012). Thus in view of the high rates of urban population growth and the low level of
urbanization, rural to urban migration appears to have been the major component of urban
population growth in many developing countries.
1
In different parts of African migration is considered as a means to escape economic, social,
political problems and challenges – it is a survival strategy (Sandar, 2005). The reason varies
from not conducive geographical environment in Mail to that of severs poverty (Sandar, 2003).
Landlessness, fragmented, unproductive land holdings and poor income compel rural exodus in
most of SSA. (Sandar, 2005 ).
Ethiopia is faced by different migration patterns and dynamics, which have significant political
and socio-economic a complex consequences of action for the country (IOM ,2008) , Over time,
the share of the Ethiopian population that has migrated from outside their Woreda of current
residence has increased from 11.4 percent of the population (4.54 million people) in 1984 to 12.9
percent of the population in 1994 (6.92 million people) to 16.5 percent of the population (12.21
million people) in 2008 (Dorosh and Getnet 2011 )
In the entire three national census, according to the CSA, more than 50 % of the population were
not migrated from rural areas to that of urban but from rural to rural. However, the figure of the
rural-rural becomes decreased slowly but surely from 56 to 49 to 47 percent in the period of the
three censuses. On the other side, the rural urban migrants, on the same periods , increase from
1.30 million people in 1984 to 3.26 million in 1998, but the divided up of rural urban migration
in the overall population is still insignificant , increase from 3.3 % in 1984 to only 4.4 % in 1998
Internal migration with its changing constituents of migrants become on the increase in Ethiopia.
Rural out flow is become smaller, whereas urban rural migration declining the most. According
to the 2007 national censuses only 16.2 percent were migrants from 73.92 million people who
live in cities. This has show that there is narrow and small rural urban- migration. The level of
urbanization in the most populated regions – Amhara, SNNPR, Oromeiy – has only 11.8 percent
which indicts the low level of rural urban migration (Dorosh and Getnet 2011).
The Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR) is one of the region in the
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE). According to the third national censuses
2007, the total of population of the region was 14,929,548, from which 7,425,918 were male and
7,503,630 were female (SNNPR, 2007; CSA, 2007) from the stated total population 2,075,332
2
were migrants , 995,997 male and 1,079,335 female respectively .The percent of migrant
population in the region was 13.9 .The region’s population accounts 20% of the total
population of the country, which makes it the third populous region in the country next to
Oromia and Amhara federal states. According to a recent estimate, about 8 percent of the total
population of the region is residing in urban areas while the bulk of the populations (92 percent)
are living in rural areas (CSA, 2007).
Like other parts of the country, movement of people across regional and zonal boundaries is
historically a common phenomenon where influx of people migrates to small and big towns due
to economic and other non-economic reasons. The phenomenon of migration carries several
economic, social, and cultural problems in the region ( Alemante &et.al, 2006 ). The exodus of
people from rural to urban centers has becoming serious problems of most small and growing
urban areas in the region.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
The role of rural urban migration in poverty reduction is a bone of contention in Ethiopia.
Recently, the Ethiopian government recognized the potential role of urban areas in the
contributions of national economic growth and poverty reduction need to connect wealth and
development potential of rural to urban linkage and of laborer mobility between rural and
urban areas. People mobility from rural to urban areas has been considered as, one of the
problems for the achieving of the development efforts of the cities . At the same time, the
Ethiopian government is concerned that rural urban migration makes it more challenging to
improved welfare for urban residents, especially in the provision of housing, employment and
public service. Hence there is evidence on how rural urban migration affects urban poverty along
different dimensions in order to guide the government efforts to improve the living conditions in
cities (MoFED 2009).
Ethiopia has a mixed history of internal migration and population distribution. In previous
decades, migration was shaped by political and economic transitions and instability. Political
ideals transformed from the 1970‘s to current day (socialist to a market-oriented economy), as
3
well as civil war and famine determined flow and direction of internal migration (Mberu, 2006;
Kiros and White 2004).
Over time, the share of the Ethiopian population that has migrated from outside their Woreda of
current residence has increased from 11.4 percent of the population (4.54 million people) in 1984
to 12.9 percent of the population in 1994 (6.92 million people) to 16.5 percent of the population
(12.21 million people) in 2008. Most of this migration, surprisingly, is not rural-urban migration.
About half of all migrants are rural to rural migrants, though the share of rural-rural migrants in
the total number of migrants has gradually declined from 56 to 49 to 47 percent across the three
population census years. Rural to urban migration over the same period has risen from 1.30
million people in 1984 to 3.26 million in 1998, but the share of rural-urban migrants in total
population is still small, having risen from 3.3 percent in 1984 to only 4.4 percent in
1998( Dorosh and Getnet ,2011 ). .
While the total number of internal migrants in Ethiopia is growing, interesting changes are taking
place in their composition. Rural out-migration is on the rise. Urban out-migration is declining,
with urban-rural migration decreasing the most. Only 16.2 percent of the 73.92 million people of
the country lived in urban centers in the year 2007 according to the census, indicating that there
is limited and low-level rural-urban migration. The level of urbanization in the three most
populous regional states, which account for 80.4 percent of the total population of the country, is
only 11.8 percent, which further reveals low rural-urban migration ( Dorosh and Getnet ,2011 ).
.
In Ethiopia, much had not been done to study Cause and Consequences of Rural Urban
Migration. From the available limited literature on the subject a few have attempted to study
these aspects of urban-ward migration such as Shack (1973) in Addis Ababa, Bjeren (1985) in
Shashemene, Kebede (1991) in Nazareth, Birru (1997) in Arbaminch etc. Some of these studies
are from the anthropological point of view and concentrated on Addis Ababa and the nearby
towns.
Although actual data is scanty, it is believed that Wolaita Soddo town received a large migrant
population each year. Wolaita Soddo town faced a series of problems due to rapid population
growth. Based on the first, second , third national censuses and the unpublished documents of
4
Municipality(2012) of the town the population size of the study area increase from time to time
: in 1967 /--10.842, in 1975---19.414, in 1984---24.278( the First National Censuses) , in 1994---
36.287( the Second National Censuses) in 2007 ---76,050 from which 43,639 were migrants
( the Third National Censuses) and in 2018, after five years, the population estimated reached
1,27397 – based on the projection of 2007 censuses (Wolaita Zone FEDD, 2013).Such high
influx of population has its own effects on the areas of departure and destination on the regard of
social, economic, environmental, cultural and political.
This indicates that the town experiencing a high number of in-migration mainly from Woalita
Zone and nearby Zones. The researcher had very much familiar with research areas from his
childhood. In connection to this, at the present time the town faced serious of problem within and
around due to high population pressure. For instance some of the main problems in the eyes of
the researcher are environmental pollution, natural resources degradation , overcrowdings,
social unrest (theft, crime, and pick pocket), high living cost and poor urban amenities.
In order to minimized rural urban migration different mechanisms from integral rural urban
development to that of resettlement projects had been taken by different countries. However, the
success of the mechanisms is under great question. Migration is an inevitable and irreversible
process and integral part of development. Most of the policies and programs to halt the rural
urban migration had not accomplished. So, for the effective urban management and the
formulation, adaptation and implementation efficient rural development policies the topic of the
research has put it on crucial contributions.
Such observation and the existing situation made the researcher inspired and to explore the
situation and identify the causes, and consequences of rural urban migration to Wolaita Soddo
town .So that, this study provides much information and then make recommendation on the
cause and effects of rural urban migration towards the town and why people choose the town to
relocate their residence either temporarily or permentally ? What pull/push factors are
responsible? Etc will be some of the question will be raised by the researcher. And the research
findings will be contributing its own part in the knowledge gap of the topic under discussion –
the causes and consequences of rural urban migration.
5
1.3. Objective of study
1.3.1 General objective
The general objective of the research is to assess the causes and consequences of rural urban
migration to Wolaita Soddo town.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
Based on the general objective of the study the specific objectives of the research are:
To investigate the major drivers of rural urban migration ,
To analyzed the socio- economic and socio –demographic characteristics of the migrants;
regarding to income, employment, education, family size, age, sex, marital status,
To explore the challenges faced by migrants at early stage of arrival to the town of
Wolaita Soddo,
To assess the consequences of in-migration particularly on housing, employment and
social conditions and other facilities and amenities in the study area.
1.4. Research Question
With regard to research inquiry, the research question included:
1. What are the major drivers to migrate from rural areas to Wolaita Soddo town?
2. What are the socio –economic and socio demographic profile of the migrants?
3. What are the problems the migrants faced during their arrival in the town?
4. What are the consequences of in-migration particularly on housing, employment and
social conditions and other facilities and amenities in the study area?
6
1.5. Significance of the Study
According to INSTAAR(2007), studying the migration of human give us knowledge of the
development of human civilization , show us the pattern of human existences , help us
understanding of complex economic system, and it might even give us a way to ensure the future
survival of the human race . In Ethiopia, different factors enforce the study of issues of migration
and these enforcing factors become one of the significance of the study. First and most, Ethiopia
is largely a rural and agrarian society. And the rate of urbanization is very low in relative to
SSA- an average of 36 percent -, (World Bank, 2009), and only 17 percent of its population lives
in urban areas. Hence to understand the future population shift can speculate where will be the
future hot spots to inform government where resources should be diverted to accommodate
growing population. Second, in rural Ethiopia migration has been used as means to
diversifications mechanisms. And also serve as a livelihood strategy, means to increases income
and relived own food scarcity constraints. Such information can serve as base to social
protections programmers. Third, the lack of available land constrains productivity. Households
expand over time, and yet allotment of land is fixed and continues to be divided between
household members posing productivity constraints on generations to come. The rural out-
migration of household members can alleviate the constraints on productivity posed by land
scarcity. ( Dorosh, Getnet and et.al ,2011)
The study is mainly concerned with the causes, and consequences of rural urban migration. It
gives responses to the question related to ‘what’,’why’,’who’ ‘how’ in relation to rural –urban
migration. The findings of the study will serve as base for other planners, policy makers, and
public administers and developmentalist in local and regional areas.
The overall consideration of the significance of the study will be summarized in the following
statements.
Fill the gap in the literature in the areas of Rural Urban Migration ,
It become not a primary but a secondary source of information for researchers ,
academicians and practitioners ,
7
Serve as guiding documents for policy makers for the adaption, formulation and
implementation of a genuine rural development strategies , efficant urban management ,
migration policy,
Give insight for the town administrators about the existing and emerging socio-
economic challenge of the migrants in relation with the socio-economic services
provided by the town administration
1.6. Limitation and Delimitation of the Study
The topic of migration is an immense area of systematic investigation and needs an ample
devotion of time and attention to acquire knowledge .So many scholars and academicians
attempts to deal with the topic and forwarded their own contribution in varies school of thoughts
. Some of the limitation of the study were : shortage of time, restricted geographical coverage,
limitation of variables in extant, number or scope and exclusion of newly arrived migrants; those
who live in the study town only for one year hence they may further leave the town or go back
to the departure places.
1.7. Scope of the study
The study has been geared to those migrants from Wolaita Zone and other surrounding zones
and regions to Wolaita Soddo town. This research will explore “push factors” of rural areas and
“pull factors” of Wolaita Soddo town.
1.8. Definitions of Key Terminologies and Key Concepts
Areas of destination /arrival are a place to which the migrants change place of residences
and arrived to the new one.
Areas of origin/departure is a place from which the migrant departed
Internal migration is the movement of people from one place to another, within the
boundary of a state of which they are citizens, in order to take up employment or
establish residence for a minimum of six months. Movement of internal migrants
8
includes rural to rural, rural to urban, urban to urban, as well as urban to rural flows. The
migration duration can be both short and long term. (Siddisui 2012 ; United Nation 2013)
Kebele is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia.
Migrants People who were born outside Soddo but presently live in Soddo. They could
be classified by place of birth (rural/urban).
Migration: - is a form of geographic mobility between one geographical unit and another
generally involving a change of residence from the place of departure to the place of
destination (UN, 1982). Movement of people within the country is termed as internal
migration. Those who have resided in the area of enumeration continuously since birth
are non-migrants. Those who, in the course of their lives, have lived elsewhere other than
in the area of enumeration constitute the migrants. ( ISPS 2012)
In-migration:- to move into or come to live in a region or community
Rural-urban Migrant is a someone who moves from his/her usual location of dwellings
from a rural to an urban area.
Urban area is a place people were established a community with the number of 2000 and
engaged in the economic aspects of secondary and tertiary
Wereda is the administrative unit next higher to kebele.
1.9. Organization of the Paper
This research has consists of six chapters.
Chapter 1 deals with introductory part, where an account of background of the study, statement
of the problem, objective of the study, research questions, significance of the study,
scope of the study, limitation of the study and organization of the study is made.
Chapter 2 covers the literature review part in which case both theoretical and empirical review is
covered which is related to urban rural migration.
Chapter 3 covers the methodology section, types and source of data, target population, data
collection, Sampling design and procedures, and methods of data analysis.
Chapter 4 and 5 provides with the result and associate discussions obtained from the
questionnaire and FGD of the study area.
9
Chapter 6 In light of the findings and results obtained through qualitative and quantitative
data’s, this chapter provides conclusions and recommendations of the study, references
used in the study, questionnaire and FGD guide had also attach here with at the appendix
part.
10
CHAPTER TWO
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Theoretical Framework
The causes and consequences of migration have been treated and examined by different
discipline. Many scholars have forwarded theoretical and empirical thought on the issues of
distinctiveness, factors and effects of migration on domestics and global level. Various
theories , models and laws will be appraised within the realm of developing countries in
general and Ethiopia in particular.
2.1.1 Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration
Earnst Georg Ravenstein was painstaking as the beginners on discipline of migration, and
developed the law of migration. His work becomes the foundation for the subsequent years in the
modern study of migration. The law lays down migration generalizations sweeping statements
(Rhoda, 1979) and the uniqueness of migrants, their initiation /motives and causes of migration
(Barke and O'Hare: Ibid; Hornby and Jones 1993). The law of migration of Earnest Georg
Ravenstein has eleven components:
1. The majority of migrants go only a short distance,
2. Migration proceeds step by step,
3. Migrants going long distances generally go by preference to one of the great centers of
commerce or industry,
4. Each current of migration produces a compensating counter current,
5. Females are more migratory than males within the Kingdom of their birth, but males more
frequently venture beyond,
6. Most migrants are adults: families rarely migrate out of their county of birth,
7. Large towns grow more by migration than by natural increase,
8. Migration increases in volume as industries and commerce develop and transport improve,
11
9. The major direction of migration is from the agricultural areas to the centers of industry
and commerce,
10. The major causes of migration are economic ,
11. The natives of towns are less migratory than those of rural areas. In wide ranging, even if
the laws were formulated in context of 19th century Brittan, some laws were applicable but
the others were not (Barke and O'Hare, 1991). Ravenstein law of migration has been
adopted and used by many scholars in the areas of migration and the causes and individual
intention for migration related with economic factors, off-putting pressures of distances,
and the feminization of migration has its own empirical gear in different migration
literature. (Ibid, ).
2.1.2. Lee’s Theory of Migration
The push pull notion directly implied with the reason of migration. Accordingly, the personal
initiation to choose migration linked with either by`` pull ``factors or ``push ``factors. ``push
``factors are a negative reinforcement to leave the home land at individual level or family level.
A good examples in point are low productivity, land scarcity joblessness .Whereas `` pull
``factors are the magnetizing of destinations /city /. For example, relatively high and consistence
wage, job access and better provision of social and economic services (Gmelch and Zenner,
1996; Broadly and Cunningham, 1994).
According to Lee, one of the proponents of the theory of migration in 1960s, there are four main
factors in the act of migration: characteristics of the origins, characteristics of the destination,
nature of intervening obstacles and nature of the people. He proposed a wider presentation on the
concept of pull-push (Lee, 1960). He also forwarded that the place of departure-origin- as well
destination has as good climate to attract and bad climate to repulse and zero effects on the
migrants (Ibid, 1960). On the motive of the decision of migration the factors associated with
departure areas overweighed the destination areas, and also related by personal factors to make
possible or hold back to migrate (Ibid, 1960). The closing point in Lee’s theory of migration was
the concept of “intervening obstacles” in connection between place of origin and destination.
12
2.1.3 Sjaastad’s Human Investment Theory
Sjaastad developed the theory of migration in 1962. The key concepts in his theory were ones
action for reaching on the migration related with the intention of cost and its return after some
period of time. The expectation of the migrants and what he/she gets consists of money oriented
or not in relation to its original departure areas. The expense related with money included the
overall cost of the migrants from his/her origin to that of destination expect the psychological
gain or lose which is connected to the non-financial aspects.
2.1.4 Harris-Todaro Model of Migration
Todaro (1969) and Harris-Todaro (1970) put their own feet print in the literature of migration.
In the mid –of 20th century the hot debate in the realm of economic school of thought about the
under development of less developed countries were population booming in country side and
absences of industrialization in town. The debate only exists for short period of time hence the
level of inequality and poverty remaining the same when the GNP increases .Even more the rural
urban migration was considered as one factor for the under development of the LDCS. Todaro
(1969) and Harris-Todaro (1970) model justified that the condition and level of urban
unemployment.
The key ideas of the models were /are
1. Rural urban migration is related with an economic aspects
2. The rise of job opportunity in cities mean the rise of urban joblessness in town and even
more reduced national product i.e. Todaro contradiction ,
3. Migration considered as tuning means of workers in the labor markets in country side or
cities in order to increase the income ,
4. The very reason to reach on decision to leave the place of origin by the migrants is the
possibility of unemployment in the destination areas.
13
2.1.5 New Economies Models of Rural-urban Migration
Recent models of internal migration, called New Economies of Migration, adopt a complete
change in perspective as they do not pretend to explain urban employment as presented by
Harris-Todaro (Katz and Stark, 1986 cited in Lall, et. al, 2006). According to this model,
migration takes place in a world of imperfect information that can account for the sorting of
migrants according to their skills. The key assumption is that information about skills does not
flow freely across labour markets. Sometimes, the employer in the origin can have better
information on workers’ productivity than employers’ in the destination. In this situation, skilled
workers may not find it beneficial to migrate. This is because skilled workers would be paid a
lower wage in the destination than in the origin, where their skills are recognized.
Others have focused on alternative motivations to migrate which can contradict the view that the
expected income differentials between rural areas and urban areas necessarily have to be positive
in order to induce migration.
Furthermore, rural-urban migration is job related in its nature. Therefore, it is natural to study
migration as job-search framework. According to Vishwanathan (1991, cited in Lall, et. al,
2006), the models have three options involving different information flows and search: i) stay in
the rural areas, ii) engage in rural-based search for an urban job, iii) move to the city and engage
in urban based search.
2.2. The Empirical Framework
Despite divergence on the theories of rural-urban migration, the tide is still happening in many
developing countries. In this sub-section some of the common causes and consequences of rural-
urban migration observed are outlined in light of empirical findings in different literature.
2.2.1 Causes of Migration
The persons choice to migrate from his origin/rural to that of destination / cities determined on
different border reasons. Knowing of the reasons of migration from the rural to urban areas
14
become the areas of interest by different social sciences disciplines (McGee, 1974 Bilsborrow
et.al, 1984). The reason for migration and selection of the destination areas appraisal become
more multifaceted hence the pattern , idea, kind ; the nature and course varies from time to
time , from place to place and from person to person ( UN 1984 , Jansen 1970) .
Most of the research works in the causes of migration revealed that the ``push`` or ``pull`` factors
become more underlying one; and directly link with economic and non-economic aspects of the
migrants. The circumstances that obliged the migrants to leave his/her origin of residences
considered as push factors like conflict, famine, crop failure due to some reasons and others .
The push factors were/are the more predominated than pull factor in developing countries as
reason for migration. The economic base of rural areas solely depended on the agriculture,
when the productivity of land declines and the environment not conducive for maintains of the
livelihood of the peasants which enforces to depart from rural residences to the cities.
The issues of the practical implementation of the principles of democracy become one of driving
force for increments of rural urban exodus. The lack or absences of good governance and the
principles of democracy may pave the way for rural residences to feel unconfident and enforced
to migrate. Such kind of political reasons become one of the reason to rural urban migration in
most of developing nations (Aklilu and Tadesse, 1993).
According to 1999 Labor Force Survey of the CSA of Ethiopia, the most important reason for
migration were : migration along with the family , search for the work , marriage arrangement
and return back home become reasons orderly .
Main reason for migration shows variation between men and women. As expected marriage
arrangement is the second main reason for migration among female, while it is not important at
all among men. For men education is the main reason for migration. According to Ezra and
Tesfaye in 2011 and 2007 respectively push factors more overweighed than pull factors in
Ethiopia as driving force of rural out migration.
15
In most of SSA the decline of agricultural productivity, joblessness and high lode of farming
activities drifted rural population from their residences to cities in the search of better living
standard and living condition.
Recurrent conflict in hinterland areas , shortage of land due to overpopulation , hostile land
holding nature , inappropriate government agrarian polices and regulation , natural resources
and ecological degradation which resulting in frequent depravation and scarcity of food
(famine and drought) more than enough to press on , as single and concurrent driving factors of
migration , from rural to urban areas ( Kebede, 1994 ).
A pull factor is impressive relating to the place a person migrates to. It is by and large a good
thing that attracts people to a certain place. Some scholars stated it as to the young’s ‘Bright
lights' syndrome – the move of young /rural youth from rural areas in seeking of better
opportunity in cities. High possibility of access to employment , enhanced way of life ,
adequate provisions of social serves- medication, education ,electricity, piped water delivery and
others - state of feeling safe , recreation, relatives relation were/ are considered as some of the
pull factors for rural urban migration . Cities are the centers of different attraction like a relative
high wage, an advanced soft and hard infrastructure with connection cities facilities and services,
enhanced city cultural expression and way of life.
Access to information has either facilitating or hindering factor for the rural urban migration.
The means of information may vary from friends who return from migration, electronic or
printing media .
The reasons for youth migration vary. Often, a combination of several major factors leads to the
decision to migrate. Personal considerations, socio-economic circumstances, and the political
situation in the country of origin may be important contributing factors. Often, the main driving
force behind youth migration (particularly international migration) is the magnitude of perceived
inequalities in labour market opportunities, income, human rights and living standards between
the countries of origin and destination. Some young people migrate to escape conflict,
persecution, or environmental threats. The decision to migrate is often related to important life
16
transitions, such as pursuing higher education, securing employment or getting married. This
phenomenon has led to social, cultural and demographic transformation of the communities of
origin and destination (United Nation, 2013).
Poverty, job searching and family influence were the main push factors for outmigration, while
better opportunity, prior migrants and availability of job were the main pull factors behind
migration in Bangladesh ( Hossain ,2010 )
Hussainet al. (2004) made an attempt to study the major factor behind the migration of 120
respondents of Faisalabad city in Pakistan. It revealed that a majority of the respondents were
agreed with the non- availability of job was the main reason for their migration. Besides, the
absence of educational facility, poor health institutions, low paying jobs, poor rural settings,
labour intensive agriculture production, family disorganization and polluted environment were
found as the factors that pushed them to migrate. The outcome of the analysis indicated that
better education and better employment were the pulling factors for their migration. The study
also mentioned the other pull factors which attracted the migrants were better health institutions
and facilities, high paying wages, better housing, public entertainment and better sewerage
system.
Singh and Kaur (2007) in their study mentioned the factors of migration as economic, social,
psychological, political and natural. The study attempted to bring out the important push and pull
factors of migration of the respondents to Ludhiana city of Punjab. The result of mean score of
90 migrant labourers indicated that poverty, low employment at native place and more
employment and higher wages in Punjab were the prime factors for their migration. Other
equally important economic causes of migration were indebtedness, small land holdings and low
incomes in villages. The study mentioned the role of other reasons for migration as well and
reported that economic and social causes were the prime factors which forced the respondents to
migrate to Punjab.
Regassa and Yusufe (2007) documented the factors inducing migration among 1258 respondents
in Southern Ethiopia. The study employed a Multivariate analysis and found that the rural out-
17
migration in Southern Ethiopia was related to economic as well as non- economic factors like
shortage of land, food insecurity, and household size pressure, educational and religious status.
An empirical analysis was carried out by Devi et al. (2009) to find out the determination of rural
out migration in Coimbatore city. The study made a survey of 100 migrants from four zones. It
was revealed that migration among the low income group is mainly because of poverty and
search of better employment. By finding the economic reasons as the main cause for migration,
the study analyzed the discrimination between the two groups such as those migrated for
economic reasons and for non- economic reasons. It was found that the means of the factors of
the migrants who had migrated for economic reasons were higher among the nuclear family
belonging to the Hindu religion and backward communities.
Misra (2008) attempted to study the determinants of migration among 300 migrated labourers in
Alang Ship Breaking Yard (ASBY) in Gujarat. The study found that both 'push' and 'pull' factors
influenced migration. It was revealed that 35 per cent of them mentioned 'pull factors' were the
main cause of their migration and 65 per cent cited 'push factors' were the leading cause for
migration. The non- availability of work in the native places, not enough property, social and
family disputes were identified as push factors of migration.
The significant pull factors were the presence of friends and relatives and the availability of
finance in the destination place. The study further found that relatives and friends of the migrants
were not only providing information about the employment opportunities in the destination area
but also assisting in getting jobs and to reduce the cost of migration by arranging for the
migrants' initial stay with them.
2.2.2 Consequences of Migration
Migration has its own positive and negative consequences on the place of departure and
destination. Natural resource depletion, environmental pollution, earning disparities,
redundancy, urban expansion, social unrest, population crowding were/are some of the negative
effects of migration. Whereas migration has paved the way for development, enhanced process
18
of industrializations, serve as means of livelihood and even more the remittance become sources
of family income and mechanism of to escape drought and famine (Dang et.al 2010, Mohapatra
et.al 2009 ) . Some country specific evidence, in India and Vietnam, has show that migration
reduced poverty at the family level. According to Deshingkas and Akter (2009) in India exists
of 100 million circular migrants which contributed 10% of national GDP. In Vietnam 3%
poverty decreased due to seasonal migration (De Brauw and Hargaya 2007) . In the contrast to
the above positive effects of migration, migration does not reduce poverty but it does help
families’ from sliding into further poverty. In border spectrum, rural urban exodus has a marked
effects and influences on different aspects of the places of leaving and arrival.
In the border spectrum, the consequences of migration will be treated as follow:
Rural urban migration has its own positive and negative impact on the size of population both on
origin and destination places. In the rural areas the size of existing population will be
deteriorating whereas in the counterpart of town will be increasing hence most of the migrants
exist in the age of reproductive ( Khinchure , 1987 ).
According to different research findings migration by its nature strongly geared with age and
sex, so the population composition of rural and urban areas will be reconstructed ; the very
reason for this is the age of the new comers/ the migrants is less than the dwellers of cities.
Because of the above facts, the lures of people from rural to urban areas become the source of
young generation; which further paved the way boost of number of population
(Montgomeehet.al, 2004). The above stated situation becomes more favorable in African
migrants. Hence they are not acquainted with birth control mechanisms and then the
composition of the population formation exposed for uncontrolled reproductions (Ibid, 2004).
The persistence of city –ward migration has direct out comes on the economic aspects of the
place of origin and destination. It is manifested in two ways: first and most for the migrants
open the door for the employment opportunity and securing the basic necessity of life becomes
wide and secondly the migrants financial sources and means become divergent (Siddqui, 2012).
A good point in case is that the increase of monthly incomes Nepalese migrants to Middle
Eastern countries by 7.4 time to that of non-migrants of in Nepal (Siddqui, 2012). The economic
19
gain of migration is manifested at individual, household, societal and national level and paved
the way for the economic advancement of the place of origin and destination. The amount of
remittance sent back to the country of origin has increases from time to time ; in 1997 , 2010
and 2013 were USD 77 , USD 440 , USD 529 respectively ( World Bank, 2013 b) . The figures
of internal migration with national territory have greater than international migration. In 2009
UNDP estimated that the number of internal migration is nearly four times greater than
international migration. Even if the number of internal migrants is greater than the international
migrates, there is great limitation on the information of the volume of internal remittances at
national or international level. There will be some basic reason for the absences of information:
the emphasis given to internal migration is very low, the internal remittances transaction
recording is not conducted by the central banks and the means of of sending remittance are not
formal channels. (Castaldo, Deshingkarand McKay, 2012).
A kind of migration whether internal, regional and international has economic advantages; the
accesses to employment and earnings become wide. Even more international migration has
contributed much for diminution of poverty at household level and also plays a great role for the
establishment of strong human capital. Migrants active involvement in the community overall
economic, social, and cultural spheres has great effects. Their participation may express in
sending remittance, skill, technology to fill the gap of to society. This engagement fosters rural
economies and advances economic development (Siddqui, 2012).
Mberu (2006) has studied thoroughly to determine the nature of temporary against lasting for
long time migration and the living conditions at family level. According to his findings, both
permanent and temporary migrants frequently move to work place not related with the
occupation of their origin – agricultural –. In relation to the education attainment of the two
groups the temporary migrants’ level of education is higher than permanent migrants; however
their intention not to involve to the occupation similar to their place of origin enhanced a decent
standard of living.
The impact of migration has clearly seen on the metropolitan indispensable amenities. It has
shown a marked effects and influences on the city amenities provisions. Overcapacities and
20
overloading in metropolitan, twisting of government services provided for the benefits of the
communities such as education, medical care and housing the expanse of basic needs mounting ,
generally the access to human wellbeing become narrow. The supply of ecosystem, natural
resources, environment to societies becomes deteriorated. Even more social unrest like theft,
crime, and idleness has more prominent. Migration has open the door for the expansion of
unwanted sexual activities for the payment particularly on the side of women, ways of street
livings, and curable and incurables diseases (Adepoju, 1995).
Squatter settlement and the increments of the cost of the rented house is the other negative side
of migration. According to UN-HABITAT, the phenomena of overpopulation and alarming rate
of population growth, the observable urban development at high speed in connection/joint with
ceaseless and continued poverty widely opened the gate for the unprecedented unban poorest of
the poor (Mathewos and et.al 2011).
The slums and squatter settlement ranking of Ethiopia in the world level is very much
disappointing. 80% of the housing in Addis Ababa is squalid and overcrowded urban areas
inhabited by the very poor people (ORAAMP, 2001) The circumstances in the other part of
regional state cities and urban areas is exactly similar with Addis Ababa(CSA, 2005, 2007 ).
Chandra (2002) studied the consequence of internal migration in Fiji. The data were collected in
1992- 93 among 2416 migrants and found that rural to urban migration and more importantly
inter- urban migration had been most pronounced. The study examined the social and economic
conditions at their destinations on the view of heads of migrant households. After migration,
professional, technical and related occupational groups, sales personnel showed a slight growth
in employment and that indicated a positive marginal change relating to salary and wage earners.
The economic consequences of migration provide unambiguous support for the notion that
migration in Fiji is economically beneficial for migrants.
Kumar (2003) examined how far the extent of settlement problems and adjustments among un-
married rural migrant men in a new urban environment. The study emphasized the changes in the
economic status of migrants in the process of migration. A household survey was conducted
among 81 un-married men in the age group of 24-39 years in Krishnagiri municipality. A notable
21
proportion of the rural migrants moved in to the town when they were in their early and late
childhood age groups. The main reason for moving in to the town among the rural migrant
youths were their parents transfer and to do business in town. Economic status of the selected
respondents showed that both the working status and income of many of the respondents were
improved after migration.
A study conducted by Semyonov and Gorodzeisky (2008) to observe the impact of migration on
income and the standard of living of the migrant's households in Philippines. The analysis was
made among 2388 households to estimate the contribution of remittances between the
households with and without overseas workers. The result of the multi- variate analysis showed
that the income of households with overseas labor migrants was higher by 30 per cent than the
income of households without labor migrants. The effect of overseas employment on income was
positive and highly significant. The analysis also displayed that household with labour migrants
enjoyed higher standard of living than households without overseas. It implied that households
with overseas workers were able to purchase more goods than the households without overseas
migrants. The study demonstrated that the money that labour migrants send back home was
mostly used by members of the households for consumption and to support education.
An empirical analysis on the effect of net migration on the economic growth of the developing
countries was made by Dao (2010). The study used a statistical model from a sample of 46
developing economies in order to analyze the impact of migration on per capita Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) growth.
The result of the least square estimates showed that the increase in net migration or the number
of immigrants had led to a rise in per capita GDP growth. The empirical finding of the study
supports the beneficial impact of factor mobility on this segment of the population in the
developing world. The study concludes that an increase in net migration as a result of removing
restrictions on labor mobility positively influences economic growth in developing countries.
Sundari (2005) has made a study to find out the quality of life of women migrants of Chennai
city. The primary data was collected among 50 migrant women coming from various parts of
22
Tamil Nadu. The study underlines that migration has solved the problem of unemployment
among women but failed to improve the quality of employment. Workers who were in
unprotected, non-regular category of employment obtained the lowest income and hence poverty
incidence was more pronounced among these households. About 40 per cent of migrant
households were living on roadsides, 30 per cent did not have access to safe drinking water, 65
per cent had no sewerage facilities and around 79 per cent did not have latrine facilities. The
study specified that the pressure of unemployment and poverty caused by drought in the place of
rural origin pushes the rural labour force towards urban centers in search of survival. A low level
of economic, social, human and political capital drives the migrant work force to over crowd in
to the informal sector.
Roy et al. (2006) studied the impact of rural urban migration on female migrant fertility in
Bangladesh by using the data from 1999-2000 Bangladesh demographic and Health Survey. It
was evident from the study that rural urban migration had significant effect on fertility in the
selected area. There was poor rate of utilization of health care among the children of urban
migrant compared with urban natives and their standard of living was very low. The significant
impact found by the study is that the household poverty also was more prevalent among the
migrants particularly long time migrants. The result showed that total fertility rate for rural urban
migrants were lower than rural non- migrants and was higher than urban non migrants since they
were adopted smaller family size norm.
2.2.3. The Nature of Rural-Urban Migration in Africa and Ethiopia
During colonial time most of African men were migrate to different plantation and mining site to
earn cash income. Due to the openness of the colonial boundary circular way of migration was
very common were as after decolonization the circular migration becomes shifted to permanent
migration hence the easy movement blocked (Adepoju, 1995).Intra-rural migration and rural-
urban migration are interlinked and dominant patterns of migration in SSA. Migration in
developing countries has been increasing and will continue to expand despite the slowing down
of migration rate in some countries in recent years. (Msigwa, 2013 ).
23
The inner and outer face of Africa is marked by different black scares. Repetitive drought and
famine, clash and conflicts at domestic level and with neighbored states, political turmoil which
hindered the development of the continent .Even if such ugly faces of Africa seen magnificently,
the role of family in the creation of strong social ties is very pivotal . its role is beyond the
natural role of replication but families are the main players in the creation system of social
control and social capital and strictly follow and give attention for the over all aspects of African
life including migration.
In most part of Africa, families tends to choose carefully one member of the family to involve in
the migration and spend money to education him/her with the extended plan to achieve a
particular long term aim : perpetuation of the constituents of the families or to support the
diminishing supply of materials or assets .In setting such long term plan at household level,
choose and spent money to one member of the family who have greater capacity to developed
migrate income and spending remittances. By doing this, the family formulated a border vision
of survival strategies in the time of difficult or danger for the house hold (Adepoju, 2005). For
many African , remittance provide a means to escape from any difficulty situation ; economic,
social , state oriented and cultural obligation of the families will be fulfilled by the money send
from migrants from cities .
Covering the expanses for the education of one or more member of the family is the second
coping mechanisms in choosing migration. The selected family member overall educational and
living expanse covered by the families in the rural areas with hope of return of scarifies of the
families when the migrants engaged in civil services (Oucho, 1990).
In SSA, rural urban migration for children and women has considered as strategies to adopted
bad circumstances of the rural areas. Poverty and conflict are the basic driving forces for their
migration. After arriving in the city, they are engaged in the different activities like domestics’
worker and sex workers (Sirinai, 2002)
In different rural urban migration literature in the relation women migration in Africa, they were
leveled as secondary migrants. The justifications are related with traditional view of the statues
24
and role of women in the society. The societal outlook and cultural norms prevent African
women fully to involve in the lure of rural urban migration (IMO, 2005).
However, the situation is now changing. Formerly, men exclusively dominated the migration
flow and involved on the type of works needs physical firms in the industrial and agricultural
sectors .Now a days, women were /are involved in the domestic and international migration. In
the 1960, less than 41% of migrants stocks in Africa were female, by 2000, more than 47% of
the migrants stocks were women. There are several reasons for the increase of the so called
“autonomous female migration”. On the one hand, the increase of the demand of female laborer
in some sector services and industries; and on the other hand, growing social acceptances of
women economic independence and mobility. In fact feminization of migration is one of the
principal recent changes of population movement. The reasons are complex and may include
both economic and non-economic factors (IMO, 2005).
Poverty and landlessness are the consequence of a host of interrelated factors – small sized
farms, marginal ecological conditions, depleted soil, low productivity, intense population
Pressure, lack of access to credit and institutional constraints serve as cause of migration
(Adepoju, 2008).
There are estimated to be between 20 and 50 million migrants in Africa, although statistical data
on migration flows are incomplete and often outdated, and there are significant undocumented
flows ((Black, et.al; 2006). Internal migration involves men, women and children, and includes
rural-rural, urban-rural and urban-urban flows as well as rural-urban movements. Links between
rural and urban areas developed by migration are significant in promoting remittances,
encouraging community level initiatives for the construction of public facilities and
infrastructure, and linking rural producers to urban markets (Black ,etal;2006).
East Africa has a long history of labor migration between and within countries to plantations
(cotton and coffee in Uganda), mines (DRC and Uganda) and with the seasons (pastoralist
communities in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya). In the post-colonial era, these movements have
been supplemented by substantial forced displacement, and increasing rural-urban migration
25
within countries for employment or to earn a livelihood. However, both urbanization rates and
levels of international migration remain generally lower than in other parts of Africa (Black,
et.al; 2006).
2.2.4. Migration in Ethiopia
According to historians, four types of migration, all of them internal, have been taking place in
Ethiopia: the first movements related to the invasion and settlement of new lands since the time
of the medieval history of Ethiopia to that of the expansion of Menilike ,the second one was
mass relocations by the Oromo spanning several decades and generations , the third one was
individual migrations; rural-rural, rural-urban, and the urban-urban, more recently, famine-
induced out-migrations, and government-sponsored resettlement. ( McCellan 1984)
The Menelik expansion, the founding of Addis Ababa as capital city since 1888, the Italian
occupation (1935-41) and the building of the Djibouty-Addiss Ababa railway were some of the
historical events which enhanced rural urban migration in the country. ( McCellan ,1984).
In the period between 1941-74 different events and situation more enhanced rural urban
migration, the construction of different path highways, a relative urbanization and the opening of
employment opportunity in different urban centers and plantation.
In the period of 1889-1913, the reign of Emperor Minilike, state oriented expansion from
Northern and Central part of Ethiopia was conducted to South-West, South-East, Southern part
of the state with the objectives of modernizing and centralizing the empire (McCellan ,1984).
The other new developments in relation to expansion in the conquered areas were the setup of
military garrisons which were ruled by military chiefs. After the expansion process ceased, the
military garrisons function as military bases shifted to economic function- sources of rural
abundant resources extraction centers (McCellan, 1984). According to McCann ( 1987) , the
peasants in the north which have degraded and scarcity of land had move to south to do
agricultural works.
The attempt to centralized and modernized the Empire in 20th century also continued in the time
of Emperor Haieal Sillase. According to Kloos and Aynalem , in the period between 1950s and
1970s an estimated one million people migrated because of insufficient and degraded land .
26
After the collapse of the Imperial regime of Haieal Sillase, the people lure/movement was state
controlled and directed. The military government with its ideology of socialism, confiscated
privet property, declared the proclamation of rural and urban land reform. The legislation enables
the tenants and land less become the owner of land (Proc 7and Proc71, 1975) .This, proclamation
has far reaching consequences on the socio-economic and political life of the popular masses ,
one of the consequences was the reduction of the rate of rural urban migration; even if the exact
data has not avail.
The then government of Military Junta, introduced and established PA in rural and Kebele in
towns with different social, political and economic objectives. There were two factors for the
decline of rural urban migration in this time: one, the landless peasants and tent become the
owner of land because of the land to tanner proclamation (Baker, 1990) and second the
administrative rigidity not encourages rural urban migration and also urban to rural migration.
Hence, the member of PA in rural has not able to become member in Kebele association in town.
Even any movement from the rural to urban and from to rural was under the permissions of the
new institution. (Baker, Clapham ,1988).
In the meantime, in the post 1974, a state played a great role in directing the flow of migration.
In the period under discussion, there were two types of population movement: villagization and
large scale resettlement (Baker, 1990).According to Janson,et al, in 1990,the villagization
programme collected 10 million , accounting for 23 percent of rural population had been
villagezed .
Land degradation, land scarcity, the 1974 famine were the underlying factors for the onset of the
resettlement programme by the government (Baker, 1990 , Campbell 1991).The resettlement was
conducted from resources depleted areas to that of resources abundant areas with three phases:
(Kirsu 1989) from 1974-84 180,000, 1984-86 600,000 were involved in resettlement programme.
Since 1988 no report of resettlement and in 1991, after the collapse of WPE, resettlement
officially ceased. (Tekleab, 1991)
The policy document of the present government about migration makes few references; where
they do the control and limiting of migration remains a state goal. (FDRE Agricultural Policy
and Strategies 1995) The document further stated that 1; to reduced urban bounded migration as
consequences of `increased utilization of laborer within the agricultural sector (ibid. 1995); 2;
27
recommended the creation of `favorable conditions for the nomadic population… ultimately to
become settlers` (ibid. 1995).
Over time, the share of the Ethiopian population that has migrated from outside their woreda of
current residence has increased from 11.4 percent of the population (4.54 million people) in 1984
to 12.9 percent of the population in 1994 (6.92 million people) to 16.5 percent of the population
(12.21 million people) in 2008 (Dorosh,Getnet and et.al 2011).Most of this migration,
surprisingly, is not rural-urban migration. About half of all migrants are rural to rural migrants,
though the share of rural-rural migrants in the total number of migrants has gradually declined
from 56 to 49 to 47 percent across the three population census years. Rural to urban migration
over the same period has risen from 1.30 million people in 1984 to 3.26 million in 1998, but the
share of rural-urban migrants in total population is still small, having risen from 3.3 percent in
1984 to only 4.4 percent in 1998. According to the census, rural out-migration is on the rise.
Urban out-migration is declining, with urban-rural migration decreasing the most. Only 16.2
percent of the 73.92 million people of the country lived in urban centers in the year 2007
according to the census, indicating that there is limited and low-level rural-urban migration (Ibid
2011).
2.2.5. Causes of Migration in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a poor country that has struggled with drought, famine, overpopulation, poverty and
political instability. The country has considered as `cradle `of human being and early/ancient
civilization and is one of the few countries which successful escape the scramble of Africa by
Europeans. This has not, however, prevented the country from suffering from ethnic conflict and
political instability. The volatile politics and ethnic conflict had contributed to poor governance
which combined with overpopulation and droughts had led to devastating impact for the state
(Fransen and Kuchminde 2009) .
Ethiopia has experienced different types of migration over her history. It has been both an origin
and a destination country to either voluntary or involuntary migrants, and many migrants have
also used it as a transited area. Moreover, has know largely internal migration flow (ibid 2009).
28
According to migration literature, to the causes of rural urban migration in Ethiopia, the so called
`push and pull` factors were/ are the predominate (Kunz, 1973). Over population, famine,
poverty, land scarcity, lack of agricultural resources, governmental agricultural policy consider
as main push factors (Ezra and Kiros 2001). The emergence of towns as business centers become
pull factors for rural residence to that of urban centers (Berhanu and white, 2000).
According to Alice Beban (2009), the very reason for rural exodus in different developing
countries was search of better economic opportunity. Cities are known to be place where money,
services and wealth are centralized. Cities are where fortunes are made and where social
mobility is possible. Business which has generated jobs and capital are usually located in urban
areas. And better health services, greater varieties of entrainments and quality of education are
the other pull factors for rural urban migration (ibid 2009).
3. Conceptual Framework
Migration can be measured as an important character of means of economic survival in many
African, Latin American and Asian states to search an improved way of life. Push –pull factors
are the main theme in considering the movement of rural people from their origin to destination
in cities. “Push factor” mean situation at the origin enforces; a good illustration depravation of
food, dearth, squat agricultural output, joblessness and etc. On the other side, ``pull factor``
considered as a circumstances existed in the destination area magnetized the migrants.
According to rural urban migration literature, city employments access, accommodation
facilities, enhanced earnings consider as main reasons for intentional /voluntary rural urban
migration. It is believed that, beyond the under mentioned reasons, the urban centers provided a
decent standard of living. In the regard to access and supply of social services and infrastructure
cities has a very high accessibility than rural areas. The initiation/motive means of transportation,
the alertness of the migrant about the overall pattern of city and the educational background of
the migrant also another aspect of the rural urban migration process.
29
The verbal narration of the returnee migrant about city life and their life exposures to non-
migrants, with their observation, has an igniting factor for the arousal of the feelings of non-
migrants to migrate to urban areas.
In the earlier time, pull factors were the underlying reason for the rural urban movements like
city employments access, decent way of life and others, whereas, now a day, push factor become
overweighed than the pull factors. The migrant’s puts have pressure on the existing burden of
city in the aspects of provision of different social, economic questions and services and
amenities. Unlawful residents become the manifestation of the town, the issues of net
environment and problems related with the health of the residents of the city become other areas
of challenges because of rural influx of people. In border spectrum, rural urban migration
resulted in escalating the number of urban population and the need and demanded of the urban
population.
30
Sources: Own FormulationFigure 1 .Conceptual Frame Work of Rural Urban Migration
31
Chapter Three
3. Research Methodology
Under these chapter different aspects of the study area, the methodology, the data type and
source, research design and strategy such as determination of sample size, sampling technique,
data collection technique and instrument and data processing and analysis are presenting.
3.1. Description of the Study Area
Woliata Soddo town is located in the southern part of Ethiopia in SNNPRG ,Wolaita Zone , at
the distances of 390 km from Addis Ababa via Shasemene and 329 km via Hossan and 167 km
from Hawassa , the capital of SNNPRG .Its astronomical location is 8 north longitude and 37
east longitude. According to the unpublished documents ( 2013) of the municipality the total
geographical coverage of the town is 3,200 hectares. The town is one of the reform cities in the
region, and has city administration, municipality, three sub cities and eleven Kebeles. The
administrative work of the town carried out by the Mayor and different committees whereas the
municipality services conducted by the head/manger of the municipality.
According to the National Population and Housing Census carried out in 2007, the populations
of the town were 76,050. The annual population growth is 4.8% .Based on the 2007 the National
Population and Housing Census, in 2014 the projected population of the town is 105591 and in
2018 will reach 127397 (Wolaita Zone FEDD 2014)
The altitude of the town is 2050m above sea level; its mean annual temperature is 18 c and the
mean annual rainfall 1800mm. Woliata Soddo town is the principal town of the Soddo Zuria
Worada ,Soddo town administration and Wolaita Zone of SNNPRG.
32
Source : Wolaita Zone Finance And Ecnomice Development Deprtment
Figure 2 Map of the Study Area
33
Source : Wolaita Zone Finance and Ecnomice Development Deprtment
Figure 3 Adminisrative Map Of Wolaita Zone
34
3.2. Research Strategy and Design
The central theme of the study is Causes and Consequences of Rural Urban Migration to Wolaita
Soddo town, in SNNRG, Ethiopia. For the full attainment of the research objectives and
questions in relation to the theme of the study a combined research design -quantitative and
qualitative –had been employed. The reason for the use of mixed approach was to get precise
summaries and comparisons from quantitative data and to access general elaboration,
explanations, meanings and a relatively new idea from the qualitative data.
3.3. Data Type and Source
Combined methods of primary and secondary sources of data are used.
3.3.1. Methods of Primary Data Collection Questionnaire, and Focus Group Discussion (FGD), had been employed as methods of primary
data collection.
Questionnaire: to meet the research objectives and question, the researcher used a questionnaire
which included fixed-alternative question or closed question. Hence, it has helpful to acquire
primary data from individual migrants’ households from the kebels house hold registry.
Questionnaire is selected by considering the benefits that the method has compared to other
methods of primary data collection tools in terms of time and cost. Questionnaire enables to
collect more information from large respondents with limited period of time. In addition, it can
minimize bias of the interviewer and allows the use of large sample size that will result in more
dependable and reliable results (Kothari, 2004).
The pilot Questionnaire was developed and administered to non-sampled kebele households with
the objective of pre-testing whether the Questionnaire can generate ambiguity or clarity in the
relation to the topic. The final version of the Questionnaire had been prepared in English and
transcribed to Amharic and Wolatigna which is the native language of the local people- with
simple and clear way for easy understanding of the respondents.
35
Focus Group Discussion /FGD/
In the processes of the research, I had conducted ten members FGD from each of the sampled
Kebeles .The members FGD are heterogeneous, from elderly people to that of young from the
recent migrants to that of long time residences, gender inclusive-both men and women-, offices
holders of the town administration and zonal administration particularly the social and economic
affairs.
3.3.2. Sources of Secondary Data
In addition to the primary data, secondary data are used for successful attainment of the research
objectives .In this regard, different documents and archives at different level and forms had been
assessed. The Wolaita Zone Social and Economic Affairs, the Wolaita Soddo Town Mayor and
Municipality Offices, The Wolaita Zone Finance and Economic Development Department were
some of the office visited by the researcher to dig the published and unpublished secondary data.
The offices of Central Statistics Agency (CSA) at Zonal, Regional and National level not
exempted from secondary data sources. Different scholarly works in the rural urban migration in
the internet and university library were used for the further and detail investigation of the topic.
3.4. Sampling MethodsAccording to the information obtained from the Wolaita Soddo town administration offices.
(2014) The town administration is divided into three sub-cities- Markato Sub City
Administration, Arada Sub City Administration, Mehali Sub City Administration. Markato and
Mehale , sub- town selected by using purposive sampling method. From the three Sub Cities
because of higher number of migrants were settled in these sub towns and out of seven kebekls
four kebeles are selected from the two sub- city administration. These are: Kara and Fana from
the Markato Sub City and Wadu and Damot kebele from Mehale sub city. The reason which I
focused on these kebels is the majority of migrants settled in these kebels and the other kebels
are inhabited by non-migrants and insignificant number of in- migrants were founded.
In the time of the distribution of questioners, purposive sampling had been used; with the help of
chief executives of the Kebeles to identify the migrants’ households from the Kebeles house hold
registry. Hence the registry has migrants and non-migrant people lists. To determine the sample
size the research used conventional cut method, i.e., proportional allocation sampled house hold
36
for each kebeles had been used according to this method it is possible to use from 5%- 30%
from the total number of the HHs.
The researcher made a prior contact with the Kebele administrator and mangers of each Kebele.
They cooperated by arranging a schedule to identify and meet the migrants. The researcher
personally met some of the migrants and explained the purpose of the study to get their consent.
After getting their consent, the researcher used a purposive /judgmental sampling technique
(discussed above) to identify the samples that would complete the questionnaire. Table 1 shows
the sampled Kebeles and distributions of the samples
Taking into account of the sample size and the time schedule as well as the nature and content of
questionnaires, the researcher recruited a total of eight enumerators from the respective kebeles
of the town. The data collectors were selected on the basis of their personal characteristics,
educational level (preparatory complete and 12+3 graduated from different university) and
knowledge of the town (i.e. native to the area and speakers of local language Wolatuma ). Before
the data collectors start the actual field survey, the researcher arranged orientation program on
how to proceed with the interview and approach the interviewee, then, the enumerators started
their work. In addition, during the survey the researcher accompanied field assistance in order to
coordinate as well as to cross check their works. In order to maintain the quality of data
collected, meetings were held with the enumerators after the end of each survey data to discuss
any problem they faced. The researcher also cross checked the completed questionnaires with
some of the respondents. The survey was administered during twelve days starting from
Tiqemet/October 1-12, 2007. A total of 282 questionnaires were completed.
37
Table 1 Distribution of Sample Migrant Households
Kebeles Name Total Population Number of Household Head
Number of Sample Household Head
Kera 7849 974 48.7Fana 11614 2409 120.4Wadu 16847 1046 52. 3Damot 8367 1197 59.85Total 44677 5626 281. 25(Sources Wolaita Zone Finance and Economic Development Department 2014)
Because of financial and time restrainers, the research had included only 282 sample
households (5 % of the total migrant population of the sampled kebele) as target population and
the unit of analyses.
3.5. Data Processing and AnalysisThe data gathered was checked for completeness and correctness of the responses. Incomplete,
inconsistencies, and incorrect response was revisited to validity by consulting the participants for
review. Finally, data was arranged and categorized in the line with research question and
objectives and coded for analysis.
The data are analyzed in terms of content for qualitative and statistics to quantitative. In content
the raw data was copied or transcribed. The transcribed data was arranged and categorized in
line with the research question and objectives. Then the quantitative data was entered in to
excel, cleaned and edited and then analyzing via SPSS 16 th version to obtain, frequency,
percentages, tables, and graphs to carry out the effective analysis of the study. Data collected
through the group discussion were considered during data analysis.
38
CHAPTER FOUR
Presentation Analyses and Interpretation
4. The Process of Migration, the Characteristics of Migrants
and Causes of Migration to Wolaita Soddo Town
4.1. The Overall Process of Migration
The global urban population is expected to grow by approximately 1.84% per year between
2015 and 2020, 1.63% per year between 2020 and 2025, and 1.44% per year between 2025
and 2030. The average population change is currently estimated at around 80 million per year
(WHO, 2014)
In projections to 2030, the African population is expected to peak at 1.6 billion from 1.0 billion
in 2010, which would represent 19% of the world’s population. Asia and Latin America will
account for 58% and 8%, of world population, respectively.(AfDB based on UN Population
Division data, arch 2012 ) According to the 1999 Labor Force Survey, there were 1.1 million
migrants in urban areas in Ethiopia, and 1.2 million in rural areas. (Casacchia et al., 2001: 6)
Due to rural urban influx and natural reproduction the urban population has alarmingly increase
in Ethiopia. The very reason for the increment of urban population in most of undeveloped
countries including Africa were rural-urban migration which supplement the addition of almost
half of their urban Population growth (Kebede, 1994)
Understanding migration and migration streams among different parts of the country require
basic data and it helps in formulating various policies for balanced national development, labour
market, urban development, education, housing, public hygiene, etc. The data on migration
trends also help for more reliable sub national population projections. (ISPS, 2012)
39
According to the present research investigation which has relied on place of birth, disclosed, the
pre-dominance of migrants with rural origin (78.7 percent) compared to the urban ones (21.3
percent) the urban figure only for place of birth for migrants was urban but they were not live
on town of Wolatia Soddo and in the meantime they migrated to Wolatia Soddo from rural
areas of Wolaita Zone . (See Figure 4 below). This finding is consistent with the fact that in
countries that are largely rural, most urban in-migrants originate in rural areas (Gimba Z, 2010)
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 4. The Number of Migrants to Wolaita Soddo Town by Sex
Migration to Wolaita Soddo and other urban areas of the country had been dates back to several
decades, but the 1994 census report reveal that the time when most migrants moved to town is
quite recent. According to Inter-Censual Population Survey of Ethiopia (ICPS) 2012 about 37%
of the migrants have moved to the current place of residence during the last five years, whereas
46% have moved more than 10 years back
40
The data on table 2 , shows that only 1.8% percent of the migrant households heads have
moved to Wolaita Soddo before 1974. Most of the migrants arrived to the town on the period
between 1975 and 1992. 47.9 and 50.4 percent on the period 1975 -1991 and after 1991
respectively. On the stated period the percents were somehow nearer but according to data on the
table the majority of people migrate to the town after the collapse of the Derge regime and the
beginning of new rule all over the country. Similarly, the percent of women who migrate to the
town –on this period 1974-1991- were 8.2 percent but after the onset of the new government
system the percent of women and men were equal, i.e.; 25.2. (See table 2 )
Female internal migration for employment purposes appears to be on the increase. The
emergence of new economic activities in the different economic sectors pushed women to urban
centers in several African and Latina American countries. As far as families and households are
concerned, the migration of women into these jobs, as well as domestic and service labour, may
be an important way to reduce the risks that subsistence agriculture pose. Employers, on the
other hand, may be drawn to female migrant workers because they are perceived to be “more
docile and cheaper workers than men (Hugo, 2013).
Migration requires resources and, as such, it is not available to everyone. Women who represent
the poorest of the poor in rural areas often lack the resources to migrate (e.g. information, land
ownership, assets and social networks). Even in households where these resources exist, the
larger family may control them, constraining women’s migration opportunities (Bridge, 2005).
Women can be more physically vulnerable and can be restrained in their movement by their
caring and reproductive responsibilities. Cultural norms, which can be particularly stringent in
rural areas, can also dictate that it is not acceptable for women to travel on their own. That type
of restriction may mean that women have to travel shorter distances or stay put altogether
(Bridge, 2005).Even if the reality is that, on case of this research finding since the onset of the
new government system-FDRE- the volume and pattern of the male and women migration to
Wolaita Soddo town had been equal and particularly women migration show increment from
time to time. The fact of the survey merely coincides with the 2012 ICPS;
41
“…Among the four migration streams, the common forms of migration among recent
migrants in Ethiopia is rural-urban; it constituted 39 percent of the total recent migrants.
The data clearly shows a shift in migration pattern from rural-rural to rural-urban. It is
further seen that unlike migrants of all durations, greater share of recent female migrants
move from rural to urban. …’’
According to the FGD, there were different historical events which play vital role for the
increment of rural urban migrant to Wolaita Soddo town at the end of 1990s: the effects of the
1985 National Famine, the collapse of the Derge regime and the establishment of new
administration, and when Wolaita gain Zonal status, the survey area become the political and
economic center of the Wolaita Zone.
Tabel 2 Distribution of Migrants by Year of Last Arrival in Wolaita Soddo
Year of arrival sex Total Male Female
Before 1974 No. 5 0 5
Percent 1.8 0 1.8
In the period of 1975-1991
No. 112 23 135
Percent 39.7 8.2 47.9
After 1991 No. 71 71 142Percent 25.2 25.2 50.4
Total No. 188 94 282Percent 66.7 33.3 100
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
The traditional pattern of migration in sub-Saharan Africa – male dominated, long-term, long-
distance and autonomous – is increasingly becoming feminized as women migrate independently
within and across national borders. (Adepoju, 2008). Many surveys carried out in Africa indicate
that initial family migration is uncommon. In other words, most migrants especially young men
both single and married initially migrate to the cities alone (Adepoju, 1980; Baker and Aina,
1995).
42
Likewise, only 45.7 percent of the in-migrants to Wolaita Soddo were accompanied by family
members or relatives at the time of in-migration. On the other hand, 54.3 percent migrated to the
town alone. (See table 3.) However, the survey on major urban centers of Ethiopia indicates that
family migrations are common in the urban-ward migration streams of Ethiopia (Department of
economics, AAU, and et.al; 1995).According to the studies conducted in Africa on female
migration in Zimbabwe, Uganda, Nigerian and Mali indicated that single female migration is
directed towards attaining economic independence through self- employment or wage income.
(Adepoju, 2008 ).
Table 2 Distribution of the Migrants Accompaniment from the Birth Place by Sex
Sex
Did Anyone From Your Place Of Birth Come With You
Yes No Total
Male No 75 113 188Percent 26.6 40.1 66.7
Female No 54 40 94Percent 19.1 14.2 33.3
Total No 129 153 282Percent 45.7 54.3 100
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Most studies have shown that the decision to migrate is generally made by the individual or
household making the move (Clark, 1986). However, many migrants especially wives and
children, do not actually make the decision (McGee, 1975).
There are various factors involved prior to make the decision for rural-urban migration. Other
than the problems of the rural areas and expectations of urban life, information flows that
individuals receive are important inputs to migration decision (Rayhan and Grote, 2007).
Getahun (2007) states the influence of pioneer migrants and the existences of networks were
very important in attracting potential migrants to Addis Ababa. What he states is that information
and social networks in facilitating migration was important because those who are generally less
educated and subject to greater social constraints were more likely rely upon friends or relatives
information and guidance to make the decision to migrate.
43
The decision to move to urban centers in Ethiopia are mostly made by the migrants themselves
(Department of economics, AAu and et.al, Ibi :; Kebede, 1991 and Birru, 1997).
As the data in table 4 reveal, 51.1 percent of the migrants have left their place of origin for
Wolaita Soddo on their own personal decision, push from the friends and relatives took 19.1 and
18.4 percent respectively. The share of decision by family and employers accounts for 10.3 and
1.1 percent, respectively. On this regard the decision for migration mainly made by individual
level, the role of friends and family accounts second and third rank in the process of decision
making of migration to the study area .It is clear that mobility on single individual level easier
and not need any societal and other cost than mobility on family wise.
Table 3 Migration Decision as Reported by the Respondents
Decision For Out Migration
sex TotalMale Female
Self No. 117 27 144Percent 41.5 9.6 51.1
RelativesNo. 25 29 54
Percent 8.9 10.3 19.1Friend No. 34 18 52
Percent 12.1 6.4 18.4
Family /parent(s)No. 12 17 29
Percent 4.3 6.0 10.3Employer No. 0 3 3
Percent .0 1.1 1.1
Total No. 188 94 282
Percent 66.7 33.3 100
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
In Ethiopia urban to urban migration was conducted in planned manner (Department of
Economics, AAU and et.al, 1995).This survey indicates that the majority (84.4 percent) of the
migrants to Wolaita Soddo migrated planned manner but 15.6 percent not planned .
Access to the information plays an important role in influencing the choice of destination of a
migrant. In other words, migrants have a desire to live in a place about which they have
sufficient information. Though, the information obtained through mass communications is
44
important, personal communications from families and friends are considered as more relevant
by the potential migrant in his migration decision process (Cardona and Simmons, 1975).
Once a certain critical number of migrants have settled at the destination, other forces come into
play which influence on subsequent migration patterns (De Haas, 2008). There is a Lee’s (1966
cited in De Haas, 2008) argument that migrants facilitate the flow of information back from the
place of destination to the origin, which in turn facilitates the passage of other migrants.
Most migrants to the cities of the third world are not going into the great unknown. Many of
them are quite well informed from friends and relatives who preceded them to the cities and
some are able to visit kin or friends in the city before migration (Gugler, 1988).
Supporting this idea, information flow and personal networks such as friendship and kinship
were among the important determinants of rural-urban migration to the migrants of this study.
The data obtained from the present sample survey, indicate that the vast majority (58.9 percent)
of the migrants had contact with people who know the town before they came to the town, 28.4
percent had previous knowledge or personal visit about the town, education and mass media has
10.6 and .7 percent respectively has served as sources of information to migrants. The percent of
the sources of information from the mass media is too mach insignificant hence all of the in-
migrants to Wolaita Soddo town has rural origin and not this much sensitive to relied on mass
media. (See table 5 below).
45
Table 4 Percentage Distributions of Migrants by Sources of Information
Source of information
Response sex Total Male Female
Education No 22 8 30Percent 7.8 2.8 10.6
Mass media No. 0 2 2Percent .0 .7 .7
Contact with people who know the town
No. 104 62 166Percent 36.9 22.0 58.9
Previous knowledge (personal visit )
No 62 18 80Percent 22.0 6.4 28.4
Others No. 0 4 4Percent .0 1.4 1.4
Total No. 188 94 282Percent 66.7 33.3 100.0
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)A substantial number of migrants (75.5 percent) to the study area reported to have had relatives
and friends already settled in the town before their move to the town. As it was already
discussed, these friends and relatives residing in the town were one of the chief sources of
information about life in soddo (see fig 5).
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 5 The Availability of Relative, Friend Or Parents Before You Moved To Live In Wolaita SoddoAfter the arrival of migrants to study area, according to survey data, they were joined with their
relatives and family .From the survey data 28 .7 percent with their family, 8.5 and 3.2 percent
with wife and husband respectively and 2.5 percent with parent were joined. However, the
46
majority (47.2 percent) were not set any kind of connection with their former place of origin.
(See fig. 6).
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 6 After the Migrants Move to Wolaita Soddo Person Who Join Him/her From the Place of Birth
Most of the migrants (54.3 percent) migrated to Wolaita Soddo alone and only 45.7 percent had
later been joined by relatives, families and friends from their origin. Thus the volume of chain
migration to (45.7 percent) is relatively grater compared to that of Awassa (35 percent),
Arbaminch (30 percent) and Kombolcha (27.9 percent) (see table 3 page 42)
Moreover chain migrants (migrants followed by their births and kin's, friends, relatives or co-
villagers) did not form a homogenous section (traditionally known as "sefer") in some parts of
the town based on their origin.
47
4.2. The Characteristics of Migrants
4.2.1 Age and Sex Structure of Migrants
The process of migration does not happen at the place of origin and destination accidentally ,
but mainly it was a selective process in relation to age, sex, marital status, education, occupation
etc.
The character of migrants can be demographic (age, sex, marital status) and socio-economic
(education, occupation etc.) and the prime determinant of the impacts of migration on both areas
of origin and destination (White and Woods, 1980).
Migration can occur at any age but several migration studies in Africa and other parts of the
world have shown that the vast majority of migrants are concentrated in the young adult age
group of 20-30 years (Caldwell, 1969; Clark, 1986; Goldstein, 1976 etc). According to Inter-
Censual Population Survey of Ethiopia ICPS (2012) about 40% of all migrants and 60% of the
recent migrants are from the age group 15-29 years. The rural -urban migrants in Ethiopia are
also pre-dominantly young adults (CSA, 1999, Vol II, Abdurhaman, 1987, NOP, etc). Therefore,
age is among the important determinant factors in most migration streams.
On the other hand, Kebede (1994) argued that migration is not only age selective, it is also sex
selective. However, the sex selectivity of migration is different in different regions. Similarly,
the result of this survey shows age and sex selective nature of migration.
Table 5 The Population Composition of Migrants Based On Sex and Age before Arrival to
Wolaita Soddo
The Age of Migrants When Left Place Of Birth Total0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49
sex Male No. 12 27 130 14 5 188 Percent 4.3 9.6 46.1 5.0 1.8 66.7
Female No. 8 29 57 0 0 94 Percent 2.8 10.3 20.2 .0 .0 33.3
Total No. 20 56 187 14 5 282 Percent 7.1 19.9 66.3 5.0 1.8 100.0
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
48
As shown in table 6 that most surveyed migrants are found between ages of 20 and 29 years. Out
of the total surveyed migrant population, 66.3 percent were in- migrated to Wolaita Soddo town
when they were in the age between 20 and 29. However, 19.9 percent of the surveyed migrant
populations in-migrated when they were 10- 19 years of age. On the other hand, about 7.1
percent were in-migrated when they were under the age of 10 years. Hence, migration to Wolaita
Soddo town is age selective. They are people of young age who migrated to the town. The age of
migrants clearly shows that majority of them were very young at the time of their first migration.
The proportion of migrants remarkably decreased with increasing in age group. Thus, the rural
migrants to urban are concentrated among youth and productive. The survey finding relatively
and clearly matched with the ISPS of Ethiopia 2012 of CSA; the result stated that:
“… 40 percent of the all migrants and 60 percent of the recent-migrants were between
age group of 15-29, and 13 percent of the all migrants and 23 percent of the recent-
migrants were below age group of 15…”
Moreover, the young age group migrated because of information access than other group of
population.
Furthermore table 6 shows that the proportion of male in-migrants to Wolaita Soddo town is
greater than that of female in-migrants. The survey showed that the dominant male migratory
groups are between the age of 20- 29 with 46 .1 percent and in the same age range the percent of
female were 20.2 ; however, the age 10- 19 groups for both sex has relatively equal percentage
9.6 for male and 10.6 for female migrants. This may be related to the nature and condition of
migration in Ethiopia where females are more migrated at earlier ages than males. Therefore,
from the data presented in table 6 one can understand that migration to Wolaita Soddo is age and
sex selective. That is, young people and males are the dominant migrant groups to Wolaita
Soddo town.
49
4.2.2 Marital statusMarital status is another important characteristic influencing the propensity to migrate. Migration
propensities change with marital status. That is, the matter of being married, unmarried (single),
divorced and widowed has an effect on the decision to migrate. Single persons have less
responsibility than married ones.
Table 6 Distributions of migrants by Sex and Marital Status at Time of Migration
Distribution Of Migrants By Sex And Marital Status At Time Of Migration
TotalMarried Single Widowed
sex Male No. 40 148 0 188
Percent 14.2 52.5 .0 66.7
Female No. 5 76 13 94
Percent 1.8 27.0 4.6 33.3Total No. 45 224 13 282
Percent 16.0 79.4 4.6 100.0
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
As such, the propensity to migrate is highest among the single than married ones. Different
literatures state that generally those who have no family obligation are more prone to move
( Mendola, 2006; Kebede 2008 ). Similarly, the response given by the respondents strengthen
this idea. As shown in Table 7, the majority of migrants which account for 84.1 percent of
surveyed total population were either single, or widowed when they migrate to Wolaita Soddo .
Table 7 further shows that about 52.5 percent of the surveyed male in-migrants were single when
they first migrated to Wolaita Soddo town .The corresponding figure for female in-migrants were
about 27.0 percent. It was also found that 16.0 percent of the surveyed migrants were married
when they migrated to Wolaita Soddo town, of which 14.2 and 1.8 percent were males and
females respectively. A study done by Guest (2010 cited in Deshingkar and Grimm, 2008)
coincide with the findings of this study in case of female rural-urban migrants, who found that
majority of female rural-urban migrants in East and Southeast Asia are young and unmarried.
50
Thus, from the sample survey, one can understand that most of in-migrants to Wolaita Soddo are
male who are single. This might be one of the factors that stimulate migration. However, the
proportion of divorced and widowed migrants in Wolaita Soddo both at the time of migration to
the town is very insignificant when to compared with single and married (see table 7). This
might be due to the fear of respondents to identify themselves as divorced or widowed due to the
possible negative impact on their actual and potential marriage opportunities.
In general, in-migrants to Wolaita Soddo town based on their marital status is dominated more
by unmarried male and female than married, divorced and widowed ones.
4.3. The Socio-Economic Characteristics of Migrants
4.3.1 Educational Characteristics
Education is one of the significant characteristics inducing rural-urban migration. The decision to
migrate is also more likely influenced by educational attainment. This would mean that those
who are better educated are relatively more involved in different migration streams than those
who are not. Those who have completed secondary education and higher are more migratory
than those who have completed primary education. This is mainly because of the fact that
educational attainment increases the chance to get employment and other opportunities. Most
studies of rural-urban migration found that, relatively better educated shows the highest
propensity to migrate (Deshigkar and Grimm, 2005; Hossain, 2001).
As illustrated on figure 7, 9.2 percent of the migrants were illiterate when they moved to Wolaita
Soddo , while about 90.2 percent had some form of education (Read and write, First cycle and
second cycle etc). Of those with some form of education 13.8 percent could only read and write
while the rest 77.0 percent acquired some form of formal education (First cycle level of
schooling and above).The survey finding revealed that the majority of in –migrants to study area
has some form of education but the uneducated percent has too much insignificant.
51
Again, of those with formal education, 23.4 , 31.9 and 8.9 percent reported to have First cycle (1-
4 grade ), second cycle (5-8grade )and Secondary high school (9-10 grade ) respectively ( see
figure 7 )
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 7 Distributions of Migrants by Educational Attainment before Migration by Sex
4.3.2 Occupational Status One of the determinant factors for the decision to migrate is occupational status of migrants
they had before migration. That means pre migration occupation plays an important role for
the decision to migrate. Thus, farmers as a result of crop failure as well as the need for other
better opportunities, and for students as a result of less opportunity in rural areas and lack of
employment opportunities need to move to urban areas.
As Figure 8 illustrates about 16.3 percent of the surveyed migrants were self-employed in
nonagricultural activities before they migrated to Wolaita Soddo town whereas the computed
52
figure for unemployed surveyed migrants was found to be about 16.7 percent. On the other hand,
about 27. 3 , 18.8, and 8.9, 6.0, 2.5 percent of the surveyed migrant population reported that they
were farmer, student, sick/ disable, housewives and merchants before they migrated to Wolaita
Soddo town respectively.
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 8 Occupational Statuses of Respondents before Migration at Place of Origin.
Therefore, the survey shows that a higher proportion of surveyed migrant populations of Wolaita
Soddo town are either unemployed, or students who came to for employment and other better
opportunities. The farmers also included with this group with their land shortage and
unproductively problems.
In general, most of the surveyed in-migrants of Wolaita Soddo town are found young adults that
are productive both demographically and economically. Most of them have educational level of
primary education and above. The majority of them are also single while some of them were
divorced and widowed.
53
4.4. The Causes for Migration
There are several reasons for population mobility from place to place. Reasons for migration to
urban centers in particular are more complex. However, the causes of migration are usually
identified as two broad categories, namely “pushing” and “pulling” factors.
For example, people of a certain area may be pushed off by poverty and other natural factor to
move towards towns for employment. On the other hand, better employment opportunities or the
need for better facilities in urban areas may also pull people to different urban areas. In addition,
the decision to migrate from one place to another may also be influenced by non-economic
factors such as the need to join relatives, the need to be free from cultural and family restriction
and obligation and so on. In general, however, as to the causes of migration scholars conclude
that migration is a response by humans to a series of economic and non-economic factors (Lewis,
1982; Todaro, 1997). However, nowadays scholars agreed that rural-urban migration is largely
explained by economic factors than non-economic factors (Todaro, 1997). In Ethiopia rural-
urban migration also takes place largely as a response to economic factors rather than non-
economic factors (EEA, 1999/2000).
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 9 Causes of Migration by Sex
54
Migrants had taken the decision to give up their place of birth and move to soddo town for
economic and non-economic reasons. The economic reasons considered are search for job, job
transfer, problems related to agriculture, opening extending business and lack of assets. On the
other hand the non-economic factors include the search for education and other modern social
services, the need to join friends and relatives, to seek good climate, divorce and death of family
member, and family pressure.
As can be observed from figure 9 the economic based movement accounts for highest percent of
the surveyed migrants. The pre-dominance of economic motives among migrants from rural
areas may be an indication of better conditions of urban areas than rural areas in terms of income
and other economic opportunities.
Though the provision of employment opportunities in the town is very low, lack of remunerative
job in the rural areas of the region and the country at large, pushes people to the town. Thus,
search of job stands first among economic reasons of migration accounting for 43.6 percent of
the migrations (see figure 9).
As it was pointed out earlier Wolaita Soddo is located in the region of high population density
and drought. A significant proportion of migrants, 16.7 percent, out-migrated from their origin
primarily due to problems related to agriculture such as landlessness, small land holdings, low
productivity of land etc. (see figure 9 ). Therefore, problem related with agriculture is the second
economic reason of migration next to search of job.
There is a relative concentration of socio-economic services and facilities in Wolaita Soddo
compared to most rural areas of the Zone. As a result, 3.5 percent, come to the town through job
transfer from the rural areas where these facilities and services are inadequately provided or are
totally absent (see figure 9). So job transfer is the third reason of migration next to problem
related with agriculture. However, job transfer is not only attributed to the search of urban
services but also to the need to join friends, relatives, parents etc. and other factors.
55
Migration due to the desire to open-up new business or extend an already existing one is the fifth
important economic factor of migration, considered as a primary reason by almost 1.4 percent of
the migrants (see figure 9 ).
56
CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION
Our understanding of the consequences of migration in particular so far is less well developed.
This is because the effect of migration on both the places of destination and origin is very
complex and requires thorough understanding of various behavioral contexts. However, in
general, the consequences depend on the volume of migration, the degree of flow of remittance,
and the type (characteristics) of migrants that dominates the migration flow.
Contrary to this, migration particularly in the push stream of movement is found to be the major
bottleneck for development in both receiving urban and departing rural areas in developing
nations. This is because most of urban areas of less developed nations are ineffectively urbanized
and hence are not found to have the capacity to fruitfully absorb the rural migrants in gainful
jobs, neither to provide housing or various other social services and amenities. Thus, they have
limited pull situation but still are perceived by the rural migrants as powerful magnets. The high
rate of overcrowding and unemployment is increasingly causing several social, psycho-social,
cultural, political and economic problems in the towns, making them quite unstable social
organizations in perpetual tension and stress. Rural urban migration is the most crucial
component of internal migration of any country. It poses some problems in the rural as well as in
the urban areas, even though there are benefits derived from it (Ullah, 2003). Although the
consequences of rural urban migration are diverse and deep, both at the urban destination and at
the rural origin, this study focuses only on the urban destination.
5.1. Problems Encountered by Migrants while adjusting themselves to
the New Environment ( Wolaita Soddo Town)
As already indicated in chapter four, most migrants to Wolaita Soddo have some form of
information about the town. The main sources of information for many of them were relatives
and friends residing in the town (refer to figure 5). In addition the presence of these friends and
57
relatives facilitates the initial adaptation of the new arrivals in the urban life through their
assistance.
For instance, among those reporting to have had friends or relatives in Wolaita Soddo prior to
migration, about 70.6 percent stated that they had received assistance in one form or another to
settle down and adjust to their new environment. (See table 8)
Table 8 The Availability of Relatives, Friends or Parents, Assistance For Migrants and Type of Assistant
Response Migrants
No Percent
The Availability of Relatives ,
Friends , or Family
Yes 213 75.5
No 69 24.5
Total 282 100
Assistances from Relatives ,
Friends , or Family
Yes 199 70.6
No 14 5.0
Total 213 75.5
Missing 69 24.5
Total 282 100
Type of Assistance to
Migrants from Relatives ,
Friends , or Family
Food and lodging 142 50.4
Assistances to find job 23 8.2
Different information 22 7.8
To find house 9 3.2
Others 3 1.1
Total 199 70.6
Missing 83 29.4
Total 282 100
(Source: Survey Result, 2015 )
According to the data, out of the total respondents who have received assistance from relatives
and friends in Wolaita Soddo, 50.4 percent, reported to have been provided with food and
58
lodging; 8.2 percent in finding job; 7.8 percent were assisted in getting different information; 3.2
percent were helped in search of rented house. (See table 8 above)
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
Figure 10 Problems faced by Migrants during the Initial Period of In-migration to Wolaita Soddo
Among the many problems migrants encounter at their initial period of adaptation and
adjustment, the problem of getting shelter or accommodation was ranking first, followed by the
problem of obtaining job. However, obtaining food and related items as well as the provision of
social services were not the most pressing problems for the majority of the in-migrants (See
figure 10).
Examining the time that in-migrants spent under unemployment is also one of the common
methods that help to assess the problems that migrants faced after a certain period of arrival in
the town. About 27.4 percent of the surveyed migrant populations have had jobs that were
waiting them. These people are usually government employees who transferred to Wolaita
Soddo town and those people who came to Wolaita Soddo to work with their relatives' or
friends', firms or to start a new business and/or extended an existing one. According to the report
59
of migrants, the majority of them (72. 6 percent) had no jobs that were waiting for them and the
significant proportions of them were employed within one year.
5.2. Current Occupational Status, Educational and Income Level of Migrants
5.2.1 Current Occupational Status of MigrantsOne among the interests of migrants of urban center is to participate in the urban labor force.
However, participation into urban labor force again depends on different factors like level of
education, presence of relatives, skills and so forth. Thus, examining the current occupational
status of migrants is important to assess the impact of migration on individual migrants as well at
destination area.
The data presented in Table 9 reveal that greater about 84.0 percent were employed whereas 3.9
percent of the migrants were unemployed at the time of the survey period. Such migration of
working force means loss of agricultural labour force in the rural areas which may lead reduction
of agricultural production. The other effect of migration in the areas of origin is its impact on
labor distribution creating labour imbalances particularly in the rural areas. As a result,
agricultural production can be hampered and adversely affected because of dominance of labour
by old aged, children and female population in the rural areas.
Table 9 Current Occupational Status and the Nature of Employment of Migrants
Occ
upat
iona
l Sta
tus
Response MigrantNo. Percent
Employed 237 84Unemployed 11 3.9
Pension 3 1.1House Wife 4 1.4
Others 27 9.6Total 282 100
Type
Of
Empl
oym
ent
Self Employed 125 44.3Employed In Privet Organization 66 23.4
NGOs 2 .7Government Employer 51 18.1
Others 27 9.6Total 271 96.1
Nat
ure
Of
Empl
oym
ent
Permanent 65 23.0Temporary 86 30.5Seasonal 106 37.6Causal 14 5.0Total 271 96.1
(Source: Field Survey, 2015)
60
As to the type of employment, about 44.3 percent were found to be self-employed during the
survey period. This is true in Africa where the bulk of new entrants to the urban labor force
seemed to create their own employment (Todaro, 1997). Relatively more migrants (18.1 percent)
were employed in government organization.( see table 9 above )
Thus, the cumulative effect of flow of labor force with such magnitude (rates) at the destination
area is that they create pressure on the existing job opportunity by jeopardizing non-migrants
opportunity to get job easily.
5.2.2 Current Educational Level of Migrants Different studies of migration point out that the search for education and training is one of the
reasons for rural out migration. Thus, assessing the educational level of migrants at their
destination area is important. During the survey period, migrants were asked about their current
educational level. As we have seen in chapter four, majority of the respondents (90.8 percent)
had primary and above educational level when they in-migrated to Wolaita Soddo. However,
after their migration to Wolaita Soddo the literacy rate of migrants had increased to 94.4 percent.
Even if the cumulative percent is similar before and after the arrival of the migrants the level of
education varies from read/write up to college level show significant differences. (See table 10)
This shows that migration involves not only selection of educated persons from their origin but
also improves the educational level of migrants at their urban destination. This may be because
in Wolaita Soddo there are different training and educational institution that in turn creates
opportunities for the migrants to upgrade education and training levels in these institutions of
their destination than in their birth place.
61
Table 10 Educational Attainment of Migrant’s before and after Arrival of Migrants to Wolaita Soddo
Response
Before Migration After Arrival
No. Percent No. Percent
Illiterate 26 9.2 17 6.0Read And Write 39 13.8 44 15.6First Cycle (1-4) 66 23.4 54 19.1
Second Cycle (5-8) 90 31.9 63 22.3
Secondary High School (9-10
25 8.9 35 12.4
10+Certificate Training 15 5.3 23 8.212+ Different Training 14 5.0 11 3.9
College / University Level 7 2.5 35 12.4Total 281 100 281 100
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
5.2.3 Current Income Level of Migrants One of the economic characteristics of a migrant is income. An attempt was made to examine the
current income level of migrants although there was problem of getting correct income data of
individuals. According to Table 11, most migrants (29. 11percent) earn an average income level
of more than 1000 birr per-month. Similarly, about 21.3, 18.4, 15.6 and 15.6 percent of migrants
earn monthly income of less than 100 birr, 100-499, 500-599, and 600-999 birr respectively. This
could be because they may engage indifferent self employed small scale activities that enable
them to earn average monthly income.
Table 11 Distribution of Migrants by Monthly Average Income
Income categories MigrantsNo Percent
Less than 100 60 21.3100- 499 52 18.4500-599 44 15.6600-999 44 15.6
More than 1000 82 29.11Total 282 100
(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
62
The significant impact of rural-urban migration upon the places of origin is the role of out
migrants to influence the rural income through remittance. During the group discussion
participants stated that though the amount of money remitted happened to be of very low they are
in a position to remit certain amount of money to their places of origin. They reported that their
remitted money was used as an ingredient in agriculture, purchasing of consumption items and
other livelihood activities.
5.3. Access of Migrants to Housing Facilities and Amenities
According to the World Bank (2013), developing countries must prepare to house an additional
2.7 billion people between now and 2050, as migrants move in unprecedented numbers from
rural areas to pursue their hopes and aspirations in cities. In fact, international evidence
highlights that much urbanization takes place early in development, before countries have
reached middle incomes (World Bank, 2008). As a result, migrants often settle in slums and
squatter areas, which may provide inadequate shelter while lacking security of tenure.
As it is commonly known, migration has depopulating effects in home areas and overcrowding at
destination areas thereby adversely affecting, at least temporarily, the existing socio-economic
systems in both areas. In particular the problem of pressure on limited urban housing and urban
services and resources is intense and more severe in many poorly endowed and fledgling towns
like Wolaita Soddo.
One among many problems that are associated with urbanization is the inadequacy of urban
housing. That means, the rate of supply of housing did not go with pace of the growing minimum
potential demand for housing in different urban areas.
63
Table 12 Accesses to Housing Facilities
Housing Tenure
Responses MigrantsNo. Percent
Own 108 38.3Rented 174 61.7Total 282 100
Number Of Room
1 44 33.32 58 20.03 70 24.84 27 9.05 22 7.8More Than 5 11 3.9Total 282 100
Availability Of Kitchen Facility Yes 258 91.5No 24 8.5Total 282 100
Availability And Type Of Toilet FacilityFlush 14 5.0 Dry-Pit 265 94.0I Have No Toilet 3 1.1Total 282 100
Availability And Type Of Bath Facility
Have No Bathing Facility 102 36.2Bath Tube ( Private ) – Modern
44 15.6
Bath Tube ( Shared ) – Traditional
26 9.2
Shower (Private )- Modern 42 14.9Shower ( Shared )- Traditional
68 24.1
Total 282 100(Source: Survey Result, 2015)
The data in table 12 show that the majorities (61.7 percent) of the migrants have not possess their
own dwelling and 38.3 percent with their own house. The number of the room size of the
respondents varies from 33.3 percent for one room house to 3.9 percent for room more than
five .the tables further elaborated that, 91.5 percent have kitchen but 8.5 percent have not
64
kitchen. On the regard to availability and type of toilet facility 94.0 percent had had the facility
but the proportion of without toilet is insignificant
Housing facilities such as kitchen, toilet and bath are useful indicators in evaluating the living
condition of migrant. As indicated in table 5.4, the majority of migrants have access to kitchen
facilities. In other words 91.5 percent of the migrant households the town have kitchen facilities
either private or shared. (See table 12)
Households without toilet account for about 1.1 sample households. However, insignificant
numbers of migrant households, 5.0 percent, have access to modern flush toilet (private or
shared), the majority, 94.0 percent, have acquired dry- pit toilet. (See table 12). The proportion
of households with no bathing facilities is 36.2 percent. (See table 12)
5.4 Access of Migrants to Water and Electricity Services
According to the data in table 13, almost around all of the surveyed migrants, 96.2 percent, in the
town have access to piped water supply.
Table 13 Sources of Water Supply and Electricity
Source of water supplyMigrants
No. Percent Own meter 27 9.6
Shared meter 124 44.0From other household 20 7.1
Public tap 102 36.2Other 9 3.2Total 282 100
Sources of electricityShared Meter 50 17.7Shared Meter 91 32.3
Rented From Others 130 46.1Do Not Have Electricity Access 11 3.9
Total 282 100(Source: Field Survey, 2015)
65
In general, the presence of greater number of migrants who purchase water from public fountain
(Bono), 36.2 percent , and electricity from other households , 46 .1 percent , is an indication of
low living condition and income level of migrants .
5.5. Ownership of Durable Consumer Items
The availability of some durable consumer items is another indicator of the living conditions of
migrants. From the survey migrants, 56.7, percent are the owners of radio sets. Only a small
proportion of respondent possessing other durable consumer items were included in the survey
(refer to table 14).
Table 14 Distributions of Households by Ownership of Durable Consumer Items,
Durable Consumer Items Response
MigrantsNo Percent
CarYes 0 0No 282 100Total 282 100
Television Yes 67 23.8No 215 76.2Total 282 100
Radio Yes 160 56.7No 122 43.3Total 282 100
Electric Mitde Yes 47 16.7No 235 83.3Total 282 100
StoveYes 52 18.4No 230 81.6Total 282 100
(Source: Field Survey, 2015)
66
5.6. A Comparison of the Socio-Economic Condition of Migrants before and After Migration.
An attempt was made to gather information about the socio-economic condition of migrants
before and after migration. As such, socio-economic conditions such as working conditions,
income, education, access to education for dependents, access to urban transportation and health
care, and general living conditions of migrants were used as instruments for assessing the
impacts of migration on individual migrants.
As indicated in Tables 15 more than three-quarter of the surveyed migrants reported that they
had got improvements in different aspect of their lives. For instance, about 91.1 percent of the
respondents reported that they had got improvements in their types work. About 89.0 percent of
them had got improvement in their income while 52.8 percent of them had got significant
improvements in their educational level.
Table 15 Comparison of Socio-economic Condition of Migrants before and after MigrationCurrent status
Improved Worsened Remained The Same
Total
No. Percent No Percent No Percent No PercentType Of Work 257 91.1 11 3.9 14 5.0 282 100
Income 251 89.0 5 1.8 28 9.2 282 100Education 149 52.8 30 10.6 103 36.5 282 100Access Of
Education For Dependants
220 78.0 25 8.9 37 13.1 282 100
Access Of Housing 180 63.8 66 23.4 36 12.8 282 100Access For Urban
Transportation257 91.1 11 3.9 14 5.0 282 100
(Source: Field Survey, 2015)
67
5.7. Current Problems of Migrants and Their Future Plan of Migration
As we have seen earlier some of the migrants reported that their socio-economic conditions were
worsened after they moved to Wolaita Soddo town. Thus, an examination was made as to
whether those conditions were forcing them to leave Wolaita Soddo or not.
The access to housing is key current problem of migrants. Housing (46.6 percent) and inadequate
supply consumer goods (30.1 percent) took the first and the second rank as current problem of
migrants
According to the survey data presented in Table 16, about 66.3 percent of surveyed migrants
reported that they are planning to leave Wolaita Soddo and move to another urban areas which
occupies the highest percent (30.9 percent), birth places has second rank (7.8 percent ) ( see
table 16 ) . On the other hand, about 33.7 percent of the surveyed migrant reported that they had
no plans to leave Wolaita Soddo . Out of the total surveyed migrants that had plans to leave
Wolaita Soddo, about 24.5 percent reported that rising cost of living was their compelling reason
for leaving Wolaita Soddo . On the other hand, about 15.2 and 14.2 percent of migrants who
planned to leave Wolaita Soddo reported that they would leave Wolaita Soddo because of
housing problem and inadequate social services such as schooling, health service, and
recreational centers respectively. About 5.7 percent of the migrants who have planned to leave
Wolaita Soddo due to lack of employment opportunities were the main factors for leaving
Wolaita Soddo.
68
Table 16 Distributions of Migrants by Current Problems and Future Plan of migration
(Source: Field Survey, 2015)
The data in Table 16 further shows the desired destination of migrants who planned to leave
Wolaita Soddo . Accordingly, about 30.9 percent of the surveyed migrants who have planned to
leave Wolaita Soddo reported that moving to another urban area is their desired destination,
while about 7.8 percent planned to move back to their birth place.
69
Responses No Percent
Current problem of migrants
Housing 123 46.6Employment 24 8.5 Inadequate supply of consumers goods
85 30.1
Inadequate social services and amenities
43 15.2
Other 7 2.5 Total 282 100
Plan to leave Wolaita SoddoYes 137 66.3No 95 33.7
Total 282 100
Reasons to leave Wolaita Soddo
Problem of housing 43 15.2Access to employment 16 5.7Inadequate supply of consumer goods
3 1.1
Rising cost of living 69 24.5Inadequate social serves 40 14.2Other 16 5.7Total 282 100
The exact places to moveBirth place / rural 22 7.8Another rural area 1 .4Another urban area 87 30.9Total 110 39.1
Plan of migration at the old age
To stay in Soddo 83 29.4Return to place of birth /rural 25 8.9Move to other places/ not place of birth
26 9.2
Dot know 148 52.5Total 282 100
Hence, from the results of the survey we can understand that even if most of surveyed migrant
populations are from rural origin, most of them showed no interest to return to their rural birth
places. This may be explained as once they adapt the urban life and benefited from different
social services it may be difficult for them to return to the rural areas. In general, many migrants
who came from rural areas are not in a position to leave Wolaita Soddo rather they want to stay
as things will improve in the future.
In African countries such as Ghana returning to village at retirement age is common (Browning,
1971) and this may be reflected in the low proportion of elderly people in African towns (Peil
and Sada, 1985).
According to this survey, the overwhelming majority, around 90 percent of the migrants do not
have a plan to return to their birth place at the time of old age. From which, 52 .5,29.4,9.2,8.5
have an intention of not knowing , to stay in Wolaita Soddo , return to places of birth/ rural and
move to another place not place of birth accounted respectively on their old age plan( See Table
16 )
70
CHAPTER SIX6. Conclusion and Recommendation
6.1. Summary
There are towns in Ethiopia where the population growth has been very fast during recent years
not only because of natural increase but as a result of migration processes. Among them, Wolaita
Soddo town is one example which has experienced an accelerated growth rate of population as a
result of in-migration. This research deals with the theoretical background of migration, review
of literature, the nature of migrants, migration processes, the differential incidence of the rural
push and urban pull factors and the consequences of migration on various aspects of socio-
economic lives of the people in both the areas of origin and destination. Most in-migrants to the
town are of rural origin. The majority of them are in their most productive ages, both
demographically and economically. The town itself hardly seems to be in any feasible way
capable of absorbing the excessive inflow of migrants nor has the investment capacity to add to
its urban resources.
A large number of migrants were single (unmarried) when they came to Wolaita Soddo town.
Most of the migrants had formal education. However, more males than females had formal
education. A greater number of migrants were either students/trainees or unemployed or
sick/disabled before they migrate to Wolaita Soddo. Among the employed most of them were
farmers. Most migrants has moved basically for economic reasons such as seeking employment,
problem related with agriculture, lack of asset , job transfer, to open up or extend personal
business. On the other hand, some of them were moved to Wolaita Soddo for non-economic
reasons such as to gain education and training, to gain medical facility, to join relatives or
friends in the town, to be free from cultural or family restriction and obligation. Rural push
factors, by and large, are stronger than the urban pull factors causing excessive to urban areas. At
the same time, rural areas because of lack of investment and economic growth are suffering from
lack of agricultural or alternative employment, droughts and famines which were amongst
reasons for migration. The urban pull factors are weak and the urban capacity is low, practically,
the rural migrants perceived life chances in the destination town are highly misconstrued and
71
rather exaggerated, based on here-say and wrong information about the opportunities available in
the town. Growing unemployment in the rural areas pushes young people, who are also bitten by
the rising ambition bug and better life chances in the urban area. Moreover, as the study shows, a
large number of migrants had more positive information about Wolaita Soddo town. However,
most of the migrants had faced different types of problems immediately after arriving at Wolaita
Soddo. Regardless of hazards, risks and difficulties in the town migrants feel individually better
off in the town than in the rural areas. Once the migrants are in the town, they showed no
inclination to return back to the origin.
Because of dully living conditions in the rural areas, people move to towns almost
spontaneously, without much rational decision perhaps under the perceived notion that things
must be better than what they are in, and they end up indulged in their destination. Similarly, in-
migrants of Wolaita Soddo town also do not move in well planned and rationally decided manner
so that they face many problems particularly during their initial arrival. Among the problems,
housing is the most pressing. The town has chronic shortage of housing units compared to the
growth of population. Thus, because of scarcity of houses, dwellers live in highly congested
dwellings and rooms but the distribution of water and electricity to different parts of the town has
improved. Most of the migrants have improved their working condition, income, education,
schooling of dependents, access to urban transportation and health care. In general, for most of
them their general living condition has improved. However, the problem of housing, lack of
employment opportunities and sufficient consumption goods, rising cost of living, inadequate
social services and others are major problems that migrants currently face. But, most of the
migrants do not have an intention or a plan to return to their place of birth because most of the
migrants are from rural areas and showed no interest to return to their origin rather to stay there
expecting things will get improved. However, a few others have plans to move to other urban
areas. This is an indication of low level of returnees of urban-rural migrants in Ethiopia. This is
because rural living and working conditions are much worse compared to urban areas of the
country.
72
6.2 Conclusion
The analysis on the origin of migrants shows that most migrants of the town are of rural origin.
Furthermore, the temporal distribution of migrants reveals that the majority of the migrants have
entered the town after 1974, more specifically after 1984.
There are several factors that induced flow of people to Wolaita Soddo town. The main
determinants are low per capita income, and education. The availability of better employment
opportunities and career advancements are concentrated in the urban areas. Therefore, the
relevant measures that can be taken on these determinants are expected to increase the rate of
migration and did not arrest the people in their rural areas in particular. One important issue
related to rural migration is the net and gross effects on their places of origin. The main sources
of employment opportunities and household income in rural Ethiopia is agriculture. Sizeable
depopulation of rural labor forces as a result of increased rate of out-migration from rural areas
can hamper agricultural production which in turn can stimulate further withdrawal of people
from the region because of low land productivity. The survey reveals that most of the migrants
are in their productive age leaving behind the rural areas for females, children and aged people
with low labor efficiency and productive capacity. As such, this condition can lead to adverse
effects on agriculture because of less efficient and low agricultural labor input, particularly
because small-scale subsistence agriculture can be hardly made mechanized and still requires
hard manual labor. The amounts of remittances sent by migrants home essentially were meager
and negligible in amount. This is because most migrants are only on the level of self-sustenance
and can ill afford to send any sizeable amount. Although the amount that goes to villages is too
small, it is used mostly for consumption purposes rather for investments in agricultural or other
activities such as housing. It hardly has contributed to the improvement of quality of life and
welfare and wellbeing of the people in the rural areas. Most of the research works in the causes
of migration revealed that the ``push`` or ``pull`` factors become more underlying one; and
directly link with economic and non-economic aspects of the migrants. The finding of the
research showed that the economic reasons are greater than none economic reasons. Rural push
factors have stronger than urban pulling factors.
73
In general, the high flow of migrants to Wolaita Soddo has accentuated different socio-economic
and demographic problem on the regions of origin and destination. Thus, the overall effects of
rural-urban migration in the town are discouraging and hence the following recommendations are
suggested to solve some of the socio-economic problems of both the places of origin and
destination.
6.3. Recommendations
After analyzing the causes and consequences of rural-urban migration to Wolaita Soddo town,
the researcher proposes the following suggestions that could be implemented by policy makers
and implementers at different level:
Problems with rural unemployment and underemployment greatly impact the rural
economy. Because of the above, rural people are compelled to migrate. Therefore, there
is the need for real and practical integrated rural development strategy to increase
agricultural production by increasing rural labor productivity by improving farm
technology, increasing farm inputs such as fertilizers, high yielding variety of seeds,
insecticides, adequate agricultural extension services, and price incentives and improve
access to financial credit and market facilities.
Resettlement on voluntary basis from highly degraded areas to where there are vacant
and potentially productive irrigable lands can reduce the flow of people towards urban
areas.
Migrants rely in asymmetric information about the destination. If migration is inevitable,
providing complete information can make the migrants more aware about their
destination before making the decision and sustainable effort should be made at
grassroots level to raise awareness and bring attitudinal change for the non-economic
factors of migration.
Concentration of various elements of modernization in the urban areas and their
conspicuous absence in rural localities pull many rural people to towns. Therefore,
provision of different social services such as better medical facilities, education,
infrastructure, water and electricity to the rural areas may reduce the amount of flow of
population to urban centers.
74
Taking into account the population growth of the town, constructing additional house
and social service centers, such as schools, health institutions, recreational centers and so
forth are important in providing needed services and better quality of life.
The vast actual or perceived difference between rural-urban incomes causes population
migration. Since poverty is a pronounced rural phenomenon, migration from rural areas is
tied to the income gap between rural and urban areas. When growth is balanced between
them through viable regional planning strategies for the mutual development of the towns
and their hinterlands at different hierarchical scales it is recommended that it will check
or slow down the rural outflow.
Vocational training of the rural people on small scale industries (non-farm) activities that
could generate an income for the rural household should be introduced in rural areas as it
is supposed to alleviate the problem of landlessness and land shortage and their total
dependency on only one source of livelihood i.e. Agriculture and further diversified the
means of livelihood .
Conducting scientific research on different aspects of migration may forward its own
solution for the cause and consequences of migration.
Use of underutilized land to cope up landlessness and scarcity of land; careful planning
and assessment of land availability and existing land uses. On some cases and areas, the
land selected was used by local groups as fallow areas, for grazing or forest resources.
75
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Appendices
Appendix I
Questionnaire
Dear respondents, this instrument are designed for the purpose of gathering information
regarding the causes and consequences of rural-urban migration to Wolaita Soddo town. The
final paper that will be written based on the information you have provided is intended to serve
for research and development purpose. Therefore, you are kindly requested to provide accurate
information as much as possible. I confirm you that all data will be treated confidentially and
only aggregated and average information will be published.
Instruction: Circle (use tick mark) or write the answer as may be necessary to indicate your
appropriate response.
Thank you,
Household Address and Interview Results
Address: ___________Wereda ________ Kebele ________ House number ________
Results of interview (questionnaire)
Complete __________ Not complete__________ Name of interviewer______________ Date of interview ______________
A. Demographic Characteristics Of Migrants At Present
1. How old are you? ______
2. Sex A. Male B. Female
3. Marital Status A. Single B. Married C. Divorced D. Widowed
4. Religion A. Orthodox Christian B. protestant C. Other Christianity D. Muslim D.
Other(specify)_____
5. Educational attainment (highest level of schooling completed) A. Illiterate B. Read and
write C. Primary first cycle school (1-4) D. Primary second cycle school (5 -8) E.
Secondary (9-10) F. Preparatory (11-12) G. 10+certificate training H. 12+special
training I. College/University graduate
85
B. Demographic Characteristics of Migrants –Past (Before Migration)
1. Where were you born? Region ______ Zone _______Wereda ______________ Place
name________
2. What was your age when you left your place of birth? A. 0-9 B. 10-19 C. 20-29 D. 30-39
E. 40-49 F. 50-59 G. 60-64 H. more than 64
3. Your birth place is: A. Rural B. Urban
4. What was your age when you last moved to live in Wolaita Soddo ? A. 0-9 B. 10-19 C.
20-29 D. 30-39 E. 40-49 F. 50-59 G. 60 -64 H. More than 64
5. Your educational attainment (highest level of schooling completed) when you left your
place of birth? A. Illiterate B. Read and write C. First cycle (1-4) D. Second cycle (5-8)
E. Secondary high school (9-10) F. Preparatory (11-12) G.10+certificate training
H.12+special training I. College/University graduate
6. What was your marital status when you left your birth place? A. Single B. Married C.
Divorced D. Widowed
7. How long since you last moved to live in this town? ______ Year.
8. The distance between soddo and place of your birth? ______ Kilometer.
9. When did you out migrate from the place of your birth? A. Before 1966E.C B. 1967-
1983E.C C. after 1984
10. Before you came to Wolaita Soddo you were: A. Employed B. Land lord/employer C.
Farmer/peasant D. Self - employed in non-agricultural activity E. Un-employed F.
Pensioned/too old G. Student/small child H. Sick/disabled I. Housewife J. Other
(Specify)
C. Process of Migration
1. Who was the decision maker in leaving your place of birth or last place of residence?
A. Self C. Relatives or friends B. Family / Parent(s) D. Employer E. Other
(specify)______
2. Did anyone from your place of birth come with you to Wolaita Soddo ? A. Yes B.
No
86
3. If your answer to question 2 is “yes”, who moved with you from the place of previous
residence? (You can choose more than one answer) A. None B. Spouse C. Parents D.
Family E. Other (Specify) _____
4. After you moved to Wolaita Soddo , who came from your birth place to live with
you?
A. None B. Spouse C. Parents D. Family E. Other (Specify) _____
5. What was your main source of information to move to Wolaita Soddo ? A. Education
B. Mass media C. Contact with people who know the town D. Previous knowledge
(personal visit) E. Other (specify)____
6. Before you moved to Wolaita Soddo , did you have any information about living
conditions and facilities such as housing, health care, employment and so forth? A.
Yes B. No
7. If your answer to question 6 is “yes”, what was the information? A. positive
(migrant life is easy in Soddo ) B. negative (migrant life is not easy in Soddo )
8. Before you moved to live in Wolaita Soddo , did you have any relative or friend or
parents living in Wolaita soddo ? A. Yes B. No
9. If your answer to question 8 is “yes”, have you received any type of assistance from
them? A. Yes B. No
10. If your answer to question 9 is “yes”, what type of assistance you have received from
them? A. food and lodging B. Financial aid C. Assisted find jobs D. Information
about how to adjust and job possibility E. Helped find houses F. Other
(Specify)___________
D. Causes of Migration
1. What was/were the main reason(s) for you to come to Wolaita Soddo ? To
obtain job (seek employment) A. Famine, poverty, crop failure, lack of oxen,
land shortage, poor facilities B. To free from cultural or family restrictions
and obligations C. To join immediate relatives and friends or following them
D.To gain education and training E . To seek modern urban services and
facilities Job transfer F. To open up or extended personal business G. To seek
good climate H. to get medical facilities I. family death J. Family pressure K.
87
Marriage L. Divorce M. Lack of social capital and different assets-economic,
social, physical, human, and N. Other (Specify) ______
2. Did you expect or perceive that Wolaita Soddo would offer you items you
have chosen above? A. Yes B. No
3. What was your move to Wolaita soddo ?A. Planned B. Unplanned
E. Economic status of migrants before migration-past
1. Before you moved to Wolaita Soddo you were A. Trainee/Student B. Employed C.
Pensioner D. Sick/disabled E. House wife F. Unemployed G. Other (Specify) _____
2. If you were employed A. Government employee B. Private Organization employee C.
Farmer D. Employer/farming E. Other (Specify)_________
3. If you were unemployed what was/were the main reason(s) for being unemployed? A.
had no formal education and therefore could not get modern sector employment B.
Because of pre-revolution land tenure system C. Work terminated D. Natural
catastrophes, such as drought and crop failures E. Because of problems related to
agricultural policies and practices during pre and post-revolution period F. Other
(Specify) ___
1. When you moved to Wolaita Soddo , did you have a job waiting for you? A. Yes B.
No
2. If your answer to question 4 is “no”, how long did you stay to find your first income
earning job? _____ Year _______month(s).
F. Current Demographic and Socio-Economic Conditions of Migrants
1. Age A.0-15 B. 16 - 19 C. 20 - 24 D. 25 - 29 E. 30 – 34 F. 35 - 39 G. 40 - 44 H. 45 - 49 I.
50 – 54 J. 55 - 59 K. 60 - 64 L . 64 +
2. Sex A) Male B) Female
3. Religion A. Orthodox B. Islam C. Protestant D. Catholic E. Other (Specify)
4. Marital Status A. Unmarried B. Divorced C. Married d) Widowed
5. Total number of household members. A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5 F. 6 G. 7 H. 8 I. 9 J. 10 K.
More than 10
6. Number of children ever born. A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5 F. 6 G. 7 H. 8 I. 9 J. 10 K. M.
more than 10
88
7. Level of educational attainment A. Illiterate B. Read and Write C. First cycle (1-4) D.
Second cycle (5-8) F. Secondary high school (9-10) G. preparatory (11-12)H. 12 +
Special Training I. College diploma J. Degree (Bachelor, Master,Doctor)
8. What is your current monthly income?
A. less than 100 birr A. 100 - 200 birr B. 201 - 300 birr C. 401 - 500 birr D. 501 - 600 birr
E. 601 - 700 birr F. more than 700 birr ___
9. What is your occupational status at present? A. Employed B. Un-employed C. Student
D. Pensioned E. Housewife F. Other (Specify)
10. If you are employed, what is your employment status? A. Own account worker B.
Employed in private or non-governmental organization C. Government employee D.
Employer (private)
11. What is your present occupation? A. Farming B. Manufacturing C. Animal husbandry
D. Construction E. Quarrying F. Public Service G. Forestry H. Trade I. Other (Specify)
12. Nature of your present work: A. Permanent B. Temporary C. Seasonal D. Casual
13. If you are still unemployed or out of work, please indicate the period of time that you
have been unemployed or out of work_____ year(s) _____moths
14. Do you own the house you live in? a) Yes b) No.
15. If your answer is "no" to question No. 12, what kind of arrangement have you made for
living in it? A. Rent B. Dependent C. Other (specify) _____________.
16. If rented, the house belongs to: A. Kebele B. Municipality C. Public housing agency D.
Private individuals F. Other (specify) ______
17. How many rooms does the house you live in have? A. One B. two C. three D. four E.
Five F. More than five
18. Does your house have a separate kitchen? A. Yes B. No
19. Availability and type of toilet facilities : A. flush B. dry - pit C. none
20. If you have toilet is it A. shared B. private
21. What type of bathing facility do you have? A. none B. shower private bath C. tube
private D. shower shared F. bath tub shared
22. What is the regular and most accessible source of water for your household? A. own
meter B. shared meter C. other household D. public tap E. other (specify)
89
23. How do you get your electricity supply? A. own meter B. other household C. shared
meter D. Don’t have the service
24. Do you have car A. Yes B. No
25. Do you have Television A. Yes B. no
26. Do you have Radio set A. Yes B. no
27. Do you have Eletrice metide A.yes B. no
G. Pre and post migration status compared
1. Do you think that moving to Wolaita Soddo from your place of birth or last place of residence
improved in Type of work? A. Improved B. Worsened C. Remained the same
2. Do you think that moving to Wolaita Soddo from your place of birth or last place of residence
improved in Your income? A. Improved B. Worsened C. Remained the same
3. Do you think that moving to Wolaita Soddo from your place of birth or last place of residence
improved in Your education/skill A. Improved B. Worsened C. Remained the same
4. Do you think that moving to Wolaita Soddo from your place of birth or last place of residence
improved in Access to education for your dependents? A. Improved B. Worsened C.
Remained the same
5. Do you think that moving to Wolaita Soddo from your place of birth or last place of residence
improved in Access to housing? A. Improved B. Worsened C. Remained the same
6. Do you think that moving to Wolaita Soddo from your place of birth or last place of residence
improved in Access to urban transport? A. Improved B. Worsened C. Remained the same
H .Problems Faced By /Challenges Migrants after Arrival in Wolaita Soddo
1. What was /were the main difficulty/difficulties you have faced after you immediately
arrived in Wolaita Soddo ? A. Shelter (house) B. Food and related consumer items C.
Inability to obtain social services and other amenities D. Inability to obtain job E.
Cultural difference F. Faced no difficulties I.Other (specify) _______
2. What is/are the main problem(s) you are facing now? (You can select more than one)
A. Housing B. Employment C. Inadequate supply of consumer goods D. Inadequate social
services and amenities E. Other (specify)
3. If you had known these difficulties before you moved to Wolaita Soddo , could you still
have decided to move from your birth place or last place of residence? A. Yes B. No
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I. Future plan of migrants
1. Do you have planned to move to another place? A. Yes B. No
2. If your answer to question 1 is “yes”, what is your reason(s) to move to other place?
A. Housing problem B. Lack of employment opportunity C. Inadequate supply of consumer
goods D. Rising cost of living E. Inadequate social services (schools, health care, recreation etc)
F .Other (specify)
3. If your answer to question 1 is “no” what is /are the main reason(s) you do not want to move
out from this town?
A. Other towns have no better opportunities B. Life in rural area is much worsens than in towns
and therefore no point to return to rural areas C. Hope things will improve D. Other (specify)
4. If you still to move out from Wolaita Soddo , do you exactly know where you want to move?
A. Yes B. No
5. If your answer to question 4 is “yes”, where will you move to_________?
A. To my birth place (rural) B. To my birth place (urban) C. To another rural area D. To another
urban area
6. What is your plan at old age?
A. Stay in Wolaita Soddo B. Returns to place of origin C. Move to other place (not place of
origin)
D. Do not know
Thank you for your collaboration
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Appendix I I
Focus Group Discussion Guide
Hello, my name is ______________________. I am a graduate student of Mekelle university
working as a researcher to assess “The Cause and Consequences of Rural Urban Migration; Case
Wolaita Soddo Town, SNNPRG, Ethiopia. ”
In this group discussion there are no right and wrong answers and thus everybody should
Feel free to express his/her opinion.
Do you have any questions?
With your permission, may I proceed with the discussion question?
1. What are the main differences between rural and urban areas?
2. What attracts people from rural areas to settle in Wolaita Soddo?
3. What are the push factors in rural urban migration?
4. What do you know about rural-urban migration?
I would like to thank you for your participation. I want to give you the chance if you have any
questions that you would like to be raised.
Thank you
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