Research project on the theme: "The Career of the Indies"

March 2003

Introduction p. 031- Why a Portuguese expansion? p. 032- Importance of the Career of Indies p. 053- Conditions in which was held p. 06  a) Navigation p. 09  b) Instruments p. 11  c) Shipbuilding p. 15  d) Vessels p. 17  e) Weaponry p. 23  f) Life on board p. 254- Causes of its decline p. 325- O “País do Gelo” – the “Ice Country” p. 34Conclusion p. 40References  p. 41Annex I - Explanatory Tables p. 43Annex II - Maps and Prints   p. 45

FOREWORD

Given the vastness of subjects linked to the epic of the

Portuguese Discoveries, it was chosen, in this work, a

certain objectivity which resulted in an almost exclusive

1

emphasis on the impact of the Career of the Indies and

justification of its importance and the conditions it held,

with a brief allusion to something one could consider very

close to a predestination that drove the Portuguese world

out in the 15th and 16th centuries.

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INTRODUCTION

The Career of the Indies was the culmination and

simultaneously turning point in Portuguese expansion.

Indeed, the Portuguese Discoveries were started with the

ultimate goal of reaching the mythical Indies, lands that

have always populated the European collective imagination

as a source of infinite riches, even though there was no

idea of its location.

When finally the Vasco da Gama's voyage set the sea route

to India, a new cycle started for the West, which ceased to

be focused on itself around the Mediterranean and realized

that there were other worlds beyond theirs. Portugal

overcame their geographical boundaries and became a world

power, and even dared to share the world with Spanish

rivals.

The fact that, as early as the second trip, having given

the "achamento" (finding) of Brazil, adds another important

element to the Career of the Indies joining the technical

innovations, cultural and mentality (to be discussed in

another paper) which provided.

The aim of this work is to analyze, first, the reason why

there was in the first place a Portuguese expansion when

nothing would predict, explain the importance of this route

for the birth of the first super power of History and with

the help of a theme by musician Rui Veloso, enrolled on the

album "Auto da Pimenta" edited to celebrate the 500th

anniversary of Discoveries, which will serve as a guide,

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characterize this Career in its many aspects, from the

navigation to the way it was perceived in society.

A summary of the causes that led to its decline, between

internal and external factors, will complete this

exhibition, which is to contribute to portray as faithful

as possible the reality of what was the Career of the

Indies.

4

1- WHY A PORTUGUESE EXPANSION?1 2 3

No people would be so predisposed to an expansion at the

time it happened, as the Portuguese, although, currently,

this development seems a feat close to the impossible,

carried out by the last people who was hoped to ever get

it4.

The Crusades had awakened in Europe a spirit of conquest

and adventure that turned to the East, to be, from the

Greco-Roman antiquity, the site of all imaginable wealth, a

misunderstood but deep medieval myth. Thus towards the

Middle departed travellers like Marco Polo, when the war

finally had to stop with the final victory of the Arabs.

Now that the reports of these travellers did get a little

light in the darkness of limited knowledge of then Europe

would eagerly seek to probe the unknown around him.

The vastness of the western seas should be a source of

concern especially for people they bathed. This is how the

Vikings venture into the North Atlantic, reaching Greenland

and the Americas; intrepid navigators, met up yet with what

they had found, preferring the looting of Europe's coastal

cities to move further south. Other people who became

1 Manuel Joaquim Pinheiro Chagas, Os Descobrimentos Portugueses e os de Colombo– Tentativa de Coordenação Histórica, Lisboa, Academia Real das Ciências,1832 / Parede, Publicações Quipu, 2001, pp. 69-79.2 António Borges Coelho, Raízes da Expansão Portuguesa, Lisboa, Livros Horizonte, 1985.3 História dos Descobrimentos e Expansão Portuguesa, Lisboa, Universidade Abertan.º 173, 1999, pp. 101, 102.4 M. J. Akbar, The Shade of Swords – Jihad and the Conflict Between Islam & Christianity,London & New York, Routledge, 2002, p. 114: “(…) an impoverishEuropean nation surprised Rome, and probably itself, with the conquestof a Muslim bastion on the northern coast.” [Ceuta].

interested in across the Atlantic, were the Normans, but

more geared to the immediate profit than for scientific

research, preferred to pass the Strait of Gibraltar towards

the Mediterranean where they had many and fat preys. The

Italian peninsula had two maritime powers - Venice and

Genoa - whose navigators were in great demand for its

technical expertise; however, were more focused on trade

with the East through the ports of the Levant, not

exchanging a certain income and large profit by a more than

doubtful one.

So it remained the Iberian Peninsula.

However, the Hispanic kingdoms were still grappling with

the war against the Moors, which still occupied the

province of Granada. Only Portugal, which had unified its

territory in the previous two centuries expelling the

Arabs, was freed from constraints on the one hand, and had

the interest, on the other, to find new sources of income

that would provide a much needed economic development.

Moreover, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, were

to form two large blocks: one east, commercial and

terrestrial - the Ottoman Empire - and one in the west -

the great mass of Charles V's empire, with Portugal at risk

of being crushed between them. Also piracy of the Saracens

on the Algarve coast and the navigation, weapons smuggling

and African trade fleeing the control of the Crown, added

to the growing threat brought by the unification of the

Kingdom of Morocco, whose sheriffs preached holy war, and

finally, the creation of a bastion of Christendom in a

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strategic position in the territory of the infidels, were

reasons that drove the conquest of Ceuta.

The consequent expansion trough African coast did gain

gradually momentum as the internal forces game that

fundamentally opposed a mercantile bourgeoisie - which had

an interest to establish strongholds at the confluence of

the caravan routes - to a feudal nobility - which had a

keen interest on the conquest of new territories to get

titles and income. Finally, would prevail expansion factor

over everything else, as a result both of the boosting of

the bourgeoisie over the profits, and the nobles looking

for a social position to their second sons, as the eldest

son inherited the title and the consequent social status.

2- IMPORTANCE OF CAREER OF INDIES

It was huge the commercial and political importance of the

Cape Route5, which established the Career of the Indies.

Linking Portugal to the mythical Indies, this route

performed the old dream of supplanting the Silk Road in

contacts between East and West, and stroked a blow on

Mediterranean trade, hitherto monopoly of the Italian

republics. 6

The Arab merchants, based in Calicut and often using the

same ships carrying pilgrims to Mecca, controlled the spice

trade up to the Levant ports; the next step being for the

account of Venetian merchants who made the connection with

5 Vide Annex I, Tables 1 and 2.6 Idem, Tables 3 and 4.

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Europe. Thus, the value of a duchy (old Venetian currency)

purchased from Calicut spice, raised up to 60 to 100

dukedom in Venice and multiplied successively by the

intermediary to be exchanged for gold in Western Europe.

Pepper was the queen of this trade, for it was considered

useful in a wide range of purposes, as a seasoning and

preservative of food, being mixed with salt to preserve

meat stored for the winter or for long sea voyages, and

also had appreciated medicinal properties. The spice has

become a necessity for everything from cosmetics to

antidote against the plague. 7

Thus emerged an Atlantic trading power that in the period

between 1498 and 1635, made 916 departures from Tagus River

with destination to India and back, placing in Europe

spices in greater quantity and faster than by land8, with

consequent low price and increase demand, which would

translate into huge profits. For over eighty years, the

Portuguese army and the ships of spices can move around the

Cape Route9 without feeling any threat; only in return, to

come in Azorean waters (in the final stage of the route),

were attacked by pirates and enemy fleets. This supremacy

would only be disputed in the seventeenth century, when

Dutch and English began indeed to rival Portugal.

3- CONDITIONS IN WHICH WAS HELD

7 Cfr. M. J. Akbar, op. cit., p. 117.8 Vide Anenx II, Fig. 1.9 Idem, Fig. 3.

8

Routes10 11

The ships departed Lisbon between early March and the first

half of April, which allowed them to take advantage of the

favourable winds of the Atlantic and reach Indian Ocean in

time to benefit from the southwest monsoon that led to the

Hindustan west coast. From Lisbon, the fleets headed

towards the Cape Verde islands, moving away from the

African coast after a route arc that approached Brazil.

Normally, this route was made without scales, although some

ships end up docking in Brazilian soil for navigation

error, which allowed the repair of any deficiency in

vessels or resupplying of water or food. One of the

critical points due to frequent storms was the passage of

the Cape of Good Hope. In the Indian Ocean, the ships could

call at Mozambique, then heading towards Goa and Cochin.

The trip lasted, under normal circumstances, about six

months.

On the return trip to Lisbon (the turn-trip), departures

from India were made in December or January. After

departure, usually from the city of Goa, the vessels were

heading to the coast of Somalia under the action of the

favourable winds of the northeast monsoon, which hit the

Indian Ocean between October and March. Then followed or

the Mozambique Channel or through outline of St. Lawrence,

across the Indian Ocean. After passing the Cape of Good

10 Adapted from “Navegação – Rotas” in Navegar, [CD-ROM], Simonetta LuzAfonso, António Manuel Hespanha, et al, Paris, Editions Chandeigne /Sèvres, Oda Edition / Lisboa, Pavilhão de Portugal, Expo’98 / ComissãoNacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1998.11 Vide Annex II, Fig. 2.

9

Hope sailed the boats towards the islands of St. Helena and

Ascension, after passing near the Cape Verde archipelago.

Then began the “turn by large” until they reached Azores

and then entering the last stage of the journey towards the

Portuguese coast. Only in the final phase of Career of the

India began to be frequent during the “turn-trip”, do scale

in Brazil to complete the loading of ships or make other

businesses that allow making more profitable travelling

around the Cape Route.

Ocean currents12

To navigate the South Atlantic and around the tip of

Africa, the Portuguese sailors began to take advantage of

the Guinea Current, but soon had to face two powerful ocean

currents13: the Agulhas current and Benguela one. The warm

Agulhas current flows southwest from the Indian Ocean,

pushing the almost frozen Antarctic waters, before finding

the cold Benguela current that travels from the Cape of

Good Hope. The second fastest current in all oceans of the

world, Agulhas, is more deadly than the fastest current,

the Gulf one - which originates in the Gulf of Mexico (in

the Northwest of Central America Sea) and heads of west to

north-east to northern Norway, bathing the European

Atlantic coasts - since one of its branches flowing through

a narrow passage between Madagascar and Mozambique14, from

north to south, exactly the opposite direction to which the

12 Cfr. “Ocean Currents and Tides: The Treacherous Agulhas” in http://tinyurl.com/jvpvzrt 13 Vide Annex II, Fig. 6.14 Idem, Fig. 4.

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Portuguese ships needed navigate to circumvent the tip of

Africa and reaching India.

Swimming against the tide of Agulhas is much more

complicated to navigate in favour. The caravels would have

to walk back and forth to catch a favourable wind, a narrow

strip of water which abound pointed submerged rocks,

heading north through the current. High winds (about 180 km

/ h) are common between September and November, but even

more frightening is the deadly changes that occur when the

wind changes direction; when blowing from west to south-

west (the opposite direction of the current), monstrous

waves (up to the height of a fifth floor) occur, easily

swallowing a fragile ship.

After Bartolomeu Dias have successfully navigated the

treacherous intersection of currents Benguela and Agulhas

(Cape of Good Hope15), three separate trips were necessary,

between 1486 and 1497, so that the Portuguese learned to

navigate efficiently through the Agulhas Current,

travelling in the opposite direction.

Even today, in which ships use sophisticated navigation

equipment, there is no possibility of surviving these

occasional waves and is common wrecks happening in this

area, and even the larger vessels can disappear without a

trace.

Cargo16

15 Vide Annex II, Fig. 5.16 Adapted from “Navegação – Carregamento – Carga” in Navegar, op. cit.

11

The ships that left the kingdom to the East, despite

significant part of trade be made with currency or precious

metals bullion, were required to carry a certain amount of

other products which are then exchanged for spices and

other goods. Thus, the usual loading of ships with the

Career of the Indies luxury fabrics, metals such as copper

or lead, or mercury coral. The vast majority of these

products was acquired abroad (tissues, for example, were

purchased from producers Genoese, Florentine, Flemish or in

London), which entailed high costs. As for domestic

products, was boarded olive oil, some wine and salt.

Goods17

The route of the cable provided strong demand for products

in Europe.18 The Portuguese ships that came from Goa

towards Lisbon brought the main goods originating spices of

South India, Ceylon and the Moluccas: a significant

proportion of the total cargo loaded consisted of pepper,

accompanied in the background by cinnamon by clove and the

nutmeg. From the mid-sixteenth century, the revival of

traditional routes and the incursion of the Portuguese in

areas of the Far East, such as China and Japan, caused a

decrease in the weight of the spices trade. Then gained

importance silks and Chinese porcelain, as well as stones

and precious woods, the lacquer, camphor, musk and carpets,

obtained in several eastern regions. Also the transport of

17 Adapted from “Navegação – Carregamento – Mercadorias” in Navegar, op.cit.18 Vide Annex I, Table 2.

12

exotic animals was relatively common, with some ships

disembarking in Lisbon elephants, leopards and rhinos.

The excess and bad storage of the goods of the ships

returning to the kingdom were constant. The situation

reached such proportions that led, for example, the sinking

of a ship in Goa, when he was being loaded; to departures

with ships beginning the journey "sideway" due to poor

storage of goods; or to return to the place of departure,

shortly after the beginning of the trip. This caused

serious disorders during crossings or in case of storms or

in times of attack of enemy ships. In 1621, the ship

Conception, coming from the East, was attacked by 17

Turkish ships arriving in Lisbon; when the attack begins,

moving on deck becomes impossible given the enormous amount

of goods which had meanwhile been brought from the

basement. The ship quickly caught fire because the mountain

of boxes and bales on the deck was a great food for the

flames.

3- a) Navigation19 20

The former medieval cartography prior to the thirteenth

century did not follow any scientific principle. The known

world was in most cases presented in symbolic form, often

with a circular, or oblong21, and sometimes rectangular. It

has its earliest expression in the type known as T-O22

19 Adapted from “Navegação – Técnicas de navegação” in Navegar, op. cit.20 Inácio Guerreiro, “A Cartografia Portuguesa dos Séculos XV e XVI” inHistória dos Descobrimentos e Expansão Portuguesa, op. cit., pp. 239-263.21 Vide Annex II, Fig. 7.22 Idem, Fig. 8.

13

maps, where the sea-ocean formed a ring, setting the letter

O, involving the three continents that were the known

inhabited world, and rivers Don (or Tanais) and Nile

symbolically forming the letter T. On top of the map

stretched Asia, buoyed by said rivers and the ocean

semicircle, with an equivalent size to the whole of Europe

and Africa, which the Mediterranean divided into equal

parts.

Slowly, these very simple mapping schemes have evolved,

while obeying the traditional arrangement of continents,

with Asia, to the East, appearing always at the top of the

chart. Cities, rivers and most important places then began

to appear on maps; Jerusalem occupied almost invariably the

centre of the circle, conditioning the geographical

development of the composition. The biblical beliefs were

always included as well as information obtained for the

travel accounts of those who ventured on long voyages, by

land and sea, to demand the distant and fabulous stops, for

commercial purposes, or in obedience to religious and

diplomatic purposes. And these descriptions were not always

reliable, maps registered almost always the legendary news,

dictated by fantasy authors, along with the correct

information also contained in their testimonies. Gradually,

these maps will became more solid with the addition of real

and mythical data, but its geographical value remained low.

These cartographic traditions persist until the end of the

Middle Ages.

14

The Portolan 23

Also during this time was a new cartographic current and

distinct from the first, and with it has evolved in

parallel for two centuries. It was in the Mediterranean

that was born in the second half of the thirteenth century,

the new process of drafting charts, of a far more practical

nature, based on the art of navigating this sea of pilots

and technical elements within reach. It resulted from the

widespread use of the magnetic needle, set on a rose-of-

winds (twelfth and thirteenth centuries) and was closely

associated with the scripts, called “portulanos” by the

Italians.

These were descriptive texts, of very clear and direct

content, intended for sailors uneducated. With the

generalization of the magnetic needle started to record, in

addition to such descriptive elements, magnetic directions

and distances in miles between the coastal points. There

were created the conditions that led to the emergence of

new, more "scientific" mapping process.

Coastal navigation

During the Middle Ages the coastal navigation is the

predominant in Christian Europe, in the connections between

the various ports of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic

coast. In this type of navigation, ships rarely move away

from the coast and the orientation is made from the

observation of reference points on land. Thus, the

distances covered in each path are relatively small and are23 Vide Annex II, Fig. 9.

15

made frequent stopovers on earth. This practice continued

for a long time in the Mediterranean world, still being

used at first in the Portuguese voyages of discovery along

the African coast. With the advancement of Atlantic voyages

and the need for another route guidance method for several

days and weeks in the open ocean, the navigation based on

the observation of celestial bodies will be developing.

16

Navigation to tack24

In the fifteenth century Portuguese navigators develop a

navigation technique that allows the advancement of vessels

even with adverse wind regimes. This technique, known as

navigation by bowline, is based on the realization of a

singradura (distance travelled by ship in 24 hours of

navigation noon to the following noon25) oblique to the

desired direction, with successive board changes. This type

of navigation is possible only with vessels equipped with

Latin sails, ie, triangular sails, attached to long

antennae and placed next to the mast along the ship's

length. Thus, it is possible to sail against the wind lines

that they present an angle of 50 ° relative to the wind

direction. Portuguese caravels in the fifteenth century use

this navigation technique from the moment it was necessary

to overcome headwinds south of Cape Bojador, or to advance

the exploration of the African coast or to return to the

starting point.

Celestial navigation26

The celestial navigation, guidance method on the high seas

by observing celestial bodies, it was a process developed

by the Portuguese navigators during the fifteenth century,

when they have to navigate without landmarks on the ground.

24 Vide Annex II, Fig. 10.25 Cfr. Pêro Vaz de Caminha, Carta a El-Rei D. Manuel I, Joaquim VeríssimoSerrão (pref.), Manuela Mendonça, Margarida Garcez Ventura, Ericeira,Editora Mar de Letras, 2000, nota 2 da transcrição.26 Vide Annex II, Fig. 11.

17

Improving the process went through several phases. The

first consisted of comparing the meridian altitude of

Polaris at a certain point, with the height of that star in

a predetermined reference point. Given the limitations of

this method, it is developed another technique which

involves comparing the height of the North Star in eight

different positions of its apparent diurnal circle. This

process gives rise to the known "wheels", where the

coordinates of the various positions of the Polar Star are

indicated in determinate point or points of reference with

which the sailors may face the coordinates obtained from

the measurements made on board. With reference to the

positions of the Polar Star in Lisbon, navigators could

determine the latitude of a point on the high seas, by

establishing a few simple rules. From the point of the

measurement of that star at any given point, it will only

be sufficient that to this value, taken from a known

direction, will be added or subtracted certain constants.

In the last decades of the fifteenth century, in addition

to the Polar Star, sailors began to use the measurement of

the meridian altitude of the sun and its declination. When

the voyages of the Portuguese brought them beyond the

equator, causing them to lose the North Star as a reference

star, they sought to implement the same processes for the

Southern Cross. However, if the determination of the

meridian altitude allowed obtaining satisfactory results

the direct implementation of the rules used in the case of

the North Star to observe the eight positions of the

18

Southern Cross on its apparent diurnal motion, implied

notable errors.

3- b) Instruments27

Hourglass28

The "sand-clock" or hourglass is a remote source instrument

to measure the passage of time. In the Portuguese

discoveries time of ships was used especially in the

counting of watch service of sailors. An hourglass consists

of two hollow glass cones communicating through their

vertex where one calibrated orifice allowing the passage of

fine sand cone to each other over a certain period of time.

After passing all the sand cone top to the bottom, reverse

the hourglass-position to the new time count. The time

setting was done at noon to avoid possible discrepancies,

due to misuse of the hourglass by those who wished to

anticipate the shift changes so shorten their tasks.

Cross-staff29

The cross-staff or cane of Jacob, is an astronomical

instrument that results in a fifteenth century adaptation

to purposes of sailing, of a medieval instrument. The

medieval cross-staff is used in topographic measurements,

being designated as "staff of Jacob" by Sebastian Munster

in their Rudimenta Mathematica. The cross-staff consists of

27 Adapted from “Navegação – Instrumentos de navegação” in Navegar, op.cit.28 Vide Annex II, Fig. 12.29 Vide Annex II, Fig. 13.

19

two parts - the virote and soalha. The first is a piece of

wood, graded, along which can move the soalha. In some

cases, can have several cross staff jingles, usable

according to the height of the star to be observed. The use

of cross-staff in the navigation occurred at night. The

measurement of the height of the stars was made when the

aim line between the end of virote and the lower base of

soalha pointed to the horizon and the upper base of soalha

passed the chosen star. This combination could be by moving

the soalha along the virote until the optimal position,

followed by the reading of the measurement obtained.

Magnetic compass30

The so-called "needle mark", an instrument that is based on

the knowledge of terrestrial magnetism comes out in

European shipping in the thirteenth century. The use of the

compass in Europe probably arises by Arab intermediation

from a suspected Chinese origin. Its cornerstone is a

magnetized needle, placed floating on the water or olive

oil; spinning around the axis, the needle points to

magnetic north. As the distances travelled in the Middle

Ages were short and navigation was the view of the coast,

the lack of magnetic declination had no serious damage. At

the end of the fifteenth century, with the increase in

distance travelled, were discovered the advantages of

magnetic declination and taken into account by pilots in

defining their direction. In the sixteenth century, the

compass has taken on a more careful presentation. The30 Vide Annex II, Fig. 14.

20

magnetic needle was suspended inside a graduated box on the

interior walls and a rose-of-winds in the background.

Astrolabe31

The planispheric astrolabe is an instrument of Greek

origin, used in the Middle Ages for astrological and

astronomical purposes. It is a graduate brass disk on the

periphery of the circle, a suspension ring and a mediclina

(axis spinning around the astrolabe) with perforated pínulas

(little holes). For use in astrology and surveying, the

faces are covered with lines and representations of various

stars and the zodiac. Its introduction navigation

astronomical probably occurred in the late fifteenth

century, although the earliest known depiction of a

nautical astrolabe dates of 1517. Gaspar Correia attributed

to Abraham Zacuto, a Jewish astrologer based in Portugal,

the proposal of its application for navigation purposes.

The first explicit reference to its use on board refers to

an Diogo de Azambuja trip in 1481. João de Barros states

that Vasco da Gama used a wooden, suspended by a cabrilha, a

support with three limbs tied at the top.

The nautical astrolabe is a simplified version of the

traditional. And a robust and heavy object, cast in bronze,

with about 2 Kg and 20 centimetres in diameter, which

should remain upright during measurements. The instrument

was suspended by the ring, while passing a ray of sunshine

through the hole of both pínulas. Like one could not look

directly, observers suspended the astrolabe and handled the31 Vide Annex II, Fig. 15.

21

mediclina until a ray of light enters the top hole and

became projected on the bottom. It was called this

operation "weighing" of the Sun, given the similarity with

the use of a scale. The reading was made on a scale from 0

° to 90 ° which gave the zenith distance, from which it was

possible to calculate the latitude of a place. The latitude

is found then from the formula X = (90 - a) + d, where "a"

is the height of the sun and "d" its declination. As the

complement of the height is the zenith distance (Z = 90 -

a), it was enough to make the pilot operation Z + d to find

the value of latitude X.

Compass32

This compass is a utensil formed by two legs articulated at

one end, used to draw circular lines or take measurements.

As an additional to boating, its use is to draw routes and

calculate distances on sea charts. In the fifteenth and

sixteenth centuries was also used in shipbuilding and in

the design of some parts of the vessels. One of his most

famous representations is in the Book of Woodworking

Designs (1616) by Manuel Fernandes where it is pictured in

the hands of the author, in the illustration in which he is

portrayed.

Quadrant33

The first instruments to be used in celestial navigation,

from the mid-fifteenth century, were the ones that were

32 Vide Annex II, Fig. 17.33 Idem, Fig. 17.

22

already known since the Middle Ages; The Quadrant, as the

plane astrolabe, was no exception, although initially its

use was linked to astrology. The medieval quarter, as the

astrologers and surveyors used to measure the height of the

stars or objects from the Earth's surface, includes

altimetry scales to address distance measuring problems

between inaccessible points and a cursor to allow calculate

the solar declination. The nautical quadrant is, however, a

much more streamlined instrument. It consists of a quarter

circle, form iron or wood, with two aim pínulas perforated at

one of its straight sides, a suspended plumb line from the

right angle of the triangle and a grading scale entered in

peripheral quarter circle.

The quadrant of use on board was simple: the user pointing

the quadrant the star he wants to see, until he can see

through the holes of both pínulas. The measurement was then

found through the value pointed to by run-of-plumb in the

quarter circle scale, where a graduation from 0 ° to 90 °.

Although its application in navigation is, of course,

previous, only there are only explicit references to its

use from the mid-fifteenth century, based on the testimony

of Diogo Gomes. The first iconographic representations date

back to the first half of the sixteenth century, lying in

some planispheres by Diogo Ribeiro, though still with

altimetry scale. It was used until the eighteenth century,

despite some criticism regarding the accuracy of the

measurements obtained by it.

23

The "tavoletas from India"34

The instrument known in Portugal as “tavoletas of Judea”,

“cross-staff of the Moor " or kamal was discovered in the

Indian Ocean during the first Vasco da Gama trip and was

intended to guidance on the high seas by observing the

stars. It consists of a board of square or rectangular

shape, with a full wire we suspended from its centre. The

user must hold the wire with the mouth by one of nods, or

hold it at eye level with one hand, while aimed at the star

chosen for guidance from one side of the board and the

skyline on the other. The nodes of the wire should be

positioned in accordance with the height of celestial

bodies used as reference. The first attempt to use the

kamal by the Portuguese occurred in Pedro Álvares Cabral's

trip but the lack of reference points used by the Indian

Ocean sailors and the exact correspondence between the

grades of Portuguese measurements and the eastern inches

(Isbas) prevented its proper use.

3- c) Shipbuilding35 36

To build the ships used in the Atlantic voyages of

exploration, in the fleets guarding the Portuguese coast

against existing pirate attacks and in commercial service

between Lisbon and the various overseas possessions, there

34 Vide Annex II, Fig. 18.35 Adaptado de “Navegação – Barcos – Construção naval” in Navegar, op. cit.36 Francisco Contente Domingues, “A Construção Naval Portuguesa(Séculos XV-XVI)” in História dos Descobrimentos e Expansão Portuguesa, op. cit., pp.215-231.

24

were created various facilities in Lisbon and elsewhere in

the country. Among these units had particular importance

the Ribeira das Naus, in Lisbon. By the reign of King

Manuel I, the shipyard was located at the waterfront, in

the current Campo das Cebolas, to the east of the Terreiro

do Paço. With the increasing demands of the empire, both in

new vessels for commercial careers as for the fleets that

should protect them, it becomes necessary to extend and

transfer these structures to more spacious place. The new

shipyard - New College - was to the west of that Terreiro,

very close to the Royal Palace that King Manuel ordered

built in the early years of the sixteenth century.

In times of increased activity, worked in Ribeira hundreds

of skilled workers, in which loomed the carpenters; while

numerous slaves performed the toughest jobs. The master

carpenter considered his work finished when concluding the

construction of the hull and the ship was launched in the

water. It was followed by the placing of the masts, the

yards and the canopy. In warships, the captain and the

bombers oversaw the placement of onboard weapons. The pace

of construction of vessels in Ribeira was sometimes

hampered by the lack of material available; to overcome

these difficulties there were woods and forests in some

areas of the country, where the logging was done just for

this purpose. The cork came from Beira Baixa and Alentejo,

while the pine came from Leiria and the south bank of the

Tagus. The felling was done under the guidance of master

25

carpenter and obeyed strict rules as to the time of year

and time of day of the cut.

The wood from cork-oaks and holm oaks was used in the bilge

(the ship's skeleton) 37, being the resistance to water and

the natural curves of holm oak useful for the manufacture

of parts of ships. In so-called "living works" (areas where

the water level reaches) as the keel (strong and long piece

that goes from bow to stern of the ship, which fixes the

timbers), the wheel of the bow and the cadaste (part the

stern where fixed the rudder axis), the wood used was the

resinous pine. In the dead works resorted to the wood stone

pine. The wood of oak and chestnut were only used in small

pieces, given their low water resistance to temperate and

warm seas. Some exotic woods such as teak, were also

occasionally used. The import of some woods of northern

Europe, designed specifically for the manufacture of

certain parts (such as the pine-of-Flanders, for masts),

was a common practice. The construction of a ship obeyed

strict rules on the size of each type of parts38, which

sometimes meant finding the right specimen for slaughter in

terms of age and time of year.

In Lisbon, in addition to the Ribeira, there were several

infrastructures to support shipbuilding. For metal parts

and for the manufacture of weapons there were blacksmiths

and foundries. The location of these establishments near

Ribeira das Naus was useful but too close to the economic

and housing centre, which had some drawbacks. Therefore,

37 Vide Annex II, Fig. 19.38 Idem, Fig. 20.

26

and due to the need to decongest the work, King Manuel

ordered the construction of new ironworks and "new

Teracenas" in the eastern city limits, near Cataquefarás

and the Cross Gate. Thus, there was a distinction between

the Navy Arsenal, still in the Ribeira das Naus, and

Arsenal of the Army, now to be located in the new Teracenas

Foundry. The House of Gunpowder was installed in a tower

about the enclosure ordered built by earlier King

Ferdinand, until be transferred to the area of Pampulha.

Apart from Lisbon, there were other places where

shipbuilding was of great importance in the 15th and 16th

centuries. In the period of infant Dom Henrique travels, it

was the Algarve that was prevalent at this level, but in

the sixteenth century, there were shipyards in various

parts of the country where they built boats used in the

Career of the Indies. In addition to the auxiliary Telha

yard, there were important sites in the north, in Porto,

Gaia, in Aveiro and Vila do Conde, and Setúbal, Lagos and

Tavira, in the south of the Tagus. In overseas possessions,

the largest shipyard was the Ribeira de Goa, in the estuary

of Mandovi. This structure existed at the beginning of the

sixteenth century, before the Portuguese conquest, when

Afonso de Albuquerque then took several dozen vessels and

it was in this Ribeira that were built some of the largest

ships of the sixteenth century.

Portugal was the meeting point of various shipbuilding

techniques (Arab, Mediterranean and Northern European),

which were perfecting hand in hand with the cartography and

27

nautical: in the end it was an interconnected process

better understudied as a whole that does not make much

sense realizing separately. It is incongruous to think of a

great development of shipbuilding without the same

succeeding in nautical terms, which would prevent - taking

the Portuguese case - a ship technically capable of

seagoing, which could not do it because of not having ways

of orientation.

Contrary to what happened in cartography or astronomy, the

process of synthesis of various shipbuilding practices

occurred mainly empirically, that is, by observation and

direct exchange of practical experience, as well as for

contacts and teachings of shipbuilders’ masters. A

Portuguese maritime tradition, forged in the art of fishing

and commerce, join will be solutions hitherto strange but

then effectively adopted by the emergence, by the mid-

fifteenth century, with appropriate vessels in particular

for ocean navigation in the concrete conditions that faced

the protagonists of the voyages of discovery.

And, contrary to what was thought, we can not state that

the Portuguese have created from scratch one or more types

of vessel intended specifically for voyages of Discovery,

completely ignoring everything that was already known. It

was rather the result of various adaptations, changes or

developments of certain technical solutions, giving rise to

different types of vessels that were suitable for

exploratory purposes in view. As with the process of

Discoveries in general, both men of sea and those who

28

ordered the trips did not have a concrete idea of what they

would face, nor the means to that end; was thus something

like walking in the dark, groping the way as it progresses,

trying to combine the need to what could be developed

3- d) Vessels39 40

Barge and barinel41

The characteristics of the first ships used in the

exploration of the African coast in the Portuguese voyages

are little known, since there are no descriptions or strict

iconographic representations. The barge, ship in which Gil

Eanes crossed the Bojador, was a vessel of Mediterranean

origin, which used Latin canopy, moved up to about 30

barrels (or tonnes) which usually had not a deck. Larger

barinel was captained by Afonso Gonçalves Baldam on the

second trip beyond the Bojador. The barinel was also

originating from the Mediterranean and perhaps already had

two masts with lateen sails. Whether the barge and the

barinel could move through paddles. In the fifteenth

century, these vessels were used in commercial shipping,

coastal shipping and crossing wider estuary of rivers such

as the Tagus. The possibility of navigation to tack

explains his choice for journeys of discovery promoted by

infant Dom Henrique. Also the fact that it was suspected

the existence of shoals beyond Cape Bojador justified this

39 Adapted from “Navegação – Barcos” in Navegar, op. cit.40 Vide supra, n. 36.41 Vide Annex II, Fig. 21.

29

option, since a smaller ship displaces less draught, that

is, requires less water depth to float.

Galley42

The galley was a feature of the Mediterranean vessel, used

in trade and war until the eighteenth century, which

responded to navigation needs in an area where the wind is

often weak and the curling was low. It was a low-board ship

(hull with small and slightly elevated edge), which

combined the existence of pairs of oars in variable number

(at least 24), driven by 2-4 paddlers per bank, with two or

three masts rigged with Latin canopy. The relationship

between the breadth (wide) and the keel (length) ranged

from 1 to 5 and 1 to 9 as their function was more markedly

commercial or war. In the bow came a spur, used in attacks

against other ships, in combat situations. Onboard could be

some artillery pieces, but the main attack strategy was the

approach to the enemy ship. In Portugal, the galleys joined

the navy by the end of the fifteenth century, existing in

the Indian Ocean fleets during most of the sixteenth

century.

Caravel43

It was the great ship of discovery and one which allowed

the advance of Atlantic exploration process during the

fifteenth century. The uniqueness of the structure and

specificity explains part of the pioneering Portugal in the

42 Idem, Fig. 22.43 Vide Annex II, Fig. 23.

30

European expansionist process. The first known reference to

the term "caravel" dates back to the thirteenth century and

refers to the so-called "caravel pescareza" of larger vessel

and sails than the barge, but with somewhat similar

functions. The origin of the word is in karabos Greek and

QARIB Arabic terms used to describe types of Mediterranean

ships, with the equivalent "cáravo" in Portuguese.

"Caravel" will match possibly a diminutive derivation of

those terms. The documentation available is scarce,

therefore so much of what is said about its size, layout

and crew in the fifteenth century, is based on what is

known about the caravel of the sixteenth century.

The "caravel of discovery" or the Latin one used in

Portuguese voyages of discovery corresponded to the

synthesis of elements of the nautical tradition of the

Mediterranean with other from Northern Europe. The

extension of travel forced to resort to more robust vessels

that used until then, without loss of the qualities that

have proved useful in the past. Its main distinguishing

feature was the use of large Latin sails, essential for the

achievement of the voyages of exploration in the Atlantic

and along the West African coast south of Cape Bojador,

when the wind regime is adverse. In the thirteenth and

fourteenth centuries, when the caravel was still used in

fishing and trade, used only a Latin sail, triangular in

its single mast, placed almost vertically through the keel.

The antenna where the sail was attached was already

significantly higher than in earlier vessels and the crew

31

was around the dozen men. In the fifteenth century, as he

began to be used by Infant D. Henrique navigators, the

caravel already had two masts with Latin panel, the second

of which (mizzen) midway between the mainmast and the stern

of the ship, 40-60 barrels of tonnage (volume of space for

the load).

In the fifteenth century, the use of caravels on voyages of

discovery began in the 1440s and continued until the

completion of the circumnavigation of Africa. When, on

trips south of Cape Bojador, if faced adverse winds, the

increase was only possible with the use of navigation to

tack. This technique was not feasible with the so-called

"square sails" fixed setting, so that the pescarezas

caravels undergone an evolution emphasized that the size of

the antenna, oblique to the mast and the canopy Latin

placed along the axis of the vessel. In this period, the

"caravel of discovery" moved on average 50 tons, had two

masts rigged with Latin sails and a crew that was around

two dozen men. The structure was made of wood of holm oak

forests, and the inside of the hull reinforced resinous

pine and dead works reinforced with stone pine. The mast

was in pine-of-Flanders, originating in the Baltic

countries.

The last voyage of discovery where the caravel was present

was the Bartolomeu Dias one in 1487-1488. Since then, the

caravel was restricted almost exclusively to trade missions

in the Atlantic or integrated into the armed fleets of

Career of the Indies. In the sixteenth century its capacity

32

increased to carry larger amounts of goods. First there was

the three-masted caravel, which could exceed 100 barrels of

tonnage and had a castle on the stern with two floors,

overlay (part of the aft deck, higher, the mizzen mast to

the stern) and chapitéu (highest part the bow or stern);

however, this type was gradually replaced by the "round

caravel" with four masts, three with Latin sails and one on

the bow, with a round candle. Its tonnage ranged between

150 and 180 barrels, had between one and two decks two

houses in the castle of the stern and one in the bow,

having little in common with the "caravel of discovery"

being used in auxiliary functions integrated in a fleet of

larger vessels. The "caravelão", in turn, was a smaller

ship (40-50 barrels of tonnage) widely used in Brazilian

coast in support missions.

The caravel was of good sailing, that is, easily manoeuvred

by a small number of sailors, key feature when it was

necessary to embark lots of food and drinking water for

trips that would last months, and move a small draught,

allowing you both ocean shipping as coastal and the

exploring of coves or river courses.

Ship44

It was the vessel that dominated the Portuguese long

distance commercial shipping during the sixteenth century.

So-called "ships of India" were the main example of this

type of merchant ship of great span and distinct from the44 Vide Annex II, Fig. 24.

33

caravel by the type of canopy and hull structure and

transportable cargo volume. As for the canopy, the ships

used round sails in the large mast and foresail (mainsail

mast from the bow), while in the mizzen one uses the Latin

canopy to help manoeuvre the rudder. In the case of the

hull, the introduction of castles to the bow and stern was

aimed at creating space for rooms for passengers and most

important crew members. The size and the number of ships

decks increased during the sixteenth century, when it was

necessary to transport increasing amounts of goods from the

East.

The ships remained over a basic typology in the sixteenth

century, but the desire to increase the transport capacity

had implications for its internal structure. In the late

fifteenth century, the ships had only one or two decks, a

castle in the bow with lookout and a castle in the stern

with overlay and chapitéu. The deck (space found between

the castles) was often protected by xaretas - networks that

sheltered the fall of masts and spars and made it difficult

to approach. In the second half of the sixteenth century

increased the number of decks for three and four, as the

tonnage of the ship and the canopy necessary to move it.

Unlike the caravels, where the increase of scale usually

involved the increase in the number of rush in the case of

the ships the increase was felt in the size and number of

spars and sails by mast, keeping the existence of two masts

with round sails, the great and the foresail, and with

Latin canopy.

34

The number of crew needed to manoeuvre a ship depended on

their size and the canopy that equips; however, a ship of

medium size (about 400-500 barrels of tonnage) required a

crew with little more than a hundred sea men, including

officers, sailors and seamen. When piracy started to threat

was also shipped one bomber body headed by a constable and

the ship was equipped with artillery pieces (about two

dozen) and their ammunition, muskets and pikes (spears

ending in sharp points) among other missile weapons or

intended for hand-to-hand combat. The cost of preparing a

ship with these characteristics included the construction,

supply and wages of the crew; in the second half of the

sixteenth century all these components estimated in about

40 Contos de Réis (Rs 40,000$000), being between 25,000$000

and 28,000$000 for the construction and replacement

materials, 8,000$000 and 10,000$000 for groceries and the

rest, between 7,000$000 and 2,000$000, for six months

wages.

The "ships of India" were the main merchant vessels of the

Portuguese empire in the sixteenth century, highlighting in

particular in the Cape Route. The ships in the service of

Career of the Indies were "thick ships", with more than 300

barrels of tonnage and in mid-Five hundred reached the 800

and 1000 barrels, implying crews well above the hundred

sailors. The number of decks also increased with the

tonnage, reaching three and four, while the castles of the

stern and the bow grew in height with the inclusion of the

overguard (small high tower for shelter of watchmen) the

35

bow and the citadel (prison) to stern. The use of the ship

was fundamentally commercial, although this type of vessel

could also get weapons to defend against enemy attacks or

to participate in military operations. Between Vasco da

Gama trip and the late sixteenth century headed to the East

over seven hundred of these vessels, which returned about

four hundred and fifty and lost about one in six, remaining

the other Indian Ocean.

Galleon45

The identification of the galleon, as separate and distinct

typological the ship category, raises controversy because

of the very terminological confusion of the authors of the

time. The most peaceful way to distinguish these two types

of vessels is the functional nature. The ship was a vessel

with essentially commercial functions, while the galleon

had a stronger military vocation. On the other hand, the

Portuguese galleon is a ship distinct from Spanish galeón,

both in the architecture and function. Apparently, the term

"galleon" arises by analogy with the Italian galleons,

which were also high board warships (bulky and very high

hull). The differences between the ship and the Portuguese

galleon in the sizes, proportions and tonnage, although not

substantial in many cases, justify, however, a

terminological distinction. The galleon is a vessel with,

on average, lower tonnage that the ship and that rarely

exceeds 600-700 barrels.

45 Vide Annex II, Fig. 25.

36

The notion, current in the sixteenth century, that a

warship was to be shallow and lower than merchant ships, to

offer a smaller mass to opponents shots, led to the galleon

had a more elongated shape and a profile less flaring that

commercial vessels. In addition, the galleons did not

possess very prominent castles the main body of the hull;

both the bow and the stern castles had only two floors.

However, it is possible that some larger ships, when they

were unable to career of India, had been armed with

artillery and used as fleets sliding the coast and started

to be known as galleons, helping the existence of some

misconceptions regarding to its specific type. At the end

of sixteenth century the arms shipped were, in the case of

smaller galleons (200 barrels), equivalent to the large

ships, that is, about 20 artillery pieces. In larger

reached several dozen mouths-of-fire.

3- e) Weaponry46

The successful presence of the Portuguese in Africa and

Asia, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, results

from the technical advantages of their weapons, defensive

and offensive, in relation to the local population. In the

fifteenth century, European arms were in a transition

period between the medieval weapons - mainly made up of the

so-called "white weapons", for close combat (spears, pikes,

chucks, forks, axes, halberds), and manual shooting weapons

(darts, javelins) and neurobalistics (bows and crossbows) -46 Adapted from “Cultura e Sociedade – Armamento” in Navegar, op. cit.

37

and pyrobalistics weapons that were in great development

and have become critical to success in war during the

sixteenth century, both in the artillery as in infantry

itself. This does not mean that even before one had not

resorted to artillery in siege situations of the

fortresses, and then continued to use many of the weapons

of medieval origin, with major or minor improvements.

White and neurobalistics weapons

During the period of Portuguese discovery travel, much of

the weaponry used on board ships and caravels was type

"conventional", ie formed by stem knives or handle for hand

to hand combat, by hand or thrown weapons by neurobalistics

weapons, projectiles which are powered by springs driven by

strings (bows and crossbows). These shot weapons were,

however, soon be replaced by portable firearms. As for

white weapons, swords are the most common, as well as

knives or daggers, of shorter blade, serving to arm

soldiers. Pikes and half-pikes were shipped in large

quantities during the sixteenth century in ships from India

to arm the seamen in the event of combat and approach in

open ocean.

38

Pyrobalistic weapons

The big news of the European arms in this period was the

improvement of firearms, both in artillery and in small

arms. In areas where these weapons were unknown (sub-

Saharan Africa, America) the Portuguese benefited from its

impact on local populations to impose their power. Even in

Asia, where the pyrobalistic weaponry was known, the

quality of Portuguese arms was decisive. Among the weapons

of shot by explosion of gunpowder it can be count the

arquebuses (whose projectiles reach the 120-150 meters),

muskets (longer and heavy, requiring a fork for the shooter

power support on the floor and take aim, but with a range

up to 200 meters) and carbines. For use with one hand,

began to emerge pistols and pistolettes. The trigger was

caused by inflammation of the powder in the chamber, or by

applying a murron or sparks produced by a rifle.

The arquebus

Among the weapons that the Portuguese used during the

expansion, the arquebus was the one that got most

successful, particularly in the East. It is a firearm

similar to the riffle with a barrel shorter than the

musket, muzzle loading, with the butt in wood and cast iron

pipe. Its use vulgarized up during the reign of King John

II, been gradually improved with the introduction of the

lever trigger and the coil closure, which become easier the

operations to aim and shoot. Before starting to be

39

manufactured in Portugal and in the conquered territories,

many lock of arquebuses were purchased in Bohemia. The

success of this type of weapon was huge, for example, in

Japan, where the Portuguese introduced for the first time,

the firearms.

Defensive armament

The defensive weaponry could be comprised by weapons the

warriors held protecting the body (buckler, shields,

adargas [leather shields]), made of wood or leather and

eventually reinforced with metal, or wearing it. In this

case are lorigas [skirt made of knitting covered with

blades or iron scales] and coats of arms, made with iron

rings during the Middle Ages, as well as armour from

wrought iron, especially useful against projectiles of

neurobalistic weapons. With the advancement of firearms,

the full armour became less useful and impractical; began

using up protection only in the trunk (armour) or chest

(pectoral, half-shell) as well as the helmet, or headgear,

which gained a simpler form, no longer resting on his

shoulders.

Naval artillery

The presence of firearms in Portuguese ships dates back to

the fifteenth century. They are the "troões", small calibre

firearms that have fallen into disuse in favour of cannons

(which appeared in Portugal in 1381 at Cambridge Earl

Fleet). In the fifteenth century, shipped weapons were

40

intended to support operations against enemy positions

ashore. In the sixteenth century, with the worsening of

maritime competition, became normal the use of artillery on

board. The pieces, despite the terminological variety, can

be grouped into three broad categories: the masons, shorter

but of great calibre, who throw stone balls at short

distances; the guns, medium length and calibre, who shoot

bullets of cast iron (pylorus) used in sieges and naval

battles; and colubrine, long pipe and medium calibre

pieces, used to engage targets at greater distances. These

were weapons that since the arrival of Vasco da Gama,

unbalanced in favour of the Portuguese the relation of

forces in the Indian Ocean.

3- f) Life on board47

Rules

For navigation to be made in safety it was necessary to

respect a well-defined set of rules. One related up with

"canned" navigation, ie, requiring the fleet ships to

travel together to lessening the dangers of enemy attacks.

On board, the daily was also heavily regulated. The crew

follows duty roster ensuring navigation in good condition,

being the hierarchy clearly established. Cases of justice

were resolved, ultimately, by the captain whether they were

about whether they were related to the crew or with the

passengers. The application of the resulting penalties fell

within the jurisdiction of the bailiff or mayor. In the47 Adapted from “Navegação – Vida a bordo” in Navegar, op. cit.

41

event of any prisoners, the most dangerous could be put in

irons, in the basement or near the pumps. The other could

be on the deck using boards with holes to arrest their

feet.

One of the greatest concerns to be taken during the trips

was related to anything that could cause a fire on board.

The bailiff or mayor was responsible for gunpowder, the

weapons and the use of stoves. During the crossings

crewmembers were appointed to monitor all potentially

hazardous situations, including those bound to the stoves

used in the preparation of meals. These stoves,

incidentally, were only lit on days of calm sea and of low

intensity wind. It was prohibited to use lighted candles in

the barracks at night, although sometimes some passengers

disregard the signs to manage to read. They were also

frequent recommendations for special care of firearms,

since the inadvertent handling could trigger fires,

especially when ships carrying highly inflammable loads

(such as gunpowder, tissues or spices).

The transport of female members on trips that could last

several months was always subject to specific rules. Their

boarding occurred for various reasons: they could be the

wives of other crew members (usually derived from the

nobility), of servants to accompany their ladies, "orphan

of the king" (girls who were destined to marry settlers in

Brazil or India), or clandestine women. The way to avoid

problems was to reduce at the maximum the contacts between

members of both sexes. Hence the isolation of women was

42

usual, getting these condemned to do the whole trip in

specific place, well guarded and inaccessible, as was the

case from the balcony stateroom, aft of the ships

(dangerous place which caused some falling overboard with

fatal consequences). Clandestine women, since travelling

hidden and not well provided with its own space, were

unprotected against the male harassment.

Spaces

The interior space of the caravels was very short, with few

living conditions for those who embarked in them. Besides

the basement, used to store supplies or any other load, the

enclosures were rare. In fact, by what is known of the

Portuguese caravels in this period, there were only two

offices in the lateral zones of the wheelhouse, in the

stern of the vessel. These offices were used by the captain

or any other of the more important members of the crew

(case of the clerk) or by a passenger of a higher social

status. Thus, the overwhelming majority of the crew (which,

on average, ranged from 20 to 40 members) had to settle on

the deck, at the mercy of climatic variations that occurred

during the trip.

On the other hand, the ships had much more clear space than

the caravels; but also had a higher crew and carried more

passengers and cargo. On deck there were the sailors and

below deck the soldiers. The captain and other officers

were entitled to chambers or cabins in the bow or stern

castles, as well as the more affluent passengers. In ships

43

of India, during the sixteenth century, the space available

was increased for the load by multiplying the number of

covered, but the living conditions worsened. The crew sold

part of its facilities to passengers, who then put their

goods in there. On trips to India there were many people to

want to embark, which raised the price of available space.

To Lisbon the number of passengers was lower, but the

demand remained because returning passengers wanted to

bring the greatest possible amount of goods. In some ships

the deck was flooded with volumes harming the very

operation of the ship.

Crew

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries put up often

the problem of finding enough people to embark on the

fleets. The preparation of an annual fleet to India, while

other ships patrolling the coast or were heading for

Africa, Brazil and the Atlantic islands, placed great

difficulties. In general, each Lisbon parish contributed

with a number of military men to serve; in lack of

sufficient volunteers, there were recruited compulsorily

the missing elements. For sailors difficulties repeated up.

In extreme cases boarded up prisoners and beggars. Many

ships needed hundreds of crew members, between sea people

and people of war. The reverse, however, could also happen.

In 1548, for example, the problem was to channel the offer:

many soldiers boarded without receiving pay and other did

44

so on condition to serve for free for a year, as military

in India.

Despite the various types of ships, the senior posts were

generally the same. In the fleets, the Captain General was

the supreme commander. On board, the captain was the most

responsible, being in charge of the administration of

justice (imprisonment or corporal punishment); the position

was usually assigned to nobles, as a reward for services

rendered. The pilot was directly responsible for

navigation, helped by sota pilot or second pilot. The

master headed sailors, helped by the foreman and the

guardian. The clerk recorded all instances, wrote the

necessary documents, oversaw the distribution of groceries

and kept the keys of where were stored. The master bomber

or constable headed the military contingent of the ship.

The bailiff or mayor executed justice and was responsible

for prisoners. The chaplain exercised religious and

assistance activities.

The daily tasks of navigation were made by sailors. Among

them, the trinqueiros played the specific task of taking care

of plugs and cables, ensuring that they were always in good

condition. The cabin boys were youngsters who played the

toughest tasks along the way: competing them to assist

sailors in the handling of the cables, clean the ship,

operate water pumps and do all the tasks that any other

member of the crew demanded them. It was normal that were

also embarked other crew members with the function of

performing specific offices, as cooks, carpenters, caulkers

45

or coopers, among others. Finally, it was often the

existence of stewards, who shared the food for the crew,

and pages, errand boys of the officers, who were

responsible for calling the personnel to service, dealing

with lights or make criers whenever occurred auction of the

property of the deceased.

Passengers

On several routes, ships carried large numbers of

passengers (several hundred in the case of larger vessels).

Among them were members of all social groups. From the

nobility came the staff of overseas administration and

military leadership, sometimes accompanied by family. From

the clergy were missionaries in the mission of

evangelization. From the lower classes were departing

traders for lucrative business and adventurers seeking

better living conditions. It was also common to find

orphans, young people in charge of the missionaries, or

"orphans of the king", girls protected by the king

belonging to the Gathering of Honoured Orphans of Lisbon,

founded by King John III in 1543. These girls had main

destinations for India and Brazil, there to contract

marriage with settlers. It was allowed foreign boarding,

although since the sixteenth century there were

restrictions on Jews boarding.

The boarding of stowaways was common in overseas travel.

This has generated delicate situations, in particular as

regards the distribution of food and water, because the

46

presence of stowaways, not being accounted for at the

outset, could endanger the survival of all. On the other

hand, irregular female onboard were a source of troubles

onboard, since they ended up being disturbing elements in

an environment almost completely male. In order to avoid

these situations was normal to carry out stringent checks-

vessels prior to departure. During the trips - especially

in the longer term, as the Indian career - when he

discovered clandestine elements on board, was sought that

they remained isolated (especially when it came to women)

until they were landed in the first scale it was made.

Food

In the Discoveries, the main food was the biscuit, product

made from wheat flour dough based baked twice. In India, it

was made a biscuit from flour extracted from palm tree

which, it is believed, could last about twenty years. Also

part of the embarked products was bread and cereals, salted

and smoked meat, dried and salted fish, cheese, butter,

dried fruit (such as raisins, figs or prunes), honey,

marmalade, sugar, rice, garlic and onions. As for beverages

stood out water, essential for the survival of all,

followed by the wine, olive oil and vinegar. Fresh foods

was rare, because there were considerable difficulties in

conservation. In any case, always looked to embark some

fruits and meat board and can also be embarked live

animals, such as chickens, rabbits, pigs or cows that were

47

killed along the crossing. Fresh fish, it was consumed only

the one who was caught while travelling.

The distribution of various foodstuffs did not follow

uniform rules on similar trips. A typical case was that of

India career: whether, in the way, passengers and crew were

entitled to receive certain amounts of food, when the ships

returned to the kingdom only the crew kept the privilege.

To the passengers it was only distributed bread and water,

and the rest of the food will be at their own risk. Water

and wine were normally distributed daily. Regarding other

foods such as, for example, the biscuit, the meat and

salted fish, onions or vinegar, there were more widely

spaced distributions, which may, for example, be a month.

In addition to the rations allocated to each, was allowed

to the shipped to take with them their own groceries. This

had the advantage of not becoming totally dependent on the

distribution, sometimes uneven, the feed vessels.

All food were distributed raw. Therefore, the

responsibility belonged to cook meals on board. And this

task was not always easy. In the days of rough seas or rain

and strong winds, was forbidden to fire on board, due to

fire hazard. On other days - and always with the greatest

caution - they could light up the stoves, made with wooden

boxes (material gradually replaced by iron) filled with

sand and placed in sheltered locations. Even on days when

the fire could be lit, to cook a meal was always an

adventure. The greatest difficulty was undoubtedly reach

stoves because the queues were endless. Usually worked one

48

or two stoves, which was too little to meet the needs of

several hundred people. Hence, many would eventually have

to be content to eat foods such as these they were

delivered: raw and cold.

Keep food in good condition was one of the hardest tasks

onboard. The groceries were usually stored in basements -

site often used by passengers to meet their physiological

needs - where abounded rats, fleas and cockroaches, which

took advantage of both the hot and humid climate of

basements or poor storage of foodstuffs, to develop. Dry

foods easily filled with worms and water began to gain

smell and a cloudy colour. The problems increased when

passing by very hot areas. Several cases were lengthy stay

in the equatorial waters due to calms that immobilized

vessels, completely spoiled embarked foodstuffs. But also

the intense cold - like what sometimes felt in the South

Atlantic - put great difficulties: the water froze as well

as the remaining food, making it very difficult for people

to ingest them.

Hygiene and health

The hygienic conditions in the vessel were not, in most

cases the best. The absence of appropriate spaces to ensure

the physiological needs of the crew and passengers had

serious consequences. Rats, fleas, cockroaches, lice and

bedbugs were regular travelling companions. Poor storage of

groceries, damp basement room (often used as bathroom), the

garbage that exist around everywhere, the need not to waste

49

fresh water in baths and laundry, made possible its rapid

reproduction. When the ships sailed overcrowded, which was

often, the lack of hygiene accentuated even more. So after

a few days of travel, the vessels transformed rapidly in

favourable places for diseases and epidemics.

Seafaring long term entailed plenty of risks to the health

of crew and passengers. It was enough the presence of

someone infected with any contagious disease, so that their

spread was inevitable and provoked several victims. Leaving

Lisbon appeared the first sickness. It was not serious, but

began to weaken people taking them more vulnerable to other

diseases. After a few days of travel, began to feel the

effects of the lack of fresh food. Meals based on dry and

salty food, low in vitamins, caused violent outbreaks of

scurvy. Crossing the equatorial zone, due to strong heat,

lead to the decay of many genera, while the water was

unbearable with aroma and flavour. The sunstroke was also

common. In the South Atlantic the main enemy was the cold.

Fevers and diseases of the respiratory and digestive

systems were quite frequent, but scurvy was the most common

disease on board.

Scurvy (also known as "mal de Luanda" or "bad gums") was a

disease caused by the lack of fresh food, rich in vitamin

C, such as fruit and vegetables. Her symptoms were rotting

and bleeding of the gums that, without treatment, caused a

painful death. This disease often arose between the

Portuguese sailors of the sixteenth century in the case of

longer trips. The impossibility of maintaining fresh food

50

on board and deterioration due to temperature changes were

some of the causes for the epidemic of scurvy. In the early

sixteenth century, an anonymous pilot concerns the

beneficial effect that the refreshments offered by the King

of Malindi had on Cabral's fleet of sailors affected by

scurvy. Indeed, just a diet based on foods rich in vitamin

C (orange, lemon, tomato) was enough to avoid the effects

of the disease.

The methods of treatment of diseases were scarce and

varied. Health care was usually provided by physical or

barbers; failing them appealed to members of the clergy.

The board of apothecaries piled up small pots with

ointments, plant leaves taken as medicinal and other

products and concoctions of dubious therapeutic utility. It

was common belief that diseases were caused by harmful

fluids that seeped blood and that healing was going through

his expulsion from the patient's body; hence many of the

treatments consisted in saddle cloth, bloodletting, purges

and enemas. Bloodletting was preferred, being considered as

a remedy for almost all ills. However, the frequency with

which they were made more caused the weakening than the

cure of the patient. Perhaps that is why, before any

treatment, patients were to first confess.

Religiousness

The presence of religious on board allowed a regular

spiritual assistance to travellers. The chaplain, who was

part of the crew of the ship, was responsible for all

51

religious nature activities. In his performance, he had the

help of missionaries when they were shipped. Sometimes also

followed trip senior members of the religious hierarchy -

bishops and archbishops - to take possession of overseas

dioceses; when this was the case, religious ceremonies were

generally more cared for and solemn, which contributed to

intensify the religious fervour. The dangers of life at sea

intensified religious practices. The actual hazards (such

as storms, shipwrecks or pirate attacks) and imaginary

fears (such as sea monsters) aproach to God those who

boarded. Hence a saying of the time claimed wisely, "If you

want to learn to pray, go into the sea."

Among the religious activities on board, the masses

occupied place of evidence. It were usually celebrated on

Sundays and holy days, and could be performed daily when

they were senior members of the clergy on board. They were

accompanied by preaching, being common the daily catechesis

sessions. There were several moments of prayer: the first

was at sunrise and the last was made at nightfall; the

middle were the recitations of the Salve Regina, litanies

of saints celebrations and eve. The holding of processions

was another usual practice; were moments of any

theatricality, where emotion and fervour were clearly

evident. One of the most important sacraments was the

confession. The regiment of the ship St. Pantaleon, for

example, that left for India in 1592, required all

travellers to plead, on pain of not receiving the food

52

ration; if they did before embarking, should show the

postscript with the confirmation.

The holding of processions during the trips was relatively

frequent. They were organized on feast days of the

religious calendar, but also on the occasion of

difficulties experienced onboard. They were regular

processions of thanksgiving to God after a thunderstorm, an

enemy attack, a prolonged lull or any other incident that

would endanger the lives of embarked, with the use of

crucifixes, relics and images of saints, and, chanting and

litanies. Sometimes could even watch to moments in which

participants self racked, as a form of sacrifice to God or

as act of penance. The immensity of the sea helped create a

high mysticism environment, more intense when the

processions held overnight; there, the darkness emphasized

the fragility of a man in front of Nature and created the

conditions for the existence of moments that would hardly

be forgotten by those who participated in them.

Amusement

Leisure time was filled in different ways and many of the

passengers were in more or less individual tasks in way to

occupy the leisure time. Learning the ship manoeuvre or

knowledge of the stars, with the help of some crew members

was a good way to pass the time. Fishing had hardcore fans.

Functioned as element of fun and allowed also get fresh

food, always welcome. Reading was another of the forms of

leisure time, not being, however, one of the favourite

53

pastimes, given the large number of illiterates. However,

between officers, passengers, religious and even sailors

were many who could read. Among the most appreciated works

found themselves the chivalric romances, which, however,

were criticized by the Church by a decree of about 1560

ordering to members of the clergy to confiscate such

volumes and to lend, in turn, more works edifying.

Religious ceremonies, music and singing, were some of the

most popular ways to occupy their free time. The games -

especially the gambling - occupied a prominent place,

despite the prohibitions that fell upon their practice.

Many were those who lost, on cards or dice, all they had.

The theatre also played an important role as occupation and

distraction; being the first news of the existence of

theatrical performances in India Career ships dating from

1574 and referring to the staging of several assessment on

board the ship Santa Barbara. There were other game-

oriented activities, such as simulations of bullfighting,

with blue sharks and sharks caught by sailors during the

lulls: after captured, they were blinded, threw on the deck

and sailors pretended to bullfighting them while they were

struggling. Finally, there were the auctions, which sell

fresh fish, water, groceries, as well as the goods of those

who died during the trip.

4- CAUSES OF ITS DECLINE48

48 Luís de Albuquerque, “As Dificuldades do Domínio Português noComércio Oriental” in Portugal no Mundo – Séculos XV-XVIII, Luís de Albuquerque(dir.), Selecções do Reader’s Digest, Lisboa, Publicações Alfa, 1989,pp. 22-36.

54

In truth, the Cape route itself only met some decline when,

in 1869, opened the Suez Canal, connecting the

Mediterranean to the Red Sea and greatly reducing the

travel time on routes between East and West. Still, its

importance was again recognized as the only alternative

route for oil supplies to the industrialized countries,

where, following the called Suez Crisis, Egypt closed the

canal to navigation between 1967 and 1975.

Until the mid-seventeenth century, however, Portugal

dominated this route through the development of the

techniques of shipbuilding, pilotage and war that had been

the scene in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which

were set out above.

From the seventeenth century, the Dutch and the English,

who had benefited from the policy of "transport values"

carried out by the Iberian countries (where the spices of

India and the gold of Brazil were exchanged for products

manufactured in the Netherlands and England), have made

significant increases in their economies, culminating in

military capability improvement, in particular their fleets

of war and trade (concepts that at this time were often

confused) by adopting the techniques that the Portuguese

had developed to win hegemony in the following centuries.

On the other hand, Portugal tried to insert in the Eastern

trade to ensure the exclusive through complete mastery of

the routes of the Indian Ocean. But for this, it was

necessary a naval force capable of controlling not only the

55

hundreds of ships and as many ports, but also be the armed

implementation arm of Portuguese politics on the kings of

the region, persuading or coercing them to deliver the

hegemony of all commercial activity to the Portuguese

crown.

Now ships were just what were missing the Portuguese Navy,

which had yet to unfold in the surveillance of African and

Brazilian possessions. They had to be sent from the kingdom

and submit to the terrible conditions of the trip to India.

In 1500, King Manuel ordered the preparation of an armada

designed to submit the king of Calicut and ensure the entry

of Portugal in the Eastern trade, to be captained by Pedro

Álvares Cabral, consisting of thirteen ships and between

1200 and 1500 men; arrived to India only six vessels after

the unexplained disappearance of one off Cape Verde, the

other to return to give news of the "discovery" of Brazil,

the loss of four of them on a time in the South Atlantic

and another ship that was lost of the fleet never to join

it again. In addition, it was necessary money, which was

not always left after all expenses (purchase of goods, ship

repair, payment of wages to soldiers and royal officials in

increasing numbers).

Attempted to address this deficiency by building fortresses

in considered (sometimes wrongly) strategic points to

oversee navigation and support the Portuguese Navy. An

attempt was also impose so-called "posters", the granting

of which required that the ship thus authorized did not

carry prohibited products (to be monopoly of the Crown) and

56

submitted to a route that should be faithfully performed,

to avoid the risk of a seizure by the Portuguese Navy.

Although the transfer of the seat of government of Cochin

to Goa by Afonso de Albuquerque and his Portuguese fixing

policy in the East by marriage to women of local ethnic

groups, tried to prevent the shortcomings that became

obvious at each step of the way.

However, was never built enough number of fortresses and

although take advantage of Goa for the establishment of

shipyards for the fleet of the Indian Ocean, the chronic

lack of money prevented that could effectively strengthen

the Portuguese naval presence in India. The policy of

"posters" also did not have the desired effect, as well as

being relatively easy to deceive the authorities, the lack

of oversight, derived from the lack of ships, and meant the

denial of the desired monopoly of trade. Finally, in the

conflict between the interests of the Crown and those of

royal officials and private individuals that run their

lives in the various trading posts and forts, were often

the interests of the king of Portugal to become injured.

Although the formation of mixed populations had known great

success, these people, however, were concentrated along the

forts or trading posts, being the greater dependence on the

protection of Portuguese troops, than support for an

expansion by land from India they could eventually provide.

All this contributed to that, gradually, the Portuguese

presence was losing vitality, with the consequent decline

of the Career of the Indies.

57

58

5- THE "ICE COUNTRY"

It is well known that composers of songs enjoy some

creative liberties that are not acceptable in historical

research, since its function is only to combine the letter

with the music (which is no small feat) to create a

harmonious whole, while the historian is required accuracy

on information research and interpretation.

However, there are cases where what at first glance appears

to be merely the lyrics of a song, contains, however, a

vast amount of information on a particular historical theme

concentrated in the time it takes the musical theme. It is

the case with "Ice Country" theme inserted in album “Auto

da Pimenta” (“Drawn of Pepper”) by Rui Veloso, author of

the music (which purposely calls for a troubadour sound)

together with Carlos Tê, which also takes responsibility

for the letter.

How it will attempt to demonstrate, musicians can also to

some extent be historians and will be with this premise in

mind that it will described "The Career of the Indies" by

"Ice Country" (País do Gelo”), for which it was adopted a

division in simple blocks, rather than the prose poem

format that is presented in the booklet accompanying the

CD-Audio, and ultimately facilitate their interpretation

and integration in the historical context of Discoveries.

59

"(...) It's amazing to see the ease and frequency with which the Portuguese

embark for India (...) Every year leave Lisbon four or five carracks49 full of them;

and many of them embark as not departing farther than a mile of Lisbon,

taking just a shirt and two large loaves in hand, and carrying a cheese and a

jam jar, without any other provisions (...) "50

Alexandre Valignano, Italian Jesuit priest, the sixteenth

century

Pais do Gelo (Ice Country)

Cá vai a Nau Catrineta que tem tudo por contarOuvi só mais uma história que vos vai fazer pasmarEram mil e doze a bordo nas contas do escrivãoSem contar os galináceos, sete patos e um cão.

Here goes the Nau Catrineta that has everything to tellI hear one more story that will make you amazeThere were thousand and twelve on board the Register of accountsNot counting the chickens, seven ducks and a dog.

The poem Nau Catrineta was collected by Almeida Garrett

from a “xácara” , a kind of popular novel in verse, which

was sung to the sound of the viola and is still common in

Brazil. Garrett believed that the journey of Portuguese

ship that in 1565 transported Jorge de Albuquerque Coelho

de Olinda to Lisbon, have given rise to this “xácara”. 51

The ships demanded hundreds of crew members, among sailors

(for manoeuvre and carry) and soldiers (in the case of the

galleons, eminently with military function); to the

Register competed the registration of all occurrences, the

49 Note from the Author: Carrack was a long haul ship used by thePortuguese in the early trips to the East.50 Vide Annex II, Fig. 26.51 Cfr. “A Nau Catrineta” in http://www.angela-lago.com.br/2-Nau.html

60

drafting of documents, the Conference of groceries and

custody of the keys where they were stored. 52

Given the difficulty in having fresh food while travelling,

were often embarked live animals that would be killed later

to be some variation of the biscuits and other dry or salty

foods. 53

Era lista mui sortida de fidalgos passageirosDesde mulheres de má vida, a padres e mesteireirosIam todos tão airosos com seus farnéis e merendasMais parecia um piquenique do que a carreira das Índias.

It was very assorted list of gentlemen passengersSince women of bad life, priests and “mesteireiros”Were all so airy with their dairy cattle and snacksMore like a picnic than the career of the Indies.

The passengers, in the hundreds, were from all social

classes: clergy, nobility and commons. Women, however, were

subject to special care, for surely affect the discipline

of the crew (all-male) in a journey that lasted months by

travelling isolated and without contact with other

passengers or crew members; hence have "women of poor life"

(prostitutes) on board was a call for mutiny and there was

particular care that none enter illegal. 54

For “mesteireiros” should be understood artisans and

craftsmen who were embarked aboard to perform specific

functions. 55

For the general population, boarding would be a leap into

the unknown. As the matches to India took place in March

and April, it could happen time be hot, spring, so people52 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board – Crew, p. 24.53 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board – Food, p. 27.54 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board – Passengers, p. 27.55 Vide supra, n. 54.

61

would not see the need to take warm clothes (which most

likely did not even have) that would occupy precious space

they had bought with a high price56, and that certainly saw

the ship carrying huge amount of provisions and considered

be enough for everyone, forgetting how long was the trip.

Ao passarem Cabo Verde o mar deu em encresparLogo viram ao que vinham quando a nau deu em bailarVeio a cresta do Equador e o Cabo da Boa EsperançaOnde o velho Adamastor subiu o ritmo da dança.

As they passed Cape Verde the sea gave roughenSoon they saw the coming when the ship got into danceCame tanning Ecuador and the Cape of Good HopeWhere the old giant Adamastor increased the rhythm of the dance.

Cape Verde is at the intersection of the powerful Gulf

Stream with the Guinea Current57, just a place where

atmospheric disturbances are common, translating into a

chum and stormy sea at certain times of the year.

Then comes the Cape of Good Hope, formerly of Storms, the

southern tip of Africa that marks the meeting between the

Atlantic and Indian Oceans, beyond which was the Darken

sea, and where it is necessary to face the fierce Agulhas

Current58 on the way to India. The difficulties experienced

by navigators before Bartolomeu Dias have doubled this

Cape, were overwhelming and remained so even after they

have established the route; Luís de Camões in his

masterpiece The Lusiads (first printed in 1572), embodies

these torments in the figure of the giant Adamastor, which,

56 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board - Spaces, p. 26.57 Cfr. 3- Conditions in which was held – Sea currents, p. 6; vide Annex II, Fig. 6.58 Idem.

62

in Greek mythology, was one of the giants sons of the Earth

who rebelled against Zeus and were defeated. It is thought

that Camões has taken this name in the workshop of Revisio

Textor and has used it for, in Canto V, symbolize the

strength of the natural elements that were dominated by the

Portuguese in crossing the Cape of Storms, turning the

giant Adamastor in a synonymous of horror of the seas. 59

Foi tamanha a danação, foi puxado o bailaricoQuem sanfonava a canção era a mão do mafarricoTinha morrido o piloto e em febre o capitão ardiaEncantada pela corrente para Sul a nau se perdia.

It was such damnation, was animated the danceWho was playing the tune was the hand of the devilHad died the pilot and the captain was burning feverEnchanted by the current to South the ship was lost.

It must really have been a terrifying show a fragile vessel

being pushed from one side to the other at the mercy of

gigantic waves and wind, with its crew powerless to

anything else than clinging to their own lives and do the

impossible to keep a track.

Given the religiosity of the sailors60 (with valid reason,

considering the precariousness of their existence) would

not be surprising that to attribute to the will of an evil

59 Cfr. “Adamastor” in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamastor; The nameAdamastor may have been made as either an adaptation for thePortuguese language from the Greek word for "Untamed" or "Untameable"(Adamastos) or an adaptation for the Portuguese language from the Latinword for "imitative rival of Adam" (Adamaster); vide Annex II, Fig. 27.60 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board - Religiousness, p. 30.

63

supernatural force the cause of their torment; after all,

still today it happens.

With the dead pilot and the captain incapacitated, then the

two main figures of the ship61, the vessel was really in a

bad situation, being like a nut shell at the surface,

drifting with the flow.

Subia a conta dos dias, ficavam podres os dentesEram tantas as sangrias, morriam da cura os doentesE o cheiro era tão mau e a fé tão vacilanteParecia que a pobre nau era o inferno de Dante.

Rose of the days, the teeth were rottenThere were so many bloodletting, died of healing the sickAnd the smell was so bad and so wavering faithIt seemed that the poor ship was the Hell of Dante.

The lack of fresh food was the most serious problem in

these trips. 62 A shortage of vitamin C was felt after a few

days causing the weakening of the people. Soon supervened

then scurvy, which caused swelling of the gums, falling

teeth and bleeding.

It was the belief of the time that the disease was caused

by harmful fluids infiltrated the person's body and that

the treatment was to expel these fluids bleeding the

patient, treatment which, incidentally, enjoyed great

popularity for any disease. Obviously, people who were

already weak, were even worse, eventually succumbing not

the disease but the attempt to cure it.

And in fact, enjoying varying degrees of sickness, from

scurvy and other diseases, along with the smell of rotting

61 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board - Crew, p. 26.62 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board - Food, p. 27.

64

food and human waste that came from the basement, would be

easy to recognize the various degrees of suffering in the

various Hells written by Dante Alighieri in the Divine

Comedy.

Com o leme sem governo e a derrota já perdidaFizeram auto-de-fé com as mulheres de má vidaE foram tirando à sorte quem havia de morrerPara que o vizinho do lado tivesse o que comer.

With the rudder without government and route already lostMade the women of bad life sentencedAnd they were taking the lucky who was to dieFor next fellow had anything to eat.

Being the rudder ungoverned for death or disability of the

pilots63, naturally that the route of the ship would be any

other than the established at first.

On the other hand, it is recognized in this passage some

creative freedom since, as noted above, would hardly

shipped prostitutes if the captain wanted to keep the

discipline of the crew.

Once at this point of suffering and despair, crew and

passengers would have no constraints to kill each other to

be able to eat if they were lost in the vastness of the

ocean.

No céu três meninas loiras cantavam um cantochãoTodas vestidas de tule para levar o capitãoNo meio do seu delírio mostrou a raça de bravoTeve ainda força na língua para as mandar ao diabo

In the sky three little blond girls sing a chantAll dressed in tulle to take the captainIn the midst of his delirium showed brave raceHad still strength in the language to send them to the devil

63 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board - Crew, p. 26.

65

Three little blonde girls may be understood three cherubs

in the form of angels or children with wings, singing

liturgical songs and dressed in a transparent silk fabric:

a medieval image of Paradise.

The captain, certainly an old wolf of the sea with

irascible temperament, could only curse who invited him to

abandon earthly life much earlier than he would wish.Neste martírio sem fim ficou o lenho a boiarAté que um vento gelado a terra firme o fez vararQue diria o escrivão se pudesse escrevinharEram mil e doze a bordo e doze haviam de chegar.

Ao grande País do Gelo com mil cristais a brilharOnde a paz era tão branca só se quiseram deitarNaqueles lençóis de linho e plumas acolchoadosE lá dormiram para sempre como meninos cansados.

In this endless martyrdom was the wood to floatUntil an icy wind made it strand into landWhat would the clerk say if he could scribbleThousand and twelve were on board and twelve had arrived.

To the large Ice Country with a thousand shining crystalsWhere peace was so white they only wanted to lie downIn those linen sheets and tufted feathersAnd there slept forever as tired boys.

Without helm, the wood or ship floated with the flow and

winds that would push for land, which, by the description,

it could be Antarctica. Mortality in these trips was very

high for the reasons given above64, so it is acceptable the

comparison proposed in the poem, though not strictly in

numbers.

64 Cfr. 3- f) Life on board - Food, p. 27; 3- f) Life on board – Hygiene and health, p. 29.

66

Covered in snow and cold, this Ice Country, probably

Antarctica was a white and intense cold landscape for

sailors who would not be prepared for those weather

conditions. Exposure to cold would reduce the body

temperature to critical levels, resulting in a fatal

numbness and sleepiness, because falling asleep in the

frozen ground they would not wake up again.

67

CONCLUSION

It can be said that the Career of the Indies was a turning

point in many ways, either for Portugal as for Europe in

general.

With the establishment of the Cape Route, the Portuguese

achieved a major source of income, which allowed them to

move from such a poor country that does not even have gold

to its own currency - at a time when this metal was the

only bargaining chip to obtain the much needed spices and

silks from the East - to a European potentate's monopoly

pepper.

It would be a concerted effort, with ups and downs, began

with the conquest of Ceuta and culminated with the arrival

of Vasco da Gama to India and that too was a milestone for

Western Europe, from which it will progressively take the

hegemonic position occupied until then by the East - a

result of the Levant trade decline for the Italian

republics - forcing her to look beyond the Mediterranean

and to expand in search of the wealth brought by Portugal.

This was also the role of Career India: that of giving "new

worlds to the World".

68

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COELHO, António Borges, Raízes da Expansão Portuguesa, Lisboa,Livros Horizonte, 1985.

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VAZ DE CAMÕES, Luís, Os Lusíadas, Hernâni Cidade (prefácio enotas), Lima de Freitas (ilustrações), Lisboa, Círculo deLeitores, 1972.

VAZ DE CAMINHA, Pêro, Carta a El-Rei D. Manuel I, JoaquimVeríssimo Serrão (pref.), Manuela Mendonça, MargaridaGarcez Ventura, Ericeira, Mar de Letras Editora, s.d.

Dicionário Enciclopédico da História de Portugal, José Costa Pereira(coord.), Lisboa, Publicações Alfa, 1991, 2 vols.

Diciopédia 2003, [CD-ROM], Conceição Pinheiro, Jorge FerreiraSilva, Pedro Cunha Lopes, (coordenação editorial), Porto,Porto Editora Multimédia, s.d., [4 CD’s].

História Comparada – Portugal, Europa e o Mundo, António SimõesRodrigues (dir.), Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, 1996, 2vols.

História dos Descobrimentos e Expansão Portuguesa, Lisboa,Universidade Aberta nº 173, 1999.

Navegar, [CD-ROM], Simonetta Luz Afonso, António ManuelHespanha, et al, Paris, Editions Chandeigne / Sèvres, Oda

69

Edition / Lisboa, Pavilhão de Portugal, Expo’98 / ComissãoNacional para as Comemorações dos DescobrimentosPortugueses, 1998.

O Novo Atlas do Mundo, Porto, Selecções do Reader’s Digest,1990

Pequena História das Grandes Nações – História de Portugal, Otto Zierer(dir.), José Hermano Saraiva, Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores,1981.

Portugal no Mundo – Séculos XV-XVIII, Luís de Albuquerque(dir.), Selecções do Reader’s Digest, Lisboa, PublicaçõesAlfa, 1989, 2 vols.

Musical theme "País do Gelo” (Ice Country), taken from thealbum “Auto da Pimenta”, Rui Veloso (voice and music), withthe participation of Carlos Tê (lyrics and music), MárioBarreiros (acoustic rhythm guitar), Zé Peixoto (acousticguitar nylon) Nani Teixeira (bass), Manuel Paulo (keys),Manuel Tentúgal (tin whistle), published in CD-Audio by EMI– Valentim de Carvalho in 1991.

Web References

http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~feegi/ocean.htmlhttp://www.angela-lago.com.br/2-Nau.htmlhttp://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_%28moeda_portuguesa%29http://www.ufjf.br/hqg/files/2009/10/Relat%C3%B3rio-de-pesquisa.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamastorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice_trade#mediaviewer/File:Silk_route_copy.jpghttp://tinyurl.com

Picture References

70

Figure 1 selected from http://tinyurl.com/oo8revm Figure 2 scanned from Portugal no Mundo – Séculos XV-XVIII, Luís deAlbuquerque (dir.), Selecções do Reader’s Digest, Lisboa,Publicações Alfa, 1989, 2 vols., p. 16Figure 3 scanned from Portugal no Mundo, op. cit., p. 61Figure 4 selected from http://tinyurl.com/pkj52d2Figure 5 selected from http://tinyurl.com/nkm5dmdFigure 6 scanned from O Novo Atlas do Mundo, Porto, Selecçõesdo Reader’s Digest, 1990, pp. 38, 39Figure 7 scanned from O Novo Atlas do Mundo, op. cit., p. 64Figure 8 scanned from História dos Descobrimentos e ExpansãoPortuguesa, Lisboa, Universidade Aberta nº 173, 1999, p.241.Figure 9 selected from “Navegação – Técnicas de navegação”in Navegar, [CD-ROM], Simonetta Luz Afonso, António ManuelHespanha, et al, Paris, Editions Chandeigne / Sèvres, OdaEdition / Lisboa, Pavilhão de Portugal, Expo’98 / ComissãoNacional para as Comemorações dos DescobrimentosPortugueses, 1998.Figure 10 selected from “Navegação – Técnicas de navegação”in Navegar, op. cit.Figure 11 selected from “Navegação – Técnicas de navegação”in Navegar, op. cit.Figures 12 to 18 selected from “Navegação – Instrumentos”in Navegar op. cit.Figure 19 selected from “Navegação – Construção naval” inNavegar, op. cit.Figure 20 selected from “Navegação – Construção naval” inNavegar, op. cit.)Figure 21 to 25 selected from “Navegação – Barcos” inNavegar, op. cit.)Figure 26 scanned and adapted from Pequena História das GrandesNações – História de Portugal, Otto Zierer (dir.), José HermanoSaraiva, Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, 1981, jacketFigure 27 scanned from Dicionário Enciclopédico da História dePortugal, José Costa Pereira (coord.), Lisboa, PublicaçõesAlfa, 1991, p. 18.

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ANNEX I – Explanatory Tables65

Table 1 – Tonnage of Portuguese navigation through CapeRoute between 1497 and 1520

Years Portugal-India India-PortugalDepartures Arrivals Departures Arrivals

1497-1500

2.665(17)

1.640(10) 290 (3) 170 (2)

1501-1510

42.775(151)

38.695(135)

20.085(135)

21.115(73)

1511-1520

38.690(96)

35.830(87)

26.060(60)

25.760(59)

NOTE: Between parenthesis it is indicated thenumber of ships.

Table 2 – Cargo in 1505 and 1518(in Kg)

Goods 1505 1518

Pepper1.074.

0032.128.

962Ginger 28.476 ------Cinnamon 8.789 1.342Clove 7.145 5.584Indigo 1.336 ------Apple ------ 986Myrrh 514 678Lacquer 411 66.443Red Sandalwood ------ 27.978Cassia ------ 2.432Incense ------ 2.589Silk ------ 2.660Redwood ------ 969Carnelian ------ 851

65 Source: Sanjay Subrahamanyam, O Império Asiático Português, 1500-1700 – UmaHistória Política e Económica, Lisboa, Ed. Difel, 1995, pp. 86, 87, 89, 90, 92(Tables 1 to 4); Table 5 developed by the author from data gatheredform “Navegação – Barcos” in Navegar, [CD-ROM], Simonetta Luz Afonso,António Manuel Hespanha, et al, Paris, Editions Chandeigne / Sèvres, OdaEdition / Lisboa, Pavilhão de Portugal, Expo’98 / Comissão Nacionalpara as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1998.

72

Nard ------ 431Tamarind 308 ------Cardamon 206 ------Other 771 207

TOTAL1.121.9

592.242.1

12

73

Table 3 – Origin of pepper and spicefrom Venice in the years of 1400 and

1500

Year Origin PepperOtherSpice

1400 Egypt 80% 30%Siria 20% 70%

1500 Egypt 75% 80%Siria 25% 20%

Table 4 – Collapse of Venice-Levant commerce between1496 and 1506 (annual average in tons)

ROUTE ► Alexandria Beirut

GOODS1496-1498

1501-1506

1496-1499

1501-1506

Pepper 480-630 135 90-240 10Other Spice 580-730 200 150-180 35

TOTAL1060-1360 335 240-420 45

74

ANNEX II – Maps and Prints

Fig. 1 - The economically important Silk Road (red) andspice trade routes (blue) blocked by the OttomanEmpire ca. 1453 with the fall of the Byzantine Empire,spurring exploration motivated initially by the finding

75

Fig. 2 – Cape Route.

76

Fig. 3 – Traffic in Cape Route according to the British

77

Fig. 4 – Mozambique Channel.

Fig. 5 – Cape of Good Hope seen from African coast.

78

Fig. 6 – Ocean currents on the way to India: 1- GulfCurrent; 5- Somalia Current; 6- Agulhas Current; 7- SouthEcuador Current; 10- Guinea Current; 15- Bengal Current;

17- Circumpolar Antarctic Current.

79

Fig. 8 – Medieval World-Map fromthe type T-O.

Fig. 7 – World-Map from Ptolomeu, 2nd century,reproduction of 1486.

Fig. 9 – Portolan from Cristofalo Soligo, 15th century,manuscript.

(London, The British Library) 80

Fig. 10 – Portolan of the South Atlantic Ocean from JorgeReinel, 1534-1554.

(Minneapolis, The James Ford Bell Library, University ofMinnesota)

81

Fig. 11 – Illuminated manuscript on parchment from Jacquesde Vaux in Premières Oeuvres, Le Havre, 1583. (Paris,

Bibliothèque Nationale de France)

Fig. 14 – Magneticcompass.

Fig. 12 – Hourglass.

Fig. 13 – Cross-staff.

Fig. 16 – Quadrant.Fig. 15 – Astrolab.

Fig. 17 –Compass.

Fig. 18 – “Tavoletas fromÍndia” or Cross-staff of

the Moor.

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Fig. 19 – Building of a Caravel in Manuel Fernandes, Livro deTraças de Carpintaria, 1616. (Lisboa, Biblioteca da Ajuda, foto

de Luísa Oliveira).

Fig. 20 – Model of Caravel in Manuel Fernandes, Livro deTraças de Carpintaria, 1616. (Lisboa, Biblioteca da Ajuda)

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Fig. 22 – Galley.

Fig. 21 – Barinel.

Fig. 23 – Caravel. Fig. 24 – Ship.

Fig. 25 – Galleon.

84

Fig. 26 – Farewell of ships to India – engraving of the16th century.

Fig. 27 – The Adamastor,by Carlos Reis. (Museu

Militar, Lisboa)

85