HETLNote:InthisacademicarticlebyDr.HopeJ.Hartman,theauthorexplorestheimportanceofunderstandingthemultidimensionalofculturaldiversityandinclusionandhowthisunderstandingcanbeusedbyprofessorsandinstructorstomoreeffectivelydevelopvariedinstructionalstrategieswhichwillallowthemtoteachwithbetterculturalresponsiveness.Theauthordescribesavarietyofapproachesshehasusedinhighlydiverseclassroomswithundergraduateandgraduateteachereducationstudents.

AuthorBiography

HopeJ.HartmanisProfessorEmeritaoftheCityCollegeofNewYorkandtheGraduateCenteroftheCityUniversityofNewYork.AtCCNYshewasDirectoroftheCenterforExcellenceinTeachingandLearningandtheCityCollegeTutoringandCooperativeLearningProgram.HerPh.D.incognitivepsychologyhasbeenusedprimarilyineducationalpsychologyfordevelopingandresearchingmethodsofimprovingthinkingandlearningofchildren,

adolescentsandadults,andhelpingteachersatallschoollevelsandinallsubjectareasapplyarepertoireofinstructionalstrategieswhichenhancethinkingandlearning.Herprimaryspecializationsaremetacognitionandinstructionaltechnology.ShespentseveralyearsasaresearchspecialistintheResearch,EvaluationandTestingOfficesoftheBoardofEducationinNewark,NewJersey.Shehasfourbookscurrentlyinprintandhasauthoredmanychaptersandpeer-reviewedarticles.Hermostrecentbookis"AGuidetoReflectivePracticeforNewandExperiencedTeachers".Email:hhartman@ccny.cuny.edu

StrategiesforTeachingCulturallyDiverseLearnersHopeJ.Hartman

CityCollegeofNewYork,USA

Abstract

Culturaldiversityisamultidimensionalconstruct,whichvariesbothacrossandwithin

students.Itincludesnotonlyethnicityandrace,butgender,sexualorientation,gender

identity,careergoalandintellectualdifferences.Collegeprofessorsandpre-college

teachersshouldrecognizethemanyfacetsofculturaldiversity,andcanuseavarietyof

instructionalstrategiestoteachforandwithculturalresponsiveness.Thisarticledescribes

avarietyofapproachesIhaveusedforseveraltopicsovertheyearswithhighlydiverse

undergraduateandgraduateteachereducationstudents,whoweretakingeducational

psychologycoursesatalargeurbancollegeintheU.S.A.Usingsuchapproachescanhelp

meettheneedsofculturallydiverselearners,andfacilitatetheirculturalresponsivenessto

peopletheyencounterintheirownpersonalandprofessionallives.

Keywords:culturaldiversityandresponsiveness,instructionalstrategies,highereducation,teachereducation

Introduction

Collegeprofessorscanhaveexponentialimpactonculturallydiverselearnersbecauseour

students,inturn,canbeculturallyresponsivepractitionersintheirownprofessions.

Everyonecanbenefitfromlearningtobecomemoreresponsivetotheculturaldiversityof

peoplewithwhomtheyinteract.

Asprofessionaleducators,collegeprofessorsneedawide,inclusivescopetoaddress

andmeettheneedsofculturallydiverselearners.Inadditiontothetraditionalconceptions

ofdiversityasreferringtoethnicityandrace,itshouldbeconceptualizedmorebroadlyto

includegender,academicsubjectandlevel,sexualorientationandgenderidentity.This

perspectiveisconsistentwithHofstede’smodelofsixdimensionsofcultures.Hofstede

definescultureas“…thecollectiveprogrammingofthemindthatdistinguishesthe

membersofonegrouporcategoryofpeoplefromothers”(Hofstede,2011).Thusitisclear

thatculturecanbemultifaceted.

Understandingtheimportanceofcultureasamajorfactorinfluencingthinkingand

learningisreflectedinthetheoreticalmodelthathasguidedmyworkforovertwodecades.

TheBACEISmodelofimprovingthinkingpositsacademicperformanceisaffectedby

cognitionandemotionswithinstudents,whichinteractwitheachotherandwithacademic

andnonacademicenvironmentalfactors,includingteachingstrategies,subjectcontent,

familybackgroundandsocioeconomicstatus.TheBACEISacronymrepresentsBehavior,

Affect,CognitionandEnvironmentsasInteractingSystems(Hartman&Sternberg,1993).

ThisarticledescribessomeoftheapproachesIhaveusedovertheyearstoteachmy

diversestudents,includinghowIteachwithandforculturalresponsiveness.

CulturallyResponsiveTeaching

AsateachereducatorwhoregularlyteachespreK-12preserviceandin-service

teachers,culturallyresponsiveteachingisespeciallyimportanttomebecauseoftheimpact

teacherscanhaveonstudents.Gaydefinesculturallyresponsiveteachingas"usingthe

culturalcharacteristics,experiences,andperspectivesofethnicallydiversestudentsas

conduitsforteachingthemmoreeffectively"(Gay,2002p.106).Sheassumesthat

knowledgeandskillstobelearnedthroughschoolingaremoreappealing,personally

meaningfulandlearnedmoreeasilywhentheyaresituatedwithinstudents'framesof

referenceandlifeexperiences.InthethreecoursesIhavetaughtmostoften,Psychologyof

LearningandTeaching(graduatecourse),andAdolescentLearningandDevelopment(both

undergraduateandgraduatecourses),Gay'saward-winningarticleonthetopichasbeen

required.Assignedarticles,videosandwebsitesareaccessedbystudentsthroughour

coursewebsites:https://sites.google.com/site/psychoflearningteaching/forPsychologyof

LearningandTeachingandhttps://sites.google.com/site/adolescentlearning/for

AdolescentLearningandDevelopment.Thesewebsitesarealsoopentothepublicso

anyonecanaccessthem.

Teachingwithculturalresponsivenessmeansapplyingstrategiesforculturally

responsiveteachinginmyowncourses.Teachingforculturalresponsivenessmeansthat

students,preandin-serviceteachers,shouldimplementculturallyresponsiveteaching

strategieswiththeirownpreK-12orhighereducationstudents.Futureresearchshould

examinewhether,howandtheextenttowhichculturallyresponsivecollegeteachingleads

toteachersbeingmoreculturallyresponsivewiththeirstudents,andleadsothercollege

studentstobemoreculturallyresponsivepractitionersintheirsubsequentcareers.

Formanyyears,oneofthefirstactivitiesinallmycourseshasbeenfindingoutand

sharingwhereeachpersonintheclasswasborn.Onaverage,mystudentsarebornin15

differentcountrieseachsemester.TorecognizeanddignifythediversityIprepareagraphic

organizerwiththeflagsofeachcountry,suchasinFigure1,fromSpring,2010,where

studentscamefrom19differentcountries.Thegraphicorganizerispostedonthefront

pageofeachcourse'swebsite.

Figure1CountriesofOrigin

Table1summarizesmanyofthecountrieswheremystudentswerebornoveran

eight-yearperiod.Itdemonstratesthehugeculturaldiversityinmystudentsfromfive

continentsandatleast71countries.Throughouteachsemester,studentsareencouragedto

shareinformationabouttheirculturalperspectivesandexperiencesonawiderangeof

topics.

Table1CountriesofOriginbyContinent

Africa Asia Europe NorthAmerica South

AmericaAlgeriaEgyptEthiopiaGambiaGuyanaIvoryCoastMoroccoNigeriaSenegalSouthAfrica

BangladeshBurma/MyanmarChinaHongKongIndiaIsraelJapanKoreaKyrgyzstanMalaysiaNepalPalestinePhilippinesPakistanSingaporeTaiwanUnitedArabEmirates

AlbaniaBelarusBelgiumBulgariaCzechoslovakiaCroatiaCyprusEnglandGreeceFranceItalyPolandPortugalRussiaSpainSwedenTurkeyUkraine

BermudaCanadaCostaRicaCubaDominicanRepublicElSalvadorGrenadaHaitiHondurasJamaicaMexicoNicaraguaPanamaPuertoRicoSt.KittsSt.VincentsTrindad/TobagoU.S.A.

BrazilChileColombiaPeruEcuadorVenezuela

Amongthemostinterestingdiscussionsinmyundergraduateandgraduate

classroomshavebeenstudents'definitionsofculture.Whereasmanystudents

conceptualizecultureintermsoftheirethnicorracialbackground,othersthinkofitin

termsoftheirprimarycareerinterests,suchasbeingpartofacommunityofwriters,

scientists,artistsormusicians.StillothersviewtheircultureasbeingpartofanLGBTQ

(lesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender,queer/questioning)community.Gay'sconceptionof

culturallyresponsiveteaching,whileoriginallyphrasedinreferencetoethnicity,goesonto

highlighttheimportanceoflearningbeingsituatedinstudents'experiencesandframesof

reference.Studentsoftenidentifywithmultipleculturesintheirlives.Forexample,a

learnermayviewherculturalidentityasacombinationofbeingHispanic,awoman,a

lesbianandascientist.Therefore"multicultural"canbeviewedquitebroadlyand

consideredbothacrossandwithinstudents.

Maturity

UndergraduateandgraduatecoursesonAdolescentLearningandDevelopment

includediscussionsof"Howismaturityviewedinyourculture?"toactivatestudents'

conceptionsandtofacilitatecomparingandcontrastingtheircultureswithothers.Results

ofthesediscussionshavebeenfascinating.Conceptionsinclude:financialindependence,

comingofageculturalritesandrituals,havingone'sownfamily,andgraduatingfrom

collegeabletoobtaingainfulemployment.Students'perceptionsareanalyzedwithinthe

contextofcourseresourcesaboutmaturity,includingtheTannerScale'sphysiologicaland

morphologicalconceptsrelatedtopubertalmaturation,suchasmenarcheandsecondary

sexualcharacteristics(Tanner,1990).Severalculturesmarkmaturitybydevelopmentof

suchbodilychanges.Thisinformationisjuxtaposedwithinformationstudentsshareabout

culturalcustomsmarkingmaturityor"comingofage",includingbar/batmitzvahs(age13),

quinceañeracelebrationsinLatinAmerica(age15)andofficialdaysonthecalendarsfor

comingofagecelebrationsinsomeAsiancultures,suchasKorea(age19)andJapan(age

20).Anarticle,"TheBiologyofRiskTaking",whichaddressesadolescentbraindevelopment,

showsthatitisnotuntiltheearlytomid20sthattheprefrontalcortex,responsiblefor

executiveprocessing,isfinishedbeingdeveloped,sosomeoftheirimmaturity,risktaking

andimpulsivebehaviorhasabiologicalbasis(Price,2005).

Socialmaturity,asreflectedinclassroombehavior,isanotherissuecommonly

discussedinmycoursesbecauseofitsimportantimplicationsfordisciplineandclassroom

management.Bothpreandin-serviceteachersareawareofculturallyspecificbehavioral

normsthatresultindiscrepanciesbetweenthecultureofmanyblackstudentsandthe

cultureoftheclassroom.Toaddressthisgap,mystudentslearnstrategiesfor"culturally

responsivesocialskillsinstruction"specificallydesignedforblackadolescentmales

(Robinson-Ervin,Cartledge&Keyes,2011).

Intelligence

Astimulatingwaytointroducethetopicofculturalfactorsaffectingintelligenceis

writing"BITCH"ontheblackboard,whichconsistentlyshocksandintriguesstudents.

NeverhasanyonecorrectlyguessedwhyIwroteitandonlyrarelyhasanyoneheardofthe

"BlackIntelligenceTestofCulturalHomogeneity"theBITCHacronymrepresentsorof

conceptsinthetestitems(Williams,1972).Researchusingthisintelligencetestshowed

whitestudentswereintellectuallyinferiortoblackstudents.Mystudentsaregivenseveral

examplesfromthetestandvirtuallynoonehasevergiventherightanswerseventhough

manystudentswereAfricanAmerican.Thisexperienceandinformationhelpsthesepre

andin-serviceteachersappreciatethattestresultsandconclusionsaboutindividualsasa

functionoftestresultscanbeheavilyinfluencedbyethnicbackgroundandcontent,because

inordertogetthecorrectanswertoquestionsonthistest,onehastoknowphrasesthat

werecommonknowledgeinblackurbancultureintheearly1970s.

Nextwediscussthetopicofintelligenceinthecontextofits'Hispanicimpact,

wherebystudentswhoareknownintheirlocalcommunitiestobeofatleastaverage

intelligenceareoftenviewedaslessintelligentinschool.LanguagebarriersmakeIQtest

resultsbiasedandunreliablesostudentsaremisclassifiedandschoolpersonnelconfuse

lackofknowledgeofEnglishwithlackofintellectualability(Thaler&Jones-Forrester,

2013).ThisproblemhasbeenobviouswithHispanicssinceatleastthe1970s,butstudents

inmyclassesfromawidevarietyofcultural/linguisticbackgrounds,forwhomEnglishisa

secondlanguage,attesttothecontinuationofsuchmisconceptionstoday.Giventhatmany

students'countriesoforigindonothaveEnglishastheirnativelanguage,awarenessof

thesekindsofmisconceptionsresonateswithmystudents,andconstitutesanimportant

lessonforstudentsfromallculturalbackgrounds,especiallythosewhoareorwillbe

teachers.

Aninterestingandeffectivewaytocommunicateaboutculturaldifferencesin

intelligencehasbeendescribingresearchontheKpelletribeinLiberiawhichinvolvedthe

classificationofhouseholdobjects(Cole,Glick&Sharp,1971).Americanresearchers,

sensitivetotheissueofculturaldifferencesincognition,usedcommonhouseholdobjectsin

theKpelleculturalforthebasicintellectualtaskofclassification.Theywerequitepuzzled

whenpeopleconsideredespeciallyintelligentintheKpellecultureusedfunctionalrather

thantaxonomicorganizationbecauseintheUSA,itwasconsideredsmartertouse

taxonomicorganizationthanfunctional.Indesperation,oneAmericanresearcherasked

howa"stupid"personinKpelleculturewouldclassifytheseitems.Theanswerwasby

taxonomicratherthanfunctionalcriteria,sowhatisconsideredintelligentinoneculture

maybeconsideredstupidinanother.Learningaboutthisresearchhelpsstudentsrealize

thatevenwhentheythinkthattheyarebeingresponsivetoculturaldifferences,theymight

beblindedbyaculturallensofinvalidassumptions,causingthemtolosesightofimportant

culturaldifferencesthatcanaffectthinkingandlearning.

Anotherimportantcourseresource,IntelligenceacrossCultures,presentsresearch

onhowcultureinteractswithintelligenceinAfrica,AsiaandLatinAmerica(Benson,2003).

Theresearchdescribesvariationsinconceptualizationsofintelligenceasafunctionof

culture.Forexample,intheWest–thefocusisstrictlycognitive,andemphasizeshowan

individualengagesinrationaldebate,whereasinNon-Westerncultures,thereisno

separationbetweencognitiveandsocialcomponentsofintelligence.Thefocusison

community,recognitionofcontradictionandcomplexity,andsuccessfullyengaginginsocial

roles.Intelligenceincludesunderstandingandeffectivelyrelatingtoothers.Anexampleis

knowingwhenitisappropriateandnotappropriatetoshowone'sintelligence.Whereas

Westernculturesoftenviewone'sculturalbackgroundinrelationshiptorace,intheseNon-

Westerncultures,experienceismoreimportantthanrace.Theimportanceofincluding

readingassignmentsandclassdiscussionsofsuchculturaldifferencesinintelligenceis

highlightedbyconsideringthediversemakeupofmyclassesasreflectedinFigure1and

Table1,showingcountriesoforigin.Courseworkvalidatesanddignifiestheircultural

backgrounds,andhelpspeoplefromWesternandNon-Westernculturesunderstandand

appreciatethesimilaritiesanddifferencesintheirconceptsofintelligence.

CulturalIdentity

Becausesomanyofmystudentsarebornabroad,theissueofculturalidentityis

fundamental,bothformyownstudentsandtheirstudents.Nietodescribesacultural

conflictmanystudentshaveasaninabilitytoidentifybothas"American"andasbelonging

totheirculturalgroup.Theirsenseofprideincultureprecludedidentificationwiththe

UnitedStates(Nieto,2000).Frommydecadesofteaching,itisclearthatthecultural

conflictself-identityissuealsoappliestominoritiesbornintheUnitedStates.Ogbu'sclassic

workon"BlackStudentsActingWhite",whichhecharacterizesasculturalinversion,isone

manifestationofthisproblem(Fordham&Ogbu,1986;Ogbu,1992).Livelydiscussionsof

culturalidentityandculturalconflicthavebeenespeciallyfascinatingbecauseofthehuge

varietyofculturalbackgroundsrepresentedinmycourses.Anenjoyableexerciseis

critiquingthelistof"ActingWhite"behaviorsandattitudesfromtheearly1980s(Fordham

&Ogbu,1986).Laughteroftenaccompaniestheculturalstereotypeof"readingandwriting

poetry"fromthislistofWhitebehaviors,asrapandhiphopmusic,originallyassociated

withAfricanAmericanculture,havebecomemainstream.Infact,thereisamorerecent

characterizationof"WhiteStudentsActingBlack".

TosucceedineducationandjobsintheUnitedStates,manyminoritystudentsneed

tolearnlanguageandbehaviorthatareconsidered"standard"forAmericans.Teachersat

allschoollevelsmusthandlethisissuecarefullysothattheintegrityofstudents'cultural

identityismaintained.Oneofthemostcommonandwell-acceptedconceptsforachieving

thisgoalis"codeswitching",wherebystudentslearnthatlanguageandbehaviorwhichare

acceptableinoneenvironmentshouldbemodifiedinanother.Indeed,mostofmystudents

arequiteskilledcodeswitchersandmyin-serviceteacherscommonlyreportexplicitlyand

systematicallydevelopingtheseskillsintheirownstudents.

Anotherlivelydiscussionregardingculturalidentityinmycourseshascentered

aroundavideostudentswatch-anexcerptfromtheoldTVshow"WKRPinCincinnati"

fromthelate1970s.Itfeaturestheteacherhelpingawould-bedrop-outstudentlearnthe

structureofanatombyusinggangsasananalogy.Whilesomeofmystudentsseethevideo

asreinforcingnegativeracialstereotypesaboutblackstudentsbeingmembersofgangs,

othersseeusingthestudent'spriorknowledgeandexperienceasameaningfuland

effectivetoolforlearningchemistry.

Everyoneshouldrealizethatculturalstereotypesaffectingidentitygobeyondrace

andethnicity.Formanypeople,theiridentityasadultsisdefinedbytheircareers.Whereas

nursingandearlychildhoodeducationwereonceexclusivelythedomainofwomen,they

arenowviablecareersformen,whilescienceandengineering,oncealmostexclusively

careersformen,arenowviableforwomen.Genderidentityandsexualorientationalso

needtobeconsidered.Withtherepealof"Don'tAskDon'tTell"in2011,gayandlesbian

peoplecannowhavecareersinthemilitary.Faculty,studentsandadministratorson

campuseswithReserveOfficersTrainingCorps(ROTC)programsespeciallyneedtobe

mindfulofthisrelativelynewoptionformembersoftheirLGBTQcommunity.

Genderidentity/sexualorientation

TheeraofrightsforLGBTQpeoplehasarrived,withrecentwide-spreadlegalityof

same-sexmarriage.Also,nowmanymedicalinsuranceplanspayforgender-altering

surgery.TheseadvancesarelikelytoallowevenmoreLGBTQpeopletoabandontheir

closetsandtaketheirrightfulplacesinsociety.Consequently,thisisanotherdimensionof

culturaldiversitythatcollegeinstructors(andallteachers)needtobesensitivetoand

knowledgeableaboutinordertoeffectivelymeettheneedsoftheirstudents.Tofacilitate

learningaboutanddiscussingrelevantissues,Ipostedavarietyofresourcesformy

studentsonourAdolescentLearningandDevelopmentwebsite(Hartman,2012).

Tohighlightthepersonalimportanceoftheseissues,Itellmystudentsaboutmy

bestfriend'stransgenderson,whoIrefertoasmynephew[abrilliantacademicwhois

marriedtoanotherbrilliantacademic].Indiscussingmynephew'ssexualorientationand

gender-identityevolution,Iincludemyobservationsofhowhisbasicpersonality

characteristicsofintelligence,warmth,humorandasenseofadventureremained

throughoutthisevolution,butwhatappearedtomeashavingchangedishiscomfortinhis

ownskin.Thisanecdotehasoftencatalyzedstudentstosharetheirownthoughtsand

experienceswithLGBTQissuesastheclassroomisperceivedasopenandcaring.

MakingLGBTQresourcesanddiscussionsaformalpartofthecurriculumhelpsto

createasafeandacceptingenvironmentfortheLGBTQcommunity,includingnotonly

peoplewhoidentifyassuch,butalsotheirparents,relatives,friendsandteachers.

Specialneedslearners

Teachersatallschoollevels,frompreK-12throughcollege,commonlyhave

classroomswithahighdegreeofdiversityregardingstudents'learningabilities.Tohelp

themdevelopeffectiveteachingstrategiesforspecialneedslearnersinthese

heterogeneousclasses,mystudentsread"TeachingStudentswithSpecialNeeds"atthe

TeacherVisionwebsite,whichincludescharacteristicsofandavarietyofinstructional

methodsforgiftedaswellaslearningdisabledstudents.

MystudentsappreciateseeingTempleGrandin'sTEDTalkvideo,whichshowcases

theissueof"intellectualdiversity"thatisfoundinmanyclassroomsacrosssubjects,grade

andschoollevels(Grandin,2010).Somebrilliantstudentswhothinkdifferentlyfromthe

norm,canbedismissedasspecialneedsstudentsnotcapableofcollege-levelwork.Despite

havingautism,Dr.Grandinhasbeenextremelysuccessfulandisaninspiringexampleof

howherintellectualandsocialdifferencesactuallyfacilitatedhersuccessandhelpedher

transformanindustry.Manystudentsalreadyknowabouther,andsomehaveseenthe

HBOmovie,"TempleGrandin".Classdiscussionselicitfascinatingexamplesofstrategiesfor

andsuccesseswithotherspecialneedslearners,bothgiftedandchallenged.These

discussionsareconnectedwiththepriortopicofEnglishasaSecondLanguagestudents

beingmisunderstood.

Conclusions

Asapsychologist,Iambothdismayedandheartenedbymyfield'sroleinaddressing

culturaldiversity.Wehaveadisturbinghistoryontopicsincludingintelligence,special

education,identityandgender/sexualorientation,buthaveemergedwithnew,more

inclusiveperspectives.ArecentissueoftheAmericanPsychologistshowspromisingtrends.

TheleadarticlefocusesonglobalizingpsychologysothatitisnotjustU.S.-centered,while

thesecondarticletoutsa"culturallens"approachwherebyculturally-specificrelevant

knowledgeisincorporatedintocurrenttheoriestherebyenablingnewhypothesestobe

generatedandtested(Christopher,Wendt,Marecek&Goodman,2014);Hardin,2014).

Similarly,psychologistshaverecentlyrealizedtheneedtosystematicallyconsiderraceasa

sociohistoricalconstructwhenconductingresearchinordertobetterunderstandtherole

thatraceplaysinteachingandlearningbecauseoftheincreasingracial/ethnicdiversityin

ourschools(DeCuir-Gunby&Schutz,2014).Itisencouragingthatevidence-based

strategiesformaximizingtheacademicsuccessofsomeculturallydiverselearnersisonthe

horizon.

Therearenumerous,engagingstrategiesfacultyinhighereducationcanandshould

usetoaddresstheneedsofdiverselearners.Itisimportantforallofustohaveabroad

viewofculturaldiversity,recognizingitascomplexandmultifaceted.Itisalsoimportant

forallofusinhighereducationtokeepinmindthatwehavethepotentialforlong-term

impactonourstudentsastheypursuetheircareersandfunctioneffectivelyascitizensin

oursocietyandbeyond.Manycollegesanduniversitieshavefacultydevelopmentcenters

whichsponsorprofessionaldevelopmentactivitiesforfull-timefacultyandadjuncts.

Strategiesforteachingculturallydiverselearnersisawonderfultopicforfaculty

development,andusingsuchstrategiesisnotjustimportantandmeaningful,itcanbequite

enjoyable.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhbqIJZ8wCMThisacademicarticlewasacceptedforpublicationintheInternationalHETLReview(IHR)afteradouble-

blindpeerreviewinvolvingthreeindependentmembersoftheIHRBoardofReviewersandonerevision

cycle.Acceptingeditor:DrCharlynnMiller

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