StA

Ma

Labo

DK-

1. I

depecouseAlte199

Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26

A R

Artic

Rece

Rece

Acce

Avai

Keyw

Skel

Con

Indu

*

http

157

ature in 19th and early 20th century Copenhagen.comparative study based on skeletal remains

rie Louise S. Jørkov *

ratory of Biological Anthropology, Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V’s Vej 11,

2100 Copenhagen, Denmark

ntroduction

It is generally agreed that the stature of an individualends on multifactorial causes involving both socio-nomic and biological factors and that stature may bed as a proxy for the biological standard of living (e.g.r, 2004; Floud et al., 2011; Komlos, 1994, 2003; Steckel,5, 2008; Silventoinen, 2003; Komlos and Baten, 2004;

Koepke and Baten, 2005). Genes are important determi-nants of individual height. Disease, nutrition and temper-ature can also affect growth and final stature, as peopleadapt to such factors (Malcolm, 1974; Martorell andHabicht, 1986; Tanner et al., 1982; Holden and Mace, 1999)and there are studies that have demonstrated the effect ofspecific environmental factors on human growth both onthe individual and group level (e.g. Bogin, 2001; Varela-Silva et al., 2012). Environmental and nutritional influ-ences from around the time of birth and early childhoodappear to have the greatest effect on adult living height.Fetal stature has been reported to be affected largely by

T I C L E I N F O

le history:

ived 18 March 2015

ived in revised form 16 July 2015

pted 16 July 2015

lable online 28 July 2015

ords:

etal stature

script heights

strial period

A B S T R A C T

Individual stature depends on multifactorial causes and is often used as a proxy for

investigating the biological standard of living. While the majority of European studies on

19th and 20th century populations are based on conscript heights, stature derived from

skeletal remains are scarce. For the first time in Denmark this study makes a comparison

between skeletal stature and contemporary Danish conscript heights and investigates

stature of males and females temporally and between socially distinct individuals and

populations in 19th and early 20th century Copenhagen.

A total of 357 individuals (181 males, 176 females) excavated at the Assistens cemetery

in Copenhagen is analyzed. Two stature regression formulae (Trotter, 1970; Boldsen, 1990)

are applied using femur measurements and evaluated compared to conscript heights. The

results indicate that mean male stature using Boldsen follows a similar trend as the Danish

conscript heights and that Trotter overestimate stature by ca. 6 cm over Boldsen. At an

inter population level statistically significant differences in male stature are observed

between first and second half of the 19th century towards a slight stature decrease and

larger variation while there are no significant changes observed in female stature. There

are insignificant differences in stature between middle and high class individuals, but

male stature differs statistically between cemeteries (p = 0.000) representing middle/high

class, paupers and navy employees, respectively. Female stature had no significant wealth

gradient (p = 0.516). This study provides new evidence of stature among males and

females during the 19th century and suggests that males may have been more sensitive to

changes in environmental living and nutrition than females.

� 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Tel.: +45 2063 5054; fax: +45 3532 6150.

E-mail addresses: marielouise_sj@hotmail.com, mljorkov@sund.ku.dk

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Economics and Human Biology

jo u rn al ho m epag e: h t tp : / /ww w.els evier .c o m/lo cat e/ehb

://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2015.07.002

0-677X/� 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2614

maternal nutrition (Chang et al., 2003; Black et al., 2008),while adult stature, crucially, by childhood nutrition(Caulfield et al., 1995; Larnkjær et al., 2006). Wheninvestigating height from adult skeletal assemblages,one must keep in mind that they are the ones whosurvived into adulthood. But studying the adults canprovide insights into early life conditions of a group whosurvived the juvenile stage in any skeletal assemblage. Thiscounterintuitive conclusion was illustrated by Wood et al.(1992) in their formulation of the ‘‘Osteological Paradox.’’When applied to stature, the paradox challenges us torefrain from simplistic conclusions based on absolute bonelengths.

This study investigates stature in Copenhagen in the19th and early 20th century, by analyzing recentlyexcavated skeletal remains of a cemetery reflecting thistime period. For the first time in Denmark skeletal statureis compared to contemporary Danish conscript heights andan investigation of stature variation over time, betweensocially distinct individuals and population groups iscarried out and compared to the historical records.

2. Reconstructing stature from the skeleton

Numerous studies have been performed on the humanskeleton in an effort to devise ways of estimating livingstature from human remains. No general consensus orstandard method exists but encompass anatomical (e.g.Breitinger, 1937; Fully, 1956; Fully and Pineau, 1960;Raxter et al., 2006; Telkka, 1950) and mathematicalmethods (e.g. Trotter and Gleser, 1952, 1958; Trotter,1970; Boldsen, 1990). The length of long bones representsan approximate constant proportion of height and it hasbeen found that the femur gives the best approximation toreconstruct stature from skeletal remains. The majority ofthe regression formulae are developed on recent popula-tions (i.e. within the last 100 years) and have been found toprovide inaccurate stature estimations for past popula-tions due to secular shifts in body proportions (Boldsen,1984, 1990; Jantz and Jantz, 1999). Because of thesechanges in body proportions through time, it has beenrecommended to use regression equations developed onthe specific populations investigated (Koningsberg et al.,1998; Niskanen et al., 2013). The anatomical method takesinto account the inter-individual variation in the bodyproportions and some researchers therefore prefer usingthis on archaeological remains (Lundy, 1985; Wilson et al.,2010). However, this method requires the entire perpen-dicular skeleton available. In archaeological populationstudies preservation may hinder this approach. Themathematical methods only require single long boneelements (e.g. Boldsen, 1984, 1990; Boldsen and Kronborg,1984; Sjøvold, 1990; Boldsen and Søgaard, 1998; Maijanenand Niskanen, 2006, 2010) and are therefore the mostwidely used. One of the most popular is that by Trotter andGleser (1952, 1958) and Trotter (1970). The method isbased on long bone length versus living height of Americanmilitary casualties from World War II and on Americancadavers from the 1940s and 1950s of low socio-economicand varying environmental backgrounds. Other mathe-matical methods have been developed on archaeological

populations and are based on the correlation between thelength of the body in the grave with the length of longbones (Boldsen, 1984, 1990) or the combination of skeletalelements (Maijanen and Niskanen, 2006, 2010). In thisstudy the Boldsen (1990) method is used. The method wasdeveloped from Danish medieval rural and urban popula-tions. It is assumed that 19th century Danish individualsshare more similar environmental, nutritional and geneticbackground to medieval Danes than to an Americanpopulation from which the Trotter (1970) method wasderived. Still one could argue that because of changes inbody proportions over time, the 19th century Danishindividuals may be more similar to the mid-20th centuryAmericans. This study will address this question bycomparing the stature estimates to contemporary Danishconscript heights. Although it would have been ideal tohave the corresponding living height (measured at militarysession) of the male individuals investigated, such data isnot available at this stage.

3. Danish conscript heights

The conscript heights provide evidence of male stature.Having the historical data of conscripts makes it possible tocompare the stature estimates to contemporary livingheight means. The oldest historical sources on stature ofDanish populations originate from 1774, when the Danishmilitary began to measure the conscripts at militaryenlistment. The earliest reported height measurementswere conducted by Thune in 1815, who measured 22-yearold rural males from Northern Zealand, including thecounty of Copenhagen. Between 1815 and 1845 the dataalso included males from Funen (Thune, 1845, 1848;Mackeprang, 1907–11). By the mid 1850s the conscriptscovered all Danish counties (Trier, 1855; Meddelelser fradet Statistiske Bureau, 1859; Mackeprang, 1907–11).Mackeprang (1907–11) analyzed the 19th century con-script data and found that in the 1850s stature in thewestern part of Denmark (Jutland) were taller than theeastern part (Sealand, Funen and the islands) by ca. 2.9 cmas maximum difference. Fifty years later, in 1904–05, therural counties around Copenhagen showed the country’slowest mean statures, while the tallest were found inCopenhagen. Mackeprang credited this to the considerablemigration into Copenhagen from the neighboring counties.This was supported by a population count in the early 20thcentury, which showed that 42% were born outsideCopenhagen and 40% outside Copenhagen County (Mack-eprang, 1907–11, p. 30). Due to minimum height standardsfor recruits, conscript data from many army recordstruncate the data by excluding the ones that were tooshort. As for the Danish conscripts, the statistical recordspredating 1891 include all that turned up for session.Hereafter the records are focused on those who passed theminimum height requirement (more than 153 cm) (Mack-eprang, 1907–11).

4. Copenhagen in the 19th and early 20th century

The aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–1815)followed by severe agricultural crop failure in the 1820’s

metheexpind(Hytranmometurbrobotsign200in spoo188indchadurexpramsupme

Fig.

Note

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26 15

ant that Denmark was in a deep financial crisis during first half the 19th century. Denmark thereforeerienced a rather late but, by any standard, rapidustrialization compared to other European countriesldtoft, 2012). By the late19th century Denmark wassformed from a traditional agricultural country into a

dern industrialized and urbanized society where thechanized production in both agricultural and manufac-e industry was introduced (Johansen, 2002). This alsought enormous environmental changes transformingh urban and rural lifestyles (Hyldtoft et al., 1981) with aificant population increase in Copenhagen (Johansen,2). The fast growing population resulted in an increaseocial class distinctions, crowded living conditions andr sanitation. The highest growth rate was seen in the0s. An increasing interest in the health consequences of

ustrialization and urbanization lead to significantnges and improvements in healthcare and sanitationing the last two decades of the 19th century. The cityanded by building new homes outside the old cityparts and public health investments such as new waterply, waste removal and sewage systems were imple-nted. The investment in public hygiene reduced the

environmental risks children were exposed to, and it isbelieved to have played a major factor in declining infantmortality rate (Løkke, 1998; Hyldtoft, 1984) (Fig. 1).

4.1. The Trinitatis parish and the Assistens cemetery

The parish of Trinitatis lies within the old city ramparts.From 1805 to 1930 the parish covered an area inside thecity walls and an area north of the city gate, Nørreport(Fig. 1). By 1852 the demarcation zone outside the citywalls was abandoned and became more densely populated(Wiene, 2010). From 1930 to the present day the area of theparish was reduced to cover areas inside the old city ofCopenhagen (Wiene, 2010). Residents of the parish wereprobably not essentially different from the other parishesin Copenhagen during these periods and constitutedskilled and non-skilled workers and families of low,middle as well as high social classes. The parish alsocontained the Trinitatis workhouse (1790–1840) and slumquarters were present through to the early 20th century(Wiene, 2010).

Until 1760 most residents of Copenhagen were buriedon the church cemeteries inside the city walls. However, to

1. Map of Copenhagen anno 1886.

: The borders of the Trinitatis parish is highlighted together with location of the Assistens cemetery, the Farimagsvejen cemetery and Holmens church.

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2616

suit the needs of the still increasing population andovercrowded city cemeteries an assisting cemetery, TheAssistens cemetery, was established north east of the cityin the neighborhood Nørrebro. Each parish within the citywalls was allocated a section at the Assistens. The residentsof the Trinitatis parish were buried in section G (Fig. 1).While the cemetery initially was meant for the poor, theunbaptized and the stillborn it also became a resting placefor the wealthy and middle class citizens. The cemeterycontinued expanding throughout the 19th century, ac-commodating all social classes of Copenhagen city. Theupper class was buried along the prominent and easilyviewed pathways, known as the ‘‘monument line’’ andalong the walls and or in vaults. They were the ones whocould afford metal imbedded coffins and coffins withelaborate decorations. The middle class people, the work-ers, skilled and unskilled and those lowest in the society,were buried in more simple wooden coffins or buriedwithout coffins in the areas away from the public pathways(Anthony et al., 2011). The section G opened in 1806 andcontinued as a working cemetery until present day. Thelast burials within section G took place in the 1970–1980s,but the burial rate decreased significantly over the last halfof the 20th century. According to the grave protocols, therewere no registrations of any pauper burials in this area(Anthony et al., 2011).

5. Materials and methods

A total of 357 adult individuals (181 males, 176females) are included in the study out of 854 articulatedskeletons excavated from the Assistens cemetery. Poorpreservation (damaged long bones) and the criteria ofhaving dated burials reduced the sample size significant-ly. Standard methods for recording sex and age werefollowed according to Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) andBuckberry and Chamberlain (2002). Two thirds of theindividuals (n = 270/357) were aged older than 46 years(Anthony et al., 2011). Stature was calculated by applyingmeasurements of the maximum length of the femur toregression formulae of white males and females devisedby Trotter (1970) and Boldsen (1990). The method errorfor Trotter (1970) is �3.27 cm (male) and �3.72 cm(female) and for Boldsen (1990) it is �4.31 cm (male) and�4.11 cm (female). Femurs were measured using an osteo-metric board according to Martin and Saller (1957). Nofemurs with pathological alterations that could influence

the maximum length measurements were used in the studyand all individuals had fully fused epiphyses of the longbones. Mean conscript heights are taken from Mackeprang(1907–11) and the Statistiske undersøgelser (1966). Prior tothe investigation of stature, an analysis of femur lengths ofmales and females at the Assistens cemetery was performed(Table 1).

5.1. Skeletal stature and conscript heights

For the purpose of evaluating stature according to thetwo regression formulae and compared to conscriptheights, males were divided into periods according toyear of birth or death. From grave protocols and throughthe analysis of the archaeological data combined with theosteological data 93 males could be identified into year ofbirth and or death (Anthony et al., 2011). The low samplecount did not allow the data to be divided into smallerbirth groups than 50-year intervals (half centuries). Inorder to include individuals with only known year of deaththe osteological age was subtracted from the year of death.This involved 11 males. It is recognized that difficultiesexits in ascribing age estimates to adult remains and theyare therefore aged into broad age ranges of 10–15 years(Molleson et al., 1993). The majority of the 11 males wereosteologically aged older than 55 years. While there is apotential of placing the old adult individuals with onlyknown year of death in the wrong birth group, having thebirth groups in 50-year intervals should minimize this bias.Four birth groups were created. The earliest group (1) wasborn between 1750 and 1799, the next group (2) was bornbetween 1800 and 1849, the third group (3) was bornbetween 1850 and 1899 and the fourth group (4) was bornbetween 1900 and 1949).

5.2. Temporal trends in stature

5.2.1. Sex and stature

For the purpose of investigating stature temporallybetween sex 185 individuals (93 males and 92 females)with known year of birth and or death were analysed in thesame 50-year intervals. Fifteen of the females had knownyear of death only and were placed in a birth group basedon their osteological age (Anthony et al., 2011). Becausethe majority of the individuals were born in the 19thcentury, the earliest and latest groups are represented byonly very few individuals.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics on stature estimates for males and females at the Assistens cemetery.

Males (n = 181) Females (n = 176)

Mean (cm) SD Min/Max (cm) Variance Mean (cm) SD Min/Max (cm) Variance

Femur length 46.3 2.4 41.0/51.4 5.9 43.1 2.3 37.2/49.2 5.1

Stature after

Trotter (1970)

171.6 5.8 159.0/183.7 24.7 160.5 5.6 146.0/175.6 29.6

Stature after

Boldsen (1990)

165.5 5.6 153.2/177.3 31.5 154.8 5.2 141.1/169.0 27.8

Stature difference 6.1 0.2 5.8/6.4 0.6 5.7 0.3 4.8/6.7 1.2

Note: Stature is based on femur measurements.

5.2.

maclasthewegenof snotfemandind(Ta201birtcathig

5.3.

from(n =200chufemLonmaweintoarecomcomChr(19St. MChuis barecalctemas aSumana

6. R

6.1.

usi

Tab

Des

Ye

17

18

18

19

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26 17

2. Stature and status

In order to investigate stature in relation to social statusles and females were divided into two groups: middles and high class. Status was defined by the placement on

cemetery and or the type of coffin. Some individualsre buried in family plots. A family member of an earliereration could therefore potentially determine the statusubsequent members. However, for simplicity they will

be treated as independent observations. The males andales representing the middle class (n = 322, 168 males

154 females, respectively) outnumbered the high classividuals (n = 35, 13 males and 22 females, respectively)ble 3). No paupers are represented (Anthony et al.,1). The data were further analyzed according to 50-yearh intervals, which reduced the sample count for each

egory (middle class n = 163, 85 males and 78 females;h class: n = 22, 8 males, 14 females) (Table 4).

Interpopulation analysis

Contemporary comparative skeletal data were derived the pauper cemetery at Farimagsvejen (1842–1858)

56, 36 males, 20 females) (Rasmussen, 1940; Haarmark,3, 2004; Winther, 2010) and the cemetery of the navyrch of Holmens (1649–1850) (n = 95, 43 males, 52ales) ( (Kjærgard and Engberg, 2014; Jørkov, 2014).g bone measurements were performed by author. Thejority of the Farimagsvejen and Holmens individualsre born just before the end of the 18th century and some

the first half of the 19th century. For simplicity, they all presented in the second birth group (Table 3) and

pared to the Assistens birth group 2. A furtherparison is made to four contemporary British sites:

ist Church, Spitalfields published in Molleson et al.93), St George Church, Bloomsbury (Boston et al., 2009),

artins, Birmingham (Brickley et al., 2006) and St. Lukesrch, Islington (Boyle et al., 2005). Their reported statureased on Trotter (1970). Therefore, when comparisons

made, stature of the Danish skeletal material isulated using Trotter (1970).The British material is notporally divided hence the Assistens data is represented

single population group, divided according to sex only.mary statistics (means and variances) as well as

lysis of differences are performed using SPSS version 21.

esults

Femur lengths and stature

The results of the femur lengths and stature estimatesng Trotter and Boldsen, respectively, are presented in

Table 1 and Figs. 2 and 3a and b. The variance in malestature is largest when applying the Boldsen method whilethe variance in female stature is largest when applying theTrotter method. The mean difference in male staturebetween the two methods is 6.1 cm � 0.2 (5.8–6.4 cm) witha variance of 0.02. The mean difference for females is5.7 cm � 0.3 SD (4.8–6.7 cm) with a variance of 1.2. Whendifferences are tested statistically (paired sample t-test), theresult is highly significant for both males: p = 0.000) andfemales (p = 0.000).

6.2. Skeletal stature and conscript heights

The mean skeletal stature for males (n = 93) wereanalysed chronologically in 50-year intervals using themethods by Trotter (1970) and Boldsen (1990), respec-tively (Fig. 4, Table 2). It should be emphasized that thedata count especially for the earliest (1) and latest birthgroup (4) are represented by very few or a singleindividual. The focus of results is therefore on the twobirth groups (2 and 3) covering the 19th century. As can beseen from Table 2 and Fig. 4, the temporal mean statureestimates using Boldsen seem to be closer to the meanconscript heights. The difference between mean conscriptheight and mean skeletal stature for those two birth groupsrange from 0.0 to 2.6 cm when using Boldsen and 3.5–6.0 cm when compared to Trotter. At this point variablesand standard deviation of the conscript data are notavailable, and unfortunately there is no knowledge of theliving height of the males identified from protocol.Nevertheless, although a direct comparison cannot bemade between conscripts and skeletal data and uncertain-ty exits when evaluating from means, there does seem tobe a more similar stature mean when using Boldsen,especially in the first half of the 19th century. The meanconscript height continues to increase from the second halfof the 19th century (the onset of the industrial period) theskeletal stature does not increase until the 20th century.While a single individual cannot represent a population, itdoes seem to follow the trend of stature increase into the20th century (Table 2, Fig. 4).

6.3. Temporal trends in stature

6.3.1. Stature and sex

Based on the results of the method evaluation ananalysis of stature variation among males and femaleswas carried out using the Boldsen method (Fig. 4, Table 3).The focus is on the 19th century birth groups (2 and 3) dueto low sample count for period 1 and 4. It can be seen thatmale stature decreases slightly in the second half of the

le 2

criptive statistics on stature estimates for males in 50-year birth intervals compared to conscript heights.

ar of birth Group n Trotter (1970) Variance Boldsen (1990) Variance Conscript

Mean (cm) SD Min/Max (cm) Mean (cm) SD Min/Max (cm) Mean (cm)

50–1799 1 7 175.8 5.8 168.5/183.7 34.3 169.3 5.7 162.5/177.3 32.7 164.3

00–1849 2 46 171.6 4.1 164.2/181.1 16.4 165.6 4.0 158.3/174.8 15.6 165.6

50–1899 3 39 171.3 5.8 160.9/182.3 34.3 165.2 5.7 155.1/175.9 32.5 167.8

00–1949 4 1 176.8 170.6 173.2

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2618

19th century, while the opposite pattern is seen forfemales. When differences between all four groups wereanalysed statistically for each sex, there were nosignificant differences found. However, when period 2and 3 were analysed against each other, statisticalsignificant differences were found for males (p = 0.007),but not females.

6.3.2. Stature and status

Male and female stature was analysed according to socialstatus: middle class (males = 168, females = 154) and highclass (males = 13, females = 22) (Table 4, Fig. 5). When equalvariance is not assumed an independent samples t-test didnot find any significant difference for any of the sex (Mann–Whitney U: males, p = 0.424 and females, p = 0.623). The

Table 3

Descriptive statistics on stature estimates for males and females in 50-year birth cohorts.

n Mean (cm) SD Min/Max (cm) Range (cm) Variance

Group 1 Conscript(1750–1799) Males 164.3

AssistensMales 7 169.3 5.7 162.5/177.3 14.8 32.7

Females 4 154.9 7.0 145.8/162.7 16.9 48.4

Males high class 2 169.9 10.5 162.5/177.3 14.8 110.0

Males middle class 5 169.1 4.6 163.6/174.1 10.4 21.2

Females high class 1 145.8

Females middle class 3 158.0 4.1 155.5/162.7 7.2 16.7

Group 2 Conscript(1800–1849) Males 165.6

AssistensMales 46 165.6 4.0 158.3/174.8 16.5 15.6

Females 38 154.1 5.3 145.3/166.4 21.1 27.6

Males high class 4 165.0 4.3 159.5/169.0 9.5 18.5

Males middle class 42 165.6 4.0 158.3/174.8 16.5 15.7

Females high class 7 153.1 6.5 147.4/162.9 15.5 42.5

Females middle class 31 154.4 5.0 145.3/166.4 25.2 24.1

FarimagsvejenMales 36 162.4 5.8 152.0/175.5 23.4 33.2

Females 20 152.4 3.7 143.0/158.8 15.8 13.9

Holmens ChurchMales 43 160.9 6.4 147.4/171.7 24.3 41.3

Females 52 153.6 5.8 134.6/169.3 34.7 33.4

Group 3 Conscript(1850–1899) Males 167.8*

AssistensMales 39 165.2 5.7 155.1/175.9 20.9 32.5

Females 47 154.8 5.3 141.1/165.0 27.1 27.6

Males high class 2 163.4 3.3 161.1/165.7 4.6 10.7

Males middle class 37 165.3 5.8 155.1/175.9 20.9 33.9

Females high class 5 156.8 1.7 155.1/159.2 4.2 2.8

Females middle class 42 154.5 5.5 141.1/165.0 23.9 30.7

Group 4 Conscript(1900–1949) Males 173.2*

AssistensMales 1 170.6

Females 3 156.7 3.8 152.7/160.4 7.7 14.7

Males high class 0

Males middle class 1 170.6

Females high class 1 156.9

Females middle class 2 156.6 5.4 152.7/160.4 7.7 29.3

Note: Skeletal stature based on Boldsen (1990) using femur length. Conscript means are based on Mackeprang (1907-11). (*) Conscript means based on

minimum height requirements.

Table 4

Basic statistics of individuals from the Assistens cemetery according to sex and status.

Social class n Mean (cm) SD Min/Max (cm) Range (cm) Variance p-value

Male 181 165.4 5.6 153.2/177.3 24.1 31.5

Female 176 154.8 5.2 141.1/169.0 27.8 27.2

Male High 13 164.6 5.4 157.8/177.3 19.5 29.7 0.424

Middle 168 165.5 5.6 153.2/176.4 23.2 31.7

Female High 22 154.1 4.9 145.8/162.9 17.2 23.9 0.623

Middle 154 154.9 5.3 141.1/169.0 27.8 27.8

Note: p-value is based on Mann–Whitney U test.

signnor50-sign

6.4.

6.4.

indandFarAssby

mastatgroFar

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26 19

ificance was also rejected assuming the data to bemally distributed. When dividing the status groups intoyear intervals, the difference was still not statisticallyificant.

Interpopulation analysis

1. Stature in Copenhagen

A comparison between the Assistens individuals to theividuals at Farimagsvejen and Holmens Church (Fig. 6a

b, Table 3) shows that the mean stature of theimagsvejen pauper males is 3.2 cm shorter than theistens males, but the Holmens males are even shorter4.7 cm. The variance is highest among the Holmensles and smallest at the Assistens. The mean femaleure is very similar between the three populationups. The shortest mean stature is found among theimagsvejen pauper females who are 1.3 cm shorter than

the Holmens females and 1.7 cm shorter than the Assistensfemales. The variance is greatest among the Holmensfemales, while the Farimagsvejen females display the lowestvariance. Statistically the difference between the three malepopulation groups is highly significant (Kruskal–Wallis,p = 0.000), while a significant difference between the femalepopulations is rejected (Kruskal–Wallis, p = 0.516).

6.4.2. Stature in Copenhagen versus England

A comparison between the Danish skeletal heights tocontemporary British sites shows that the difference inmean stature between the different population groups inDenmark and England are very similar (Table 5). Whenapplying the Trotter method to the Danish material theresults now show the shortest male stature is found amongthe paupers at Farimagsvejen and not Holmens church,while the tallest males are found at St. Martin’s, Birming-ham and St. George Bloomsbury. The difference betweenthe tallest and shortest mean stature for males is 3.6 cm.The tallest mean female stature is seen at the Assistens.Interestingly, the shortest female stature is not repre-sented by the paupers at Farimagsvejen, but is foundamong the middle class workers at Christ Church Spital-fields. The stature difference between tallest and shortestfemale mean is 3.5 cm.

7. Discussion

There is an ongoing debate as to which method rendersthe most accurate estimate of living stature of pastpopulations. Despite several studies have shown that theclassic formulae by Trotter (1970) overestimate staturewhen applied to non-modern remains, it is still one themost widely used methods in biological anthropology. Acomparison between the two regression formulae (Trotter,1970; Boldsen, 1990) using femur lengths of 19th centuryindividuals was carried out and compared to contempo-rary conscript heights. The ideal way of approaching thisquestion would have been to have the living height of the

Fig. 2. Distribution of femur lengths for males and females.

Fig. 3. (a) Stature after Trotter (1970), (b) stature after Boldsen (1990).

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2620

individuals buried at the Assistens. Unfortunately this wasnot possible. Because of an uncertainty in the measure-ments of the skeleton in the grave at the Assistens(Dahlstom 2015, Copenhagen Museum, personal commu-nication) new stature regression formulae on the basis oflength in the grave and long bone length was notattempted here. This approach may also have caused biasas the majority of the individuals were old adults and theirlength in the grave therefore likely shorter than theirmaximum living height due to old age shrinkage in thetorso length. The Boldsen method was chosen over Trotterbecause it is assumed that 19th and early 20th centuryDanish populations would be more similar to the Danishmedieval populations in terms of environmental setting,dietary resources (i.e. nutritional inputs) and bodyproportions than to white Americans from the 1940sand 1950s. At the same time the Trotter method provide asmaller method error and smaller variation and has beenapplied regularly on archaeological populations (includingDanish). The Trotter method was therefore included to seeif indeed the stature estimates would be higher thanexpected or similar to the conscript means. The resultspresented here support previous findings, that the Trottermethod gives consistently higher stature estimates. In thisstudy the estimated stature is ca. 6 cm higher than Boldsen

and between 3.5 and 6 cm higher than the conscript meansof the 19th century. While the variation is smallest whenapplied to male skeletons, the Trotter method yieldsgreater variation when applied to female remains (al-though only by very little). The method error of bothmethods makes stature estimates of a single individualoverlap (the maximum height of Boldsen versus theminimum height of Trotter). The same is true for standarddeviations of the means. Still the stature difference for bothmales and females is statistically significant. Boldsen nevermentions the age of the individuals used in his regressionformula, Theoretically, if the Boldsen data were derivedfrom older individuals (i.e. shorter length in grave due toshrinkage) and the Trotter data were based purely onmaximum living heights of young adult individuals, it mayhave explained why the Assistens individuals (where themajority are old adults) show shorter stature when theBoldsen method is applied. The female data of the Trottermethod, however, are derived from cadavers of low socio-economic background of varying age and the staturedifference is still quite large (5.7 cm over Boldsen). As thepurpose was to identify the maximum living stature in the19th century the conscript means were used as a proxy forthe general maximum living height of young males.Standard deviations or variances of the conscript datawere not available. Interestingly, the results of the staturemeans seem to indicate that male stature is closer to theconscripts when the Boldsen method is applied. This resultseems to agree with the assumption that the 19th centuryindividuals are closer (body proportion wise) to MedievalDanes than to the Americans.

The highest sample count of the Assistens individualswas found in the 19th century and the focus of interpreta-tion is therefore on this period. While uncertainty exitswhen analyzing data based on means, the skeletal malestature estimates and conscripts look very similar in thefirst half of the 19th century. This is despite conscript datarepresent rural males on Zealand (including the county ofCopenhagen) rather than the Danish population in general.At the same time the conscript data means represent allmales that were measured including those that were tooshort. While the conscripts mean increases in the latter halfthe 19th century, the skeletal data points towards a decline,which compared to the first half of the 19th century is alsostatically significant. The difference between conscript andskeletal data and their individual pattern in the second halfcould be explained by several factors. Firstly, that conscriptdata from the second half of the 19th century represent allDanish counties and therefore include more tall individua-ls, or secondly, that conscript data of the second half of the19th century is extrapolated (i.e. the mean is biasedhigher). According to the study by Mackeprang (1907–11),the stature in Copenhagen was the highest in the countryafter the onset of the industrial period. If theoretically thereason for stature increase among the conscript is due tothe inclusion of all Danish counties, one might expect tofind the mean skeletal data to be higher than or similar tothe conscript mean, but the opposite is seen. It cantherefore be speculated whether the difference betweenconscripts and skeletal mean in the second half of the19th century is in fact because of the minimum height

Fig. 4. Mean male and female skeletal stature compared to conscript

height.

Fig. 5. Stature means and variations according to social class.

reqcoustattionmedur188

Fig.

Note

Tab

Des

As

Fa

Ho

Ch

St

St

St

St

Note

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26 21

uirements affecting the conscript mean positively. Itld also be speculated whether this decline in maleure could be due to the industrialization. The popula-

increase in Copenhagen during the industrial periodant overcrowded living conditions and poor sanitationing the first part of the industrialization (up to the mid0’s). This urbanization is believed to have affected

health and thereby stature, as it has been shown in otherpopulations during times of rapid industrialization (e.g.Steckel, 1995; Haines et al., 2003; Haines, 2004; Lee, 1997;Zehetmayer, 2011; Cuff, 2005). The similarity betweenskeletal mean and conscript mean during the first half ofthe 19th century may be because the ‘‘too short’’ recruitswere included, even though it was only of rural males (i.e.

6. (a) Inter-population comparison, (b) inter-population comparison of male stature means. of female stature means

: Individuals born in birth group 2 (1800–1849).

le 5

criptive statistics on stature estimates between population groups.

Date Status Males Females Method Published in

n Mean SD Min/Max (cm) n Mean SD Min/Max (cm)

sistens

cemetery

19th–20th

cent

Middle/

High

class

181 171.6 5.8 159.0/183.7 176 160.5 5.6 146.0/175.6 Trotter

(1970)

rimagsvejen

cemetery

1843–1858 Paupers 36 168.4 5.9 157.8/181.8 20 157.9 4.0 148.0/164.8 Trotter

(1970)

lmens church 1649–1850 Navy 43 170.7 5.8 158.0/181.0 52 159.4 6.2 139.0/176.0 Trotter

(1970)

Jørkov

(2014)

rist Church,

Spitalfields

18th–19th

cent

Middle

class

211 170.0 6.2 167.9/170.3 124 157.0 5.7 154.0/158.5 Trotter

and

Gleser

(1952,

1958)

Molleson

et al.

(1993)

. Martin’s,

Birmingham

18th–19th

cent

Artisan

and

middle

classes

173 172.0 5.6 156.0/185.0 124 159.0 139.0/170.5 Trotter

(1970)

Brickley

et al.

(2006)

. George

Church,

London

18th–19th

cent

Middle

class

15 172.0 152.0/185.0 20 160.0 148.0/179.0 Trotter

(1970)

Boston

et al.

(2009)

. Lukes

Church,

Islington,

Unnamed

18th–19th

cent

Middle

class

295 171.0 149.0/194.0 238 158.0 139.0/174.0 Trotter

(1970)

Boyle

et al.

(2005)

. Lukes

Church,

Islington,

Named

18th–19th

cent

Upper

class

? 170.0 155.0/193.0 ? 158.0 149.0/172.0 Trotter

(1970)

Boyle

et al.

(2005)

: Skeletal stature based on Trotter (1970).

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2622

presumably healthier and taller individuals). Obviously thesingle individual representing the first half of the 20thcentury leaves the skeletal data of this period inconclusive,but it is reasonable to assume that stature did increase inthe next 50 years.

7.1. Stature and sex

Viewing the Assistens male and female data in the 50-year birth intervals it can be seen that the mean stature forboth sexes during the 19th century is quite similar.Although Denmark was in deep financial crisis andsuffered agricultural failure in the first half of the 19thcentury this cannot be identified in the stature of theseindividuals. The low sample count representing the 18thcentury does not allow for any conclusive patternsbetween the first and second birth group. Anthropologistshave discussed whether females are more robust underadverse conditions (e.g. Martorell and Habicht, 1986;Ortner, 1998) and therefore variability in female statureshould be lower. Nicholas and Oxley (1993), however,found a significant decrease among women of theindustrial revolution in England and Ireland. Similarfindings were made by Koepke and Baten (2005) support-ing the argument that the position of women deterioratesin relative terms when times are getting worse (Klasen,2002). When it comes to males Kuh et al. (1991) andEveleth and Tanner (1990) believe that growth in boys aremore responsive to changes in the environment than ingirls, so that when times get hard their growths is moreaffected. The data in this present study seem to supportthis pattern (although with only slight mean staturedecrease) during industrialization, but with increasedvariation, while female stature and the variation in statureremained unchanged. It is assumed that the majority of theindividuals buried at the Assistens cemetery were born andraised in Copenhagen, but we do not know for sure. Theenvironmental and nutritional background of the individ-uals as children and the effect of industrialization aretherefore only speculative. The combination of the stillgrowing population and the epidemics that flourished inCopenhagen in the mid-19th century (e.g. cholera epi-demic in 1953) catalyzed the focus on public health andsanitation. By the 1870s new laws were introduced toimprove the environment (including sewage systems) andhealth of the urban population (public health insurance)and at the same time the mortality rate went down (Løkke,1998). It is generally agreed that these positive actionstaken in the later 19th century must have had a majorinfluence on the secular changes in stature, but there isanother factor that may have had an influence on thesecular trends in growth. Modern studies have shown thathigh protein intake from dairies, especially milk from cows(and humans) stimulates growth as they contain a specificinsulin growth factor (sIGF-I) which is important in earlychildhood and adolescence (e.g. Hoppe et al., 2006; Hornellet al., 2013; Michaelsen et al., 2012). By the late 19thcentury the first urban milk supply in Copenhagen wasestablished ensuring fresh milk to the citizens (Løkke,1998, p. 304). Prior to the milk-industry, the self-sustainedrural populations had easier access to fresh milk than

urban dwellers. Hypothetically, this could imply that thoseindividuals that were ‘‘tallest’’ and born before fresh milkcame available to the larger public in Copenhagen wereborn/raised outside Copenhagen, and as milk becameavailable to the urban public, stature increased in allcounties. A population count from 1901 indicates thatnearly half of the population was born outside Copenhagen(Mackeprang, 1907–11).

7.2. Stature and status

Social inequality has been identified by previousresearch as an important determinant of average stature(Steckel, 1995). Studies that have compared statureestimates obtained from archaeological skeletal popula-tions to the historically documented conscripts heights(e.g. Koepke and Baten, 2005; Maat, 2005; De Beer, 2004;Vercellotti et al., 2014) have found that average height hasdecreased during periods of rapid industrialization be-cause of the increased economic inequality (De Beer, 2004;Koepke and Baten, 2005; Steckel, 2008; Zehetmayer,2011). Rapid industrialization with growing incomeinequality might have made the rich richer and the poorpoorer. In times of economic shortage the rich may spendless on additional foods, and the poor will lose decisivenutrients at their low level and therefore average staturewill decline (Komlos, 1998; Koepke and Baten, 2005;Sunder, 2004). However, there is a historical debate aboutwhen precisely this became true and the origins of theemergence of social gradients in health (e.g. Bengtsson andvan Poppel, 2011). There are multiple factors that caninfluence social status in life and how it is presented indeath (i.e. how they are buried and where and how theirwealth is interpreted by researchers). If life history isunknown, the data of skeletal assemblages can potentiallybe misinterpreted. In this dataset the distribution ofmiddle and high class individuals buried at the Assistensshow no significant differences for males and females,respectively. Wealth of each individual is determinedbased on the coffin type or placement on the cemetery(according to cemetery protocols the expensive plots werelocated along the public paths and monument lines). Themajority of the individuals both middle and high classindividuals died in old age. A correlation between age andwealth is therefore present, but not conclusive. Thereasons why we don’t see any significant stature differ-ences according to wealth gradient may be multiple. One isthat the social level difference of the Assistens individuals(and therefore also living environment) was not bigenough to have influenced the childhood diet and health(and thereby stature) or, that factors later in life such asmarriage into wealth or the opposite that financialdifficulties in adulthood let to fewer economical meanscould have leveled out any differences that may have beenpresent, or simply that wealth is not identified by the waythey are buried. Since we currently don’t know the actuallife history of each individual at the Assistens, the results ofhigh and middle class distinctions are left inconclusive.The historical sources of health in the Danish populationindicate that the difference was larger between the lowestin society (the paupers) and the middle class workers than

bet200simconto

mid(FaThebe

FarbordurthewemoaduTheof i19tDesnouprorefepopp. 1tionconundthabutdigchithereqdowtheAlle200ResindsocagaunrbeetheequpauthashoandHolrepthomostatvejgraa sAsssoctho

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26 23

ween the middle and high class members (Johansen,2; Løkke, 1998). This fact seems to support the statureilarities found at the Assistens cemetery. Threetemporary Copenhagen cemeteries were comparedsee if differences in stature were evident when thedle/high class individuals were compared to paupers

rimagsvejen) and navy-employees (Holmens Church). data derived from these populations may potentiallybiased as for example some of the paupers buried atimagsvejen cemetery may not necessarily have beenn of poor parents and lived under poor circumstancesing their childhood, but could have died poor becauseir life path had turned unfortunate and some of thealthy navy employees could have been born of poorthers but who then achieved greater prosperity aslts (Steckel, 1995; Bengtsson and van Poppel, 2011).re are several historical notes on the recommendationsnfant and early childhood feeding behavior during theh century and they seem to differ between the counties.pite the encouragement of breastfeeding being the bestrishment for young infants, the historical sources alsovide many instructions for supplementation foods (forrences see Løkke, 1998, p. 286). The latter becameular among urban females in particular (Løkke, 1998,30). The dietary supplements may have been nutri-ally inadequate or the infants were not old enough tosume the foods given and for many, this lead toernourishment and or premature death. It is intuitive

t the body needs energy for growth and physical work most energy is used for keeping the body warm,esting foods and for the brain. The more pathogens ald encounters, the more of an effort it takes to wardm off. However, if the balance between inputs anduirements is not sufficiently positive, the growth slowsn and if the insults are repeated, severe or prolonged,

y will result in a shorter adult stature (Allen, 1984;n and Uauy, 1994; Chandra, 2002; Checkley et al.,8; Scrimshaw, 2003; Schaible and Kaufmann, 2007).earch on Danish food traditions in the 19th centuryicate that foods were allocated differently betweenial groups and within the household discriminatinginst women and children (e.g. Hyldtoft, 2012). It is noteasonable to suppose that this pressure might haven greatest in the poorest households, and one wouldrefore expect to see more evidence, other things beingal, of a gap between high/middle class females andper females. It was therefore quite interesting to notet female stature at Farimagsvejen was not that muchrter than the high/middle class females at the Assistens

Holmen’s and statistically they are no different. Themen’s church was a church of the navy, and therebyresenting a very mixed population group – not justse living in Copenhagen. The females buried here werest likely land based when growing up. Their meanure is also taller than the pauper females at Farimags-

en. The presumably earlier date of some of the Holmen’sves (earlier than 18th century) may explain why we seehorter female mean stature when compared to theistens females (still assuming they are of the sameial status–i.e. sharing similar economic means). Al-ugh small differences in female means may be seen

between the three cemeteries the results do not seem tosupport the hypothesis that social inequality correlateswith stature. The results of the males, however, appearopposite. The Assistens males are significantly differentfrom both the Farimagsvejen and Holmens church males,respectively. Finding the shortest mean height among theHolmens males and not at Farimagsvejen was alsosurprising. Although speculative, an explanation may bethat stature for these males is related to their occupationrather than economic means. Some of the men may havebeen born out of a rural family and some of an urban richfamily and therefore grew up in a wide range of dietary andenvironmental regimes. However, it was not uncommonfor boys to join the navy from early teen-age years oryounger. The poor boy may have benefitted nutritionally,as the food entitlements in the navy may have increasedcompared to what he would otherwise have had access to.It may have been opposite for those boys who were raisedin favorable conditions. Having to work under very hardconditions, and, possibly as a result, also suffered poornutrition while at sea (i.e. not enough vitamins in relationto body requirements), could have affected growth in thelater childhood/adolescent years where there in normalhealthy boys is a growth spurt (e.g. Boersma and Wit,1997; Cole, 2000; Rogol et al., 2000; Whiting et al., 2004).Studies have shown that monotonous, largely vegetariandiets can be deficient in vitamins and minerals even whenthey provide sufficient energy. For example, a dietconsisting of coarse whole-grain cereals can limit thepossibility to absorb micronutrients, such as zinc and iron(e.g. Schneider, 2013) which in turn may lead to anaemia.We know from modern population studies of e.g. NorthKorea and portions of Africa as well as historicalpopulations (e.g. the Irish during the great famine) thatmalnutrition including chronic undernourishment andacute malnutrition can cause stunted growth (Baten andBlum, 2014). The individuals investigated here were theones who survived. But until we have physical proof of theindividual diet in infancy and childhood (e.g. throughintra-tooth stable isotope analysis) compared to theevidence of nutritional diseases and other biological stressfactors in childhood evidenced on the skeleton, aninvestigation of infant and childhood diet in relation totheir achieved maximum adult height can only bespeculated and discussed at a discursive level.

7.3. Stature in Copenhagen versus England

The majority of the comparative data of othercontemporary populations in Europe originate from con-scripts. Stature estimates based on skeletal populations of18th and 19th century Europe are scarce, and notsurprisingly, based on different regression formulae withthe anatomical methods being the preferred approach. Forexample Dutch and German populations have beenanalysed using the formulae after Breitinger (1937), Fully(1956) or Fully and Pineau (1960) (e.g. Maat, 2005);Swedish skeletal populations have been analysed usingSjøvold (1990) (e.g. Gustafsson et al., 2007; Arcini et al.,2014) and Finish populations after Raxter et al. (2006) (e.g.Maijanen and Niskanen, 2006). Ironically the largest

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2624

European dataset of 18th and 19th century skeletalpopulations including female measurements is based onthe Trotter method. Having shown that the Trotter methoddoes estimate slightly higher stature for Danish 19thcentury remains, applying the Trotter method to ourmaterial, nonetheless, enabled a broader synchronic inter-population comparison. Because the populations may notbe homogenous, focusing on the variation in stature ratherthan the actual stature provides a proxy of stature trendsbetween 18th to 20th century European populationgroups. It is evident that the mean statures are verysimilar and the shortest stature is found among the ChristChurch Spitalfields individuals. Why they are so muchshorter can only be speculated as stature is governed bymultiple causes. The Christ Church Spitalfields representsthe earliest dated group of them all and thereby the initialstages of the rapid industrialization. It is noteworthy thatstature of the Danish material not only increases signifi-cantly when applying the Trotter method, but also thatstature of the Holmen males now appear taller than theFarimagsvejen pauper males. The difference in staturebetween the three cemeteries is still statistically signifi-cant. The reason for this change is likely the difference invariation between the two methods and it confirms theconcern of applying stature equations developed onmodern remains to archaeological. The different outcomeinfluences the interpretation of the Holmen malessuggesting that the different stature between the Assistensand Holmens may due to the slightly earlier dating of theremains, rather than occupation. Having said this, a studyon individuals with known living height compared to theirskeletal data should be carried out in order to test thismethodological error further.

8. Conclusion

This study set out to compare skeletal data to conscriptheights in order to investigate living stature of males andfemales temporally and between social distinct individualsand population groups. Part of the aim was to evaluate tworegression formulae for stature estimation by comparingskeletal data to contemporary conscript means. The largeststature variation for males is found when applying theBoldsen method, while the largest stature variation forfemales is found when using the Trotter method. Thestature difference is ca. 6 cm between the two methods forboth males and females. The closer similarities betweenmale stature estimates and conscript means using Boldsen,could suggest that the Trotter method is not suited forDanish archaeological assemblages.

A potential shortcoming of the study is the small samplecount, which renders significant uncertainty and limitsthe conclusions that can be drawn. The low sample countlimits the temporal investigation and uncertainties arisewhen comparing stature based on means only. Butcompared to historical sources, the skeletal remains awardinsights into the biological well-being at an individual levelof both males and females, whereas conscripts are restrictedto males at a population level that may be biased due to

data are the unknown factors of geographical origin (rural/urban) and social and nutritional background as children.

The results show a small yet statistically significantdifference in male stature towards a stature declinebetween first and second half of the 19th centurycorresponding to before and after the initiation of theindustrial period, while no corresponding differences ortrend was found in female stature. Furthermore, socialinequality did not seem to have an effect on the staturebetween middle and high class individuals at the Assistenscemetery, which supports the historical record of socialinequality (in health) being less expressed between thesetwo social groups. While female stature was statistically nodifferent between paupers and middle/high class individ-uals either, male stature differed significantly. It cantherefore be speculated that boys were treated differentlydepending on social status or that boys were morevulnerable to environmental and nutritional changes thanfemales. The latter could perhaps explain why socialinequality in stature is absent among females.

Unexpected stature decline in the onsets of industriali-zation known as the antebellum puzzle is seen in otherparts of Europe, and in North America (US) in particularwhere different segments of society were unequallyaffected (e.g. Baten and Murray, 2000; Carson, 2011; Craigand Weiss, 1998; Cuff, 2005; Floud et al., 1990; Haineset al., 2003; Komlos, 1993, 1998; Margo and Steckel, 1982;Zehetmayer, 2011). While the present Copenhagen datacannot be compared to antebellum US, future investiga-tions should seek to compare height with the nutritionalvariation and health during childhood of socially distinctpopulation groups in urban as well as rural settings in the19th century. A potential new approach could be tocombine the historical data with skeletal data of diet (usingintra tooth stable isotope analysis for identifying child-hood diet), adult stature and the skeletal evidence ofnutritional diseases and other biological stress indicatorsresumed in childhood and or adolescence. This wouldprovide new evidence at an individual level (males andfemales) and allow a wider understanding of the relationbetween industrialization and biological standard of living.Further on, data from other European countries (whererecent skeletal remains are available) should be includedto allow a broader diachronic investigation.

We can learn a lot from studying the trends of staturefrom the skeletal remains and conscripts, separately andjointly. However, since stature variation is influenced bymultifactorial causes including biological and socio-economic factors we cannot expect the trends in heightto be a result of a single cause.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the Danish Council for Indepen-dent ResearchjHumanities for funding this project (no.10-094535). I would also like to thank the Museum ofCopenhagen and the National Museum of Denmark forproviding access to the skeletal data. Lastly I owe thanks toProfessor Niels Lynnerup, Professor Anne Løkke, the Editorand the two anonymous reviewers for very helpful

comments and suggestions to improve this manuscript. height requirements. Other potential shortcomings of the

Ref

Alle

Alle

Alte

Anth

Arci

Bate

Bate

Ben

Blac

Boe

BogBold

Bold

Bold

Bold

Bost

Boy

Brei

Bric

Buc

Buik

Cars

Cau

Cha

Cha

Che

ColeCrai

Cuff

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–26 25

erences

n, L.H., 1984. Functional indicators of nutritional status of the wholeindividual or the community. Clin. Nutr. 3 (5), 169–175.n, L.H., Uauy, R., 1994. Guidelines for the study of mechanismsinvolved in the prevention or reversal of linear growth retardationin developing countries. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 48, 212–216.r, G., 2004. Height, frailty, and the standard of living: modelling theeffects of diet and disease on declining mortality and increasingheight. Popul. Stud. 58 (3), 265–279.ony, S., Keenan, S., Johannsen, J.W., Jørkov, M.L., 2011. Assistens

Kirkegard, Copenhagen KBM 3830, Museum of Copenhagen, Archae-ological Report No. 380.ni, C., Ahlstrom, T., Tagesson, G., 2014. Variations in diet and stature:are they linked? Bioarchaeology and palaedietary Bayesian mixingmodels from Linkoping, Sweden. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 24, 543–556.n, J., Blum, M., 2014. Why are you tall while others are short?Agricultural production and other proximate determinants of globalheights. Eur. Rev. Econ. Hist. 18, 144–165.n, J., Murray, J.E., 2000. Heights of men and women in 19th centuryBavaria: economic, nutritional, and disease influences. Explor. Econ.Hist. 37 (4), 351–369.gtsson, T., van Poppel, F., 2011. Socioeconomic inequalities in deathfrom past to present: an introduction. Explor. Econ. Hist. 48, 343–356.k, R.E., Allen, L.H., Bhutta, Z.A., 2008. Maternal and child undernutri-tion: global and regional exposures and health consequences. Lancet371 (9608), 243–260.rsma, B., Wit, J.M., 1997. Catch-up growth. Endocr. Rev. 18 (5),646–661.in, B., 2001. The Growth of Humanity. Wiley-Liss, New York.sen, J.L., 1984. A statistical evaluation of the basis for predicting

stature from lengths of long bones in European populations. Am. J.Phys. Anthropol. 65, 305–311.sen, J.L., 1990. Population structure, body proportions and height

prediction. J. Forensic Med. (Istanbul) 6, 157–165.sen, J.L., Kronborg, D., 1984. The distribution of stature among Danish

conscripts in 1852–56. Ann. Hum. Biol. 11 (6), 555–565.sen, J.L., Søgaard, J., 1998. A history of height in Denmark. In: Komlos,

J., Baten, J. (Eds.), The Biological Standards of Living in ComparativePerspective. Franz Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, pp. 467–482.on, C., Boyle, A., Gill, J., Witkin, A., 2009. In the vaults beneath.Archaeological Recording at St George’s Church, Bloomsbury. OxfordArchaeology, Monograph No. 8.le, A., Boston, C., Witkin, A., 2005. The archaeological experience at St.Luke’s Church, Old Street, Islington. Oxford Archaeology No 1.tinger, E., 1937. Zur Berechnung der Koorperhohe aus den langenGliedmassenknochen. Anthropol. Anz. 14, 249–274.kley, M., Buteux, S., Adams, J., Cherrington, R. (Eds.), 2006. St. Martin’sUncovered. Investigations in the Churchyard of St. Martin’s-in-the-Bill Ring, Birmingham. Oxbow Books, Oxford.kberry, J.L., Chamberlain, A.T., 2002. Age estimation from the auricularsurface of the ilium: a revised method. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 119,231–239.stra, J.E., Ubelaker, D.H., (Eds.), 1994. Standards. For data collection

from human skeletal remains. Proceedings of a seminar at the FieldMuseum of natural History. Indianapolis: Arkansas ArchaeologicalSurvey Research Series No. 44.on, S.A., 2011. Height of female Americans in the 19th century and theantebellum puzzle. Econ. Hum. Biol. 9, 157–164.lfield, L.E., Himes, J.H., Rivera, J.A., 1995. Nutritional supplementationduring early childhood and bone mineralization during adolescence.J. Nutr. 125, 1104–1110.ndra, R.K., 2002. Nutrition and the immune system from birth to oldage. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 56 (Suppl 3), 73–76.ng, S.C., O’Brien, K.O., Nathanson, M.S., Caulfield, L.E., Mancini, J.,Witter, F.R., 2003. Fetal femur length is influenced by maternal dairyintake in pregnant African American adolescents. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 77,1248–1254.ckley, W., Buckley, G., Gilman, R.H., 2008. Multi-country analysis ofthe effects of diarrhoea on childhood stunting. Int. J. Epidemiol. 37 (4),816–830., T.J., 2000. Secular trends in growth. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 59, 317–324.g, L., Weiss, T., 1998. Nutritional status and agricultural surpluses inthe Antebellum United States. In: Komlos, J., Baten, J. (Eds.), Studies onthe Biological Standard of Living in Comparative Perspectives. FranzSteiner Verlag, Stuttgart., T., 2005. The Hidden Costs of Economic Development: The BiologicalStandard of Living in Antebellum Pennsylvania. Aldershot, Ashgate

De Beer, H., 2004. Observations on the history of Dutch physical staturefrom the late-Middle Ages to the present. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2, 45–55.

Eveleth, P.B., Tanner, J.M., 1990. Worldwide Variation in Human Growth.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Floud, R., Wachter, K., Gregory, A., 1990. Height, Health and History:Nutritional Status in the United Kingdom, 1750–1980. CambridgeUniversity Press, Cambridge.

Floud, R., Fogel, R.W., Harris, B., Hong, S.C., 2011. The Changing Body:Health, Nutrition, and Human Development in the Western Worldsince 1700. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Fully, G., 1956. Une nouvelle methode de determination de la taille. Ann.Med. Legale 36 (5), 266–273.

Fully, G., Pineau, H., 1960. Determination de la stature au moyen dusquelette. Ann. Med. Leg. 40, 145–154.

Gustafsson, A., Werdelin, L., Tullberg, B.S., Lindenfors, P., 2007. Stature andsexual stature dimorphism in Sweden, from the 10th to the end of the20th Century. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 19, 861–870.

Haarmark, B., 2003. Sygehistorier–Journalgangen 1855 AlmindeligHospital i København. In: Pedersen, C.B., (Ed.), Dansk medicinhistor-isk Arbog 2003. Odense, pp. 29-46.

Haarmark, B., 2004. Den danske lægemiddelterapi i 1850’erne belyst vedlærerbøger og patientjournaler. Theriaca. Samlinger til farmaciens ogmedicinens historie. Hillerød, vol 35.

Haines, M., 2004. Growing incomes, shrinking people–can economicdevelopment be hazardous to your health? Historical evidence forthe United States, England, and the Netherlands in the 19th century.Soc. Sci. History 28 (2), 249–270.

Haines, M., Craig, L., Weiss, T., 2003. The short and the dead: nutrition,mortality and the antebellum puzzle in the United States. J. Econ.History 63, 382–413.

Holden, C., Mace, R., 1999. Sexual dimorphism in stature and women’swork: a phylogenetic cross-cultural analysis. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.110, 27–45.

Hoppe, C., Mølgaard, C., Michaelsen, K.F., 2006. Cow’s milk and lineagrowth in industrialized and developing countries. Annu. Rev. Nutr.26 (1), 131–173.

Hornell, A., Lagstrom, H., Lande, B., Thorsdottir, I., 2013. Protein intakefrom 0–18 years of age and its relation to health: a systematicliterature review for the 5th Nordic Nutrition Recommendations.Food Nutr. Res. 57, 21083.

Hyldtoft, O., 1984. Københavns industrialisering 1840–1914. Systime,Herning.

Hyldtoft, O., 2012. Mad, drikke og tobak 1800–1835. Forbrugsmønstre,kultur og diskurser. Museum Tusculanums Forlag. KøbenhavnsUniversitet.

Hyldtoft, O., Askgaard, H., Christiansen, N.F., 1981. Det industrielle Dan-mark 1840–1914. Herning, Systime.

Jantz, L.M., Jantz, R.L., 1999. Secular change in long bone length andproportion in the United States, 1800–1970. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.110, 57–67.

Johansen, H.C., 2002. Danish Population History 1600–1939. UniversityPress of Southern, Denmark.

Jørkov, M.L.S., 2014. Holmens kirke, journal nummer 538/2013. Labora-tory of Biological Anthropology, University of Copenhagen, Unpub-lished report.

Kjærgard, A., Engberg, N., 2014. Nationalmuseets udgravning ved Hol-mens Kirke, Journalnr. 538/2013. The National Museum of Denmark,Unpublished report.

Klasen, S., 2002. Low schooling for girls, slower growth for all? Cross-country evidence on the effect of gender inequality in education oneconomic development. World Bank Econ. Rev. 16 (3), 345–373.

Koepke, N., Baten, J., 2005. The biological standard of living in Europeduring the last two millennia. Eur. Rev. Econ. History 9, 61–95.

Komlos, J., 1993. The secular trend in the biological standard of living inthe United Kingdom. Econ. History Rev. 46, 115–144.

Komlos, J. (Ed.), 1994. Stature, Living Standards, and Economic Develop-ment.. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

Komlos, J., 1998. Shrinking in a growing economy? The mystery ofphysical stature during the industrial revolution. J. Econ. Hist. 58(3), 779–802.

Komlos, J., 2003. Access to food and the biological standard of living:perspectives on the nutritional status of native Americans. Am. Econ.Rev. 93 (1), 252–255.

Komlos, J., Baten, J., 2004. Looking backward and looking forward: an-thropometric research and the development of social science history.Soc. Sci. Hist. 28, 191–210.

Koningsberg, L.W., Hens, S.M., Jantz, L.M., Jungers, W.L., 1998. Statureestimation and calibration: Bayesian and maximum likelihood perspec-

tives in physical anthropology. Yearbook Phys. Anthropol. 41, 65–92. Publishing.

M.L.S. Jørkov / Economics and Human Biology 19 (2015) 13–2626

Kuh, D.L., Power, C., Rodgers, B., 1991. Secular trends in social class andsex differences in adult height. Int. J. Epidemiol. 20, 1001–1009.

Larnkjær, A., Schrøder, S.A., Schmidt, I.M., Jørgensen, M.H., Michaelsen,K.F., 2006. Secular change in adult stature has come to a halt innorthern Europe and Italy. Acta Paediatr. 95, 754–755.

Lee, C., 1997. Socioeconomic background, disease, and mortality amongUnion army recruits: implications for economic and demographichistory. Explor. Econ. Hist. 34, 27–55.

Løkke, A., 1998. Døden i barndommen. Spædbørnsdødelighed og mod-erniseringsprocesser i Danmark 1800 til 1920. Gyldendal.

Lundy, J.K., 1985. The mathematical versus anatomical methods of statureestimate from long bones. Am. J. Forensic Med. Pathol. 6 (1), 73–75.

Maat, G.J.R., 2005. Two millenia of male stature development and popu-lation health and wealth in the low countries. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 15,276–290.

Mackeprang, E.P., 1907-11. De værnepligtiges legemshøjde i Danmark.Meddel. Danmarks Antropol. 1, 12–68.

Maijanen, H., Niskanen, M., 2006. Comparing stature estimation methodson medieval inhabitants of Westerhus, Sweden. Fennoscand.Archaeol. XXIII, 37–46.

Maijanen, H., Niskanen, M., 2010. New regression equations forstature estimation for medieval Scandinavians. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol.20, 472–480.

Malcolm, L.A., 1974. Ecological factors relating to child growth andnutritional status. In: Roche, A.F., Falkner, F. (Eds.), Nutrition andMalnutrition: Identification and Measurement. Plenum, New York,pp. 329–352.

Margo, R., Steckel, R., 1982. Heights of American slaves: new evidence onnutrition and health. Soc. Sci. Hist. 6, 516–538.

Martin, R., Saller, K., 1957. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in SystematischerDarstellung. Band I, 3. Aufl. Stuttgart, Gustav Fischer Verlag.

Martorell, R., Habicht, J.-P., 1986. Growth in early childhood in developingcountries. In: Falkner, F., Tanner, J.M. (Eds.), Human Growth: AComprehensive Treatise, 3. Plenum, New York, pp. 241–262.

Meddelelser fra det Statistiske Bureau, 1859, 1859. Femte samling.(Kobenhavn), pp. 159–190.

Michaelsen, K.F., Larnkjær, A., Mølgaard, C., 2012. Amount and quality ofdietary proteins during the first two years of life in relation to NCDrisk in adulthood. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 22, 781.

Molleson, T., Cox, M., Waldron, A.H., Whittaker, D.H., 1993. The Spital-fields Project. vol. 2: The Anthropology: The Middling Sort. Council forBritish Archaeology Research Report 86. Council for British Archaeol-ogy, York.

Nicholas, S., Oxley, D., 1993. The living standards of women during theindustrial revolution, 1795–1820. Econ. Hist. Rev. 46 (4), 723–749.

Niskanen, M., Maijanen, H., McCarthy, D., Junno, J.-A., 2013. Application ofthe anatomical method to estimate the maximum adult stature andthe age-at-death stature. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 152, 96–106.

Ortner, D., 1998. Male-female immune reactivity and its implications forinterpreting evidence in human skeletal palaeopathology. In: Grauer,A., Start-Macadam, P. (Eds.), Sex and Gender in PalaeopathologicalPerspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 79–92.

Rasmussen, R.P., 1940. Almindelige Hospitals Historie 1769–1892.København.

Raxter, M.H., Auerbach, B.M., Ruff, C.B., 2006. Revision of the Fullytechnique for estimating statures. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 130,374–384.

Rogol, A.D., Clark, P.A., Roemmich, J.N., 2000. Growth and pubertaldevelopment in children and adolescents: effects of diet and physicalactivity. Am. Soc. Nutr. Sci. 72 (2), 521–528.

Schaible, U.E., Kaufmann, S.H.E., 2007. Malnutrition and infection: com-plex mechanisms and global impacts. PLoS Med. 4 (5), 115.

Schneider, E.B., 2013. Inescapable Hunger? Energy cost accounting andcost of digestion, pregnancy, and lactation. Eur. Rev. Econ. Hist. 17 (3),340–363.

Scrimshaw, N.S., 2003. Historical concepts of interactions, synergismand antagonism between nutrition and infection. J. Nutr. 133 (1),316–321.

Silventoinen, K., 2003. Determinants of variation in adult body height.J. Biosocial Sci. 35 (2), 263–285.

Sjøvold, T., 1990. Estimation of stature from long bones utilizing the lineof organic correlation. Hum. Evol. 5 (5), 431–447.

Statistiske undersøgelser, 1966. Befolkningsudvikling og Sundhedsfor-hold 1901–60, Det Statistiske Departement, København. Statistiskeundersøgelser nr. 19.

Steckel, R., 1995. Stature and the standard of living. J. Econ. Liter. 33 (4),1903–1940.

Steckel, R.H., 2008. Biological measures of the standard of living. J. Econ.Perspect. 22, 129–152.

Sunder, M., 2004. The height of Tennesee convicts: another piece of theantebellum puzzle. Econ. Hum. Biol. 2 (1), 75–86.

Tanner, J.M., Hayashi, T., Preece, M.A., Cameron, N., 1982. Increase inlength of leg relative to trunk in Japanese children and adultsfrom 1957 to 1977: comparisons with British and with JapaneseAmericans. Ann. Hum. Biol. 9, 411–423.

Telkka, A., 1950. On the prediction of human stature from the long bones.Acta Anat. 9, 103–117.

Thune, L.G.W., 1845. Den fuldvoksne bondeungdoms legemshøjde i Dan-mark. Det Kgl. Medicinske Selskabs Skrifter, ny række, første Bind.

Thune, L.G.W., 1848. Om den fuldvoksne værnepligtige BondeungdomsLegemshøide i Danmark. Det Kgl. Medicinske Selskabs Skrifter. NyRække. Første Bind 242–264.

Trier, K., 1855. Om den 22arige mandlige Ungdoms Høide I KongerigetDanmark. Bibliotek for Læger. 4.Rk, Bd7, 225–231.

Trotter, M., 1970. Estimation of stature from intact limb bones. In:Stewart, T.D. (Ed.), Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. NationalMuseum of Natural History, Washington, pp. 71–84.

Trotter, M., Gleser, G., 1952. Estimation of stature from long bonesof American Whites and Negroes. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 10,463–514.

Trotter, M., Gleser, G., 1958. A re-evaluation of estimation of stature basedon measurements of stature taken during life and of long bones afterdeath. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 16, 79–123.

Varela-Silva, M.I., Dickinson, F., Wilson, H., Azcorra, H., Griffiths, P., Bogin,B., 2012. The nutritional dual-burden in developing countries. How isit assessed and what are the health implications? Colleg. Antropol.36, 39–45.

Vercellotti, G., Piperata, B.A., Agnew, A.M., Wilson, W.M., Dufour, D.L.,Reina, J.C., Boano, R., Justus, H.M., Larsen, C.S., Stout, S.D., Sciulli, P.W.,2014. Exploring the multidimensionality of stature variation in thepast through comparisons of archaeological and living populations.Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 155, 229–242.

Whiting, S.J., Vatanparast, H., Baxter-Jones, A., Faulkner, R.A., Mirwald, R.,Bailey, D.A., 2004. Factors that affect bone mineral accrual in theadolescent growth spurt. Am. Soc. Nutr. Sci. 134 (3), 696–700.

Wiene, I., 2010. Indledning. In: Hansen, J.V., Wiene, I., Sandholt, K. (Eds.).Rundekirke, Taarn og Sogn. Trinitatis gennem 350 ar. Nyt NordiskForlag, pp. 9-16.

Wilson, R.J., Herrmann, N.P., Jantz, L.M., 2010. Evaluation of statureestimation from the database for forensic anthropology. J. ForensicSci. 55, 684–689.

Winther, S.D., 2010. Af jord er du kommet. En analyse af Kirkegarden vedFarimagsvejen set i et kulturhistorisk og tværfagligt perspektiv samten vurdering af nyere tids arkæologi. Kandidat Speciale. KøbenhavnsUniversitet.

Wood, J.W., Milner, G.R., Harpending, H.C., Weiss, K.M., 1992. The osteo-logical paradox: problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletalsamples. Curr. Anthropol. 33, 343–358.

Zehetmayer, M., 2011. The continuation of the antebellum puzzle: staturein the US, 1847–1894. Eur. Rev. Econ. Hist. 15, 313–327.