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Spring 2016 Lectures for Research Methods

Dr. Rachael M. Rudolph

Lecturer and Researcher

Webster University Thailand

rudolphr@webster.ac.th

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Research Methods 1: Introduction to the Course

The INTL 2700/POLT 2600 Research Methods course for spring 2016 is divided into two parts.

The first part teaches students the research process. Students will learn the basics of research,

data collection and analysis, and how to properly write an annotated bibliography, literature

review and research design. The second part of the course introduces students to a specific

research method, namely discourse analysis. Students will utilize the knowledge gained from the

research process and the selected method to examine a specific text for the final paper. The text

selected for analysis this year is the U.S. Department of Defense’s Law of War Manual.

Students will only analyze selected portions of the manual. The portions selected will depend on

the research question(s) identified following the completion of the homework assignments

scheduled in the first part of the course, the literature review, and the research design. The area

of focus for the assignments is civilian-military relations.

In terms of assignments, there are a total of four homework assignments, a research design and

literature review assignment, and a discourse analysis assignment. The homework assignments

are designed to prepare students for the research design and literature review, as well as the

discourse analysis assignment. They will also allow me measure students’ understanding of the

research process. The grade distribution for the assignments is as follows:

Homework/In-class Assignments 30%

Research Design and Literature Review 40%

Discourse Analysis Assignment 15%

Attendance 5%

Students should take note that the gradebook used in Connections/World Classroom does not

allow me to alter the percentages as allocated above. This means that at the end of the course

students should multiple the grade received in the designated column in the gradebook by the

percentage allocated to get the final grade.

Finally, there are two texts being used for the course. The first text covers the research process,

while the second one covers discourse analysis. Students will also be required to do additional

readings pertaining to the assignments. It is imperative that students read prior to coming to

class and also review the material a second time afterward. Learning the research process and

research methods and doing well in the course are not possible without students reading the

assigned material. Each lecture and assignment builds on the one before it, so if students fall

behind in the reading they will not understand and perform well on what comes next. In addition

to the assigned text and the material for the assignments, students are required to read selected

portions of the U.S. Department of Defense’s 2015 Laws of War Manual.

All the material for the course can be located on Webster Connections/World Classroom. The

Facebook page for the course is as follows: https://www.facebook.com/reserachmethods. In the

albums tab, students will find the 2016 albums. Material will be added in the albums as we

move forward in the course. For the students who do not use FB, lectures will also be posted on

my personal blog at http://mental2musings.blogspot.com/.

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Lecture 2: Learning to Use the Library, Conducting Online Research and Understanding

Plagiarism

Many faculty take for granted that students know how to use and can navigate the online library

system, know how to conduct online research, and understand plagiarism. I know I sure did!

This short lecture is designed to rectify that by providing students with an overview. I will use

our library database system in order to explain the process. For our global, online followers that

part of lecture will probably make little sense. After explaining how to use the online library

system, we will then turn our attention to conducting research online. There are a host of

research articles and reports available online. Learning how to navigate that vast material is

important because for many students, particularly those who return their home governments or

seek employment with a research-based NGO or a for-profit consulting firm/think tank, they will

not have access to the online databases available in Webster’s library. Finally, the short lecture

will end on plagiarism. Homework assignment one pertains to the contents of this lecture. It is

due on January 25, 2016 by midnight. Any assignment submitted thereafter will be considered

late; and, any assignment submitted after February 2, 2016 will not be accepted.

Learning to Use the Library Step-by-Step

Students should go to Webster Thailand’s home page, which can be accessed via the following

link: http://www.webster.ac.th/.

Please scroll to the end of the page. The link to the online library is under “Resources.” Select

“Online Library.”

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From the “Online Library” page, select “Article/databases.” Students will be prompted to select

the database.

For the fields of international relations and political science, the following databases are

important:

Academic Search Complete

JSTOR

PAIS

Project Muse

Proquest

Routledge Politics and International Relations

Students should select a database they are most comfortable using from the above list. I will use

Academic Search Complete in order to walk everyone through the remainder of this part of

Lecture 2.

Once students select the database, they will be prompted to enter their username and password.

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After the necessary information has been entered, students will be taken to the search page.

Since we are focusing on civilian-military relations, students should enter the following search

terms: “civilian-military relations” or “civilian military relations”. Students want to limit the

search to the “Abstracts” provided. Please do not hit search after entering the terms. Scroll

down on the page to narrow the search further. Please “limit the results” to “full text” and

“scholarly journals.” Hit “search” afterward.

Each online database provides students with access to scholarly articles from a variety of

different academic journals. It is important for students to learn how to use the database for

conducting research. There is a tendency for students to rely solely on news websites and blogs

for collecting information on their given topic, at least those at the entry level of their college

degree.

News and blogs can be used for research under certain conditions. For example, if there is

limited information on the given topic or it is relatively new such as the recent bomb blast in

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India, then drawing from and citing news sources are legitimate. They, however, cannot be the

only sources used. We will talk more about using them for data collection and analysis on Week

7. Regardless though all research must be situated within the larger field or area being

examined. Thus, academic sources MUST be used. Let us now turn to searching for academic

sources online.

Conducting Online Research

There is a vast amount of material online. Most students begin with online, “exploratory

research” of their given topic. Even after graduation, it is online that most individuals will turn

to see what is available and to select articles to read for the literature review or for writing a

“descriptive” paper on the selected topic. Thus, learning how to conduct research and

identifying “acceptable” academic literature online is important.

We will revisit using online sources in the coming weeks, particularly when discussing data

collection, methods and analysis. What I want to focus on here in this introductory lecture

though is more how to search for and identify legitimate sources or rather academic articles. I

will walk everyone through a basic search as I did in the previous section. Google will be the

search engine used for the remainder of this part of Lecture 2. Students can use any search

engine for their own search, however.

On the homepage of the search engine, please type the following in the search bar: “civilian-

military relations” PDF. Students should use quotations in the search part because it narrows

down the search. Inserting “PDF” (without quotations) behind the search terms narrows the

search.

By looking at the URLs students will be able to initially determine whether or not the article is

academic in nature. Sometimes one cannot per se tell from the actual URL. Student papers,

conference papers, online theses and dissertations and many other things can be found online.

Just because it is posted on an “academic looking” website or located on a school/university does

not mean it is “acceptable to use.” Academic articles published in academic or

government/military journals are given preference over theses, dissertations, conference papers,

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and drafts of articles by academics posted on Academia.edu. Academia.edu can be used to

search for articles. Many academic journals permit academics to post their published pieces on

Academia.edu. It will depend on the journal, however. We will explore sources and how to cite

them on Week 4. I do not want to overwhelm everyone at this point. Please remember that

everything we cover in the beginning will be built and touched on again later in the semester.

Understanding Plagiarism

The last topic I want to cover today is plagiarism. We utilize the “Turn-it-In” plagiarism

software in all courses. The software enables us to identify the sources where students pulled the

material from. Any material online will be identified. For example, all my lectures are posted

online (both on Facebook and my blog). The software will pick that up. If I do not reference the

said lecture, then it will be considered “self-plagiarized.”

Any material used online or from academic/government articles and reports must be properly

cited in order it not to be considered plagiarized. Even if “borrowing” an idea from another for

your own research paper without reference to its origination is considered to be plagiarized.

Please read the following online sources to become acquainted with plagiarism and paraphrasing:

Understanding Plagiarism and Paraphrasing: http://www.virginia.edu/honor/wp-

content/uploads/2012/09/PlagiarismSupplement2011.pdf.

Avoiding Plagiarism: https://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/workshop_plagiarism.pdf

Avoiding Unintentional Plagiarism:

http://grad.msu.edu/researchintegrity/docs/Plagiarism_Avoiding_Unintentional_Plagiar

ism.pdf.

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Lecture 3: Introduction to Scientific Research

The purpose of this lecture is to provide students with a conceptual foundation for what will be

covered over the next couple of weeks. Specifically, it will cover science and scientific research;

thinking like a researcher; and, the theories of scientific research.1 Students should specifically

know and understand the following terms: social science research, scientific knowledge,

scientific method, and the types of scientific research. They should also know and be able to

identify the unit of analysis; to articulate the concepts, constructs and variables; and, to formulate

propositions, hypotheses and theories.

Science, Scientific Research and the Types of Scientific Research

Scientific research contributes to a body of science. Science is typically demarcated by natural

and social science research. We are concerned with social science research, which is the science

of people and their individual and collective behavior. Social science research is acquired by

utilizing the scientific method. The scientific method refers to a standardized set of techniques

for building scientific knowledge. That is, how to make observations; how to interpret results;

and, how to generalize those results. The scientific method must satisfy four characteristics—

replicable, precision (definition and measure of variables), falsifiable, and parsimony (most

logical explanation). Scientific knowledge refers to a generalized body of laws and theories to

explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that are acquired using the scientific method. In the

social sciences, we are concerned with theory rather than laws. Theories are systematic

explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior. Not all scientific research seeks to be or

is explanatory in nature, however.

Scientific research falls into three categories—exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. In

exploratory research, the researcher scopes out the phenomenon, identifies some general ideas

about the phenomenon, and determines the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. In

descriptive research, a researcher undertakes careful observations, documents the phenomenon of

interest, and bases that documentation on the scientific method. Finally, with explanatory

research, the researcher is concerned with explaining the observed phenomenon and utilizes the

scientific method for the explanation.

Thinking Like a Researcher: Unit of Analysis; Concepts, Constructs and Variables;

Hypotheses and Propositions; and, Theories and Models

When thinking like a researcher one wants to visualize the abstract from actual observation; to

connect the dots to identify concepts and patterns; and, to make generalizations that apply to

context beyond what is observed. A researcher wants to visualize how the pieces of a puzzle fit

together; and, then to go about doing just that—putting the pieces of the puzzle together. The

researcher must identify the unit of analysis; define and articulate how to measure the concepts,

1 The topics herein covered correspond to chapters one through four of the first assigned text. It is not conceivable

for us to cover all the information the readings contained. Only the essentials are herein covered. Students are

required to read the chapters in their entirety. The chapters should be read prior to the next class, as the material that

will be covered in lecture three and the assigned chapters are thereon dependent.

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constructs and variables; develop propositions and hypotheses; and, design the theoretical

framework or model to be used.

The unit of analysis refers to the target of investigation, which can be a person, collective, or

object. Identifying the target is important because it shapes the type of data to be collected for

the study. Concepts are generalizable properties or characteristics associated with the target of

investigation. Constructs are an abstract concept that is created to explain a given phenomenon.

Variables are the measurable representation of the abstract construct. They are typically

identified by whether they are independent, dependent, mediating or control variables.

Independent variables are those that explain others. Dependent variables are those that are

explained. Mediating or intervening variables are those that are explained by the independent

variable but explain the dependent variable. Moderating variables are those that influence the

relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Controlling variables are

extraneous variables that are not per se pertinent to but have an impact on the dependent

variable.

Defining, measuring and visualizing the relationship between the variables are important steps

for the research process. They are particularly important for data collection and development of

propositions and hypotheses. Propositions articulate in a declarative form the relationship

between the variables. Hypotheses are the empirical formulations of the propositions. The

articulation of hypotheses and propositions are important for theories. Theories are constructs,

explanations and a system of propositions that provide a logical, systematic and coherent

explanation of a phenomenon. They operate at the conceptual level and are based on logic rather

than observations. Thus, when articulating a theoretical framework, the research should

articulate the underlying logic of the phenomenon, the key drivers, and the underlying processes

responsible for driving that phenomenon. A good theoretical framework has logical consistency,

explanatory power, falsifiability, and parsimony (most logical explanation).

In-Class Exercise: Defining the Unit of Analysis; Concepts, Constructs and Variables;

Hypotheses and Propositions; and, Theories and Models

Course assignments this semester pertain to civilian-military relations. We will watch a short clip

on civilian-military relations and then do an exercise that is designed to explore the concepts

discussed in the lecture. The link to the selected clip is as follows:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ORRt-lSRwU. Another interesting clip is as follows:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFIO-C40Jd8.

1. Identify some ideas for explanation.

2. Visualize the abstract from what is observed

a. Think about the context of where the phenomenon is observed;

b. Think of the concepts, constructs and variables that might be explained by and

could explain the phenomenon; and,

c. Think about the generalizations that could be made.

3. Define the unit of analysis.

4. Define and articulate how to measure at least two concepts, constructs and variables.

5. Develop propositions and hypotheses

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6. Articulate the underlying logic of the phenomenon, the key drivers, and the underlying

processes available.

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Lecture 4: Continuing to Learn the Research Process through In-Class Exercises on

Civilian-Military Relations

The previous lecture covered science and scientific research, thinking like a researcher, and the

theories of scientific research. It was learned that scientific research falls into three categories,

namely exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research. Students also engaged in exploratory

research on civilian-military relations in homework assignment one. In that assignment, students

scoped out the phenomenon, identified some general ideas for research, and determined the

feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. Today’s class will build on the exploratory

research conducted.

The first part of class today builds on homework assignment one but through an in-class

exercise. The in-class exercise can be found on World Classroom. Students will work in groups

to complete the exercise after watching the selected clips on civilian-military operations. The

selected clips can be accessed via the following links:

General Martin Dempsey’s keynote address on civilian military relations: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ORRt-lSRwU.

Civil Military Relations and NGOs: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LFIO-C40Jd8.

After the in-class exercise, homework assignment two will be reviewed. The homework

assignment can be found on World Classroom, the blog

(http://mental2musings.blogspot.com/2016/01/methods-homework-assignment-2-selecting.html)

or FaceBook

(https://www.facebook.com/reserachmethods/photos/a.1674394806109750.1073741832.155690

8594525039/1687255934823637/?type=3&theater).

Finally, the latter part of class will be spent discussing homework assignment one but in the

context of the research process. Students will share the proposed areas of focus in the field of

civilian-military relations. We will then discuss the selection of academic sources and the

justification for the articles selected. Each student will select three justifications within the

groups. They will select the best justifications for why the articles were selected. Selection of

the top three must be justified.

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Lecture 5: Research Process and the Annotated Bibliography

Research is typically approached through one of four lenses—functionalism, interpretivism,

radical structuralism, or radical humanism. There, of course, can be hybrids of these four lenses.

A functionalist lens seeks to objectively identify and explain the patterns of ordered events or

behaviors through standardized data collection methods. An interpretivist lens approaches

phenomenon through a subjective interpretation of the participants involved. A radical

structuralist lens is objective in nature but is focused on radical change and the ways in which to

enact it through such an approach. Finally, a radical humanist lens approaches phenomenon

through a subjective perspective. These lenses shape how researchers approach the phenomenon

under investigation and, thus, engage the research process.

The research process typically occurs in three phases, namely exploration, research design, and

research execution. When pondering the assignments, the in-class exploration assignment and

the annotated bibliography encompass the first phase. Students will have completed this phase

after submitting homework assignment two, which entails selecting the unit of analysis,

developing research questions, and writing the annotated bibliography. An annotated

bibliography identifies the relevant literature for the target of investigation.

The second phase of the research process begins with the literature review and ends with the

research design. A literature review surveys the current state of knowledge in the area of

inquiry; identifies the authors, articles, theories and findings; and, to highlights the gaps in the

literature. A well-constructed literature review should indicate whether the initial research

questions have already been addressed in the literature; whether there are more interesting

questions; and, whether the original questions should be modified.2 We will cover a literature

review in more detail in a few weeks.

A research design is a blueprint of the activities to be undertaken to answer the research

questions. It includes studying the research method, operationalizing constructs of interests, and

devising an appropriate research strategy. The research proposal is the end product of the

research design. Therein the research questions, literature review, theoretical framework, and

research methods are articulated. When articulating the research methods, students must stipulate

how the data will be collected and analyzed. We will talk about each of these more in-depth.

In the final phase of the research process, students actually carry out the research. The second

part of the semester will be spent actually carrying out the research with the selected method.

All students will use discourse analysis as the method for data analysis. The common text to be

analyzed is the U.S. Department of Defense’s Laws of War manual. Each student will have

choice as to the portion of the text to be analyzed. The portion of the text selected should

correspond to the research questions. Students should therefore take a look at the Laws of War

manual before formulating their research questions and beginning the annotated bibliography.

Finally, conducting “good” research is dependent on following the research process. There is a

tendency in all of us to want to just jump right in rather than having a plan. Not having a defined

2 A file has been added to the “Readings File;” it is titled “Examples for Literature Review.” The articles therein

provide students with examples of the types of literature review.

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plan will lead to the research going astray. Some common mistakes made in the research process

include having insufficiently motivated research questions; pursuing research fads; under-

researchable problems; conducting research based on a favored research method; and, blind data-

mining. These common mistakes can be avoided by beginning with phase one rather than

jumping immediately into phase two and three in the research process. Let us now turn to going

over Homework Assignment 2, which is due on February 16. Please note we will not have class

on February 15, as I will be in India. There also will be no office hours on Tuesday and

Wednesday. I will be on campus all day Thursday, however. We will finish class today on the

Annotated Bibliography and discussion of Homework Assignment 1, particularly on justifying

the selection of the literature.

Homework Assignment 2: Selecting the Unit of Analysis, Developing Research Questions,

and Writing an Annotated Bibliography

Students engaged in exploratory research in the previous homework assignment. They scoped

out the phenomenon, identified some general ideas about the phenomenon, and determined the

feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study. In this assignment, students will select a unit

of analysis; develop a research question or set of research questions; and, conduct an annotated

bibliography. This assignment is worth 40 points and due on February 16.

Part I: Selecting the Unit of Analysis and Developing Research Questions (10 Points)

1. What is the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study on civilian-military

relations? Students should determine the aspects of civilian-military relations to focus on

for research and provide a justification for what is selected.

2. Please select and define the unit of analysis.

3. Develop a research question or set of questions to be examined.

Part II: Writing an Annotated Bibliography (30 Points)

1. Please identify 15-20 academic sources relevant to the research question or set of

questions identified.

2. Please write an annotated bibliography. Make sure the format provided in the lecture is

followed.

Let us now turn to looking more closely at the Annotated Bibliography.

Writing an Annotated Bibliography

An annotated bibliography is sometimes confused with a bibliography and a literature review. A

bibliography is an organized list of works consulted when doing research. A literature review is a

summary and explanation of the current state of knowledge on the specific area of research. An

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annotated bibliography is, then, an extension of the bibliography and a stepping stone for the

literature review. It provides an overview of the available research on the topic.

The purpose of the annotated bibliography is for the researcher to think over the relevance and

quality of the material on the topic under investigation; to provide an overview of the topic and

to illustrate the researcher knows the subject well; to identify the theses or arguments of the

selected research and place it in a historical context; and, finally, to describe the usefulness of the

texts for the research and distinguish the area for further research. The material collected in the

annotated bibliography is used for constructing the literature review. Thus, a well-constructed

annotated bibliography leads to a good literature review.

An annotated bibliography should include certain pieces of information. A guide or format for

the annotated bibliography is as follows:

1. Introduction

Brief introduction to the topic

Explain scope of the annotated bibliography (temporal demarcations,

geographical parameters, a particular genre, etc)

Thesis statement

2. Contents

Citation details

Short statement that explains the main focus or purpose of the work

Short summary of the theory, research findings or argument.

Consideration of its use and/or limitations of the text for research

Evaluate how the work will fit into the research

Conclusion

Neglected research

Justification as to why the research topic is good and how it would add to the

existing literature.

3. Single paragraph (100-300 words or 2-10 sentences)

Short statement of the author’s viewpoint

Short summary of the theory, research findings or argument

Comments on the usefulness and/or limitations of the text for your research

An evaluative comment on the work, taking into account how this work will fit

into your research on a topic.

4. Order of Citations

The citations should be listed in alphabetical order

MLA, APA or Chicago Style

Students need not read the entire articles when doing an annotated bibliography. Typically, the

abstracts are read and, occasionally, the introduction and conclusion of the article. For the

annotated bibliography assignment, 15-20 academic sources are to be used. The remainder of

this part of the lecture provides student with some keys for evaluating resources and identifying

what to dissect from the abstracts of the identified literature.

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1. Evaluating sources

Review abstracts prefaces, tables of contexts and indices to see if the information will

be useful to read.

2. Making Notes

Bibliographic details

Summary of contexts

Notations of methods and methodologies used

Theoretical perspective

Pertinence to the research project

Biographical detail of the author

3. Make a chart

Author’s reputation or background

Theoretical perspective

Centrality to the research topic

Contributions to the field

Gaps in the approach

Evidence used

Comprehensive coverage

Level of generality

Accuracy of details

Date of Source

4. Voices in the head

Does the information meet the requirements of the topic?

Is the information from a reliable and academically respected source?

What is the main idea of the source?

What is the author trying to do?

Who is the author’s intended audience?

What parts of the subject does the source emphasize or de-emphasize?

What assumptions does the author make about the topic or audience?

Is there any bias or slant in the source?

Are there obvious omissions that seem important to the ideas being discussed?

Does the evidence clearly support the author’s main points?

These keys can be used too when reading the articles for the purpose of conducting a literature

review. Please see the following links for some examples of an annotated bibliography.

Purdue Online Writing Lab: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/614/03/

Creating APA Annotated Bibliographies:

https://www.bethel.edu/library/research/apa-annobib-sixth.pdf

Sample Annotated Bibliography: http://library.csun.edu/docs/apannotbib.pdf

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Please note that these samples do not contain all of the information I want included in the

annotated bibliography nor the format we will adopt. Students should make sure they follow the

format articulated in the lecture. With the rest of class today, let us review Homework

Assignment 1 and discuss, in particular, the justification given for the selected literature.

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Lecture 6: Writing Research Questions and the Thesis statement

Teachers often take for granted that students know how to write a thesis statement and design

research questions. Yet when they too are asked by students to provide an example of both,

there is sometimes a stumbling response. Having taught for many years and stumbled many

times when asked to provide examples and at the request of the other professors on campus, this

entire lecture is dedicated to writing a thesis statement and designing research questions.

Although the entire class is dedicated to both students should keep in mind that being able to

craft good questions and a thesis statement takes practice.

We will begin today with the research question, as the thesis statement should be the answer to

the posed question or set of questions. Research questions are important because they guide the

research process; that is, they serve as guides for both the researcher and the reader.3 Research

questions prevent the researcher from becoming lost in the wonderful and tantalizing maze of

information. Researchers love researching their topics of interest so it becomes too easy to get

lost in the many unexplored pathways of the unknown. In the mind of a researcher, those

unexplored pathways are like paradise on earth; for they contain little treasures waiting to be

discovered. But because the hunt for the treasure can go on forever and the researcher is never

content and always thinking there is more to be discovered, the research questions serve to place

boundaries upon the hunt and thus make the research manageable. The research questions also

serve to guide the reader of what will be explored and what should be expected as he or she

progresses through the essay.

Existing articles, blogs and essays on the topic provide some useful tips on crafting research

questions. 4 Research questions should not be picked out of thin air. They should be crafted only

after the selection of phenomenon or focus of analysis; conducting exploratory research; and,

identifying the other types of research questions examined on the given topic. Research

questions should also not be too broad. They should be clear and define the segments of

analysis.

Although useful tips can be found online there are no specific rules on writing a good research

question. The following set of questions is derived from reading several articles and blog posts

on constructing research questions. Students should use the questions listed below to evaluate

their own research questions.

• Is the research question something others will care about?

• Is the research question timely?

• Is the research question too broad or narrow?

• Is the research question complex?

• Has the research question been asked and answered previously?

• Does the research question offer a new spin on an old idea or does it solve a problem?

3 “What makes a good research question?” Thompson Writing Program: Duke University. Available at:

http://twp.duke.edu/uploads/media_items/research-questions.original.pdf. 4 “Writing a Good Research Question,” Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching: Grand Canon University.

Available at: https://cirt.gcu.edu/research/developmentresources/tutorials/question.

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• Does the research question require investigation and evaluation?

• Is the target audience identified or evident based on the question?

• Are the segments of analysis identified? That is, are concepts identified and are they

measureable?

• Is the research question researchable within a given time frame and location?

• Is there collectable data available to answer the question?

Let us now turn to the thesis statement. The thesis statement is the answer to the posed question

or set of questions. It presents the reader with the topic, the parts of an argument, and the

direction of the paper. The topic presented should stipulate the debate-at-hand. A generalized,

non-debatable topic is insufficient. The statement must be more than descriptive; it must be

analytical and interpretative. An analytical statement makes an argument, whereas interpretation

of facts makes it interpretative. A mere articulation of facts is insufficient. The statement should

also provide direction. That is, it must articulate the position adopted within the paper.

Let us look at two examples of thesis statements that are considered strong. The examples

selected are borrowed from a blog entry, titled “10 Thesis Statement Examples to Inspire Your

Next Argumentative Essay,” which can be accessed via the following link:

https://www.kibin.com/essay-writing-blog/thesis-statement-examples/.

#4. Our School Is Too Dependent on Technology

Inspired by this sample essay on technology dependence.

Our school’s dependence on technology has caused students to lose the ability to think independently. This

dependence has caused a greater prevalence of mood disorders, memory loss, and loneliness. Educators should

combat these issues by requiring students to participate in regular technology detoxes.

#7 Student Loans Should Be Forgiven

Inspired by this sample essay on student loans.

Crippling student debt is stifling the growth of the U.S. economy because it inhibits graduates from being able to

spend money on consumer goods and home purchases. To alleviate this, lenders should be required to forgive

student loans in cases where students are unable to repay their debts. Doing so would benefit the growth of the

economy by increasing tax revenues, unfreezing credit markets, and creating jobs.

Students should keep in mind that there are no clear rules or guidelines to be given on how to

write a thesis statement within the existing literature. Provided instead are tips on writing a

strong thesis. A strong thesis statement is one that is:

• Expresses an idea;

• Contestable/debatable;

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• Reasonable;

• Specific (not over generalizable);

• Significant (makes a contribution);

• Interpretative; and,

• Analytical

Students can ask themselves the following questions when assessing the thesis statement:

• Was the question that was asked in the beginning stages of the research process

answered?

• Was a position taken that others may challenge or opposed?

• Was the thesis statement specific enough?

• Does the thesis statement pass the “so what test”?

• Does the body of the paper support the thesis specifically and without wandering?

• Does the thesis statement pass the how and why test?

In conclusion, there is no art to designing research questions and writing a thesis statement. The

writing of both will improve in time and with more practice. Students should keep in mind that

they will also revise their statement as the research progresses. Depending also on the nature of

the research methodology and method selected, they too will revise the research question.

Research questions are typically not revised when using quantitative methodology and methods.

Finally, a thesis statement is often not finalized until after the first draft of a research paper. The

remainder of class will be spent doing an In-Class exercise, whereby students evaluate their

research questions and thesis statement.

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Lecture 7: The Key Attributes of a Research Design

The previous lecture covered writing research questions and the thesis statement. Research

questions are important because they guide the research process, while the thesis statement

answers the research question. Today’s lecture builds on that by introducing students to the key

attributes of a research design. A research design is the roadmap of the research to be conducted.

Its main attributes are reliability and validity; defining and measuring constructs; adopting a

methodology and selecting the methods to be used for data collection and analysis; and, data

collection and analysis. We will conclude today with an introduction into the types of research

designs. The contents covered will be revisited and expanded on when we cover writing the

research proposal and literature review following Spring break.

Reviewing the Attributes of a Research Design

The research design is a comprehensive plan for data collection and analysis in a research

project. Its attributes are reliability and validity; defining and measuring constructs; adopting a

methodology and selecting the methods to be used for data collection and analysis; and, data

collection and analysis. Each attribute is briefly discussed. Students are responsible for reading

the assigned chapters covering the attributes of a research design.

A. Reliability and Validity

Reliability and validity are the measures for determining the adequacy of measuring constructs.

Constructs are, as will be recalled from Lecture 3, an abstract concept that is created to explain a

given phenomenon. Concepts are generalizable properties or characteristics associated with the

phenomenon. A measure can be reliable but not valid if the wrong construct is being

consistently measured, while a measure can also be valid but not reliable if it is not measured

consistently. Reliability is defined as the degree to which the measure of a construct is consistent

or dependable. It signals consistency and not per se accuracy. Validity is defined as the extent to

which a measure adequately represents the underlying construct being measured. Reliability and

validity are both needed.

A research design must have internal validity, external validity and construct validity.5 Internal

validity is concerned with causality. Something must be said regarding causality. There must be

“if-then” inferences made. Students should recall our discussion of and the assigned readings on

propositions and hypotheses. Temporal precedence must also be established; that is, it must be

demonstrated that the cause precedes the effect in time. It must be demonstrated there are no

other plausible explanations. External validity is concerned with generalizability; that is, whether

the observed behavior can be generalized beyond the context and time examined. In the context

of the case study research design, a researcher is concerned more with explaining external

validity in a single case study and both external and internal validity in a multiple case research

design. It should be noted that there is a higher degree of validity in multiple rather than single

5 The type and the nature of how validity is determined depend on the type of research design. The type of

research design selected depends on the research question. We will come back to this after break. In the

meantime, let us define what is meant by the types of validity.

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case study designs. Construct validity is concerned with how well a given measurement scale is

measuring the theoretical construct.

B. Defining and Measuring Constructs

Constructs are hard to define and measure, thus the measurement scale must be well articulated.

Conceptualization is the process of defining constructs and their constituent components

(concepts) in concrete and precise terms. The definition must be related to or fit within the

theoretical framework; and, it must correspond to the propositions posited. Defining a construct

is the first step of measurement. It is rare for a construct to be defined from thin air. Rather, its

definition is traditionally rooted in and adopted from the existing body of literature from wherein

the research is situated.

The second step of measurement is identifying the concepts and corresponding variables of the

construct. Step one and two go hand-in-hand. Steps three and four occur in the operationalization

process. Operationalization is the process of developing indicators or items for measuring the

construct. It is the process of developing indicators or items for measuring. Indicators are the

variables, which may be independent, dependent, mediating, or moderating. Students should

refer to the previous chapters read and lecture notes on constructs, concepts and variables for

further elaboration. Each indicator may have several attributes, which represent a value. Values

of attributes can be either qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative data and analysis are covered

after operationalization. Finally, the fourth step of measurement and that which is still rooted in

the operationalization process is the articulation of the rules of measurement. Measurement of

constructs must be reliable and valid. The data used and the methods adopted for collection and

analysis are important for reliability and validity.

C. Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methodology

Quantitative research methodology is based on testing a theory, measured with numbers, and

analyzed using statistical techniques. It assumes that human behavior and thought are considered

to be regular and predictable; that reality can be studied objectively from a top-down or

confirmatory, deductive method; that the generalizations made should contribute to theory; that

the researcher should remain distant from his or her subject; that truth is defined by objectivity,

which means that the values of the research should not interfere; and, that the goal of the

researcher is to identify general scientific laws pertaining to the narrow-focus of investigation.

The most common types of quantitative methods cited include but are not limited to experiments,

quasi-experiments, and surveys. Qualitative research methodology is that which relies primarily

on the collection of qualitative data. It assumes that multiple realities exist in a given situation;

that truth is considered to be subjective and constructed and knowledge is relative to context; that

the researcher, therefore, acknowledges the value-laden nature of the research; and, that the

research is conducted for the purpose of generating and/or constructing knowledge, propositions

and grounded theory from the data collected. Some of the most common types of qualitative

research methods cited include interpretive research, ethnography, case study, and historical

research.

There is also mixed research methodology. Mixed research involves the mixing of quantitative

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and qualitative research and methods. It assumes that research is either confirmatory or

exploratory and designed with the intent to develop a more complex understanding of the

phenomenon under observation; that reality is viewed as pluralistic, with there being an

appreciation of the objective, subjective and inter-subjective nature of reality and their

interrelations; and, that knowledge is viewed as being derived from dialectical pragmatism. The

concern in such research is to connect theory and practice; to understand multiple causation, as

well as general and specific causation; and, to link interest and policy.

D. Data Collection and Analysis

Data can be either primary or secondary and either qualitative or quantitative. Primary data refers

to that which is observed or collected by the researcher. Secondary data refers to that which is

collected by someone other than the researcher. Both primary and secondary data can be

qualitative or quantitative data. Qualitative data refers to that which can only be described. It is

descriptive information. Quantitative data refers to information that is numerically expressed.

Qualitative analysis is, then, the analysis of qualitative data. Finally, quantitative analysis is the

analysis of quantitative data. The types of data collection and analysis are rooted in qualitative

and quantitative research methodology. Selection and preference given to the methodology,

methods and data depend on the research questions asked and the type of research design

adopted.

Conclusion: Selecting the Research Design

Selecting the research design depends on the research question and the stage of the research

process. In the initial stages of the research process, a case study becomes ideal for exploratory

research. A case study and ethnography are ideal when theories explaining a phenomenon are

lacking and for theory building. As is highlighted, there are a number of popular types of

research designs. The most common are secondary data analysis, case research, ethnography and

interpretive research.6 Secondary data analysis is analysis of data that was previously collected.

Case research is an in-depth investigation of a problem or a phenomenon in one or more settings

over an extended period of time. Ethnography is an interpretive research design that examines a

phenomenon within its own context and culture for the purpose of presenting the narrative from

the native’s point of view. Interpretative research is based on the assumption that social reality is

not singular or objective but is rather shaped by human experience and social contexts. It is,

therefore, best studied within its socio-historic context. The methods used can include

ethnography, action research, and participation observation. Analysis is, thus, holistic and

contextual. Finally, secondary data analysis is ideal for testing different theories.

6 A few of these are discussed, namely secondary data analysis, case research, ethnography and interpretive research.

They are selected because of their being the most common in international relations, comparative politics, and area

studies. Students should read on the other types in the selected text for the course.

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Lecture 8: Case Research Design and Writing the Research Proposal

The previous lecture introduced students to the attributes of a research design. As will be

recalled, a research design is the roadmap of the research to be conducted. Its key attributes

include reliability and validity, defining and measuring constructs, adopting a methodology and

selecting methods for data collection and analysis, and data collection and analysis. The

attributes of a research design remain irrespective of the type of research design adopted. As

students learned toward the end of lecture seven, the type of research design adopted depends on

the nature of the research question asked. The most common types in social science research are

secondary data analysis, case research, ethnography and interpretive research. Each of these

were briefly defined but not thoroughly examined. Today’s lecture will, therefore, spend more

time on case research design. Case research design is important because for a majority of the

courses across the departments at our campus give preference to and encourages the use of single

or multiple case studies. We will conclude class with a discussion on how to design a research

proposal.

Case Study Research Design

Case study research is defined as a formal research technique involving the use of the scientific

method to derive explanations of the phenomenon under investigation. It differs from case

description, which is nothing more than a description of the phenomenon under investigation.

Most students in their beginning years at the undergraduate level tend to engage in case

description. Case description is valuable when one is trying to teach another about the topic-at-

hand or when engaging in exploratory research rather than explanatory research. Case study

research is most appropriate, however, when engaging in the latter. It is also the most commonly

used research design in the social sciences, particularly in the fields and subfields of area studies,

comparative politics, international relations and political science.

Case study research is ideal when theories explaining phenomenon are lacking and/or for theory-

building. It is a method designed to study a phenomenon over time within in a given

environment or across several environments. Examination of one environment is referred to as a

single case study, whereas an examination of multiple environments is referred to as a multiple

case study. Students must articulate and describe the environment or environments to be

examined when writing the research proposal. They must also articulate and describe the data

collection methods used. Data collection can include interviews, observations, prerecorded

documents and secondary data.

Cases for the study must be selected according to the research question and reflect what is to be

analyzed. Once the case has been selected, then the boundaries of it must be set. That is, students

must temporally and spatially define the perimeter of the case. A case can be bound by time and

activity or by definition and context. The boundaries imposed must indicate what will and will

not be studied. Once the boundaries have been defined, then the type of case study must be

determined such as whether it will be single/multiple-case studies; descriptive, exploratory,

explanatory or a combination thereof; and, intrinsic, instrumental or collective. Please read

Chapter 11 of the selected text for a more detailed explanation of the types available.

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Finally, there are four common strengths, three common weaknesses and common five problems

associated with case study research design, which students must be aware of when selecting this

method. Each will be briefly touched on in the remainder of this part of the lecture.

A. Four Common Strengths

First, it can be used for theory-building or testing.

Second, the research questions can be and are often modified through the research

process.

Third, case study research provides a more in-depth interpretation of the

phenomenon under investigation.

Fourth, the phenomenon under investigation can be studied from the perspective

of many participants and at different levels of analysis.

B. Three Common Weaknesses

First, the validity of the inferences remains weak.

Second, the quality of the inferences made depend on the way the researcher

integrates them.

Third, generalizability remains weak. Students should recall our discussion on the

role of logic and the ways in which to increase the validity and reliability of the

inferences made when conducting social science research.

C. Five Common Problems

The first problem is not having a research question or set of research questions

when beginning the research process. Not having a question or set of questions

result in there being no specific answers or inferences being made at the end of

the research.

Second, case studies are often selected based on interest, access, and/or

convenience rather than on the questions attempting to be answered.

Third, researchers often fail to either validate or triangulate data collection and

analysis, which results in biased interpretation.

Fourth, many studies often fail to provide details on how the data was collected.

Students should think of the many academic articles read when engaging in

exploratory research on civilian-military relations. How many of those articles

articulate how the data was collected or analyzed. Most of the authors left it for

the reader to draw some conclusion regarding the methods adopted.

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Finally, case study research sometimes fails to examine the phenomenon over

time, which thus weakens the inferences made.

Writing a Research Proposal

The research proposal is the actual roadmap of the research to be conducted. A good research

proposal will lead to a good research product and prevent the research from being led astray.

There are, unfortunately, no well-defined rules or guidelines one can give on how to write a good

research proposal. A researcher learns over time how to avoid the pitfalls of putting together a

proposal. There are though some basic components that all proposals must contain. The

remainder of this lecture today is designed to cover those components. Students must include the

following components when writing their own research proposal, which is due on April 11,

2016.

A. Abstract

An abstract is typically 250 to 500 words. Its variance depends on the writer

and/or the outlet where the proposal or article will be submitted. It is simply a

short one-half page summary of the proposed research project that articulates the

research question, objectives, methods to be used, and thesis statement. The

research question, objectives, methods and thesis statement are elaborated on in

the actual introduction of the research proposal. Finally, the abstract must provide

the reader with the main points and conclusion of the proposal. This means that

the abstract must be revised after the proposal has been completed but before it is

actually submitted.

B. Introduction

An introduction is typically 1 to 3 pages in length. It must provide the reader with

a background of the research problem, the significance of the research problem,

outline and elaborate on the research objectives, articulate the research question or

set of questions, and provide a thesis statement.

The background to the research problem (or phenomenon to be examined) must

introduce readers to the topic-at-hand. Students should assume the reader is not

familiar with or has no background knowledge on the research problem. A reader

must be able to understand what is being investigated. If this part is not well-

crafted, then the reader will struggle with understanding the methodology and

methods section. This will likely be the longest part of the actual introduction.

In addition to introducing and providing a background of the topic-at-hand,

students must briefly mention the existing literature in relation to the significance

of the research problem. Students should keep in mind that the next section of the

research proposal outlines the existing literature. Here students are simply to

make the connection between the problem, the existing literature and the

significance of the research to be conducted. This typically is only 1-3 sentences.

The next few sentences or paragraph (particularly if you are as wordy as me) must

articulate the significance of the research problem. Its significance must be stated

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clearly. Readers should not have to make their own assumptions regarding

whether the project is indeed significant. Significance is concerned with how the

research will make a contribution to the existing literature and why it is important.

Perhaps the research makes a contribution to theory, explores something new or

from a different angle, or provides alternative policy recommendations.

After discussing the significance of the research problem, students must outline

the research objectives. Typically, a research proposal contains 1 to 4 objectives.

The number of objectives depends on the length and nature of the research

project. They should be clear and easy to understand, as the reader will assess the

value of the research project by the objectives outlined. This should be no more

one paragraph in length.

The research question or set of questions follow the research objectives. Students

should see the lecture on writing research questions for the assessment criteria.

The introduction should conclude with the thesis statement. Again, please see the

lecture six for more details on the thesis statement.

Students must keep in mind that an introduction is one of the most important

elements of a research proposal. It must hook the reader. Moreover, the reader

should have a clear understanding of what will come and be covered.

C. Literature Review

The literature review actually encompasses the majority of the research proposal.

A literature review typically is composed of three parts. The first part of the

literature review should introduce how the literature search and assessment has

been done, while the second part of provides readers with an overview of the

existing literature. Finally, it concludes with the overall strengths and weaknesses

of the existing literature and how the proposed research fills an existing gap.

Lecture nine is dedicated to the literature review.

D. Methodology and Methods

In this section of the research proposal, students must outline the study design

(case study, interpretive study, etc.), the theoretical framework employed, the

methodology adopted, and the methods selected for both data collection and

analysis.

Students must keep in mind when articulating the study design that the nature of

the research problem and the research question or set of questions determine the

actual study design. Here they should simply state the type of design adopted and

why it is the best method for this particular study.

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Next, students must outline the theoretical framework. They must determine

whether a theoretical or atheoretical approach will be adopted and provide a

justification for the approach selected. Regardless of type of approach adopted,

students must outline the theoretical framework (the logic) for the study design.

They must define the concepts and how they will be measured. Students should

review the processes of conceptualization and operationalization in lecture seven.

Third, students must articulate whether they will adopt qualitative, quantitative or

mixed methodology. Please review lecture seven and the chapters dealing with

the methodology in the selected text for additional explanation.

Fourth, students must articulate the methods to be adopted for both data collection

and analysis. They must also describe the data to be used and state from where it

will be derived.

E. Conclusion

The conclusion should include the potential strengths and weaknesses of the

research, how the weaknesses will or can be addressed, and a timeframe for

delivery of the research product. The timeframe must be realistic. It is ideal to

provide specific benchmarks for critical points such as the data collection, data

analysis, and delivery of the final product. It is hard to actually articulate the latter

benchmark because writing can sometimes be difficult. There can also be

unexpected delays in the actual research process such as problems with data

collection or needing additional data sources to strengthen the inferences made.

F. List of References

The proposal must have a list of references.

Conclusion

In conclusion, students should continue reading the selected literature for the literature review.

Next week there will be an in-class/homework assignment. This is Homework Assignment 3.

For the assignment, students will spend the first hour of class writing on the literature read to

date on the topic-at-hand. It will be open note. All students will be provided with a notebook to

write the essay. Finally, Homework Assignment 4 is due on March 28, 2016. The criteria for

the assignment can be found on Connections/World Classroom and on the Course Schedule in

the syllabus.

Bibliography

Annersten, M. and R. Wredling (2006). “How to write a research proposal,” FEND, 3(2): 102-

104.

Pajares, F. (n.d.). “The Elements of a Proposal.” Retrieved from:

http://www.uky.edu/~eushe2/Pajares/ElementsOfaProposal.pdf.

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The University of Edinburgh (n.d.). “How to Write a Good Postgraduate Research Proposal.”

Retrieved from:

http://www.ed.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.105984!/fileManager/HowToWriteProposal.pdf.

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Lecture 9: Writing the Literature Review

The previous lecture introduced students to case study research design and the research proposal.

Case study research design is a formal research technique most commonly used in the social

sciences. Some of the other types used in the social sciences are secondary data analysis,

ethnographic analysis and interpretive analysis research design. Whether case study design or

one of the other types is selected depends on the research problem and research question(s).

Both the research problem and the research question are pivotal to the entire research process;

thus designing the roadmap for the research to be conducted is one of the most important steps in

the research process.

The actual roadmap of the research to be conducted is the research proposal. A research

proposal, as will be recalled from the previous lecture, consists of an abstract, an introduction, a

literature review, a methodology and methods section, a conclusion, and a list of references.

Each section of the research proposal was introduced and discussed except the literature review.

This lecture covers the literature review but deviates from past lectures over the last two years by

introducing Yair Levy and Timothy Ellis’ systematic approach to conducting a literature review.7

It is hoped that adoption of their systematic approach will reduce students’ frustrating over

writing the literature review.

Levy and Ellis’ Systematic Approach to Writing the Literature Review

Writing a literature review is often a difficult and frustrating task for students. As we discussed

at the start of the semester, professors sometimes take for granted students know what is and how

to write a literature review, particularly by the time they reach their upper-level, research-

intensive courses. Professors are then disappointed when students produce nothing more than an

elongated annotated bibliography, and so too are students because they receive lower marks on

their assignments for not having written a proper review. A proper review is one that surveys,

synthesizes and analyzes the current state of knowledge in the area of inquiry; provides a firm

foundation of the research problem, questions, methodology and theoretical framework;

identifies the authors, articles, theories and findings on the research problem; highlights the

existing gaps in the literature; and, justifies the research by articulating how it contributes

something new (Randolph 2009: 1-13; Levy and Ellis 2006: 181-212).8

Writing a proper review is possible if a systematic approach is adopted. Levy and Ellis (2006)

introduce a systematic, three-step approach to guide researchers in conducting the literature

review that includes inputs, processing and outputs. The inputs step entails determining the

literature to be included in the review. Processing entails comprehending the literature. Finally,

the outputs step entails the actual writing of the review. Students will adopt this systematic

7 Please see the following article for a detailed study on writing a literature review, as it is one of the best articles I

have read on the topic in a very long time. Levy, Yair and Timothy J. Ellis (2006). “A Systems Approach to

Conduct an Effective Literature Review in Support of Information Systems Research,” Informing Science Journal,

9: 181-212. Retrieved from http://www.inform.nu/Articles/Vol9/V9p181-212Levy99.pdf 8 Randolph, Justus J. (2009). “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review,” Practical Assessment,

Research and Evaluation, 14(13): 1-13. Retrieved from: https://www.pareonline.net/pdf/v14n13.pdf.

30

approach but add an additional first step, which is the selection of the approach to be used for the

literature review. Each step is introduced and discussed in the remainder of the lecture.

The first step in the process of writing a literature review entails selecting the approach to be

adopted. There are three main approaches to writing a literature review, namely the author-

centric approach, the chronological approach, and the concept-centric approach. An author-

centric approach presents a summary of the relevant literature by authors. The example of the

literature review provided in the Course Reading’s File follows this approach. A chronological

approach presents a summary of the relevant literature by the temporal periods in which the

articles were written (e.g. 19th

Century, 20th

Century, 21st Century or 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, etc.).

Selection of the temporal period depends on the nature of the research problem and question. A

concept-centric or thematic approach presents a summary of the relevant literature by the

constructs and variables used to describe and measure the phenomenon under investigation.

Although this approach is the preferred method for conducting a literature review in the fields of

Political Science, International Relations, Comparative Politics and Area Studies, the research

problem and research question should be determining factor in the approach adopted. Students

must articulate and justify in the introduction of the literature the approach adopted.

The second step in the process of writing the literature review entails determining which of the

literature is applicable for inclusion in the review.9 The literature to be included should be

quality literature that is most applicable to the research problem and question. Quality literature

is defined as academic studies found in databases, electronic sources and conference proceedings

(Levy and Ellis 2006: 181-212). Government reports, magazines and new sources are acceptable

data sources depending on the method selected and how the data are used but they are not for

inclusion in the literature review. Examples of databases include but are not limited to Academic

Search Complete, JSTOR, Project Muse, and Questia. Most academic libraries subscribe to the

major databases used in the social science fields. There are also online libraries that students can

use; many of which are free. Students should research the journal where the article is published

to assess the quality of the source. Preference is given to peer-reviewed, traditional and open-

access online journals. Professional journals that are primarily for-profit and not peer-reviewed

are not considered to be of good quality. The same is the case for journals that solicit fees from

academics for publication of their research. Electronic sources may also be included but the

same standard for quality applies. The academic studies used must be peer-reviewed and from a

reputable source. Academic conference proceedings are also considered to be of good quality

but of lesser quality than studies published in peer-reviewed academic journals. Studies

published in conference proceedings from professional, for-profit conferences are considered of

lower quality than those published in academic proceedings that are peer-reviewed. All of this

sounds a bit elitist, particularly for those of us who believe in and support the open-source

knowledge movement. Many students will not have access to the same databases they do now

upon graduation. The same can be said for independent academics and/or ordinary individuals.

In the absence of such access, the open-source, non-peer reviewed articles available to the

masses will be read by ordinary individuals from all walks of life who are keen to learn about

9 Students should think of the exploratory phase of the research process and all the literature they engaged before

settling on a given research problem and research question. There was quite a bit of literature examined! Even once

students begin reading the selected literature they will realize that some of it is not applicable. The frustration, as

well as the realization, is all part of the research process.

31

and conduct their own research on the topics under investigation. Something that academia itself

should contemplate and have a debate on is, “who is the target audience for the articles written.”

Some choose academia because of believing that education is the key to real change. Yet how

can we have real dialogue on issues that are the focus of our studies when they are confined to

the walls of the select few or articles are written in a language (level of discourse) that only a

select few can understand? Aside from the philosophical debate raised, students should include

quality academic literature in the review that establishes the validity and reliability of theories,

constructs and measures in the study. Students will know they have reached the “enough-is-

enough” point when new articles repeat what has already been reviewed.

The third step in the process of writing the literature review entails processing or comprehending

the literature. Knowledge and comprehension of the literature are two different things.

Demonstrating knowledge entails listing, defining, describing and identifying the literature,

while demonstrating comprehension entails summarizing, differentiating, interpreting and

contrasting the literature. They both require students to be able to engage the theories,

constructs/variables, models/frameworks and findings found in existing literature. Levy and Ellis

suggest a two-step process—1) identifying the major elements germane to the study; and, 2)

placing the citation in the correct category. The following chart depicts the process.

The two-step process helps to organize the existing literature and its relevance to the study.

Organization of the existing literature and understanding its relevance to the research

problem/question are critical for the analyzing, synthesizing and evaluating processes. Analysis

is demonstrated by separating, connecting, comparing, selecting and explaining the existing

literature for the purpose of determining why it is important. Synthesis entails combining,

integrating, modifying, rearranging, designing, composing and generalizing the existing

literature for the purpose of assembling it according to its applicability to the research problem in

the areas of theories, concepts/variables, methodology/methods, theoretical framework and main

findings. Finally, evaluation entails assessing, deciding, recommending, selecting judging,

explaining, discriminating, separating and concluding the existing literature for the purpose of

distinguishing opinion from justifiable/logical inferences posited. The third step is critical for

the final step.

The final step in the process entails actually writing the review, which is referred to by Levy and

Ellis as the output step. A literature review must be clear, have a logical structure to its

organization, and demonstrate knowledge and comprehension of the existing literature. The

criteria for the information to be included provided by Levy and Ellis are definition of the terms

used and provision examples; justification of the selection of the literature included; use reliable

assumptions that have been substantiated; avoidance of generalizations, abstractions and

32

misplaced concreteness; and, inclusion of only reliable, good quality information/sources in the

review. Finally, when writing a literature review, students must inform the reader of what will be

covered and the type of review (i.e. Step 1) in the introduction; structure the body of the review

according to the type selected; demonstrate the quality of the literature used and synthesize the

material (i.e. Steps 2 and 3); and, provide a summary of how the research study will build on and

fill the existing gaps in the literature.

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Lecture 10: Introduction to Discourse Analysis

The previous lecture focused on the literature review. It also brought to an end the first part of

the course, which was designed to teach students the research process. The second part of the

course is, as may be recalled from the first lecture, designed to teach students a particular

method. The method selected was discourse analysis. It was selected because it provides

students with a foundation for other methods such as critical discourse analysis and discursive

psychology, as well as an important tool to learn for practice in the field. This lecture, therefore,

provides students with an introduction to the field of discourse analysis but only after first

listening to five selected lectures by Michel Foucault on truth and subjectivity.

The Field of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is the analysis of discursive patterns used in a given context. The discursive

patterns can be analyzed using three different approaches, namely discourse theory, critical

discourse analysis and discursive psychology. Discourse theory posits that meaning can never be

permanently fixed. This is because of the instability of language and the constant construction of

perceived understanding through shared interaction with others in society. Shared understanding

is, then, a product of discursive struggle. Critical discourse analysis differs from discourse

theory by positing that discourse is just one among many aspects of any social practice. It is the

combination of discourse and the other forms of social practice that constitute and change

perceived reality. Change is the main focus in critical discourse analysis. Discursive psychology

is concerned with how individuals use available discourses flexibly to create and negotiate

representations of perceived reality. These methods are not to be used outside of the theoretical

assumptions with which they are associated. Thus, students must accept the philosophical

premises associated with the method selected when using it for analysis.

Although each method has its own set of theoretical assumptions a common set of philosophical

assumptions bind the approaches. First, reality is accessible through categories. This

assumption implies that the reality out there is really the perceived reality of how the things

presented are interpreted. Said interpretations are then expressed discursively. It is, thus,

through the discursive utterances that we are able to capture the perceived reality. Second,

perceptions of reality are historically and culturally situated. That is, each individual’s

understanding is filtered through historical and cultural understandings of the lived experiences

in given places and time. Thus, understanding is contextually contingent. Understanding being

contextually dependent does not per se imply there are no boundaries. Rather the assumption is

that boundaries are fixed to a degree relative to what is experienced and understood at a given

time and place. Discourse plays the role of expressing that understanding. Third, knowledge is

created through social interaction. It is through social interaction that shared truths are created. It

is through discourse they are expressed or made known. Finally, the social construction of

knowledge and truth has social consequences.

Critical to the common philosophical assumptions found are shared understandings regarding

language. First, language is understood to be not a reflection of pre-existing reality. Second,

language is understood to be structured in patterns or discourses. These discursive patterns are

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maintained and transformed in discursive practices. Finally, maintenance and transformation of

the patterns are to be explored through analysis of the specific contexts in which language is in

action.

There are also differences which set them apart from one another. First, each one holds a

different set of theoretical assumptions. Second, there are disagreements over the scope of

discourses; that is, whether discourse constitutes reality or shaped in part by reality. Finally, they

differ on the focus of analysis.

Conclusion: Discourse Analysis in Practice

Over the next couple of weeks we will learn more about discourse theory and discourse analysis.

Time does not permit coverage of critical discourse analysis and discursive psychology.10

Discourse analysis sheds light on the how, while discourse theory sheds light on the why. They

are both powerful tools for understanding how perceptions of reality are constructed and

conveyed, as well as the way they change over time and vary within a given context. Knowledge

of perceptions and how they change over time are important for understanding the boundaries of

possibility of the actors within a given environment. The boundaries of possibilities shed light

on how the way in which a given target audience will respond to certain types of operations. The

types of operations that come to mind where such knowledge can help refine the assessment,

design and planning of the strategies and tactics include cyber operations (offensive and

defensive information and propaganda), conflict transformation and peace-building operations,

humanitarian operations, and stability operations. As we move forward into discourse analysis

and the theories associated with the method, their practical applications will be explored in more

detail.

10

For students interested in that method the last chapter in the assigned text provides an overview.

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Final Lecture: Discourse Theory, Creation of Meaning and the Discursive Struggle

The previous lecture introduced students to the field of discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is

the analysis of discursive patterns used in a given context. Discourse theory, critical discourse

analysis and discursive psychology can be used to analyze those patterns. The final lecture for

the spring 2016 course examines in more detail Ernesto Laclau and Chantal Mouffe’s discourse

theory, the creation of meaning, and the discursive struggle. Students will utilize discourse

analysis for the final assignment. The final assignment is due on May 2, 2016.

An Overview: Theory of the Creation of Meaning, the Concept of Discourse and Concepts

for Analysis

Discourse theory aims to understand the social as a discursive construction, whereby social

phenomenon can be analyzed using discursive analytical tools. Social phenomenon is never

finite. This is because meaning cannot be fixed. Thus, there are constant struggles within society

over the construction of meaning and the formation of identities, which are expressed through

discourse. Required, therefore, is first an understanding of the theory of the creation of meaning

and the concept of discourse. The social phenomenon is the focus of the second part of the

lecture.

A. Theory of the Creation of Meaning

The creation of meaning as a social process is about the fixation of meaning. That is, it is about

how meaning is structured. Meaning is structured through conventions, negotiations and

conflicts in social context. Social context is expressed through language. Language is, therefore,

a social phenomenon.

The social phenomenon exists within a social field. It takes its meaning through signs and the

way they are positioned. That is, its meaning is the difference between the two signs within their

respective positions, which are not per se fixed. They are bound temporally and spatially within

that given construction. Meaning is, thus, contingent.

The aim of discourse analysis is to map out the processes of the struggle over the fixation of

meaning. Discourse is formed by the partial fixation of meaning around a certain nodal point or

subject. It is determined by a reduction of all other possible meanings. All the possibilities that

the discourse excludes is the field of discursivity. The field of discursivity, therefore, denotes all

possible, excluded constructions of meaning, while the order or structure of the discourse

denotes the realm where the discursive struggle occurred. It is where hegemony exists. This

understanding of discourse, which is based on the theory of the creation of meaning, facilitates

the reformulation of the concept of discourse.

B. Concept of Discourse

A discourse attempts to transform elements into moments by fixing meaning or, rather, binding

the fluctuations of meaning. Elements refer to what is discursively articulated. Moments refer to

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the differential positions of the signs. Signs are meanings derived from the position of the subject

within the social field. The subject is the nodal point within the social field. The social field is

the web of process in which meaning is created. Meaning is, therefore, the difference between

the sign position in relation to other signs. It is conveyed and reified through discourse.

Discourse is, thus, a type of structure or logic.

C. Defining the Concepts Used for Analysis

1. Social Field—a web of processes in which meaning is created.

2. Meaning—the difference between the signs position; it is, however, dependent on

how it is positioned. That is, the meaning of a sign is determined by its relations to

other signs in the social field.

3. Language—a social phenomenon; it is through its use that meanings are bounded and

challenged.

4. Articulation—establishing a relation among elements such that their identity is

modified as a result of the articulating processes.

5. Discourse—the structured reality of the articulating practice.

6. Moments—the differential positions.

7. Element—that which is discursively articulated.

8. Field of Discursivity—all the possibilities that the discourse excludes.

Social Construction of Meaning, the Creation of Individual and Collective Identities and

the Discursive Struggle

Social phenomenon is the second part of Laclau and Mouffe’s discourse theory. As will be

recalled, social phenomenon is not finite; it is in flux as a result of the constant struggle for

meaning. Underlying the construction of meaning are several assumptions. First, all societal

formations are products of discursive processes. They are a product of the discursive struggle

within the social field or social web. Second, society is actually defined as the attempt to impose

boundaries on the meaning of society. It is not some objective existing phenomenon. Its

meaning is only possible through the discursive struggle. Meaning is fluid while discourse is

contingent. Objectivity masks the fluidity of meaning. Objectivity is defined as the historical

outcome of the political processes and struggles; it is the bounded discourse. Other theorists

refer to this conceptualization of objectivity as the concept of ideology. Laclau and Mouffe

refuse to use that concept and, thus, use the concept of objectivity. It is from this that social

identity is constructed. Third, identity is a result of the contingent, discursive processes. It is

formed through the discursive struggle. Fourth, politics has primacy and, thus, political

articulations determine how individuals and collectivities act and think. They determine how

society is created; that is, how it is socially constructed. Fifth, all social processes and, thus,

phenomenon are discursive. Sixth, social actions derive their meaning from the relationship to

other actions. This is what is referred to as a discursive sign. Finally, all social practices,

therefore, can be seen as articulations; and, all articulations are contingent. Articulations, as will

be recalled from the previous lecture, are the process of establishing relations among elements.

An element is that which is discursively bounded.

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Individual and collective identities are formed through the discursive processes. Identities are

subjects, which are defined by their subject positions within the discursive structure. Thus, they

are relationally organized. Subjects only come to know of themselves in relation to other;

something outside of the self. The self is always trying to find itself by investing in discourses;

thus, it is formed through and reflected by the discursive struggle. It is, therefore, through

discourse that the other identifies the position of the subject and its corresponding behavior.

Individual identity is very much derived from the process of construction, whereas group identity

is derived from the process of deconstruction or reduction. Group identity or formation is

understood according to the same logic of identity formation. It differs though in the sense that it

is constructed through the elimination of possibilities and constituted through its representation.

That is, it is not constituted or reified outside of its relation to and recognition by the other. The

starting point of analysis for both individual and group identity is the identification of the subject

positions and their relation to others within the field of discursivity. The discursive struggle is

identified by the way in which some groups are identified in relation to what they are not and

how they are signified in the relation. Struggle, therefore, is important in the analysis.

The discursive struggle has been at the center of discourse theory and the discursive processes

involved in the construction of meaning. Individual discourses, which constitute identities, are

part of each field of discursivity. The struggle occurs when there are antagonisms. An

antagonism is when the individual discourse threatens to undermine the existence of the other

and its meaning. It is when the existence of the other is threatened that the contingency of

meaning is visible. A discursive struggle can be, therefore, identified at the point where the

discourses collide.

Discursive conflicts are resolved through hegemonic interventions. A hegemonic intervention is

the reconstitution of unambiguity. That is, it is where one discourse becomes salient and, thus,

objectivity is reasserted. As will be recalled, objectivity is the historical outcome of the

discursive processes and struggles; it is the bounded discourse. Objectivity, then, is identified by

the hegemony of a particular discourse within the defined perceptual boundary. Hegemony is

identified through the deconstruction of the discursive processes in construction of meaning.

Conclusion: Using Discourse Analysis

The focal point for discourse theory, then, is the discursive struggle. It is the discursive struggle

that researchers are attempting to explain. Explanation requires the use of both construction and

deconstruction of meaning and the concept of discourse. There are four primary tasks for the

researcher when using discourse analysis. First, researchers must identify the key signifiers. For

example, in our analysis the key signifiers are insurgency and counterinsurgency. Second, once

the signifiers have been identified, then the researchers must investigate how discourses, identity

and the social space are organized discursively. This is achieved by identifying how the

signifiers are combined with other signs. Identifying how the signifiers are combined is the third

task. The fourth task is to identify the chains of meaning. Chains of meaning are constituted

through the organization of the signifiers. Fifth, researchers must identify the points of

antagonism in the discourse and the discursive processes. Finally, researchers need to identify

the hegemonic intervention and how objectivity was obtained in the discursive struggle.