sources and controls of arsenic contamination in groundwater of rajnandgaon and kanker district,...

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Sources and controls of Arsenic contamination in groundwater of Rajnandgaonand Kanker District, Chattisgarh Central India

Dericks Praise Shukla a,⇑, C.S. Dubey a, Ningthoujam P. Singh a, M. Tajbakhsh b, M. Chaudhry a

a Department of Geology, University of Delhi, Delhi 110 007, Indiab Department of Watershed Management, Birjand University, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 4 May 2009Received in revised form 31 August 2010Accepted 6 October 2010

This manuscript was handled by L. Charlet,Editor-in-Chief, with the assistance ofProsun Bhattacharya, Associate Editor

Keywords:ArsenicWaterXRD & EPMARemote-sensingKotri lineamentChattisgarh

s u m m a r y

A high concentration of Arsenic (As) contamination in ground water has been reported in the village ofKaudikasa in Rajnandgaon district, wherein around 10% of the population is suffering from As-borne dis-eases. The region does not share any demographic or geological similarity with the sedimentary aquifersof the Bengal Delta Plain in Eastern India, but represents an igneous terrain with elevated As concentra-tions in groundwater. There is limited information about the source of As in groundwater and its mobilityconstraints. In this area, almost all the wells are located in the granitic terrain with pegmatitic intrusions.Most of these wells are characterized by As concentration above the World Health Organization (WHO,1999) and the BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) standards, with the highest being found in a well withmore than 250 lg/L of As. Here we report petrographic studies of the granitic host rock and X-ray diffrac-tion results that indicate that altered realgar (a-As4S4), para realgar (AsS), and/or tennantite (Cu12As4S13),are the main mineral that contain As. This element is leached during the weathering and water–rockinteractions. Microprobe analysis of the altered realgar grains of in pegmatitic intrusions of the host gran-ite indicate 23–27 wt.% As. Remote sensing is useful to delineate the source of this contaminant, whichappears to lie at the intersection of a mineralized NW-SE and N–S lineaments associated with the Kotririft zone. These lineaments are structurally controlled as rifting followed by thrusting and other types offaulting caused left-lateral displacement of N–S Kotri lineament along a NW-SE fault plane showing sinis-tral shearing. This process caused water drainage in the areas to flow along these highly mineralizedweak zones. Thus, the water becomes highly contaminated due to leaching of minerals at the intersectionof these lineaments, clearly visible at two areas of high contamination that lie very near to this intersec-tion over granitic rock. The source of As affecting the Rajnandgaon district is located in granites that havepegmatitic intrusions likely generated by hydrothermal activity.

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1. Introduction

A large number of water bodies around the world are reportedto have Arsenic (As) contamination levels at concentrations above50 lg/L. The most noteworthy occurrences are located in parts ofArgentina, Bangladesh, Chile, China, Hungary, India (West Bengal),Mexico, Romania, Taiwan, Vietnam and parts of the USA, and SEAsia (Rahman et al., 2009; Winkel et al., 2008; Sampson et al.,2008; Bromssen et al., 2007; Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002 andthe references therein).

As is the constituent of Earth’s crust which can enter into theenvironment viz. hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere,through two possible source channels: anthropogenic and naturalactivities. Extensive use of lead arsenate and copper arsenite in pes-ticides called ‘arsenicals’ and rodenticides can be responsible for As

contamination (Navarro et al., 1993; Sikdar and Banerjee, 2003). Ascontamination in groundwater can also be caused due to dumpingof untreated discharge and hazardous waste materials from indus-tries (Andreae et al., 1983; Azcue and Nriagu, 1995; Chakrabortiet al., 1998; Pandey et al., 1998; Chatterjee and Banerjee, 1999). Itcan also be released in ground water through natural processes,such as weathering and leaching from rock and the constituentminerals, sediment transportation and deposition (Varsanyi,1989; Nicolli et al., 1989; Acharyya et al., 1999, Bhattacharyaet al., 2002; Nriagu et al., 2007; Berg et al., 2001), and anthropogenicactivities including coal mining and its combustion (Belkin et al.,2000; Madhavan and Subramanian, 2000, Sahu, 2002).

The situation of As toxicity in India is alarming with reports ofsevere health problems among the populations of various statesincluding West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Chattisgarh, etc. (Acharyya,2002; Jain, 2002; Chakraborti et al., 2003; Chowdhury et al.,2000; Mukherjee et al., 2006; Nriagu et al., 2007). The high concen-tration of As in groundwater has been reported from the Bengal

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⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9911508070.E-mail address: [email protected] (D.P. Shukla).

Journal of Hydrology 395 (2010) 49–66

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Delta Plains (BDP) in West Bengal and Bangladesh (Saha andChakrabarti, 1995; Bhattacharya et al., 1997; Dhar et al., 1997).More recently, problems have also been found in the states ofArunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,Meghalaya, Tripura, and Uttar Pradesh (WBTR, 2004; Chakrabortiet al., 2004; Mukherjee et al., 2006).

As contamination of the groundwater and the consequent hu-man affliction is observed in Kaudikasa village in the Rajnandgaondistrict of the newly formed Chattisgarh state (Pandey et al., 1999,2002). The region does not share any common demographic orgeological similarity with the sedimentary aquifers of the BengalDelta Plain in Eastern India where high As is reported, but repre-sents a predominant igneous terrain with pegmatitic intrusionslikely generated by hydrothermal activity. In this area, limitedinformation exists about the source of As in the groundwater andits mobility constraints. The present study focuses on the identifi-cation of the location of the probable source of As contamination inthis area and so its origin. The origin of As in this study area wouldhelp to manage and mitigate the effects of As contamination in thefuture. In such a demarcation where regional tectonics plays a ma-jor role in the evolution of the area, remote sensing studies becomevery helpful in observing an existing relationship between hostrock and the contaminated area.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. The study area

Chattisgarh is situated between 17�–23�N latitude and80�–84�E longitude covering an area of 135,194 km2, and has 18

districts out of which Rajnandgaon district has the highest liter-acy rate (Fig. 1). The district is divided into eight tehsils (county)and nine blocks for its administrative functioning and revenuecollection. Out of all these blocks, the most affected block by Ascontamination is Ambagarh Chowki (�2 � 103 km2) which liesin between 20�330N–20�510N latitudes and 80�330E–80�470E longi-tudes at altitudes of P330 m from sea level. Fig. 1 shows thelocation map of the study area. The climate is mainly tropical, hu-mid to sub-humid and hot because of its position on the tropic ofCancer (i.e. the latitude 23�600N). The principal river in the districtis Shivnath, a tributary of Mahanadi, the biggest river of central-east India.

2.2. Geological setting

The geology of Rajnandgaon varies widely from south to north(Fig. 2). The country rocks comprise phyllitic shales and hematiticquartzite, which are part of the Lower Proterozoic formation com-monly known as Bailadila Group (Pandey et al., 2004). The Manpur,Mohla and Chowki blocks are parallel to the Kotri lineament wheregranitic and pegmatitic rocks are predominant. Dongargarh Super-group granites are structurally disturbed, highly fractured andweathered rocks and occupy thickly forested and hilly regions(Mishra and Mohapatra, 2002). Sarkar (1983) found some struc-tural anomaly in this part of Central India. The rocks of NandgaonGroup consist of Bijli Rhyolite and Pitepani volcanics which are ex-posed in the western part of the district as shown in geological suc-cession in Table 1. The overlying rock is granitic, known as theDongargarh Granites with intrusions of dolerite dykes and quartzveins. The major portion of the study area is covered by granites

Fig. 1. Maps showing the location of the Rajnandgaon District in Chattisgarh within broader India (left) and the study area within the district (right).

50 D.P. Shukla et al. / Journal of Hydrology 395 (2010) 49–66


and rhyolites with some basic rocks are exposed. The geologicalmap of the area is shown in Fig. 2.

The lithology varies from sandstone, shale and limestone in theeastern portion of the study area (Rajnandgaon city area) to rhyo-lite, granite, basalt, dolerite and pegmatite intrusions towards thesouthern portion of the study area (Aamgaon to Manpur). Also inthe north western and western portion of the study area (Chichola

to Dongargarh), the lithology is mostly granitic with north westernmost portions falls in Khairagarh formation comprising mainly ofsandstone and shale. It exposes acid and basic volcanics, volca-nic-sediments, intrusive co-magmatic vast granite and rhyolitecovering the whole study area. The Deccan trap basalts generallyoccupy the higher altitudes and makes the overlying rock over old-er metamorphic and granitic rocks. Acharyya (2002) reported that

Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area (after Mishra and Mohapatra, 2002) indicating Bodal (uranium) Mine, the Kotri Lineament, and locations of rock samples.

D.P. Shukla et al. / Journal of Hydrology 395 (2010) 49–66 51


the As concentration in the Rhyolites of the Ambagarh Chaukiblock is up to 100–250 mg kg�1.

2.3. Hydrogeological characteristics

The groundwater in the district is suitable for domestic and irri-gation purposes as the quality is within permissible limits forwater use according to the Indian Standards. The potential fracturezones occur at shallow depths of 30–60 m, therefore, the depth ofground water level in the aquifer is 23.5 m.b.g.l. during pre-mon-soon season, and rises to 1.67 m.b.g.l. during post-monsoon season(Mishra and Mohapatra, 2002). The discharge from tube wells var-ies from 4.5 to 6 L/s for Rajnandgaon district according to theCentral Ground Water Board (CGWB), Raipur. In the As contami-nated area, the groundwater table is governed by topographicand structural controls. The topography in the study area variesfrom 380 m to 340 m above m.s.l. towards the north. As the topog-raphy increases, the depth of the ground water table becomesshallower. The ground water table depth decreases from 8.5 mto 1.5 m. b.g.l, in the alluvium plain area. The intersections oflineament are potential sites for groundwater and the groundwater level is low in the area near the lineaments. Deeper waterlevels are found at locations away from such lineaments and theirintersections. The piezometric gradient flow is also in the northerndirection, parallel to these lineaments.

2.4. Remote sensing analysis

In 2000, Landsat 7, Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) datahaving a spatial resolution of 30 m was collected. Out of sevenbands, bands 2–4 were stacked using ERDAS Imagine 8.6 softwareto make a False Color Composite (FCC) of the study area. The imagewas created to determine the regional geology and structuralanomalies present in the field area. Various image enhancementtechniques like contrast enhancement and breakpoint adjustmentswere applied. Many lineaments were detected in the study areabased on various factors including ridge top alignment, drainageanomalies and vegetation anomalies. Three different maps weremade for each of these factors. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM)of the study area was used to draw the ridge top lineament map,which clearly depicts the presence of many structural anomalies.For the vegetation and drainage anomaly maps, we took intoaccount of various drainages with a linear trend, those with suddenchanges in drainage patterns, regions of straightened vegetation,and some anomalous changes in tonal characteristics leading to

straightening of vegetation and drainage patterns were considered.The final lineament map of the study area was prepared by com-bining all these factors. The lineament map and drainage map ofthe study area was prepared using this enhanced image.

2.5. Groundwater and rock sampling

Water and rock samples were collected extensively (see Keith,1991; Hasan et al., 2007) in the vast area having a latitudinal extentof about 200 km from Dongargarh and Chichola in northwest, toManpur towards the south and then the city of Rajnandgaon, cover-ing significant regions of the central to southern blocks of the Raj-nandgaon district. The locations of rock samples are shown inFig. 2 along with the geological map. Water samples were collectedfrom open ponds, dug wells (depth 5–20 m) and tube wells (depth30–60 m) wherever possible. The water from ponds and dug wellsis being used for washing (laundry, washing cattle, etc.) and irriga-tion of crops, whereas water from tube wells is used for drinkingand cooking. Near Kaudikasa village, most of the wells and almostevery hand pump were sampled for As testing in the field. Figs. 3and 4 show the water sampling locations in the field areas near.Rajnandgaon city, Dongargarh, and the Ambagarh Chowki block.Many of the water samples collected from these sites have highAs concentrations, especially near the Kaudikasa area.

To sample, bottles were first rinsed with the water from the site,and then completely filled with the same water and tightly closedto minimize any contact with air. Water samples were filtered onsite and then acidified with distilled HNO3 to maintain the pH va-lue of 2. The water samples were taken in duplicate and placed in250 mL, 500 mL polypropylene plastic bottles. Electrical conductiv-ity (EC) and pH have important effects on As speciation (Cullen andReimer, 1989) and so temperature, acidity and electrical conduc-tivity were measured in the field itself using digital instruments.As concentration was measured using Wagtech Digital Arsentorand were noted down in tabular form which is attached in Appen-dix A.

2.6. Analytical work

2.6.1. As analysis with Wagtech ArsenatorThe flask was filled with the water sample up to 50 mL and re-

agent sulphamic acid powder from ‘A1’ sachet was mixed and dis-solved sufficiently. Then, one borohydride tablet from ‘A2’ pot wasadded carefully resulting in the fizzing of the water sample. Themouth of the flask was immediately closed by inserting the bungdevice having testing paper strip. After 20 min, the As testing paperstrip was inserted into the Arsenator, which gave the measurementof As concentration in lg/L. All water samples were similarly mea-sured for As concentration in the field.

2.6.2. Petrography, X-ray diffraction and EPMA analysisThin sections were made for petrologic studies of the rock

samples collected. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses of the rocksamples were analyzed for compositions of mineral constituents.The d-spacings and 2theta from minerals within the rocks werematched using Philips x’pert software and Match software. The ex-pected mineral compositions were extracted and analyzed usingan electron microprobe (EPMA).

EPMA is a micro-analytical technique, which allows the imagingand analysis of materials that we cannot generally observe withthe resolution offered by visible techniques. EPMA can probe aspecimen as small as 5 thousands of a millimeter (5 lm), and notonly identify the elements present, but also measure them with asmall degree of error. The electron microprobe uses the character-istic of X-rays generated from the interaction between the electronbeam and the sample to identify the elemental composition of the

Table 1Geological Succession of the study area (Mishra and Mohapatra, 2002).

Age Formation Lithology

Quaternary Recent to subrecent

Alluvium – clay, silt, sand pebble,gravel, laterite ferruginousconcretions

Cenozoic Decan traps Traps with or without intertrappeansediments

Cenozoic,Mesozoic,upperPalaeozoic

GondwanaSupergroup

Sandstone, shale, conglomerate,quartzite, silt – stone, clay stone.

Proterozoic ChhattisgarhSupergroupChilipi, Kotri,Dongarhgarh,Iron oreSupergroup

Limestone and shale arkose,conglomerate sand stone, silt stone,shale schist, phyilite, slate, gneiss,marable, BHQ.

Azoic Basementcrystallines

Charnockite, khondalite, granulite,gneisses and meta sediments

Basementcrystallines

Granites, gneissed and associatedbasic and ultra basic intrusive



sample. Selected samples for electron probe were embedded in aral-dite, polished with diamond paste on Lamplan 450 polishing clothwith water as lubricant and coated with carbon to provide a goodconducting surface. EPMA analyses were performed at 20 kV, andup to a resolution of 10 lm using a JEOL 733 at Oklahoma State Uni-versity (USA). The instrument is equipped with four spectrometercrystals (LIF, PET, TAP, and LDE2), back-scattered and secondary-electron scanning capability, and an energy-dispersive systemconsisting of a detector and image-analysis software.

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Water analysis

If the source is to be considered as natural, As should be re-leased in the environment either by reduction (Das et al., 1996;Mandal et al., 1996; Nickson et al., 1998, 2000; Ravenscroft,2001; and Charlet and Polya, 2006) or by oxidation (Saha andChakrabarti, 1995, Pandey et al., 2002 and Acharyya et al., 1999).

Fig. 3. Geological map showing where water samples were collected near Rajnandgaon city (upper) and Dongargarh area (lower).



Fig. 4. Geological map showing where water samples were collected near Kaudikasa village.

Fig. 5. Geological map of the region near Kaudikasa village, indicating the values of Arsenic (As) collected from water samples.



The samples collected from Rajnandgaon city whose lithologiesare sandstone, shale and limestone has lesser As in water with amaximum of 13 lg/L. In the northwestern area i.e. Dongargarh fall-ing under Dongargarh Granitic terrain, the As has a maximum valueof 15 lg/L in ground water. The highly affected area of Kaudikasahas a lithology of granite, pegmatite, basalt, and dolerite (Figs. 4and 5) which shows high concentration of As in ground water witha maximum of over 250 lg/L as indicated in Table 2. In this area, themajority of water samples that are tested positive fall in associationwith granitic and/or pegmatitic rocks.

Based on the values detected in the water samples, an As mapwas prepared for Kaudikasa village where this menace is the high-est (Fig. 5). The As amount in water samples from areas having rhy-olite bed rock is very low to nonexistent. A similar type ofcorrelation of As concentrations in mg kg�1 in rocks, sediments,soils and other surficial deposits has been shown elsewhere(Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002). The highest maximum As con-centrations has been observed in granites, as compared to rhyolite(Table 3). This study indicates the source of As is present in gran-ites with pegmatitic veins in this area.

3.2. Petrographic and mineralogical studies

Rocks that contain As are acidic igneous rock consisting mainlyof quartz, feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase), ferromagnesianminerals like muscovite and biotite with rare to trace of pyroxenes,iron oxides. These rocks are fine to medium grained and showinterlocking texture. Altered realgar (a-As4S4)/pararealgar (AsS) isfound as inclusion of reddish brown color (Fig. 6). These alteredrealgar/pararealgars are weathered and leached when they comein contact with water. There are some tetragonal and subconchoi-dal opaque grains of altered tennantite (http://webmineral.com/

data/Tennantite.shtml) (Cu12As4S13) which show dark grey tobrown to cherry red color in polished sections in ore microscopy.These identified minerals are cross-checked using the XRD andEPMA studies.

3.3. XRD analysis

In most of the samples, As sulfides, hydrates, or arsenates arepresent but oxides are less common (Table 4). Sulfides includealtered realgar/pararealgar, orpiment (As2S3), and tennantite.Hydrates of As such as rauenthalite [Ca3(AsO4)2�10(H2O)] and, gei-gerite [Mn5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2�10(H2O)] are present and commonlyfound in these samples. Apart from As bearing minerals, other sil-icates were also identified like microcline, albite, kyanite, Sodiananorthite, muscovite, and sillimanite. The X-ray diffraction graphsfor selected samples are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Almost every sam-ple has quartz in abundance followed by feldspars, which is clearlyindicated by intensity value in the graphs.

3.4. EPMA analysis

EPMA of selected samples clearly shows the presence of As in theelemental mapping of the mineral grain of pegmatitc host rock.Fig. 9 below indicates the amount of tapped As in that mineral grain

Table 2Relation between rock type and maximum Arsenic content in water.

Area Rock type Max. Arsenic (lg/L)

Rajnandgaon city Sandstone, shale, limestone 13Dongargarh Granite 15Kaudikasa Granite/pegmatite >250

Table 3Typical Arsenic concentrations in rocks, sediments, soils and other surficial deposits(modified after Smedley and Kinniburgh, 2002).

Rock/sediment type As concentration average and/orrange (mg kg�1)

No ofanalyses

Igneous rocksBasic rocks (basalt) 2.3 (0.18–113) 78Basic rocks (gabbro, dolerite) 1.5 (0.06–28) 112Intermediate (andesite,

trachyte latite)2.7 (0.5–5.8) 30

Intermediate (diorite,granodiorite, syenite)

1.0 (0.09–13.4) 39

Acidic rocks (rhyolite) 4.3 (3.2–5.4) 2Acidic rocks (granite, aplite) 1.3 (0.2–15) 116Volcanic glasses 5.9 (2.2–12.2) 12

Fig. 6. Photomicrograph of sample CSD-18 (see Fig. 2 for sample location) indicating weathered realgar (WRlg), Quartz (Qtz) and Feldspars (Fel).



of the samples as little exaggerated and in brighter tone. In bothsamples, As detected is approximately 23% in altered realgar whichis similar to the amount (20% composition) of As in tennantite.

3.5. Remote sensing

Sarkar (1983) describes structural anomalies and rifting in thefield area while Acharyya et al. (2005) states that the Dongargarhrift zone is dissected by several N–S and NW-SE lineaments, faults,fractures and shear zones. The source of As in groundwater may be

from the rocky belt of Dongargarh–Kotri zone of Rajnandgaon dis-trict (Naidu et al., 2006). The N–S trending lineament in this area isan extension the Kotri lineament located in the southern districtsof the state of Chattisgarh.

In the southern portion of Chattisgarh, covering western Kankerand Dantewara district, the Kotri River flows linearly in N–S direc-tion. This straightening of the river is governed by fault activity dueto rifting. The Kotri lineament trends N–S direction. This lineament,when extended northwards, intersects the NW-SE lineament in thestudy area. These lineament and drainage maps were superimposed

Table 4Identification of Arsenic and other minerals in source rock by X-ray diffraction.

Sample no. As bearing sulfide minerals As bearing oxide minerals Arsenates and hydrates Silicates

18 D Para realgar Freedite Rauenthalite QuartzTennantite Geigerite KaoliniteCobaltite Geminite AlbiteHatchite Anorthite SodianOrpiment OrthoclaseRathite

18 B Xanthocite Ludlockite Phaunouxite QuartzGeigerite MicroclineBearsite Albite

KaoliniteWollastonite

19 B Para realgar Ludlockite Rauenthalite QuartzTennantite Claudetite Phaunouxite MicroclineCobaltite Geminite AlbiteDufrenosyte Clinoclase WollastoniteLiveingite Geigerite

C 4 Para realgar Ludlockite Rauenthalite QuartzTennantite Geminite Microcline

Albite

Fig. 7. X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum (peak intensities versus 2theta angle) of sample CSD-18, with probable minerals indicated. See Fig. 2 for sample location.



on the geological and the satellite image of the study area (Fig. 10a).The village of Kaudikasa lies at the intersection of N–S Kotri linea-ment and NW-SE trending lineament. The Bodal uranium mine alsolies on this NW-SE lineament, only 10 km southeast Kaudikasa. Thisis strong evidence that NW-SE lineament is the mineral carryingzone and this mineralized lineament, when intersected by N–S Ko-tri lineament, leads to the deposition and leaching of minerals thatcause As contamination. Marginal faults, fractures, and lineamentstrending NW–SE show shearing nearly parallel to the N–S Kotri Lin-eament and NW-SE trending lineaments (see Fig. 10b).

Rifting in this area caused the development of two sets of par-allel faults: one N–S trending and the other NW-SE trending. The

N–S set is shown by F1F1, F2F2, F3F3, etc. whereas the NW-SE trend-ing faults are indicated by F01F01; F02F02; F03F03, etc. . A fault inducedmap is generated showing two sets of faults through the lineamentmap. The Z-shape of lineaments shows shearing in the area wereconfirmed in the field survey. The regional shearing in the area issinistral, which has created a left-lateral strike-slip fault alongthe NW-SE plane. The shearing in this area, which was not promi-nently seen in the satellite image, became prominent after usingPrincipal Component Analysis (PCA) enhancement. The displace-ments of the lineaments in this area are prominent in the PCA im-age. Four spots where shifting occurred due to faulting have beenidentified (Fig. 11). The F1F1, F2F2, F3F3, etc. faults trending in N–S

Fig. 8. XRD spectrum of sample CSD-19, with probable minerals indicated. See Fig. 2 for sample location.

Fig. 9. Three dimensional X-ray As maps of regions in sample CSD-18A (left) and CSD-18D (right). Arsenic was detected using the TAP crystal of a JEOL 733 electronmicroprobe. See Fig. 2 for sample locations.



direction are emplaced by NW-SE trending lineaments in the sinis-tral direction.

The Kotri Rift zone, where various sets of these lineaments havedeveloped, provides paths for the ground water and surface water.The drainages in the study area are affected by structurally con-trolled lineaments. As these drainages tend to flow along weakzones, the lower order streams flow towards NW direction alongNW-SE lineaments, whereas the higher order streams flow north-wards along N–S Kotri lineament. The general trend of groundwater

flow is also in the directions of these lineaments. These drainagescontrolled by lineaments fall mostly within the granitic terrain withpegmatitic intrusions generated by hydrothermal activity.

Pandey et al. (2006) described the Durgu Kondal block in Kan-ker, an adjoining district of Rajnandgaon, as a new area of As con-tamination. This block is highly contaminated due to mineralleaching and weathering of country rocks. The satellite image forDurgu Kondal block was analyzed using ERDAS Imagine 8.6software and techniques. The lineament map prepared over

Fig. 10a. Geological map of the study area showing ridge top lineaments and drainage.



satellite image (Fig. 12) depicts the intersection of NW-SE and N–Strending lineaments, likely causing hydrothermal mineralizationdeposition. This is similar to our observations in the Kaudikasaarea. This correlation indicates the NW-SE lineament area withtheir intersection by the N–S Kotri lineament depict the presenceof mineralized zones and hence contamination of As.

3.6. As dispersion

The contours of the As values in Kaudikasa village were plottedto study the dispersion or aerial extent of contamination (Fig. 13).These contours show bimodal characteristics: two high peaks

(�74 lg/L) on the western side of the road and >250 lg/L on theeastern side of the road. The two high values lie near these linea-ments and adjacent drainages follow the lineament pattern ofNW-SE and N–S. Thus, it is clear to demarcate the boundary andsource of As contamination. These contours show that away fromthe peaks, As concentration decreases, suggesting that the sourcelies in these two localities, which lie on granitic terrain with hydro-thermal intrusions of pegmatites.

The relationship between As concentration and depth was ex-plored along a N–S trending longitudinal profile that indicates thedistance of various wells and their elevation with respect to thehills on the southern side. The depth of water table for various wells

Fig. 10b. Landsat TM image of the study area with lineaments indicated.



was noted and plotted. The profile line along AA0 (Fig. 14) shows thewater table in the area. There is a pond, a surface water body, whichlies at the foot of the hill. The amount of As concentration is men-tioned on top of each water body, giving a 3rd dimension to theprofile. The variation in As concentration clearly shows thatconcentration decreases from 74 lg/L to 11 lg/L away from this hilltowards the north. Ground water depths increase along the sameprofile from 2.8 m to 8.5 m b.g.l. Thus, an inverse relationship existsbetween As concentration and depth along the profile line. A similar

inverse relationship is seen in West Bengal and Bangladesh wherehigh As concentration is found in the shallow reaches of aquifers(BGS, MML UK, 1998; Acharyya et al., 1999; Acharyya 2002;Aggrawal et al., 2000; Naidu et al., 2006; Métral et al., 2008; and ref-erences therein). The highest value of As concentration along ourprofile line is near the intersection of NW-SE and N–S lineamentsas shown by the As dispersion map (Fig. 13). The high values ofAs are observed along these sets of lineaments: the N–S Kotri(74 lg/L at 20�4305.300N, 80�44012.600E) and NW-SE lineament

Fig. 11. Principal component analysis image of the study area with faults indicated. The major structure through the region shows sinistral displacement.



(>250 lg/L at 20�4303.300N, 80�44022.100E), whereas it decreasesaway from these lineaments (Fig. 13). Along the lineament, the Asconcentration decreases when the depth of groundwater increaseswhile for shallower wells, the As concentration is comparativelyhigh. Thus, the As, which is being released at this intersection, isdispersed in all directions with its concentration decreasing withincrease in water table levels and with distance from the intersec-tion of these two sets of structural lineaments.

Various hypotheses describe the mechanisms of As release inground water. For example, Charlet and Polya (2006) describethree postulates: oxidation of As rich pyrite, phosphate adsorptionfrom agricultural fields for As desorption, and microbiologicallymediated reductive dissolution for As release and mobilization.Nevertheless, none of the hypotheses can fully explain or unani-mously agree on the governing mechanism in the real world.Acharyya (2002), Acharyya et al. (2005) support pyrite oxidation

Fig. 12. Landsat TM image of Durgu Kondal block in the Kanker District with lineraments indicated.



theory as the main mechanism, but suggests that this theory playsa minor role in As release in our field area as no such deposit of

arsenopyrite is found. In addition, no correlation exists betweenAs and SO4 which is a product of oxidation mechanism. Pandey

Fig. 13. Terrain irregular network (TIN) map of the region near the village of Kaudikasa, with contours of Arsenic values on lineaments and drainages. The line of section(Fig. 14) is created along AA0 .

Fig. 14. Elevation versus distance profile of wells located along line AA0 (Fig. 13). This profile shows the relationship of Arsenic and depth of groundwater near the village ofKaudikasa.



et al. (2002) proposes an ‘‘oxidation–reduction theory” in whichoriginates first from arsenopyrite oxidation and then mobilizedAs reduces underground in favorable Eh conditions. A combinationof these theories could possibly explain the mechanism of As re-lease and mobilization.

In this area, As decreases with depth, therefore, deep aquifershave low concentration of As (see also Mukherjee et al., 2006).High values (average 740.6 ls/cm) of electrical conductivity (EC)of the water samples mentioned in Appendix A corresponds tolower concentrations of As. Thus, in deeper reaches of aquifers,high EC is present proving that EC has inverse relationship withOxidation Reduction Potential (ORP) (Gurung et al., 2006). LowORP in deep aquifers signifies reduced conditions relative toshallow aquifers. The ratio of reactive iron to sulfur in the systemalso controls the distribution of solid phases that are capable ofremoving As from solutions when environment changes from oxi-dizing to reducing. The lack of incorporation of As into iron sulfidesmay result in the accumulation of dissolved As (III) if adsorption isweak or inhibited. Aquifers which are particularly at risk for suchgeochemical conditions are those where oxidized and reducedwaters are mixed (O’Day et al., 2004). The presence of altered real-gar/pararealgar, orpiment, tennantite are probably the main Asbearing minerals. According to Smedley (2006) oxidation of thesesulphides would release As which is mobilized in favorable pHand ORP conditions when adhered to FeOOH. However, a more rig-orous and detailed study should be conducted in this area to reachspecific reasons and mechanisms.

4. Discussion

The groundwater samples from the study area of Kaudikasawere analyzed by Wagtech Digital Arsenator, recommended byUNICEF, IIT Kanpur and Sri Ram Institute, Delhi which has a 0.97correlation factor with arsine hydride generator for AAS.Sankararamakrishnan et al. (2008) concluded that Wagtech DigitalArsenator is suitable for As testing (up to 100 lg/L) in the field hav-ing a correlation of 0.95 with laboratory measurements. Swash(2003) concludes that a correlation exists between results obtainedin the field using the Arsenator (against known samples) and lab-oratory as compared to the Graphite Furnace Atomic AbsorptionSpectroscopy (GF-AAS). Some water samples from Delhi and stan-dard solution samples were analyzed by Wagtech Digital Arsenatorand Arsine Hydride generator for AAS at Sri Ram Institute. Bothsamples tested positive with high correlation factor (0.96) betweenArsenator and AAS. These water samples show high concentrationsof As contamination, with a maximum of over 250 lg/L.

Petrographic studies of granite host rock show leached alteredrealgar/pararealgar, orpiment, and tennantite. A reddish color min-eral that fills the spaces, likely developed during hydrothermalintrusions. This is confirmed by the X-ray Diffraction and EPMA.

The study area’s complex geology of rifting followed by shear-ing has been examined using remote sensing techniques. Theleft-lateral displacement in F1F1, F2F2, F3F3 lineaments alongF01F01; F02F02; F03F03 fault plane show sinistral shearing, confirmed bythe presence of a Z-shaped lineament visible on a PCA image ofthe study area (Fig. 11), and also supported by a change in thecourse of river drainages. The lineament controlled drainages flowmostly on granitic terrain with pegmatitic intrusions likely gener-ated by hydrothermal activity.

The Bodal uranium exploration mine is situated on the SE side ofthe study area, which indicates that NW-SE lineament is the miner-alized zone which leads to deposition and leaching of minerals caus-ing As contamination when intersected by N–S Kotri lineament. Thearea has a lithology of granite with pegmatite intrusions that lies atthe intersection of N–S Kotri and NW-SE lineaments. It indicates thesource of As is present in granites with pegmatitic intrusions.

Smedley and Kinniburgh (2002) also found a similar type of cor-relation of As concentrations in mg kg�1 in rocks, where higher Asconcentrations are found in granites when compared to rhyolite. Inour field area, As dispersion contours show bimodal characteristics,suggesting that the source lies somewhere in these two localities,on granitic terrain at the intersection of these two lineaments.Away from these lineaments, the value of As concentration de-creases. Elevation versus distance profiles across the field areaclearly demonstrates the presence of As in shallow reaches of theaquifer, similar to observations of As contamination in West Bengaland Bangladesh, where shallow aquifers (as opposed to deeper)have As contamination.

The mechanism of As release is unclear in this study area, but itis expected that a combination of various theories can explain thephenomena. To establish a relationship of release and mobilization,more study of the hydrological and geochemical aspects of thegroundwater is needed.

5. Conclusion

The groundwaters of Rajnandgaon district of Central India arehighly contaminated with As at alarming levels (>250 lg/L), muchhigher than the World Health Organization tolerance limit fordrinking water (10 lg/L; WHO, 1999). In the Kaudikasa area,the majority of water sources (tube wells, dug wells, and ponds)are contaminated with As. Some are within prescribed limits, butmany exceed the limits set by Bureau of Indian Standards (50 lg/L; BIS, 2003). Here we show that two As affected villages of Chat-tisgarh (Kaudikasa village of Rajnandgaon district and Durgu Kon-dal of Kanker district; Pandey et al., 2004) lie at the intersectionof N–S and NW-SE lineaments as observed by remote sensing.The host rock for this contamination is granite with pegmatiticintrusions. Petrographic, XRD and EPMA studies show these rockcontain altered realgar/pararealgar, orpiment, and tennantite asthe main As hosts. The left-lateral displacement in N–S linea-ments along NW-SE fault plane show sinistral shearing in thisarea as visible on PCA image of the study area (Fig. 11). The Bodaluranium mine situated on the NW-SE lineament shows that thestructural area is a zone of mineralization. The As dispersion pat-tern depicts two major As affected locations near the intersectionof these lineaments. As concentrations decrease away from theseintersections. The structurally-controlled drainages flow acrossthe intersection of N–S Kotri and NW-SE mineralized lineaments,thus becoming the medium for As dispersion in the area. Thestudy shows the importance of remote sensing in: (1) locatingthe source at the intersection of two lineaments and (2) under-standing the origin of environmental contaminant As in CentralIndia.

Acknowledgements

This research study was funded by a major research project ref.F30-273/2004 (SR) by University Grants Commission, New Delhi,India. Authors are indebted to the help provided by Dr. E.J. Catlosfor carrying out the electron microprobe analyses using theOklahoma State University JEOL 733. The authors are grateful toher and Zothanpuii Shukla for helping with the editing and Englishcorrections of the manuscript. Due appreciation is given to Prof.Laurent Charlet and Prof. Prosun Bhattacharya and anonymousjournal reviewers for critical comments and suggestions that im-proved the manuscript.

Appendix A

Table A.



Table ATable showing locations of water samples (Well, Hand Pump and Ponds) in Rajnandgaon District with Arsenic concentration (2–100 lg/L), electrical conductivity of water and itspH values.

ID Location (latitude & longitude) Arsenic concentration in lg/L pH value EC value in mS/cm

W1 20 540 42.500 80 470 2.900 BDL 7.40 0.70W2 20 540 42.500 80 470 2.900 BDL 7.10 0.30W3 20 530 31.800 80 460 25.600 BDL 6.90 1.80W4 20 410 17.300 80 440 57.900 4.00 6.80 0.70W5 20 410 0 31.000 80 440 51.500 6.00 6.90 0.60W6 20 420 17.600 80 440 31.600 15.00 6.90 0.70W7 20 420 18.900 80 440 43.400 9.00 6.80 0.80W8 20 420 17.600 80 440 31.600 4.00 6.90 0.70W9 20 420 18.900 80 440 43.400 8.00 6.70 0.30W10 20 420 0 18.900 80 440 43.400 7.00 6.90 0.20W11 20 330 42.300 80 440 53.000 BDL 6.50 0.20W12 20 330 42.300 80 440 53.000 BDL 6.40 0.30W13 20 320 7.700 80 440 30.800 12.00 6.80 0.30W14 20 270 28.200 80 450 9.400 4.00 6.80 0.20W15 20 280 00.100 80 450 0 8.100 BDL 6.90 0.30W16 20 320 55.600 80 440 33.200 BDL 6.90 0.40W17 20 330 17.500 80 440 37.000 BDL 7.00 0.40W18 20 330 17.500 80 440 0 37.000 BDL 7.10 6.00W19 20 340 54.600 80 440 47.500 BDL 6.90 0.80W20 20 350 24.900 80 440 54.400 6.00 6.90 0.40W21 20 370 0 18.500 80 440 4.500 BDL 6.90 0.40W22 20 390 8.100 80 450 49.900 BDL 8.60 0.40W23 20 400 7.700 80 450 43.500 7.00 7.00 0.90W24 20 400 39.200 80 450 15.800 1.00 6.90 0.60W25 20 400 45.500 80 450 14.100 BDL 6.90 0.80W26 20 410 48.900 80 440 34.400 BDL 6.80 0.40W27 20 420 0 32.900 80 450 41.300 BDL 6.90 0.50W28 20 420 33.600 80 450 40.100 BDL 6.80 0.60W29 20 420 33.100 80 450 36.500 BDL 7.00 1.00W30 20 420 33.600 80 450 35.900 BDL 6.90 0.70W31 20 420 16.900 80 440 54.100 8.00 6.90 0.60W32 20 420 18.300 80 440 46.400 BDL 6.80 0.80W33 20 420 59.200 80 440 10.600 10.00 8.30 0.20W34 20 430 0.600 80 440 0 15.700 42.00 6.90 0.60W35 20 430 0.600 80 440 15.700 33.00 6.90 0.60W36 20 430 0.600 80 440 15.700 18.00 6.90 0.60W37 20 430 5.300 80 440 12.600 74.00 6.80 0.60W38 20 430 7.500 80 440 10.300 30.00 6.90 0.80W39 20 430 8.900 80 440 11.800 14.00 7.00 1.50W40 20 430 11.300 80 440 11.800 10.00 6.90 0.90W41 20 430 12.100 80 440 11.800 11.00 6.90 0.70W42 20 430 9.000 80 440 13.700 25.00 7.00 0.90W43 20 430 3.300 80 440 22.100 250.00 6.40 0.30W44 20 430 1.400 80 440 39.100 5.00 6.80 0.70W45 20 430 6.100 80 440 33.200 5.00 8.80 0.50W46 20 430 7.900 80 440 17.800 42.00 6.80 0.80W47 20 420 59.600 80 440 12.700 11.00 8.00 0.20W48 20 430 58.300 80 440 55.200 BDL 6.80 0.20W49 20 440 4.300 80 440 9.200 BDL 6.90 0.70W50 20 440 25.200 80 440 18.600 BDL 6.80 0.30W51 20 440 33.500 80 440 25.100 4.00 6.90 0.40W52 20 440 31.200 80 440 25.300 BDL 6.90 0.30W53 20 470 25.500 80 450 1.800 BDL — —W54 21 050 23.700 80 570 8.300 BDL 6.80 0.60W55 21 050 13.100 80 540 48.500 3.00 6.80 0.90W56 21 040 36.700 80 500 17.400 BDL 6.80 0.20W57 21 040 36.700 80 500 13.300 6.00 6.80 0.20W58 21 040 47.000 80 490 9.000 4.00 6.90 0.50W59 21 040 51.400 80 490 9.200 1.00 6.90 0.80W60 21 040 48.900 80 490 19.400 4.00 6.90 0.40W61 21 040 31.900 80 440 42.100 BDL 6.90 0.60W62 21 040 7.400 80 400 33.200 13.00 6.80 1.30W63 21 030 59.600 80 400 23.400 3.00 6.90 1.10W64 21 040 42.400 80 370 52.000 4.00 6.80 0.60W65 21 040 46.500 80 290 34.700 BDL 6.80 0.60W66 21 040 1.400 80 400 18.800 3.00 6.80 0.50W67 21 040 1.000 80 400 0 21.600 5.00 6.90 0.30W68 21 070 13.100 80 420 0.100 15.00 7.00 0.70W69 21 100 33.600 80 440 42.700 6.00 7.00 0.40W70 21 110 0.200 80 450 58.400 7.00 7.00 1.00W71 21 100 31.100 80 460 11.100 4.00 6.90 0.80W72 21 090 46.500 80 460 58.500 5.00 6.80 1.00W73 21 090 46.500 80 460 58.500 3.00 6.90 0.80



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Table A (continued)

ID Location (latitude & longitude) Arsenic concentration in lg/L pH value EC value in mS/cm

W74 21 060 38.000 80 520 23.500 BDL 6.80 0.50W75 21 050 46.500 81 020 35.700 8.00 6.80 1.60W76 21 050 48.900 81 030 4.200 8.00 6.90 1.10W77 21 050 46.500 81 030 4.100 BDL 7.80 1.20W78 21 060 6.400 81 020 46.700 4.00 6.80 1.50W79 21 060 3.000 81 020 26.900 3.00 6.90 1.30W80 21 060 3.000 81 020 26.300 BDL 7.00 1.20W81 21 060 9.500 81 020 7.800 5.00 6.90 1.50W82 21 060 18.200 81 020 1.100 BDL 6.90 2.70W83 21 060 15.400 81 010 45.000 BDL 6.80 1.40W84 21 050 52.700 81 010 24.300 BDL 6.80 1.30W85 21 060 0.500 81 010 13.000 BDL 6.80 1.20W86 21 050 54.900 81 010 4.500 BDL 6.80 1.00W87 21 050 54.900 81 010 4.500 5.00 6.90 1.00W88 21 050 47.800 81 000 40.900 BDL — —W89 21 050 47.800 81 000 40.900 2.00 — —W90 21 050 21.200 81 000 50.500 8.00 — —W91 21 050 21.200 81 000 50.500 13.00 — —

BDL- Below Detection Limit.



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