Chapter I

1.1 Introduction

The study investigates - - -. This chapter gives a background of

the study and defines the research problem. It also outlines the

importance of the study, and gives an overview of the research

objectives and the research questions. This part of the research

shall provide the definition of key terms, outline the

limitations of the study and a summary of the chapter.

1.1 Background of the study

Any undesirable and uninvited behaviour that scares anyone or

makes them feel uncomfortable, humiliated, insecure and

endangered can be termed as harassment. When this act includes

unwelcomed advancement and demands for sexual favours in terms of

verbal or physical manners of sexual nature, it can be termed as

sexual harassment. Such situations create an antagonistic and

unpleasant environment for the workplace.

Sexual harassment has become prevalent in workplaces, social

scenarios which include the clubs, family and schools. So many

cases are reported and some remain a secret. Both men and women

are sexually abused but women constitute the greater number of

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victims. Women tend to be a more vulnerable group. Several

studies have been carried out in relation to sexual abuse world

over, regionally and in Zimbabwe, much has been reported about

sexual abuse cases in different scenarios. This study hopes to

establish the impact of sexual harassment on work output at

workplaces with focus on Great Zimbabwe University.

In Zimbabwe, sexual harassment at work is in violation of section

8 of the Zimbabwe Labour Relations Act which views it as

unwelcome sexually determined behaviour towards any employee,

whether verbally or otherwise, such as making physical contact or

advances, sexually coloured remarks or displaying pornographic

materials in the workplace. In view of this, it becomes apparent

that the Zimbabwean law recognizes sexual harassment as an

offense, but why such cases persist shall be investigated on in

this study.

Khan (1996) notes that sexual harassment of women at the

workplace has existed as far back as when women first went out to

sell their wares but it has only recently been recognized as

behaviour that impedes the development and health of women at the

workplace. Sexual Harassment occurs in all workplaces especially

if the environment traditionally favoured a particular sex.

Harassment exacts a high price from both employers and employees

alike. It represents a serious risk to employees’ psychological

2

and physical well-being (Scneider etal, 1997). It can be

offensive and demeaning experience, having a direct impact on the

quality of their work and home life and emotional well-being

(Barling and Dekker, 1996).

According to Gutek and Koss (1993), being sexually harassed can

devastate one’s psychological health, physical well-being and

vocational development. Beyond the harmful effects sexual

harassment can have on workers, it also carries negative

implications for the corporation/enterprise. It leads to

workplace tensions, which in turn can impede team work and

performance, and encourage absenteeism, all of which ultimately

lowers productivity. They are also of the view that organization

stands to lose valuable employees with otherwise good work

performance, and could suffer from a negative public image should

victims go public with their situations. There is also a

financial risk in the form of lawsuits and payment of damages and

fines.

According to the Commission of the European Union (2007) sexual

harassment corrupts the whole environment and it could impart

overwhelming effects upon the self-esteem, confidence, work

output, health and performance of the people affected by

harassment. It gives birth to anxiety, frustration and stress.

This leads to people to take off or early leave or resignation.

3

This also leads to inefficiency at workplace causing loss to

employees. Sometimes women victims of harassment are fearful of

losing their job, or missing promotion if they decline to fulfill

any sexual demands from the higher authority. Similarly she

suffers emotional and certain physical consequences and is not

able to continue her job, (www.dirlaw.com)

Apart from personal effects of sexual harassment, the financial

effects are also very severe particularly in such cases when the

employers do not have a proper policy of complains,(Munson, Hulin

and Drasgow,2000). The victim too suffers financial loss if he

or she has to take sick leave or any other leaves from work. In

the same way sexual harassment imparts adverse effects on working

women as well. It passes on collective demoralizing effects which

stop them from working further, and look somewhere else for a new

job.

Munson etal (2000) also notes that, this whole scenario creates

an antagonistic and fearful environment at the workplace. Sexual

harassment also affects the morale of the employees. Their work

gets disturbed, they are distracted and lose concentration. By so

doing, production of the organisation is affected, as a result,

performance of the affected employee/employees is affected, thus

impacting on the performance of the company. This means that

prevention of sexual harassment is the key responsibility of the

employer, (Judge, Iies and Scott, 2006).

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Therefore it is the sole responsibility of the company, if it

wants to have maximum production and output, then it should

provide such an environment which gives the employees a

comfortable and peaceful environment and system. Gutek and Koss,

(1993) note that special complain mechanisms should be introduced

and a legal complain procedure should be present so that victims

can register their complaints and get an adequate remedy if they

have suffered any indecent behaviour at their workplace.

At Great Zimbabwe University, there has been a significant number

of cases of anonymous letters, for example, in 2010, an anonymous

letter was written and sent to the Ministry as well as the

Chancellor of universities. The letter was a concern over some

acts of sexual harassment and this resulted in some employees

threatening to strike if the matter was not resolved.

1.3 Research Problem

Sexual harassment violates the rights of the individual to

dignity. The victim is exposed to unwanted acts such as

touching, fondling, kissing, patting and so on. This makes the

body of the victim public because the victim would have nothing

to hide anymore. On the other hand, sexual harassment

5

constitutes discrimination on grounds of sex. The victim is

treated that way she is because of sex. Sexual harassment has

also proved to pose a health hazard. According to Fitzgerald

(1993), studies by psychologists show that harassment can be a

serious threat to women’s psychological and physical wellbeing.

He also argues that it has some medical repercussions and it

causes anxiety, depression, headaches, weight loss, nausea and

sexual dysfunction. Victims have also been found to suffer low

self-esteem. These have impacted on work output. Thus, the

study seeks to investigate the impact of Sexual Harassment on

work output at workplaces.

1.3.1 Significance of the study

The study is intended to stimulate the thinking of the female

employees at Great Zimbabwe University about their rights and to

indicate that sexual harassment is unacceptable in society. The

management at Great Zimbabwe University will benefit from

research findings which serve to gauge how prevalent the problem

of sexual harassment is at the institution and from suggestions

on what strategies to employ to contain sexual harassment. The

study also provides recommendations on what should be done to

minimize sexual harassment in order to improve work output.

1.3.2 Research Questions

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What constitutes Sexual Harassment in general?

What impact does sexual harassment have on work output?

What promotes Sexual Harassment at work place?

What effect does perception of Sexual harassment by

employees have on work output?

How can Sexual Harassment be reduced at the work place?

1.3.3 Research Objectives

This study shall be guided by the following objectives:

To establish what promotes Sexual Harassment at work place.

To identify the impact of sexual harassment on work output.

To establish the effects of perception of Sexual Harassment

by employees.

To unearth solutions to the impact of sexual harassment

1.4 Justification

The purpose of this study is to establish causes of sexual

harassment as well as their effects on workers especially female

workers at Great Zimbabwe University. Also, this study helps to

identify problems faced by female employees at Great Zimbabwe

University in as far as sexual harassment is concerned and

whether the Zimbabwean Law addresses them adequately. Finally,

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the study goes further to examine how sexual harassment impacts

on output.

1.1 Methodology

Methodology according to Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran (2001)

determines how the researcher goes about investigating that

which is to be known.

Research Design

The research design employed a case study. Leedy (1985)

argues that a research design is the visualization of the body

of the data and problems associated with the employment of

data in the entire research project describing the instrument

further.

Research population

Research population as defined by Leedy (1985) is the

universal set of all potential elements to be included in any

research. In this study, the population will be the entire

staff of Great Zimbabwe University which is approximately

1300.

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The Sample and the sampling Procedure

The Sample

The sample is a portion of population that is selected for

analysis. It can be described as part of the population that

contains all the characteristics of the whole population.

Sampling Procedure

The sampling procedure to be used is probability sampling

which, according to Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran (2001)

involves the choice of the subjects who are in the best

position to provide the information required. Thus, in this

research, the researcher is targeting mostly Great Zimbabwe

University female employees.

1.1.1 Preliminary Literature Review

Sexual Harassment is a hazard encountered in workplaces

across the world that reduces the quality of working life,

jeopardizes the wellbeing of women and men, undermines

gender equality and imposes costs on firms and

organisations. For the International Labour Organisation,

workplace Sexual Harassment is a barrier towards the

organisation’s primary goal of promoting decent working

conditions for all workers (Singer, 1989). Although there

has been debate on Sexual Harassment recently by some

Zimbabwean religious bodies and other organisations, there

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are still no policy guidelines published specifically for

professionals who deal with trainees on a daily basis.

Win (1994) describes the relationship between superiors and

subordinates as a David and Goliath situation, where the one

in power or authority uses his power to get what he wants.

She suggests that institutions must design policies and

grievance procedures for those who are sexually harassed.

Singer (1989) conducted a study which demonstrates that

those institutions that do have a policy designed

specifically for Sexual Harassment and grievance procedures

have a significantly higher number of reports of harassment

than those that do not have.

According to Fitzgerald (1993), the designation ‘sexual

harassment’ has since been adopted by women in many other

countries who have used it to characterize their

experiences, ensure recognition of these forms of conduct

and seek to have them prevented. During the last 2 decades,

legislation, court decisions, awareness raising initiatives

and workplace programmes and policies have recognized and

responded to the problem. In the last decade in particular

advances have been made in both industrialized and

developing countries including in those in which there had

previously been recognized and addressed by a number of

bodies including International Labour Organisation.

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Views on Sexual harassment have evolved since it was a

widely tolerated aspect of working life often considered an

occupational hazard which women should expect to endure.

The influx of large numbers of women into paid labour force

over the last 20 years and their increasing involvement in

workers’ organisations and women’s advocacy groups have

heightened awareness of the extent and destructive

consequences of Sexual Harassment. Women have exposed it as

offensive and damaging, redefining the behaviour deemed an

inescapable fact of workplace life as a manifestation of sex

discrimination and a form of violence.

1.1.2 Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

The research design has a wide variety of methods to consider

in this research. The research will employ primary data

gathering instruments which will be personal interviews and

questionnaires.

Research Instruments

Research instruments are the tactics employed to gather

primary data and they include personal interviews and

questionnaires. The instruments which will be employed are

questionnaires and interviews.

Questionnaires

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They will be used to collect data and have the following

advantages:

i) They will provide anonymity

ii) The data collected will be easy to quantify and analyse.

iii) Large quantities of data will be collected in shortest

period of time.

However, questionnaires will not offer researcher the

opportunity to probe for additional information.

Interviews

Interviews will also be used as research instruments as they

provide the following advantages:

i) Many people will be willing to cooperate in a study after

establishing rapport.

ii) Nonverbal cues will be observed.

However, there is likely to be introduction of researcher

biases.

1.6 Thesis

This research focuses on the impact of sexual harassment on

work output, the case of Great Zimbabwe University. This

study will provide a logical analysis of how sexual harassment

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impacts on work output and shall explore various theories of

sexual harassment to Zimbabwe, citing other countries in the

world as examples.

The current chapter gives a background of the study and

defines the research problem. It also outlines the importance

of the study and gives an overview of the research objectives

and the research questions. This part of the research shall

provide the definition of key terms, outline the limitations

of the study and a summary of the chapter.

The rest of the study will consist of the related literature

where sexual harassment has been done and experienced, being

academic support to the study. Various authorities are cited

in supporting various inferences to this study. The

methodology used in undertaking the study and the

justification for its choice is later discussed. Targeted

respondents to the study are identified and reasons for their

selection also outlined, together with the research

instruments, the data collection procedure and a brief data

analysis plan.

Data from the research findings is presented, analyzed and

interpreted. Results of the findings will be tabulated and

presented in percentages in form of charts, tables and other

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graphical presentations. Lastly, a summary of the study will

be outlined and recommendations, proposals and conclusions to

the study are drawn.

1.1 Key Definitions

Assault Attack

Gender Sexual category

Sexual Harassment Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for

sexual favors and other verbal or

physical conduct of a sexual nature.

Vulnerability Defenselessness

1.8 Limitations

Staff may be unwilling to cooperate and may give misleading

information that may affect the validity of the data.

Regardless of reminders, some questionnaires may not be

returned thus affecting the generalizability of results.

The sample size may be restricted hence; it may not

represent the whole staff population.

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1.1 Delimitations

The study, which seeks to establish the impact of Sexual

Harassment only focus on Great Zimbabwe University staff in

Masvingo Province which is situated off Great Zimbabwe

Monuments old road and houses other campuses which include

City Campus, Kyle Centre, Mucheke campus and Mashava Campus.

The study will exclude all other universities so that it tense

on Great Zimbabwe University which has a population of 1300

staff approximately.

1.10 Summary

This section of the study provided an insight to the

background of the study and outlined the problem statement.

The objectives of the research study were defined and

questions associated with the study, as well as its

significance to the nation and limitations were explained.

Further, the structure of the dissertation was defined and the

next chapter reviews literature supporting the study.

Chapter 215

Review of Related Literature

2.1 Introduction

This chapter concentrates on reviewing related literature on the

impact of sexual harassment in organizations. A relevant

theoretical framework is adopted. Focus is on sexual harassment

as a concept, the impact of sexual harassment and how to deal

with it.

2.2 Theoretical framework

The feminist theories and the feminist movements have vehemently

demonstrated that knowledge cannot be considered neutral or

objective. Traditionally, researchers have engendered knowledge

on the basis of the dominant perspective and behaviour in

society, which was the male one (androcentrism). As a

consequence, knowledge has been blind to the specific historical,

political, social and personal conditions on which it was

reported, making invisible gender differences. Feminist

epistemologies have claimed that knowledge is dynamic, relative

and variable and that it cannot be considered an aim itself but a

process (Camarasa,2007).Considering the foregoing this study

shall be guided by the following principles:

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gender inequalities and the promotion of women’s rights,

interests and issues, are the common basis of the feminist

studies and their epistemological concerns, despite the fact

that there multiple meanings of gender and the concept of

gender itself has been criticised (e.g. Butler, 2000;

Breines, Connell and Eide, 2000);

violence against women “constitutes a violation of the

rights and fundamental freedoms of women and impairs or

nullifies their enjoyment of those rights and freedoms”

(Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women,

UN, General Assembly Resolution 48/1004 of 20 December

2003);

there are many expressions of violence against women and

new ones can appear according to the development of the

social changes and the social dynamics;

violence against women has multiple and multidimensional

effects, but all of them have the common denominator of

being gender based;

from a feminist perspective, the best way to know something

about violence against women and its effects is by hearing

the voices of the women that have experienced this

phenomenon (Camarasa, 2007)

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Feminist theories view sexual harassment as the product of a

gender system maintained by a dominant, normative form of

masculinity. In particular, Connell (1987; 1992; 2002) posits

that gender-based inequalities and discrimination are maintained

and negotiated through interrelations among differently gendered

(and therefore differently privileged) subjects within

a larger gender system. Connell’s constructivist theory

introduced the concept of hegemonic masculinity—a gender system

that privileges a singular vision of adult heterosexual

masculinity over all forms of femininity and alternative

masculinities. Connell’s theory acknowledges multiple

masculinities and femininities (Martin 1998) and takes account of

the subjective experience of gender and harassment within a

larger gender system.

Power is at the core of feminist theories of sexual harassment,

although it has rarely been measured directly in terms of

workplace authority. Popular characterizations portray male

supervisors harassing female subordinates, but power-threat

theories suggest that women in authority may be more frequent

targets ( McLaughlin, Uggen,and Blackstone,2012).

Feminist scholarship situates sexual harassment within broader

patterns of discrimination, power, and privilege, linking

harassment to sex-based inequality (MacKinnon 1979).

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Women supervisors, who hold authority over some men, directly

challenge the presumptive superiority of men. Women continue to

be underrepresented in positions of authority or relegated to the

lower rungs of management (Elliott and Smith 2004; Gorman

2005;Kalev 2009; Reskin 2003; Reskin and McBrier 2000).

2.3 What constitutes Sexual Harassment in general?

2.3.1 Sexual harassment

The original Sex Discrimination Act did not contain a definition

of sexual harassment or what would constitute harassment and this

has been developed through case law. Amendments to the Act in

2005 introduced two definitions of sexual harassment: unwanted

conduct on the grounds of someone's sex; and unwanted physical,

verbal or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature. The European

Parliament has defined 'harassment related to sex' as follows:

Where an unwanted conduct related to the sex of a person occurs with the

purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a person, and of creating an

intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment, and

Where any form of unwanted verbal, non-verbal or physical conduct of a

sexual nature occurs with the purpose or effect of violating the dignity of a

person, in particular when creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading,

humiliating or offensive environment.

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Although there is a general agreement about which behaviours may

constitute sexual harassment, the individual experience of sexual

harassment is subjective, but a key characteristic is that it is

unwanted by the recipient.

Munson et al (2000) notes that Sexual harassment often reflects

an abuse of power within an organisation, where members of one

group of people yield greater power than others, generally women.

It is linked with women's disadvantaged status at work and, more

generally, in society. Sexual harassment can take many forms:

from sexually explicit remarks and banter, to harassment over the

telephone and via email, to sexual assault. Studies have found

that individuals have different perceptions of sexual harassment.

For example, women are more likely than men to label certain

behaviours as sexual harassment, similarly non-manual staff

compared with manual staff. Behaviour is more likely to be seen

as harassment when there is a large power difference between the

person being harassed and the person doing the harassing.

Rutherford et al (2006) is of the view that women are sometimes

reluctant to label their own experiences as sexual harassment.

This is because such acts are defined in terms of seriousness,

and some women may not think their own experiences are serious

enough. This is potentially problematic for research which seeks

to clarify the prevalence of the problem and raise methodological

questions.

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Research estimates regarding its incidence vary widely, depending

on the wording of any definitions of harassment and the questions

used, as well as different sample populations and research

methods. For example, a recent DTI survey on fairness at work

(Grainger and Fitzner, 2006) included a question which asked

specifically about "Sexual harassment…that creates a hostile working

environment". This produced a very low estimate compared with

previous national and organisational studies. In contrast, a

study for the Ministry of Defence (Rutherford et al., 2006) asked

more broadly about sexualised behaviours by providing a list of

possible behaviours, asking if the respondent had experienced any

of them, if they regarded them as sexual harassment and if they

personally found them offensive. This produced a high incidence

rate of sexually harassing behaviours.

In recent years, the emphasis in research has shifted somewhat

from sexual harassment to bullying. There are strong links

between the two concepts, with sexual harassment sometimes seen

as falling within the wider context of bullying ( Hunt,

Davidson, Fielden and Hoel,2007).

Forms of sexual harassment

Sexual harassment can take many different forms. Case decisions

on the EOC (www.eoc.org) show the wide range of behaviors in the

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workplace that have been taken to employment tribunals over the

years and the body of case law that has been established. These

include: making sexually explicit remarks and banter; leering,

rude remarks and personal insults; showing sexually explicit

obscene pictures and images from the internet; displaying

calendars and pictures of nude women; and sexual assault.

It is generally accepted that sexual harassment includes two

types of behaviour. The first is usually defined as “quid pro

quo” and relates to where an individual, often in a position of

power, will explicitly or implicitly make sexual requests and/or

advances. In exchange they may offer some desired result, for

example a promotion. The second is sexual harassment which can be

defined as “hostile environment”, which refers to sex-related

behaviours which make the person being harassed feel

uncomfortable, thereby creating an intimidating working

environment. This type of sexual harassment is a source of much

debate as it may be more subtle and is often termed a ‘grey area’

(Smolensky and Kleiner, 2003: 60).

Smolensky and Kleiner (2003) provide examples of past court cases

in the United States illustrating a hostile environment,

including:

Female office workers at AT&T Technologies in North Carolina

who were ‘rated’ by male employees as they passed the men's

desks, followed by lascivious comments about their hips and

breasts;

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Women who were subjected to a dress code which banned

trousers by their supervisor, established by him

specifically so he could admire their legs; and

A student at the New York City police academy who had to

fight off the assault of a male student by hitting him with

a box of ammunition, and who had her breasts fondled from

behind by her instructor as she tried to fire her gun.

Also in the US, a 1988 study (Rutter, 1996) listed the seven most

frequent forms of harassment. In order of frequency they were:

Sexual teasing, jokes, remarks or questions

Pressure for dates

Letters, telephone calls, or materials of a sexual nature

Sexual looks or gestures

Deliberate touching, leaning over, cornering or pinching

Pressure for sexual favors.

Actual or attempted rape or sexual assault.

Examples of sexual harassment

Physical conduct

Physical violence

Physical contact, e.g. touching, pinching

The use of job-related threats or rewards to solicit sexual

favours

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Verbal conduct

Comments on a worker’s appearance, age, private life, etc.

Sexual comments, stories and jokes

Sexual advances

Repeated social invitations

Insults based on the sex of the worker

Condescending or paternalistic remarks

Non-verbal conduct

Display of sexually explicit or suggestive material

Sexually-suggestive gestures

Whistling

(Rubenstein,1992)

Sexual harassment is a form of gender-specific violence against

women. (CEDAW,1992).While sexual assault and rape are the more

commonly recognised forms of violence against women, less extreme

types of inappropriate sexual behaviour can be similarly

intimidating and repressive. Thus, a woman victimised by sexual

harassment is subjected to “pressure, degradation or hostility

that her male co-workers don’t have to endure”.

(Petrocelli,William and Kate,1992).

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At the most basic level, harassment or other sexually coercive

behaviour constitutes violence against women because like all

forms of violence, such behaviour undermines the inherent human

dignity of its victims. Sexual harassment speaks more to power

relationships and victimisation than it does to sex itself. It

“results from a misuse of power, not from sexual attraction”,

(Petrocelli etal, 1992), and reflects a disparity in power

between the perpetrator and the victim, which more often than

not, mirrors the power differentials between men and women in

society, (ILO, 2001).

Indeed, in the vast majority of cases, victims of sexual

harassment are women while the perpetrators are men, (ILO,2001).

This observation does not reflect a biological proclivity in men

to sexually harass women, but rather speaks to the unequal

structuring of society along gender lines. Additionally,

especially in this part of the world, social and cultural norms

may serve to validate or even encourage the behaviour of sexual

harassers, (ILO, 2001).

In Zimbabwe, according to Zimbabwe Union of Journalists (ZUJ) and

the Federation of African Media Women Zimbabwe (FAMWZ)

(http:www.kubatana.net),all the above forms also constitute

Sexual harassment in Zimbabwe.

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2.3.2 Impact of sexual harassment on work output

Sexual harassment can have a negative effect on the individual,

in both the short and long term (Pertocelli and Repa, 2008).

Those who have been harassed may experience illness, humiliation,

anger, loss of self-confidence and psychological damage. Sexual

harassment may also lead to workplace problems such as decreased

performance, lower job satisfaction and higher absenteeism. In

some cases, it may lead to resignation.

According to Woodward and Carson (2010), observing someone else

in the organisation experience sexual harassment may also have a

detrimental impact on an employee, by affecting their attitude

towards work and even leading to psychosomatic problems. If

employees believe that sexual harassment is not being tackled in

the organisation this may lead to decreased job satisfaction and

poorer physical health. On the other hand, the investigation of

sexual harassment complaints may cause serious divisions between

staff.

The presence of sexual harassment within an organisation may

damage business performance due to low morale, lost productivity,

damage to reputation and public image, and the cost of any

compensation awards to sufferers of harassment who have taken a

claim to employment tribunal. It may also have an impact on

26

employee turnover, particularly that of female employees (Munson

et al, 2010)

Prekel, (2000) notes that, given its potential impact on the

health of those who have been harassed and its contribution to

work-related stress for those involved both directly and

indirectly, sexual harassment is also a health and safety issue

and has been recognised by the Health and Safety Executive as a

potential health risk or hazard in organisations.

The effects of sexual harassment vary from person to person, and

are contingent on the severity, and duration, of the harassment.

However, sexual harassment is a type of sexual assault, and

victims of severe or chronic sexual harassment can suffer the

same psychological effects as rape victims.  Aggravating factors

can exist, such as their becoming the target of retaliation,

backlash, or victim blaming after their complaining, or filing a

formal grievance.  Moreover, people who have experienced sexual

harassment occupy a place in our society that is similar to where

rape victims were placed in the past, and they can be abused

further by the system that is supposed to help and protect them.

Indeed, the treatment of the complainant during an investigation

or litigation can be brutal, and add further damage to their

life, health, and psyche. Depending on the situation, a sexual

harassment victim can experience anything from mild annoyance to

extreme psychological damage, while the impact on a victim's

27

career and life may be minimal, or leave them in ruins (Woodard

and Carson, 2010).

The impact on work output

Sexual harassment has been linked to decreased job satisfaction,

and can lead to a loss of staff and expertise because of

resignations to avoid harassment, or because of resignations or

firings of alleged harassers.  Every year, hundreds of millions

of dollars are lost in productivity because of effects such as

employee absenteeism to avoid harassment, and increased team

conflict in environments where harassment is occurring.  The

increased team conflict also leads to problems with team cohesion

and less success in meeting financial goals.  The knowledge that

harassment is permitted can undermine ethical standards, and

discipline in the organization.

 Prekel (2000) writes, “…staff lose respect for, and trust in,

their seniors who indulge in, or turn a blind eye to, sexual

harassment.”  If the problem is ignored, a company’s image can

suffer amongst clients, employees, potential customers, and the

general public.  Health care costs can increase because of the

health consequences of harassment, not to mention the legal costs

if a victim files a lawsuit after complaints are ignored or

mishandled.  

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In educational environments where sexual harassment is

occurring, the impact can be similar to that of the workplace:

increased absenteeism by students to avoid harassment, increased

student turnover as students leave to escape harassment; conflict

amongst students when harassment is present; decreased

productivity and performance, and/or decreased participation in

school activities, as students must focus on, and strategize

about, ways to deal with the harassment, or because of the

psychological effects of harassment.  The same loss of trust in

the ethical standards of a company can also occur at school,

leading students, staff, parents, and the general public to lose

respect for, and trust in the institution if nothing is done to

improve the situation (Woodard and Carson, 2010).

The consequences of sexual harassment in the workplace affect

everyone, not just those involved. From a company standpoint,

they may lose employees due to the hostile environment; if

current employees feel as though the situation could happen again

or that retaliation could happen (to, for example, friends or co-

workers of the victim), they may not want to work for such a

troubled company. There is also the image of the company itself.

If the company did not do anything to help the victim or worse,

shielded the harasser, their public image may suffer. Clients,

stockholders and employees will not want to have anything to do

with the company or their business. Employees who may not have

endured the harassment are still affected. As mentioned above, if

an employee feels as though the working environment has become

29

hostile, they may begin to look for work elsewhere. Female

employees may be the first of those to leave, as they may feel

that the situation doesn't seem to be handled in the way that

would resolve the problem (http://www.brighthub.com).

The obvious consequence of sexual harassment in the workplace is

placed on the victim of the harassment. Aside from the hostile

working environment, the victim can also experience personal

issues. Self-esteem, professional growth, stress, health, and

even mental health issues may occur in the aftermath (MacKinnon,

1999). Even if the victim leaves the company in which they

experienced the harassment, they may have difficulties securing

another position or they may view co-workers or superiors with

suspicion, endangering the work relationship.

Victims of sexual harassment or any type of harassment should

report it to the proper authorities. Find what your company's

policy is on workplace harassment, what your rights are, and how

to go about filing a report. If you need to seek legal action,

find out what needs to be done in your particular state and city.

In Zimbabwe, for example, the impact of Sexual Harassment is

noticed in different ways. According to Zimbabwe Union of

Journalists (ZUJ) and Federation of African Media Women Zimbabwe

(FAMWZ), sexual harassment results in absenteeism, not meeting

30

deadlines and even low self-esteem resulting in low production.

At Great Zimbabwe University for example, a female employee who

was sexually harassed resigned immediately when she was told by

her harasser that if she reports the case, he would hire his boys

to kill her. As a result, she lost her job.

2.3.3 What promotes Sexual Harassment at work place?

Sexual harassment is, above all, a manifestation of power

relations – women are much more likely to be victims of sexual

harassment precisely because they more often than men lack power,

are in more vulnerable and insecure positions, lack self-

confidence, or have been socialized to suffer in silence.  In

order to understand why women endure the vast majority of sexual

harassment, it is important to look at some of the underlying

causes of this phenomenon.

The relationship between the sexes in many countries around the

world includes a considerable amount of violence against women. 

Data about the United States, for example, indicate that one out

of every ten women are raped or sexually assaulted during their

lives, while more than half of all women living with men have

experienced a bartering or similar incident of domestic violence

(Defoe, 2012).

Violence by men against women exists in the workplace, as it does

in other settings.  Some scholars, such as Faludi, (1987)

suggest that male hostility toward women in the workplace is31

closely connected to male attitudes about the “proper” role of a

man in society.  Surveys on men’s perception of masculinity,

carried out in the U.S., for example, indicate that the leading

definition of masculinity is being “a good provider for his

family.”  Faludi (1987) concludes that some men perceive the

“feminist drive for economic equality” as a threat to their

traditional role.  Thus, sexual harassment is a form of violence

perceived as self-protection.

The problem of sexual harassment relates to the roles which are

attributed to men and women in social and economic life, which,

in turn, directly or indirectly, affects women’s positions in the

labor market. Focusing on the economics of men's work and women's

work exposes sexual harassment as a way for the men who harass

women to express their resentment and try to reassert control

when they view women as their economic competitors

According to the American Federation of Labor-Congress of

Industrial Organization, [AFL-CIO] Working Women's Department

(1995), despite impediments women face in obtaining employment,

there has been a massive influx of women into the labor force in

the 1960s and 1970s, not only in the U.S., but on a global

scale.  Women's entry into the workforce has been prompted by

necessity, since many families cannot make ends meet if the wife

and husband do not both work full-time. 

Furthermore, the number of single-parent families headed by women

in growing.  There are a large number of families in which a32

woman is the sole means of support.  Data from the U.S. indicate

that between 1980 and 1990, the number of female-headed families

increased by 27%.  By 1997, two out of every five working women

were the sole head of their households, and within that group,

more than one-quarter had dependent children.  ( The American

Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organization, [AFL-

CIO] Working Women's Department, 1995 ).

Watson (1994) suggests that this new and sudden influx of women

into the labor force brought about two simultaneous, but

seemingly opposite reactions to women at work.  On one hand, some

men resented female employees and perceived them as a threat in

traditionally male dominated work environments.  In these cases

the women were subject to overt discrimination, that is, they

received lesser-valued job assignments, lack of promotions, lower

pay, and sexual harassment to cause embarrassment and

humiliation. 

The second reaction as pointed out by Handy (2006) was to exploit

the presence of women and make sexual favors and submission to

sexual behaviors conditions of employment, that is to keep from

being fired, demoted, or otherwise adversely affected at work. 

Both are forms of sexual harassment

MacKinnon (1987) was the first legal scholar to draw attention to

the connection between sex discrimination and sexual harassment:

33

‘Women tend to be in low-ranking positions, dependent upon

the approval and goodwill of male (superiors) for hiring,

retention and advancement. Being at the mercy of male

superiors adds direct economic clout to male sexual demands.

It also deprives women of material security and independence

which could help make resistance to unreasonable job

pressures practical’

Sexual harassment of women can occur largely because women occupy

inferior job positions and job roles; at the same time, sexual

harassment works to keep women in such positions. If sex

discrimination forces women into lower-paying jobs, sexual

harassment helps keep them there (Defoe, 2012).  This may not be

the intention of the harasser in every instance, but it is often

the effect.

Seen in this context, male workers who harass a woman on the job

are doing more than annoying her.  They are reminding her of her

vulnerability, creating tensions that make her job more difficult

and making her hesitant to seek higher paying jobs where she may

perceive the tension as even greater.  In short, sexual

harassment creates a climate of intimidation and repression.  A

woman who is the target of sexual harassment often goes through

the same process of victimization as one who has suffered rape,

battering or other gender-related crimes- frequently blaming

herself and doubting her own self-worth (MacKinnon, 1987).

34

According to Handy (2006), women employed in fields that are

traditionally considered “woman’s work”, such as waitresses and

secretaries, are often given menial, degrading tasks.  They are

often called demeaning names, and they are led to believe that a

certain amount of male domination and sexism is normal.  All of

this reinforces the idea that women workers are of little value

in the workplace.  Women who try to break into traditionally all-

male work, such as construction jobs, medicine or investment

banking, often suffer even more intense harassment clearly aimed

at forcing them to leave (Defoe, 2012).

Thus sexual harassment often accomplishes informally what laws

against sex-based discrimination theoretically prohibit: gender-

based requirements for a job.  A woman subjected to sexual

harassment endures pressure, degradation or hostility that her

male co-workers don't have to endure- making it just that much

harder to compete for the job and for advancement (Ferole, 1999).

2.3.4 Effects of perception of Sexual Harassment by employees on

work output.

According to Defoe (2012), Sexual harassment in the workplace

harms the targets of the mistreatment.  Sexual harassment also

affects the non-targets who observe or perceive hostile behavior

directed at coworkers.   The non-targets can not only experience

the hostility, but they can also perceive their organization as

35

lax.  These two things, personal experience and perception of

organizational dysfunction, combine to reflect the interpersonal

climate for women in an organization.  These features “jointly

influence the well-being and withdrawal behaviors of employees”,

(Defoe, 2012).

A team of psychological science researchers examined how male and

female employees’ observations and perceptions of hostility

toward women influenced well-being and withdrawal behaviors. 

Working in a negative interpersonal climate for women affects

both male and female employees.  The researchers integrated

previous research concerning observed mistreatment and perceived

organizational unresponsiveness into a single model.  The purpose

of their study was to use that model and examine how working in a

negative interpersonal climate for women affects employees.  The

researchers demonstrated a link between vicarious exposure to

sexually harassing behavior and declines in psychological well-

being and negative organization-related consequences

(http://www.psycholawlogy.com).

Frequent witnessing of sexual harassment, particularly where

action may not be taken by an employer to prevent or remedy it,

may be an indicator of a workplace culture that tolerates or does

not adequately respond to sexual harassment

(http://www.humanrights.gov.au). According to Handy (2006), the

number of employees who witness sexual harassment is an important

36

marker for organisations because employee perceptions of the

organisation’s tolerance of harassment have more influence on the

attitudes and behaviors of employees than the existence of formal

rules and regulations, regardless of organizational sex ratios.

2.3.5 Strategies to address sexual harassment

Epstein (2012) notes that there are three basic types of

intervention that can be implemented by an organisation to

prevent or deal with sexual harassment: prevention, responding to

sexual harassment where it does occur and follow-up in the

aftermath of an investigation into a complaint of sexual

harassment. Preventative actions include the formation and

adoption of a sexual harassment policy, training and awareness

raising, monitoring and evaluation.

There are two distinct approaches to policy formation: a 'top-

down' and a 'consultative' approach (Master, 2009). The

consultative approach is advocated by researchers, who emphasise

the importance of including multiple stakeholders, including

employee groups and trade unions. This can also be seen as a

'bottom-up' approach, where staff and staff representatives are

fully involved with management in developing and owning relevant

policies and programmes. A culture of respect has to be developed

within an organisation, and a strong zero tolerance policy

37

towards sexual harassment is essential, whichever approach is

adopted.

Following an investigation of a complaint of sexual harassment,

rehabilitation of the person who has been harassed, including

support and counselling where required, is essential (Epstein,

2012). Others will need to be reintegrated, including the

harasser and any witnesses or other colleagues who have been

affected. Examination of how the harassment occurred and whether

existing policies and procedures need amending, are also

necessary.

A number of organisations have published good practice guides.

These cover the relevant issues from prevention to follow up:

establishing effective policies and procedures; changing the

organisational culture to one where harassment is not tolerated;

training for all employees; commitment and support from senior

staff; effective monitoring systems and providing those

suffering harassment with independent support (Master, 2009).

On an individual level, research evidence suggests that the most

effective methods of dealing with sexual harassment are:

confronting and negotiating with the harasser, for example,

asking them to stop, threatening or disciplining them; or by

seeking advocacy, that is reporting the behaviour, asking another

person to intervene, or seeking legal remedy. The least effective

38

methods of dealing with sexual harassment are thought to be

avoidance of the harasser or denial that it is happening, but

these tend to be the most common methods used (Petrocelli and

Repa, 2008).

Handy (2006) notes that one of the principal difficulties for

people taking a sexual harassment claim to an employment tribunal

is the lack of financial support for claimants. This means that

many of those taking a claim have to represent themselves, which

can include cross-examining the alleged harasser. Individuals

have found the proceedings distressing, particularly having to

confront their sexual harasser at such close proximity.

2.3.5.1 Levels of intervention

There are three levels of intervention that an organisation can

employ to prevent and deal with sexual harassment:

Prevention (also known as the primary intervention stage)

refers to activities which can be implemented to prevent

sexual harassment from occurring. These may include having

effective policies and procedures, training programmes and

awareness raising campaigns, monitoring, running

organisational health checks and identifying potential risk

factors.

39

Responses to sexual harassment (the secondary intervention

stage) are the ways in which organisations deal with sexual

harassment once it has occurred, such as ensuring that an

effective complaints procedure is in place.

Follow-up (or the tertiary intervention stage) refers to

procedures which deal with the aftermath of sexual

harassment, for example, ensuring that effective

rehabilitation to the workplace, is provided.

2.3.5.2 Prevention

Preventive measures aim to address the root cause of the problem,

thus preventing it from developing (Quick, 1999), however:

Empirical research documenting the efficacy of sexual harassment policies

preventing or reducing sexual harassment is scarce.

(Bell et al., 2002).

2.3.5.3 Checking the culture

An organisation and its employees exhibit certain characteristics

which have the potential to merge together to create an unhealthy

organisation, whereby sexual harassment becomes embedded in the

culture. Bell et al. (2002) advocate the importance of a strong

culture which is intolerant of this form of behaviour, and state

that there are a variety of preventive actions which can be

40

taken. They suggest an analogy with cardiovascular disease: this

has multiple precursors which develop gradually over time through

a variety of stages. An organisation may similarly exhibit risk

factors or precursors, for example, unequal gender ratios and

high power differentials between male and female employees.

Without the adoption of preventive measures, such risk factors

could lead to low-level harassment, such as inappropriate jokes

or touching. If no preventive measures have been implemented, the

harassment may escalate to sexual coercion, rape or assault,

which Bell et al. (2002)

Thomas (2004) advocates the importance of designing and

developing a strong sexual harassment policy to:

Provide all employees with a clear statement of the types of

conduct and behaviour which may constitute harassment.

Make it clear that harassment is not tolerated within the

organisation.

2.3.5.4 Purpose of sexual harassment policies

A formal sexual harassment policy can set behavioural guidelines

which should deter potential harassers, and encourage those who

experience sexual harassment to report it (Gruber and Smith,

1995). A strong zero tolerance perspective towards sexual

harassment is an important factor and it is essential that this

41

is communicated to, and understood by, all employees. Some

employees may not welcome a zero tolerance approach, for example,

Rutherford et al. (2006) found that respondents in the Armed

Services feared that "too draconian an approach would lead to political

correctness and people treading too carefully”. Respondents were also

concerned that a strict zero tolerance approach might lead to

increased numbers of formal complaints although, as seen earlier

in this report, this is not necessarily negative as it may

indicate that individuals are both more aware of sexual

harassment and more confident to take action against it.

A good policy will fully cover the rights and dignity of the

individual and set out clear guidelines for what is and is not

acceptable behaviour, and the relevant procedures. With a strong

policy in place, someone who faces harassment will feel more

empowered to challenge behaviour that they feel is offensive

knowing they have the support of their organisation. Fielden, in

a study of Citizen Advice Bureaux, (1996) argued that there needs

to be a practice of openness and communication to empower staff

(or in this case volunteers) to challenge sexual harassment in

the knowledge that that they will receive organisational support

if they file a complaint against a harasser.

2.3.5.5 Training

42

Byers and Rue (1991) state, “training must be directed toward the

accomplishment of some organisational goal”, in other words, organisations

must develop a clear policy statement relating to sexual

harassment as a first step, before training takes place. Training

is an effective method to employ at the primary intervention

stage and it should meet two main objectives: to raise staff

awareness and clarify any misconceptions regarding what

constitutes sexual harassment; and to inform managers of their

roles and responsibilities when attempting to provide a

harassment-free working environment for all employees (Laabs,

1995; York et al., 1997). It should also help to equip

individuals and managers with the necessary skills to deal with

sexual harassment if it occurs.

43

Training can be used to raise awareness and understanding of

sexual harassment and to help equip individuals with the

necessary skills to deal with it. Few studies have looked at the

effectiveness of training but those that exist suggest that it is

particularly effective for changing men's attitudes.

Responses to sexual harassment when it has occurred include the

complaints procedure within an organisation and the

identification of effective strategies for dealing with sexual

harassment. Both a formal and informal route for reporting

harassment are important. They should make it explicit that

confidentiality will be maintained wherever possible and that

employees bringing a complaint will be protected from

victimisation. Making a complaint can be a very difficult

procedure for an individual, especially if the organisation does

not have clear policies and procedures in place and similarly, if

the alleged harasser is the manager of the person making the

complaint, as is often the case.

A number of different techniques have been utilised in training.

The use of role theory was examined by Licata and Popovich (1987)

as a framework for understanding sexual harassment problems and

using role negotiation techniques as a way of resolving work

conflicts. Role theory asserts that human behaviour is guided and

44

shaped by expectations which are held by the individual and by

others.

Summary

The foregoing revealed what sexual harassment is, the impact of

sexual harassment in organizations, forms of sexual harassment

and the strategies that can be used to address sexual

harassment .The chapter invited contributions from various

authorities on the impact of sexual harassment in organisations.

The feminist theory has been adopted in this section revealing

the feminist standpoint theory on sexual harassment in

organizations. The next chapter focuses on the research

methodology for the study.

Chapter 3

Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The section revealed the methodology that was adopted in this

study. This included the design that was used, the population,

sample and sampling procedure. The instruments used in collecting

data were also shown justifying why these were considered

appropriate in order to enhance validity and reliability. The

methodology revealed how data was to be collected, and the

45

ethical considerations taken into account. Finally the section

raised the data analysis plan for the study.

3.2 Research Design

According to Macmillan and Schumacher (1993), a research design

is a structure or plan of investigation. This study adopted a

case study approach. This is a method of studying elements of a

social system through comprehensive description and analysis of 

a single situation or a case for example a detailed study  of an

individual setting, group, episode or event (O’Leary,2010).This

was adopted because the researcher wanted quality data on sexual

harassment at Great Zimbabwe University, hence an in depth

analysis was necessary. A case study is a qualitative research

design. The case study was considered flexible and holistic in

nature. Its major strength of collecting detailed data was

considered. In light of this background relevant data collection

instruments were identified to support the design chosen.

3.3 Population

Diversity characterizes the population to be studied. The

population includes staff at Great Zimbabwe University. The

occupations of these groups also varied .An approximate figure of

900 shall be considered as the study population.

46

3.4 Sample

This is regarded as representative of the whole population

(Breakwell and Fife Schaw, 2006).The researcher reduced the

number of participants in the study to manageable size. The

sample consists of 90 respondents following Cury’s rule of thumb

method. The following guided the researcher in coming up with a

representative sample:

Size of the Sample Percentage (%)

0-100 100%

101-1000 10%

1001-5000 5%

5001-10 000 3%

10000 1%Figure 1: Cury’s Rule of thumb on sample size

3.3.1 Sampling Method

The researcher shall purposively select key informants in the

area. Key informants include Management and Heads of departments

at Great Zimbabwe University. Purposive sampling shall be adopted

in this regard to avoid excluding key people in the organisation.

The rest of the respondents will be selected using the random

sampling approach whereby all the members stand an opportunity of

being selected. It is a probability sampling method.

3.4 Data collection Instruments

47

Various data collection instruments can be used in data gathering

depending with the nature of the study and the design adopted.

This study is a qualitative one hence shall adopt relevant tools

that address the problem which was considered valid and reliable.

There are various means of getting data from people. The

researcher identified interviews and questionnaires as

appropriate tools for the study. These are the tools that the

researcher shall employ in collecting data from the field.

3.4.1 Interviews

The key informants in the area shall be interviewed. Key

informants comprise management and heads of departments. A semi

structured interview will give respondents an opportunity to

express themselves fully. A semi structured schedule is designed

to guide the researcher, also affording the respondents room for

clarification.

3.4.2 Questionnaire

A standard questionnaire shall be developed to capture a wide

variety of data on sexual harassment and work output. The

questionnaire comprises of both open ended and closed questions

to attract brief and detailed responses, quantitative data and

qualitative data.

3.4.3 Data collection procedure

48

Entry into Great Zimbabwe University shall be after getting

permission from responsible authorities. The researcher shall

make appointments with key informants before interviews are

conducted. After this the researcher personally administers

interviews and questionnaires concurrently. During interviews the

researcher record responses on paper verbatim in English. The

respondents shall fill in their responses on the questionnaires

and assistance shall be given to those who sought help in putting

answers down.

3.4.4 Pilot Study

A pilot study is a standard scientific tool for 'soft' research,

allowing scientists to conduct a preliminary analysis before

committing to a full blown study (Stachowiak, 2008). Hopkins

(2002) says it is a smaller version of a larger study that is

conducted to prepare for that study. A pilot study can involve

pretesting a research tool, like a new data collection method.

The researcher shall conduct a pilot test of the instruments with

a small group of people in the same area in order to do away with

ambiguities and inconsistencies in instruments. This shall be

done in order to enhance reliability and validity of research

instruments. Reliability entails the degree of constituency of

data collection instruments and the study whereas validity is

about instruments measuring what they are supposed to measure.

Other issues to take note of includes the availability of the

sample needed, population work schedules, desire of the

49

population to participate, acceptability of the questions,

sampling procedures ,time needed to locate participants among

other issues.

3.5 Ethical considerations

According to McMillan and Schumacher (1993) research ethics are

set of principles that assist the community of researchers in

deciding which goals are most important in reconciling

conflicting values. It was noted that the researcher has to be

ethical in order to ensure that the study is authentic, valid and

reliable. Ethical concerns usually cover three areas viz; the

relationship between society, professional issues and treatment

of subjects (participants) (McMillan and Schumacher 1993).

Some ethical principles shall guide the researcher throughout the

whole study. The researcher considered these as moral guidelines

or dos and don’ts of research, hence shall observe the following

among others:

The researcher shall inform participants on why the study was

conducted. In this regard the researcher shall be guided by the

principle of informed consent which views it unethically to

collect data from people without informing them why the study is

conducted. In order to address these respondents shall be asked

to fill in an informed consent form.

According to Jewel (2000) the researcher should not exaggerate

results to suit preconceived ideas. Therefore the researcher was

50

very considerate in carrying out the study. Respondents will not

be forced to participate, they will voluntarily contribute and

they will be given the room to withdraw if ever they decide so

during the process of data collection.

The names of participants remain anonymous and data collected

shall be treated confidential. No names will be written on the

questionnaires and during interviews however the names that are

used are not respondents’ real names.

After the research is done the researcher will share the results

of the study with the community concerned. This is done to

concietize the participants on why such a study was done and what

could the benefits from such an undertaking.

3.6 Data analysis plan

Collected data shall be presented, analysed and interpreted

accordingly. Responses for closed questions will be presented in

tables and graphs while open ended questions were treated

qualitatively, inviting direct quotations from respondents. An

interpretive approach shall be adopted. The method involves

analyzing the gathered that is through reading the data

repeatedly and engaging in activities of breaking data down and

building it up again in novel ways (Terre Blanche and Kelly,

1999). This is a process of thematising and categorizing. The

researcher shall come up with themes and attempt to draw a

51

picture of the experiences of participants. The researcher

invites literature to support or deny the findings and attempt to

add her voice in response to the findings of the study.

3.7 Summary

The foregoing attempted to come up with a proper research

methodology for this study. The chapter covered the research

design, defined the population sample and sampling procedure.

Justification on why these are included was made. The research

instruments which are to be used are interviews and

questionnaires. The next chapter focuses on data presentation,

analysis, interpretation and discussion.

52