Seven Day Cycles and Seventh-day Sabbathin Cuneiform Texts

by Koot van Wyk1)

I. Introduction

The discussion of the seven cycle and seventh-day Sabbath in cuneiform tablets

from Warka, near Babylon, stands actually in a bigger frame of the discovery of a"Sabbath text" at Nineveh in 1869 by George Smith,2) which was drawn in full by H.Rawlinson in 18753) and in the same year commented upon by Archibald Henry Sayce4), later by Francis Brown (1882)5), W. Guilelmus Lotz (1883)6), Peter Jensen (1892)7),Morris Jastrow (1894)8). The text was also treated by Friedrich Delitzsch in 19009). A

1) Visiting Professor at Kyungpook National University Sangju Campus and Conjoint lecturer forAvondale College, Australia. He holds a D.Litt et Phil. from the University of South Africa(2004) and a Th.D. from Rikkyo University in Tokyo, Japan (2008).2) "In the year 1869, I discovered among other things a curious religious calendar of theAssyrians, in which every month is divided into four weeks, and the seventh days, or "Sabbaths," are marked out as days on which no work should be undertaken." (George Smith,Assyrian Discoveries: An Account of Explorations and Discoveries on the site of Nineveh, during1873 and 1874 [New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Co., 1875], Chapter II: 12).3) H. C. Rawlinson, (Ed.), The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia: Vol. IV: A Selectionfrom the Miscellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria (1875, 2nd Edition: 1891 / 1909). Rawlinson page14 (online) gives a list of texts. XXXII is a "Hemerology for the Month of the intercalary Elul"obverse (Online Image number 89 of 493 images. Page 32 in top right). XXXIII Ditto, reverse(online Image 91) page 33 top right: Fragment of Hemerology of the Month of Marchisvan. Listof Months and their regents.4) A. Henry Sayce, "The Chaldean Origin of the Sabbath" The Academy: A Weekly Review ofLiterature, Science and Art 8 (1875): 554-555.5) Francis Brown, "The Sabbath in the Cuneiform Records" Presbyterian Review (1882): 688-700.6) (W) Guilelmus Lotz, Quaestiones de historia Sabbati (Leipzig: 1883): 39-49.7) Peter Christian Albrecht Jensen, The Supposed Babylonian Origin of the Week and the뺵Sabbath" Sunday School Times (1892), nr. 3.8) Morris Jastrow, Jr. "The Bible and the Assyrian Monuments" The Century Magazine XLVII(January 1894): 395-411. Also his comment on ana epasch la na-tu in "'für Arbeit (oderAusführung) nicht geignet' . . . und nicht, wie man früher annahm, epesch arrati, 'zum Fluchen'was ja ein eigentümliches Verbot wäre" in Morris Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens undAssyriens Vol. 2 (Giesen: Alfred Topelmann, 1905-1912): 533 footnote 1.9) Friedrich Delitzsch, Assyrische Lesestücke mit Grammatische Tabellen und VollstandigemGlossar Einführung in die Assyrische und Babylonische Keilschriftliteratur bis hinauf zuHammurabi: Assyrische Lesestücke fur Akademische Gebrauch und Selbstunterricht, 4th edition (J.C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, 1900): page 82 plate 6. He calls the text "Das sogenanteSabbatsgesetz: Vorschriften für den 7 und 14 etc. Montstag"

text edition was also prepared by R. W. Rogers (1912)10). A number of scholarscommented on the text: Jeremias, Lagrange, Pinches, Clay11). On seven cycles inBabylonia, the article of Peter Jensen (1901)12) should be mentioned.13)

The discussion of the Warka texts stands further under an even greater umbrellaof the symbolic meaning or otherwise, of seven in the Ancient Near Eastern cultures ingeneral.14) We have found numerous examples in outside cultures: Sumerian, Old

10) R. W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament (New York, Eaton & Mains,1912): 189.11) Hutton Webster, Rest Days: A Study in Early Law and Morality (New York: The MacmillanCompany, 1916), 232 footnote 4. There are more scholars: M. J. Lagrange, Études sur lesreligions sémitiques (Paris: Librarie Victor Legroffe, 1905): 291-295, especially 292. J. Hehn,Siebenzahl und Sabbat bei den Babyloniern und im Alten Testament (Leipzig: Heinrichs, 1907):106-109. Idem, "Zur Bedeutung der Siebenzahl," in Beiheft zur Zeitschrift für diealttestamentliche Wissenschaft 41 (1925): 128-36. J. Meinhold, Sabbat und Woche im AltenTestament (Göttingen: 1905), 15ff. F. Bohn, Der Sabbat im Alten Testament (Gütersloh: 1903):39-43.12) Peter Jensen, "Die siebentägige Woche in Babylon und Nineveh," Zeitschrift für deutscheWortforschung 1 (1901): 150. See also Klaas R. Veenhof, “The Old Assyrian hamuštum-Period:A Seven-Day Week” Jaarbericht van het Vooaziatisch-Egyptisch Genootschap Ex Oriente Lux 34(1995/96): 5-26; Hildegard and Julius Lewy, "The Origin of the Week and the Oldest WestAsiatic Calendar" The Hebrew Union College Annual Vol 17 (1942-1943).13) The text discovered from the library of Ashurbanipal (650 BCE) in Nineveh by G. Smith in1869 is very special. It was a copy made by order of Ashurbanipal of an older text. The 7th,14th, 21st and 28 days are called umu limnu "evil days". The king could not eat certain kindsof food, attending to decisions affecting the state, going out on his chariot. The priest could notutter oracles, the doctor could not lay his hand on a sick person. People were not forbidden toattend to private affairs like buy and sell.14) Seven was important in presargonic texts of A. de la Fuye 1909; in the cylinders of Gudeaseven was discussed by F. Kugler in 1909 and also in the texts of Gudea presented by F.Thureau-Dangin in 1907: Gudea stated that seven days, slaves and king, walked together (StatueB 5, 51-7, 8 lines 26-33), he built the temple of the seven (heavenly) zones (line11).(Thureau-Dangin [1907]: 76-77 Statue D of Gudea lines 7-11 also E line 16 [1907]: 78-79,also G line 13 also [1907]: 84-85, seven blessings were spoken over the temple (Cylinder A 21lines 1-12. Page 113), seven days was the period to put stelae in the temple (Cylinder A 23:1-3page 115, also Cylinder A 27 line 29 [1907]: 121, he allowed seven heroes to stay in the pillarhall Ku-lal in the "Portal of the Battle" (A 24, 25-26 [1907]: 119), he speaks of a battleweapon with seven points (Cylinder B 11 line 12 also Cylinder B 12 lines 21-22 [1907]: 135),he placed seven twin daughters with Nin-gir-su to pray (Cylinder B 11 lines 10-11 [1907]: 133),near a garden and fishpond he placed seven musicians (Cylinder B 12 lines 1-4 [1907]: 133),he rested for seven days (Cylinder B 17, 18-21, 18 [1907]: 139); seven high officials are on aKassite kudurru (ME 90829 of 1186-1172 BCE) discussed by L. W. King (1912); seven Hittitetowns are responsible for festivals; seven is in the Adapa Myth discussed by Shlomo Izre'el in apaper in 1996 "The Initiation of Adapa in Heaven"; seven days can also be found at Ugarit;seven sided stars figures are in alegorithms in an article of 2011 by Joran Friberg; seven ironand also copper nails for a Hittite pig ritual are discussed by Billie Jean Collins (She is theANE pig tending and taboo expert); seven in the Gilgamesh Epic; seven days and seven pathsare in Hittite rituals; seven days, seven sons, seven dwellings are in the Baal Cycle at Ugarit;seven is in the Jubilee discussions; seven days of fire can be found in the Baal and AnathMyths (There is a colophon informing us that the texts were copied by Ilimilku for the court ofNiqmadu the king of Ugarit, thus the date 1260 BCE is much later than the biblical

Babylonian, Kassites, Hittites, Hurrians, and Ugarit, just to mention a few. We knowthat they operated in Levant Mathematics with the decimal (10) and sexagesimalsystems (6). The number seven is thus peculiar and curious.15)

As far as certain days in hemerologies were marked during the month, modernscholars (like A. Livingstone16) and even earlier Webster in 1916)17) thought that thesedays may have had a connection to lunation or the appearance of the moon during themonth. But, as we have listed below, absolute astronomy cancels that theory altogethersince the so-called quarter of a lunar month, as origin of a week cycle, is only 23.7%.Doubt of seven in alignment to lunation was already expressed in the days beforeWebster (pre-1916). Webster (1916) indicated that when the full moon at the beginningof the month is at sunset, then the 14th day will be full moon.18) F. Kugler mentioned

chronological date for Moses that died in 1411-1410 BCE); seven gods of Sumer are alsomentioned in the article of Amar Annus (2008); seven gates, judges and mountains are in theSumerian texts; seven days in a Murshilis II ritual is presented in a text (CTH 486) by A.Coetze and H. Pedersen in 1934; seven days of flood are in a 17th century Sumerian text ofdeluge; seven days of warning before the Flood are in Atrahasis; seven evil spirits are in theRebellion in Heaven Motif cuneiform text and seven evil spirits legend is discussed by G. Smith:(1875): 398; seven evil demons are discussed in a paper in (2011): 10 by Erica Couto Ferreiraexplaining the role of supernatural and in the aetiology of illness in Mesopotamia; seven days ina Hurrian text are alloted for debt release to Ebla as mentioned by W. Harms (1996): "But ifyou do not make a debt release for Ebla, the city of the throne, in the space of seven days, Iwill come upon you. I will destroy Ebla, the city of the throne." (bilingual Hurrian-Hittite text);a seven day ritual can be found at Larsa in the Old Babylonian times; seven lads appear in theBaal Cycle at Ugarit; seven as sapta or satta can be found with the Hittites in Kikkuli's horsetraining text; a seven day feast was between 5 to 11 of Nisan; Ishtar's Descent goes throughseven gates; the Sefire Inscription Column A lines 20-26 of the 9th century BCE talks aboutseven; seven evil gods are mentioned in Egypt by E. Budge; the myth of the seven sagas arediscussed by E. Reiner (1961); seven is important in Hesiod's works as discussed by A. W. Mairin 1908; seven winds are in the Liturgical hymn to Dungi Col. III in S. Langdon (1923: 46);seven nights [Gilgamesh] wept over Enkidu in Tablet IX Column i, a text copied by the Kassitescribe Sin-lege-unini and presented by Stephanie Dalley in 1989. These are only a few examplesto underline the importance of this number seven for the ANE.15) (W) Guilelmus Lotz, Quaestiones de historia Sabbati (Leipzig: 1883), 39-49. The same wasexpressed to me in an e-mail (2012) by prof. dr. Piotr Michalowski regarding the number seven.A bibliography on seven studies before 1916 can be found in Hutton Webster, Rest Days: AStudy in Early Law and Morality (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1916), 206-207 footnote3.16) Allisdair Livingstone, "The use of Magic in the Assyrian and Babylonian Hemerologies andMenologies" in Official Cult, and Popular Religion in the Ancient Near East edited by E.Matushima (Heidelberg, 1993): 97-113. The article is also online.17) Hutton Webster (1916), 239-241.18) Webster 1916: 240. "It has been held, [view I (and currently similar to Livingstone et al)] .. .that the 'evil days' were selected as corresponding the moon's successive changes. . . .According to another opinion [view II] the setting apart of every seventh day was due to theimportance ascribed to seven; hence that the seven-day cycles were not regarded as quarters oflunation but rather as periods containing the symbolic number of seven days, which happened tocoincide, roughly, with a fourth part of the lunar month" (Webster 1916: 224-225). Earlier alsoM. J. Lagrange indicated that it is only approximately for a lunar month is "29 jours 12 heures44 minutes 3 secondes, ne pouvait être partagé exactement" (M. J. Lagrange, Études sur lesreligions sémitiques [Paris: Librarie Victor Legroffe, 1905]: 293). Relevant is also the study by

that in numerous reports by Babylonian astrologers, any one of five days, from the 12thto the 16th of the month, might be taken as the exact time when the moon becamefull.19)

Scholars (like W. Lotz and G. V. Schiaparelli), have also taken a large corpusof cuneiform texts and searched for important days in them. Such a study wasundertaken and mentioned by W. Lotz (1883). It was found that the 19th day waspeculiar with only one contract on that day but all the other days had an average of 18contracts out of 540 dated contracts. The texts were dating from the archives of theBabylonian business firm Egibi and Sons, but only the 19th day had no contracts.20)Then again a study by Schiaparelli, of 2764 dates on contracts between 604-449 BCEindicated that the 7th, 14th, 21st days average 94 transactions while the 28th slightlybelow, but the 19th day only 12 contracts. A significant drop on contracts for the day19 in the month is reported.21) The bottom line is: for Babylonians in general, theseventh-day cycle was not important. This evidence challenges the theories of aBabylonian origin of the Sabbath. As C. H. W. Johns (1906) indicated after a study of365 documents from the period 720-606 BCE, that there were no marked cessation ofbusiness on the 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th days. "They were not kept with puritanrespect for the Sabbath, if Sabbaths they really were".22)

It is at this point that our study of the Warka texts at the Yale Collection andalso those in Europe, becomes relevant. Suddenly, out of the blue, texts turned upwhich considered 7th, 14th, 21st and 28th days very important.23) No doctoral researchor serious research has been conducted on this issue. Yet, Bob Foster24) at the Yale

W. W. Hallo, "New Moons and Sabbaths. A Case-study in the Contrastive Approach," HUCA48 (1977): 1-18; and the study by E. Kutsch, "Der Sabbat ursprünglich Vollmondtag?" in: E.Kutsch, Kleine Schriften zum Alten Testament (BZAW 168), Berlin / New York, (1986): 71-77.19) F. Kugler, Sternkunde und Sterndienst in Babel II (Münster in Westfalen, Aschendorff, 1907):14ff.20) Webster 1916: 235 footnote 1 citing (W) Guilelmus Lotz, Quaestiones de historia Sabbati(Leipzig: 1883): 66.21) G. V. Schiaparelli, Astronomy in the Old Testament (Oxford: At the Clarendon Press, 1905),132 footnote 1 "It does not appear that the days in question [7, 14, 21, 28] were days of restamong the Babylonians." See also Webster (1916): 235 footnote 1 for more detail.22) C. H. W. Johns, "The Babylonian Sabbath" Expository Times 17 (1906): 566ff. A similarconclusion was made by Earle Hilgert, "In Search of the Origin of the Sabbath (Part I)" Ministry(July 1970): 37-39; idem, "In Search of the Origin of the Sabbath (Concluded," Ministry (August1970): 32-34. See also the rejection by Siegfried Horn of Delitzsch's claim that the HebrewSabbath was from Babylonian practices (Siegfried Horn, "Archaeology and the Sabbath I: Wasthe Sabbath known in Ancient Babylonia?" Review and Herald [May 4 1961]: 1, 8 in which anyspecial significance of the seventh day was an evil or unlucky day; idem, "Did the SabbathOriginate in Babylonia?" Review and Herald [July 6, 1961]: 4). Horn was convinced that thearchaeological evidence has not shown that the Babylonians knew and observed a weekly sevenday cycle and a sacred observance of the seventh day.23) A. Clay in Miscellaneous Inscriptions in the Yale Babylonian Collection (New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1915): 75-81.

Collections informed me that there may be many more texts of this kind than what Idiscuss in this article. From what we gather so far, all these texts, with exception ofthe one from 650 BCE or the library of Nineveh, are dating between the days ofNabonidus to the time of Darius. Nevertheless, all these texts are dating to the timethat the Hebrews were in exile in Assyria and Babylon since 723 BCE. This isprobably one of the strongest factors that should be considered in analyzing this corpus.

The Museums of the world are sharing the texts from Erech or Warka.The Hearst Museum of the University of California has a "Sabbath" text.25) A numberof them are in the Yale Babylonian Museum.26) Many unpublished ones are there. Wecounted at least 15 more seemingly unpublished.27) Babylonian Inscriptions in theCollection of J. B. Nies also houses "Sabbath" texts.28) Below we have listed it asNBC. The Louvre in Paris (listed as AO texts below) also has some of these "Sabbath"texts.29)

Listed below are the days in the month calendar that has a note on the farright saying it is a special or holy day of the month. All days offerings were brougt.30)

24) The late Albrecht Goetze (1897-1971) was William M. Laffan Professor of Assyriology andBabylonian Literature at Yale University and that chair now is held by Benjamin R. Foster, whoalso serves as Curator of the Yale Babylonian Collection.25) Catalogue information: Primary publication: UCP 9-1-2, 49, Lutz, Henry F., 1927; Otherpublication(s): Collection Hearst Museum of Anthropology, University of California at Berkeley,Berkeley, California, USA; Museum no.: HMA 9-02548; Accession no.: CDLI no. P248275;Provenience: Uruk; Genre: Administrative; Sub-genre: [nothing]; Period: Neo-Babylonian (ca.626-539 BC); Date(s) referenced; Measurements: (mm) 77x59x26; Source of original files:Catalogue: 20040908 fitzgerald_hearst (http://cdli.ucla.edu/search/result.pt?id_text=P248275&start=0&result_format=single&-op_id_text=eq&size=11000).26) Raymond P. Dougherty, Records from Erech: Time of Nabonidus (555-538 B.C.) in YaleOriental Series. Babylonian Texts Vol. VI (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1920): plateLXXVII which is YBC 7490. It appears that the CDLi no. is P308433. Another example isArch Tremayne, Records from Erech: Time of Cyrus and Cambyses (538-521 B.C.) in YaleOriental Series. Babylonian Texts Vol. VII (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1925), no. 64plate XXV as YBC 3970.27) There is a possibility that some of them are now published by Paul-Alain Beaulieu whoassistant professor of Assyriology in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizationsat Harvard University. He is the author of Legal and Administrative Texts from the Reign ofNabonidus (556-539 BCE). Unpublished texts of up to 313 in the Yale Babylonian Collectionwere transcribed and translated for the first time by him.28) Clarence E. Keiser, Letters and Contracts from Erech written in the Neo-Babylonian Periodin Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of James B. Nies Vol 1 (New Haven: YaleUniversity Press, 1918), no. 167 plate LV. It is NBC 1195.29) G. Contenau, Textes Cunéiformes. Tome XIII. Contrats Néo-Babyloniens II. Achéménides etSéleucides in Muséé du Louvre - Départment des Antiquités Orientales (Paris: Paul Geuthner,1929), no. 145 plate LXXI which is AO 6857 and no. 148 plate LXXIII which is AO 6859 andno. 176 plate LXXXIX which is AO 6861 and no. 169 plate A6860.30) Cambyses is very peculiar in this evidence from Erech. Somehow, Hebrew ideas rubbed offon him very strongly and one can appreciate the comment in Papyrus Cowley 30 lines 13-14 byJews from Elephantine in Egypt to Jews in Judea better:“Already in the days of the kings of Egypt our fathers had built that temple [at Elephantine

II. Seven Day Cycles and Seventh-day Importance in Cuneiform Texts

Nabonidus year 13 542 BCE seven days seven days seven daysNISAN (HMA 9-02548) 4 11 18 23 25

real assumed real assumed

Nabonidus year 13 542 BCE seven days seven days seven daysKISLEV (YBC 7490) 7 14 21 28

real real assumed assumed

Cyrus year not sure seven days seven days seven daysMonth not certain (NBC 1195) 7 14 21 27 28

real real real assumed

Cyrus year 5 533 BCE seven days seven days seven daysKISLEV (YBC 3974) 7 14 21 28

real real real real

Cyrus year 7 531 BCE seven days seven days seven daysELUL (YBC 3970) 7 10 14 21 26 27 28

real assumed real assumed

Cyrus year 9 529 BCE seven days seven days seven daysSIVAN (AO 6857) 6 7 13 14 21 28

real assumed real assumed

Cambyses year 1 528 BCE seven days seven days seven daysAB (AO 6859) 6 13 20 27

real real assumed assumed

Cambyses year 1 528 BCE seven days seven days seven daysHEBET (YBC 3961) 6 13 20 27

real real assumed assumed

Cambyses year 3 526 BCE seven days seven days seven daysHEBET (YBC 3971) 6 7 14 21 27 28

assumed real real assumed

Cambyses year 5 524 BCE seven days seven days seven daysNISAN (YBC 3972) 7 14 21 28

real real real real

Cambyses year 5 524 BCE seven days seven days seven daysTAMMUZ (YBC 3963) 7 14 21 28

real real real assumed

Cambyses year 5 524 BCE seven days seven days seven daysHEBET (AO 6860) 7 14 21 28

real real real real

Cambyses year 6 523 BCE seven days seven days seven days

island in Egypt] in the fortress of Yeb, and when Cambyses came into Egypt [line 14] he foundthat temple built, and the temples of the gods of Egypt all of them they overthrew, but no onedid any harm to that temple [of the Jews].”

NISAN (YBC 3967) 7 14 21 28real real real real

Cambyses year 6 523 BCE seven days seven days seven daysSIVAN (AO 6861) 7 14 21 28

real real real real

Cambyses year 6 523 BCE seven days seven days seven daysIYYAR (AO 6858) 6 13 20 27

real real assumed real

Key:1.The bold indicates that there is absolute evidence of a seven day cycle and aseventh-day importance.

2. The blocks indicate that the particular day of the month is special morethan the others and that they in fact are indicated as such in the text.

3. The perforated numbers are by this reader, or only assumed. It is a theory,assumption or opinion.Some modern publications appeared on subjects related to seven, seven days,

hemerologies, heptatonism, but most of them are focusing on the role of magic andsymbolism rather than the relation between seven and the Hebrew Word of God.31) For

31) A number of modern scholars can be listed: A. Livingstone, "The Use of Magic in theAssyrian and Babylonian Hemerologies and Menologies" SEL 15 (1998): 58-67. A. Livingstone,"The Magic of Time" in Mesopotamian Magic. Textual, Historical, and InterpretativePerspectives, Ancient Magic and Divination 1, edited by T. Abusch and K. van der Toorn(Groningen: 1999): 131-137). Livingstone is doing extensive research and writing onHemerologies. W. Sallaberger, Der kultischer Kalender der Ur III-Zeit (Berlin/New York: 1993)especially chapter II. Matthias Rochholz, Schöpfung, Feindvernichtung, Regeneration :Untersuchung zum Symbolgehalt der machtgeladenen Zahl 7 im alten Ägypten (Wiesbaden :Harrassowitz, 2002) which is his dissertation at the University of Mainz in 2000. Gerald A.Klingbeil, "Ritual Time in Leviticus 8 with Special Reference to the Seven Day Period in theOld Testament" Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 109 (1997): 500-513. E. Reiner,E. "The Etiological Myth of the 'Seven Sages'" Orientalia 30 (1961): 1-11. R. J. Dumbrill,"The earliest evidence of heptatonism in a late Old Babylonian text: CBS 1766" ARANE 2010,forthcoming. http://www.icobase.com/?p=174. He calls the text the earliest evidence ofheptatonism [music context] and dates it to 1000 BCE. R. J. Dumbrill, "Is the Heptagram inCBS 1766 a Dial?" Arane 2009: 24-49 is a very interesting discussion of that tablet in musicalcontext is probably a viable correction to Horrowitz who thought it to be astrological. A.Jeremias, Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur, 2nd ed., (Berlin and Liepzig, 1929, 2ndedition), 197-199; C. B. F. Walker, "Die Rolle der Astronomie in den Kulturen Mesopotamiens"in: Grazer Morgenländische Studien, Beitrage zum morgenländischer Symposion (23-27 September1991) edited by Hannes D. Galter. 407-445; Lucia Carolyn Harrison, Sun, Earth, Time and Man(Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1960); Annus, Amar. “The Soul's Journeys and Tauroctony.On Babylonian Sediment in the Syncretic Religious Doctrines of Late Antiquity” in: Manfried L.G. Dietrich and Tarmu Kulmar (eds.). Body and Soul in the Conceptions of the Religions.Forschungen zur Anthropologie und Religionsgeschichte 42. (Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2008): 1-46.Although seven and other related aspects are mentioned for ancient times, caution should beapplied to the author's methodology of linking literature of different languages and differentperiods across millennia at times, in a too superficial way at times. The sources for Mithraismare late and almost insufficient for proper analysis of Ancient times status quo. Annus mentioned

this reason, the seventh-day phenomenon at Babylon received cursory attention.

III. Some Specific Observations on the Six Texts from the YaleBabylonian Collection Dealing with the Seventh-day

When the texts from Warka or Erech that are under review here originated,Cyrus took Babylon in 538 BCE. In that year, after the two year inclusive reign ofDarius the Mede or Gobryas (Daniel 5:31), Cyrus issued a decree: "Concerning thehouse of God at Jerusalem, let the temple, the place where sacrifices are offered, berebuilt and let its foundations be retained, and its height being 60 cubits and its width60 cubits with three layers of huge stones, and one layer of timbers. And let the costbe paid from the royal treasury" (Esther 6:3-4). It gives us some background of thetexts in the Yale Babylonian Collection from Warka or Erech that are dated from Cyrus5th year in 533 BCE until Cambyses 6th year in 523 BCE. Some Israelites may haveleft already and others may have stayed behind. Societies are of a mixed character,some orthodox, some reformed style, some liberal style and some totally secular. Thus,the religious ones may have left but some reformed, more liberal and almost all secularIsraelites may have decided to stay. A careful reading of Ezra 6 explains that the samedecree was issued three times before it was successful, Cyrus, then Darius and lastlyArtaxerxes in 457 BCE. So if we have a dragging population clinging in Babylonfinding it problematic to leave abrupt back to Israel, then it can explain also some ofthe features we are finding in the Yale Babylonian Collection as published by Clay indrawings. There were 23 discovered but we could find only a smaller number of thempublished. It is at present not possible to ascertain whether the others were alsopublished.

In the fifth year of Cyrus in 533 BCE, calculating from 538 BCE as takingthe throne, after something happened to Darius the Mede, information that we do nothave, in that year, Text 46 or YBC 3974 originated. It is just a receipt for theofferings at the local temple there but very insightful pertaining to the days the

that also. A number of studies with an anthropological or social focus comparing all phenomenaof seven taboos and importance in various nations, like Hatton Webster in his dissertation of1916 and A. Shapur Shahbazi, "HAFT (SEVEN) The "heptad" & its cultural significance inIranian history" (online: from Encyclopaedia Iranica [http://www.iranicaonline.org/]) could indicatehow seven originated in these nations and then provide an analogia entis argument for what mayhave happened through cross-cultural inculturation processes in the Ancient Near East. Thepresence of a minority group like Jews in the USA and their influence over a century until ourday, should be analogia entis provide a reliable template to investigate the role of Hebrews inAssyria and Babylonia for more than two centuries. The process was not only from empire tominority but also from minority to empire.

offerings were to be brought. There are only 29 days indicated on this text for themonth of Kislu but there is a possibility that it had 30 days.

Another genre than the Yale Texts is the Hemerological texts that wereproductions by astrologers and astronomers who acted as "prophets" or "seers" and whothen predicted what evil or good may befall the king on every day in the year andwhat the king should or shouldn't do to avoid or gain these. These Hemerological textsof which we have many dating as early as the Kassite period in 1180 BCE and also anumber of fragments from the Neo-babylonian period when Israel was in Babylon andAssyria already from 723 BCE, are evidence of a 360 day for a year cycle.32) Eachmonth had 30 days and there are 12 months so the year consisted of 360 days. It wasconsidered to be the economical year or some also considered it to be the divine year.The religious year consisted of 354 days since it was based on the lunar calendar. This360 day cycle is important for the interpretation of the year calculations of the book ofDaniel.33)

Text 47 also just has 29 days on the text itself explicitly, and Text 48 also has

32) A Hemerological calendar was made for the Kassite king Nazimaruttash (L. Matoush, "L.`Almanach de Bakr-Awa" Sumer 17/1 (1961): 17-66, especially page 21. The text IM 50969were published in full by R. Labat, "Un Calendrier Cassite" Sumer 8 (1952): 17-36 plus twoplates. A Neo-Babylonian copy was made before 536 BCE V R 48-49 (R. Labat, "Un AlmanachBabylonien (V R 48-49)" RA 38/1 (1948): 13-40. Stephen Langdon thought that the text datedearlier to the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Labat 1948: 14 at footnote 1). The 360 day a yearperiod is used by forecasters to the king probably because it belongs to celestial time as opposedto the concept of terrestrial time. In an article by F. Rochberg-Halton, he indicated that F.Rochberg-Halton, "Stellar Distances in Early Babylonian Astronomy: A New Perspective on theHilprecht Text (HS 229)" JNES 42 no. 3 (1983): 209-217. In one text TCL 6 21:27, a ratio isgiven that 1800 celestial bēru = 1 terrestrial UŠ (Rochberg-Halton 1983: 211 footnote 11). Sixterrestrial UŠ are equal to one mana. We know that one mana is equal to two hours since B.Meissner in his book Babylonien und Assyrien Vol. 2 (Heidelberg: 1925): 394-395 indicated thatthe night for the Assyrians and Babylonians were divided into three watches. Each watch hadtwo manas and that equals two hours for each mana. Since the mana is two hours or 120minutes long, the 6 terrestrial UŠ have to be divided into 120 minutes leading us to 20 minutesfor each terrestrial UŠ. If 1 terrestrial UŠ equals 1800 celestial bēru and if 1 terrestrial UŠequals 20 minutes, then how many celestial bēru will there be in one day? 20 minutes x 3 x 24= 1 day. Thus, 1800 celestial bēru x 3 x 24 = 129600 celestial bēru. One terrestrial day equals129600 celestial bēru. How many years of 360 days will there be in 129600 celestial bēru? Onecelestial year of 360 days = one terrestrial day. This is the Assyrian and Babylonian year-dayprinciple. The divine year or heavenly year is equal to the terrestrial day. This principle isimportant for the time prophecies of Daniel. 129600 divided by 360 terrestrial days equals 360terrestrial days or a celestial year. "Seven, eleven, and thirteen are not divisors of 12,960,000and to this day are still regarded as unlucky numbers" (Richard J. Dumbrill, "Four Tablets fromthe Temple Library of Nippur: A Source for 'Plato's Number' in relation to the Quantification ofBabylonian Tone numbers" in Arane 1 (2009): 27-37.33) The three and a half year period in Daniel 7:25 is based upon a 360 day year cycle sincethe control check cross-reference for the same period is Revelation 12:14 linked to verse 6mentioning 1260 days, which, with the year-day principle in prophetic interpretation, are 1260years.

only 29 days. There are 29 days in Text 49. However, texts 50 and 51 have 30 days.There is reason to conclude that all these texts had 30 days but there is no evidencefor the first four. It would be interesting to see how many of the whole corpus of 23texts are mentioning 29 and how many 30.

IV. Seventh-day Cycle

A very important feature of these six texts, and probably also of the other 17unpublished at Yale, is the seventh-day cycle. We have evidence of a week here inthese tablets. These 6 Yale Babylonian Collection texts explains that on the days 7, 14,21 and 28 a special offering took place. The note next to these days reads: urisu sihruhi-it-pi which is translated by A. Clay in 1915 as: "one kid for an offering" taking theroot meaning of hi-it-pi from an Egyptian meaning of htp as meaning "offering". Itoriginally meant literally in Egypt "something to quiet".34) Regardless whether peoplewant to object against Clay's meaning of this word, it is only at these days, spaced outexactly in sevens, that this phrase occurs. It is not only on one text but in Text 46 orYBC 3974; Text 48 or YBC 3961; Text 50 or YBC 3972; and Text 51 or YBC3967. Exceptional cases are Text 49 or YBC 3971 and Text 47 or YBC 3963. What A.Clay did not mention in his discussion of these six texts, is that there are gross errorsin Text 49 or YBC 3971 and Text 47 or YBC 3963.

V. Errors or Slips of the Hand and Slips of the Eye

In two of these texts with different or incomplete information of theseventh-day cycle pattern, we find errors. Notice how in Text 47 or YBC 3963, at line25, the scribe was supposed to enter UD 19 kam just like we find explicit at Text 46or YBC 3974; Text 48 or YBC 3961. The scribe rather read UD 21 kam "on the 21stday" for UD 19 kam "on the 19th day". The same was repeated in Text 49 or YBC3971; Text 50 or YBC 3972; Text 51 or YBC 3967. However, this is not an errorsince this is the normal way the Old Babylonian cuneiform style 19 looked like.35) Is

34) Clay (1915): 77 and footnote 7.35) For the period that the scribe is writing, using an Old Babylonian numerical shape is out ofplace but it was 19 (see Jöran Friberg, "Babylonian Mathematics" page 7http://www.math.tamu.edu/~dallen/masters/egypt_babylon/babylon.pdf where a horizontal nail abovethe 1 of 21 meant in the Old Babylonian Period, subtract from 20 = 19). Why swinging

there any other proof of errors? We must answer in the affirmative and lines 32 and33 of Text 49 or YBC 3971 provides the answer. The scribe entered UD 29 kam inline 32 and again in line 33 UD 29 kam! On the basis of some error, it is possibleto suggest that the entries of urisu sihru hi-it pi "one kid for an offering" in Text 49or YBC 3971 at line 26 for UD 22 kam, is also an error and should have been wherethe seventh-day cycle has it for the other texts, at UD 21 kam. The gross error at theend of Text 49 or YBC 3971 permits us to enlarge the scope of the margin of errorsto include these other irregularities, using the majority of the six texts at least, as"canon" of expectation. The seventh-day pattern on Text 49 or YBC 3971 is disturbdue to errors by the scribe since he entered the note after he first wrote all the UD(number) kams. He probably came to the end of the text and was seeking a space toenter the note but viewing that there is UD 29 kam following UD 27 kam said tohimself, that if UD 29 kam is in line 32, he will place the note in UD 27 kam, whichis probably (and he was wrong again) UD 28 kam. He was trying to correct himselfbut in doing so, lost scope of the whole text and entered it, (by haste?) into that space.The point here is that the intention of the scribe of Text 49 or YBC 3971 in line 31was actually to be correct, namely to enter in day 28, like all the other regularseventh-day cycles. We suggest here that the reason Text 49 or YBC does not fit the"canon" for the seventh-day cycles, is because the scribe made many errors. He alsoentered the note in line 10 of the same text in the wrong day then with "day 6th"instead of "day 7th". We suggest that his eye was looking for the expression bahaduand since one do not find bahadu in the headers to the receipts regularly, in Text 49or YBC 3971 in line 3, unfortunately there was at the end of the line a bahadu thatcaught his eye (Slip of the Eye) and counting from it seven spaces down, he enteredthe note that was supposed to be on the 7th day, on the wrong day, namely, 6th day.It would be interesting to see the other 17 texts in the Yale Babylonian Collection onthis issue. In only Text 49 or YBC 3971 is there in line 5 a bahadu note. It wouldhave created for him a subconscious expectation that seven days down from that wouldbe the 7th day for the note, but due to the wrong distraction and line counting, heended up in day 6 instead of 7 (line 10 instead of line 11). This is our explanation ofthe error and this is not discussed by A. Clay in 1915.

The final result of the 'errors investigation' in these 6 texts, lead us to concludethat Text 47 or YBC 3963 with only 3 note entries at days 7, 14 and 21 but nothingat 28; and also Text 49 or YBC 3971 especially, cannot be used to establish rules

between two orthographies here by the scribes in the Persian Period?

regarding the importance or non-importance of the seventh-day cycle at Warka or Erechof this period after the rebuilding decree of Jerusalem by Cyrus.

VI. Origin of the Seventh-day Sacrifices in Babylonia

A. Clay discussed these six texts in 1915 under the heading "BabylonianSabbath". A very interesting heading. The word "sabbath" is not used in these texts.However, the regularity of seventh-day sacrifices on these texts led him to conclude thatthere was a concept of "seventh-day sabbath" in Babylonia:

These tablets, with this interesting phenomenon, furnish the first actualobservance of anything that suggests the existence of a parallel to the sabbathin Babylonia; and has an important bearing upon the question, which has beenfrequently discussed, as to whether the Babylonians did observe such a day.36)

Clay went off to discuss sappatu or UD 15 kam "on the 15th day", just like

others before him, like Theophilus G. Pinches in 1904.37) This issue needs separate

36) Clay (1915): 78.37) Theophilus G. Pinches, "Sappatu, the Babylonian Sabbath" Society of Biblical ArchaeologyFebruary 10 (1904): 51-57 including the plate of an important text in this regard. Two textsrelevant are K 6012 and K 10,684. Relevant etymological studies in modern times will be I.Willi-Plein, "Anmerkungen zu Wortform und Semantik des Sabbat," ZAH 10, (1997): 201-206;H. Rechenmacher, "šabbat [t] Nominalform und Etymologie"– ZAH 9 (1996): 199 -203. Thebackground to the etymology of Sabbath in cuneiform texts is this: An important discovery ofthe word “Sabbath” was made on a bilingual wordlist by W. H. Boscaven, as reported by A. H.Sayce in Academy (1875): viii, 555. The text was indexed for the British Museum as K 4397and it had the word ša-pat/bat-tu in column 2 line 16 and an explanation in column 1 line 16reading “day of rest of the heart”. We know this ša-pat/bat-tu is the name of a day, since theexplanation read UD = day in column 1 line 16 the first sign or word. The original, wasprinted by H. Rawlinson, The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia II: A Selection from theMiscellaneous Inscriptions of Assyria (1861/1866): plate 32 columns 1 and 2. It is the case ofSabbath in an Assyrian Dictionary from Nineveh. The word UD = day can also be found aboveša-pat/bat-tu in column 2 in lines 14 and 13, 9 and 8, and 5. The others above are broken. Atleast six days can be seen here with the last one in the list, ša-pat/bat-tu. It is very possiblethat line 4 is also [UD = day] in our view. M. J. Lagrange also commented on the VocabularyList that was found at Nineveh reading umu nuh libbi as correlate for ša-pat/bat-tum.(Lagrange1905: 292). For him the "day of the appeasement of the heart" is the happiness for the heart ofthe god. It was discussed also by Haupt and Bezold. (C. Bezold, Catalogue of the CuneiformTablets in the Kouyunjik Collection of the British Museum [London: Oxford University Press,1891] for a description of the tablet). Another Assyrian Dictionary with the word Sabbath wasalso found. It was on K 169. It was published in H. Rawlinson, (1861/1866): plate 25 columns1 and 2. The word ša-ba-tu appears in cuneiform script on this bilingual vocabulary in line 14.It is said there that ša-ba-tu means ga-ma-ru in line 14 of column 2. Sabbath is said to mean“to be full, to be complete, to be together” (see also Theophile James Meek, "The Sabbath inthe Old Testament: Its Origin and Development" JBL 33 [1914]: 202-203). A. Sayce wasthinking that it means “to be complete” but that would mean that the word is not ga-ma-ru but

treatment elsewhere. Let us make brief remarks here:

a. There is no proof that sapattu was the 15th day of the Calendar in any ANE nationbefore the neo-Babylonian times.b. Israel was in exile since 723 BCE in Nineveh and surroundings and Babylon andsurroundings since 605 BCE.c. The Mosaic tradition included a seventh-day cycle and the books of Moses thatpredates these texts, were preserved and cherished and followed by faithful Jews inexile.d. The Hemerological texts like the one published by R. Labat from the Kassites in1180 BCE records the whole year of 360 days but there is no evidence of anyseventh-day cycle. Then again, Israel was not in Babylon in 1180 BCE.

VII. Conclusions

Our conclusion on the presence of the seventh-day cycle on these six cuneiformtexts (and possibly the other 17 and more unpublished ones at Yale University as wellas those in the other Museums) is that the seventh-day cycle is found due to thepresence of Israelites or Jews in the society of Babylon in 542 BCE until 522 BCEand at Nineveh due to the earlier one discovered by George Smith in 1869 dating tocirca 650 CE (thus before and after the exile). One can see similar influences in thataspects that compare very strongly with influences of the Mosaic Genesis in the

ga-ma-lu. It is very certain that the last sign is not lu– but ru– . That is the way TheophilusPinches also read it. But the meaning nevertheless leans over to "completeness". The Germanwould be “Gesamtheid”. In 1899 S. Driver concluded that it proves that the Sabbath originatedwith the Babylonians and that the Hebrews took it over from them (David George Hogarth &Samuel Rolles Driver, Authority and Archaeology, Sacred Texts and Profane: Essays on theRelation of Monuments to Biblical and Classical Literature [New York. Charles Scribner's &Sons. 1899], 18). He said: “It is difficult not to agree with Schrader, Sayce and otherAssyriologists in regarding the week of seven days, ended by a Sabbath, as an institution ofBabylonian origin. The Sabbath, it is true, assumed a new character among the Hebrews; it wasdivested of its heathen associations, and made subservient to ethical and religious ends: but itoriginated in Babylonia. If, however, this explanation of its origin be correct, then it is plain thatin the Book of Genesis its sanctity is explained unhistorically, and ante-dated”. What is theproblem here with Driver and others’ assessment? The Israelites were there and one can onlypostulate legitimately a Babylonian origin if (1) it can be proven to have ante-dated 723 BCEwhen the Israelite arrived at Nineveh; (2) if it can be proven that the Israelites had zeroinfluence over the Babylonians. The continuation of this practice before 723 BCE is unstable incuneiform records. The traditions of the Bible that appeared so frequently listed in Babel-Biblebooks, are in fact dating from this time of Israelite Babylonian and Assyrian residency. It raiseseyebrows indeed.

Gilgamesh Flood Epic since similar elements linked between Genesis and the laterGilgamesh Flood Epic, cannot be found in equal strong terms in earlier Floodcuneiform accounts (Sumerian, Old and Middle Babylonian, Hittite, compared to theNeo-Babylonian texts). Again the dating of these strong resemblances overlap thepresence of Israelites at Nineveh since 723 BCE and later. The Rebellion in Heavenmotif in the text "Seven evil spirits" as well as the "Incantation of the worm" and the"Fall of man" texts are all evidence of Israelite heavy hands on Babylonian traditionsduring their exile, is the postulation here. Hybridization took place of culturesassimilating and transforming in the process of inculturation.

The other conclusion of results is as follows: since this particular cycle wasforeign to the Babylonian sciences and maths, with their sexagomenal systems and 12and even decimal systems, it further strengthens the position that the employment ofseven and seventh-day cycles, are indicative of Israelite and Hebrew traditions in theANE, and that it was, judging on their own merits, an intrusive element in ANEcultures per se. Although seven was widely found in ANE cultures, in their religiousideology, yet, the Hebrew literature is the only source where it is explicitly honoredand the Hebrew culture is the only one that has rules and instructions for the seventhday every week.38) It had a long history in their culture.

This observation begs another serious study to be done, namely a doctoralresearch on the presence and origin of the use of seven in the Ancient Near East.39)

38) It was taught in the books of Moses, Genesis 2:2, Exodus 31:17, (God rested at Creation onthe seventh-day not because He is tired but for example [Exodus 20:11]; blessed it; andsanctified it); Exodus 15:26 cf. Genesis 26:5 (the manna experience); Exodus 20:8-11 (memorialof creation, salvation and recreation); Exodus 34:27 (seventh-day or Sabbath was central to thecovenant, also in Ezekiel 20:12; 20); Deuteronomy 7:7, 8 (covenant is based on God's love forthe faithful and the Sabbath is a sign of that covenant and a sign of divine love). It is alsocontinued in the prophets like Isaiah 58:13 (Sabbath as a day of delight because it is 'My holyday' but see God's resentment of 'your new moons', (your?) 'sabbath', 'your festivals' in Isaiah1:13-14, as distinguished from the weekly sabbaths, namely He hates their yearly sabbaths). Inthe resentment category is also Hosea 2:11 (God resenting "her gatherings, her festivals, her newmoon and her sabbath" again as opposed to Isaiah 58:13 supra and Moses' rendering of 'Myholy day'). The positive view of Sabbath by God as one finds in Amos 8:5 refers seemingly tothe weekly Sabbath and laxity of Sabbath keeping among the Hebrews. The positive view of theweekly sabbath (as viewed by God to the prophets) is sustained and emphasized by Isaiah inIsaiah 66:23 where in eternity, humanity will weekly keep the sabbath. After the exile one hasthe example of Nehemiah reprimanding the sabbath breakers in Nehemiah 13:15-18. Thehistorical books like 2 Kings 4:23 indicate that people sometimes went to prophets on thesabbath or the new moon day. In 2 Kings 11:5-9 there are a number of verses dealing withsabbath functions by the high-priest for the crowning of Jehoash but one is not sure whether itwas a weekly or yearly sabbath. The high-priest had functions at the temple on a weeklysabbath, which argues against the weekly sabbath. From the days of Isaiah is also anotherreference to Sabbath in 2 Kings 16:18 but it is just a side comment. This illustrates for us theimportance that the Sabbath had for a long time in Hebrew culture and literature.39) As days, spirits, gods, sisters, weapons, symbols, thunders, years, cities, winds, seals, etc..

Keywordscuneiform studies, seven day cycles, seventh-day, "Sabbath"-cuneiform texts, Sabbath,calendar in the Ancient Near East

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한글초록

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(Yale Babylonian Collection: YBC).

.

“ ” (650 BCE)

. YBC.

.

.

.