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2012 39: 3Journal of Career DevelopmentMichael J. Stebleton and Donald E. Eggerth

Returning to Our Roots: Immigrant Populations at Work  

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Returning to Our Roots:Immigrant Populationsat Work

Michael J. Stebleton1 and Donald E. Eggerth2,3,4

AbstractThis introductory article to the special issue on immigrants and work provides ahistorical context of the career development profession. Beginning with Parsons andthe early reformers of the 1900s, the authors contend that the field was founded onprinciples of social justice and multiculturalism with an aim toward societal change.Just as helping professionals assisted the new immigrants of the previous century,there is a need and opportunity to be of service to the immigrants of the 21stcentury. Unique career-related issues for immigrant clients are discussed. An overviewof the six pieces in this volume is briefly described along with common themes.

Keywordsimmigrant, social justice, multiculturalism, history, reform, discrimination, returningto our roots, immigrant populations at work

Vocational psychology has traveled far since its inception over 100 years ago in a

settlement house in Boston, MA (Baker, 2009). It was there that Frank Parsons and

his staff, working as agents of social change, attempted to improve the lives of poor

1 University of Minnesota–Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN, USA2 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

Cincinnati, OH, USA3 Consortium for Multicultural Psychology Research, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA4 Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA

Corresponding Author:

Michael J. Stebleton, Department of Postsecondary Teaching and Learning, College of Education and

Human Development, University of Minnesota–Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA

Email: steb0004@umn.edu

Journal of Career Development39(1) 3-12

ª Curators of the Universityof Missouri 2012

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DOI: 10.1177/0894845311417131http://jcd.sagepub.com

immigrants by carefully matching workers’ traits with specific jobs (Blustein,

McWhirter, & Perry, 2005; O’Brien, 2001). Given that the field of career develop-

ment is built upon a foundation of social reform, it is ironic that many career devel-

opment professionals do not perceive their work as addressing social justice issues or

contributing to societal change (Herr & Niles, 1998). We hope that knowing about

the past (e.g., the origins and foundational tenants of the career development profes-

sion) can inspire practitioners to engage in current and future work that embraces

and inspires social justice causes.

In the decades following Parsons, the locations of vocational psychology practice

transitioned from impoverished immigrant neighborhoods to college counseling

centers, eventually morphing into counseling psychology—a field that champions

vocational psychology, multicultural psychology, and social justice. Unfortunately,

the once clear connections between these three areas have become blurred. For

Parsons and the other founders of our field, vocational psychology, multicultural

psychology, and social justice were not separate themes, but connected facets of a

common goal (Eggerth, 2008). Stable and successful employment were viewed not

just in terms of job satisfaction but as economic empowerment, an important step

leading toward lasting political and social power.

The purpose of this introductory article is to provide a historical and cultural con-

text for this special issue of immigrants and work. This volume encompasses six

empirical inquiries that focus around the specific career-related needs and issues

of immigrant populations. All the contributors aptly note that changing demo-

graphics among immigrant groups will provide unique yet rewarding challenges for

career development practitioners. A common thread that ties the pieces together is

the opportunity and the call for career professionals to engage in social advocacy and

social justice causes on behalf of our immigrant clients and students.

Career Development as Social Change

In the preindustrial era, career choice was virtually nonexistent. Most children grew

up to do what their parents did. The sons of farmers became farmers; the sons of tai-

lors became tailors, and so on. For daughters, career choices were even more limited.

Nearly all became wives and mothers. Individuals choosing other career paths found

themselves constrained by strong cultural and institutional prejudices concerning

race, ethnicity, gender, ability, and religion. The industrial revolution changed our

understanding of work and as well as how it was performed (Aubrey, 1997). Unfor-

tunately, for many it simply meant that long hours of backbreaking labor were now

performed inside of dimly lit and poorly ventilated factories as opposed to working

under open skies on family farms. In the end, only the most exceptional overcame

social and economic barriers to achieve success in areas that significantly raised

their status above what they had been born to. Only the wealthy enjoyed the oppor-

tunity to pursue a vocation in its original meaning—that of a calling. The fact that

many individuals now have the privilege to choose occupations based upon abilities,

4 Journal of Career Development 39(1)

interests, and values rather than family status or local economic constraints is a

tribute to the vision of Parsons and other founders of our field. It is also evidence

of the contributions, direct and indirect, that career development professionals

have made to society. However, our work is far from over; in many ways it is just

beginning to take shape.

The New Immigrants

It is estimated that there are over 38 million foreign-born individuals currently living

in the United States (Pew Hispanic Center, 2010). In relative terms, this represents

12.5% of the population of the United States, still far below the 18% reported in the

1930 census (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1975). However, in absolute terms this rep-

resents a threefold increase since 1970 and is the largest number of immigrants at

any time in the history of the United States. This wave of immigrants differs from

past waves in two significant ways. One primary difference is the country of origin.

In the past, most immigrants to the United States came from Europe. In recent

decades, over half emigrated from Latin America and nearly a quarter from Asia.

Another important difference is documentation status. In the past, nearly all immi-

grants could live and work in the United States without fear of deportation. Hoefer,

Rytina, and Campbell (2009) estimated that there are currently over 11.9 million

undocumented immigrants in the United States. The overwhelming majority

(9.6 million) of these undocumented immigrants are from Latin America (Passel

& Cohn, 2008).

Being an immigrant has a significant impact upon the type of work one does.

Hudson (2007) found evidence that citizenship status may account for more variance

in predicting an individual’s occupation than either race or social class. Because they

have fewer employment alternatives, undocumented immigrants are willing to

accept poorer working conditions and tend to work in riskier jobs (Orrenius &

Zavodny, 2009). Consequently, a number of studies have found that foreign-born

Hispanics working in the United States have significantly higher rates of work-

related injury and mortalities than native-born Hispanics or non-Hispanics (Dong

& Platner, 2004; Loh & Richardson, 2004; Richardson, Ruser, & Suarez, 2003).

Returning to Our Roots

In recent years, a number of authors (Blustein 2006; Hartung & Blustein, 2002;

Zytowski, 2001) have advocated for a return to the origins of the career development

profession; roots that are firmly embedded in the soil of Frank Parsons’ early efforts

to assist struggling immigrants. In particular, they argued for moving toward a more

pluralistic phase in vocational psychology and counseling. Hartung and Blustein

noted that ‘‘consistent with pluralistic movement is the awareness that cultural and

individual differences are to be valued, understood, and respected’’ (p. 44). All of the

Stebleton and Eggerth 5

articles in this special issue of the Journal of Career Development (JCD) resonate

with these values.

The Meaning of Work

It is important to note that ‘‘returning to our roots’’ involves more than merely

changing the focus of our work and applying the same old tools to different popula-

tions. Career, as a Western construct, likely has limited potential or use for many

individuals from non-Western immigrant groups (Stebleton, 2007). Cross-cultural

differences may exist in terms of how certain groups may perceive the meaning and

value of career. In these cases, some immigrant clients may benefit from using the

language of work rather than the language of career.

Richardson (1993) argued that career practitioners should spend less time on

matching people with jobs and more on better understanding how work (paid and

unpaid) fits into lives such ‘‘that work is considered to be a central human activity that

is not tied to or solely located in the occupational structure’’ (p. 427). Richardson

stated that work needs to be examined across multiple social domains (e.g., family

and community) and social locations, including race, ethnicity, and other factors. It

is clear from several articles in this issue (Eggerth & Flynn; Eggerth, DeLaney, Flynn,

& Jacobson; Luksyte, Raghuran, Avery, & Macoukji; Stebleton) that the stressful

work lives of immigrant workers can only be understood within the complex context

of being far from home, separated from family and friends, documentation status,

challenged by barriers of language and culture, and subject to discrimination and

exploitation.

The Individual Versus the Collective

Career development practitioners have traditionally focused on the individual as

the unit of analysis and understanding with the goal of best matching the person

with a work environment. This focus on the individual continues to be at the cen-

ter of much of career development work today. Several of the contributions to this

edition clearly highlight the need to broaden the perspective beyond the individual

to the collective. An overemphasis on the individual can obscure the considerable

impact of other perspectives (family, community, history, sociocultural, and polit-

ical events) on the career development (or work) experience (Koert, Borgen, &

Amundson, 2011; Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000).

As noted by Mkhize and Frizelle (2000), ‘‘the underlying assumption is that the

individual is a free, autonomous agent engaging with the world against very few (if

any) external constraints’’ (p. 1). This observation is echoed in the work of Blustein

(2006), who argued that vocational psychology focuses too much on individuals who

enjoy a wide range of career choices and as a field neglects socially marginalized

and economically disadvantaged individuals having few degrees of freedom in

employment. One strategy to incorporate the voices of historically underserved

6 Journal of Career Development 39(1)

populations is to engage in scholarly inquiry that involves interviews. Qualitative

data approaches were used by four of the articles in the issue (Eggerth & Flynn;

Eggerth et al.; Kanagui-Munoz, Garriott, Flores, Cho, & Groves; Stebleton; Valdivia

& Flores) in an effort to move beyond preconceptions and to gain a deeper, more

holistic, and more authentic understanding of the participants’ experiences.

Occupational Health Psychology

The emerging field of occupational health psychology may offer career practi-

tioners new paradigms and new perspectives with which to more holistically con-

ceptualize work and workers. The goal of occupational health psychology is to

improve the quality of work life, to protect and promote the health of workers and

of their families. It assumes an interdisciplinary perspective, involving most areas

of psychology, and draws on public health, sociology, medicine, and industrial

engineering. Occupational health psychology is typically characterized as assum-

ing a threefold focus: (a) the work environment, (b) the individual worker, and (c)

the interface between work and family. Blustein (2008) considered occupational

health psychology to be congruent with both the historical and current goals of

vocational psychology and his psychology of work model. Blustein suggested that

a linkage of these three ‘‘would yield a powerfully compelling scholarly and pub-

lic policy agenda’’ (p. 236).

Blustein, Fouad and Bynner, and Fassinger, in a special section on work and

career in American Psychologist (see 2008, vol. 63, no.4), argued strongly for the

centrality of work to well-being. Blustein (2008) called for breaking down artificial

barriers between vocational psychology and other areas of psychology. Fouad and

Bynner (2008) suggested that the focus of vocational psychology should move

beyond the transition from school to work to the many stressful transitions workers

experience throughout their working lives. Fassinger (2008) explored the intercon-

nections between vocational psychology, multiculturalism, and social justice, plus

she challenged vocational psychology professionals to address issues such as dis-

crimination and the adverse impact of work upon family life.

The articles in this JCD special issue on the work experiences of immigrants

clearly resonate with the pieces in the American Psychologist volume. The cen-

trality of work in the lives of Hispanic immigrants is so monolithic as to exceed

even the most extreme scenarios discussed by Blustein (2006, 2008). The cost,

danger, and lingering trauma related to the border crossing experience make it

a stressful work-related transition far beyond any described by Fouad and Bynner

(2008). The immigrant narratives go beyond merely supporting Fassinger’s (2008)

arguments regarding the interconnectedness of vocational psychology, multicul-

tural psychology, and social justice. Their stories suggest that these three should

not be viewed as complementary themes, but as fibers woven densely together

within a single fabric.

Stebleton and Eggerth 7

Overview of Special Issue Articles

As way of introduction, we will briefly summarize each article and aim to connect

several themes that are present among them. The first article by Stebleton examined

the experiences of Black African immigrant college students. In this qualitative

study, the central question is: What is the meaning of work for recent Black African

immigrant, adult students pursuing an undergraduate, 4-year degree? The findings

were organized around several themes that included perceptions about both paid

and unpaid work roles. The influence of contextual factors and the strong connec-

tions to family members were evident. The author also discussed how the identities

of the immigrant participants evolved over time. Implications focused on challen-

ging career development practitioners to explore the role of work (rather than the

language of career) and to develop more appropriate career assessment tools that

may better serve Black African immigrant clients.

In their study of 150 immigrant workers, Luksyte et al. explored how supervisor

support can impact sex differences in stress among immigrant workers. Their results

parallel research on gender differences on stress variables, including higher reported

stress measures for immigrant women compared to men. From an organizational

career development perspective, the need for supervisor support structures is vital

including effective mentoring and diversity programming to meet the needs of immi-

grant workers.

The final four pieces primarily focused on issues facing one of the fastest growing

immigrant groups—Hispanic and Latino/a populations. Eggerth and Flynn explore

and apply the theory of work adjustment to Latino workers. They confirmed signif-

icant conceptual convergence between Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and the work

reinforcers of the theory of work adjustment. Identifying the unique issues of

Latino/a immigrants (e.g., institutional barriers, language, culture differences), the

authors challenged career development professionals to seek our connections to

the immigrant communities similar to the efforts made by Parsons and the early

reformers of the 1900s. Eggerth et al. explored the lived work experiences of Latina

immigrant women in two geographical locations. Most importantly, Eggerth,

DeLaney, Flynn, and Jacobson highlighted common experiences in the workplace

that immigrant women encounter—including excessive work responsibilities, lack

of health care coverage, and high expectations regarding family commitments among

others. Like the Luksyte et al.’s study, the authors argued that it is important for career

counselors to strive to learn more about the ongoing stressors that Latina workers face

on a daily basis.

Kanagui-Munoz et al. explored the work experiences of Latinas/os in the food

industry. Similar to the themes of family and obligation mentioned by Eggerth

et al., as well as Stebleton, the authors noted how collectivistic values may influence

workers’ attitudes about work. Using focus groups comprised of 75 participants, the

authors identified themes related to workplace barriers, facilitators, motivation, cul-

tural context, and training preferences. More specifically, they found that motivation

8 Journal of Career Development 39(1)

and recognition can potentially impact behavior change. This finding is congruent

with Eggerth and Flynn’s discussion of the perceptions of the work reinforcers

advancement, recognition, authority, and social status among Latinas/os. The

authors advocated for social change and encouraged career counselors to help immi-

grant employees advocate for their rights.

The final article is a quantitative inquiry by Valdivia and Flores that explored fac-

tors that impact the job satisfaction of Latina/o immigrants located in the Midwest of

the United States. Perhaps most importantly, the authors examined the impact of

contextual factors (see Stebleton on inquiry of African Black immigrant students)

on Latino/a job satisfaction. They discovered that perceptions of the surrounding

community related to discrimination/racism had a negative effect on job satisfaction.

A strong sense of ethnic identify had a positive effect on job satisfaction. An impor-

tant implication of this study focuses on the larger community context in terms of

helping immigrants feel a greater sense of belonging. Counselors can help connect

immigrant clients with invaluable community-based resources such as English

language classes.

As a whole, the six contributions to this issue highlight important demographic

shifts as well as the unique career development needs of immigrant populations.

There are at least three main themes that tie the articles together.

Engaging in social advocacy and change. Career development practitioners are in a

position to infuse the spirit and philosophy of Frank Parsons and the early reformers

into meeting the needs of a growing immigrant population in the 21st century. All of

the articles indicated the need to reach out to immigrant clients; to learn more about

their presenting concerns and issues; and to directly aim to better serve these diverse

groups. Counselors can serve as important brokers of resources, pointing clients to

resources in the community that can assist them to better their professional and work

lives.

Addressing contextual factors and barriers, including racism and discrimination in theworkplace. All of the articles indicated the impact of environmental or contextual fac-

tors that impact immigrant clients. Whether it was the pressures of family members,

stress from supervisors, harassment on the job, or institutional barriers, the immi-

grants in these studies often dealt with a myriad of issues that impact their health

and well-being. Career counselors can play an important role in helping to address

these concerns.

Educating self and others about the populations we aim to serve. All of the articles

directly or indirectly point to the need to learn more about the immigrant clients who

we may encounter in our practices. These efforts may include personal professional

development or engaging in community involvement efforts to help inform others

about the changing demographics and needs of diverse communities. Several of the

pieces highlighted strategies that organizations can make to learn more about their

Stebleton and Eggerth 9

employees and subsequently create better work environments for immigrants (see

Luksyte et al.; Valdivia & Flores).

Final Thoughts

Despite many advances since Parsons’ era, the United States—as well as other coun-

tries—continues to struggle with integrating immigrants. Parsons and his staff at

the Boston settlement house chose to serve as agents of change; to assist the impo-

verished in times of great need. Career development professionals, including educa-

tors and counselors at multiple institutions, can choose to adopt this same

philosophy—to see their work as addressing social justice issues and contributing

to social change (Barcelo, 2010; Herr & Niles, 1998). It is our hope that this special

issue of Immigrants and Work for the JCD will serve as a unique opportunity to

inform and inspire (to use Parsons’ mantra of light, information, inspiration, and

cooperation) readers to better understand how their work as career development

professionals can facilitate social justice and positively impact the lives of diverse

clients (Spokane & Glickman, 1994).

Acknowledgment

The views and opinions expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do

not necessarily reflect the views of the National Institute for Occupational Safety

and Health and/or the other institutions listed.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,

authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research,

authorship, and/or publication of this article: The second author, Donald E. Eggerth,

received support from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health for

the authorship of this article.

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Bios

Michael J. Stebleton is an assistant professor in the college of education and human devel-

opment at the University of Minnesota–Twin Cities. He works in the department of post-

secondary teaching and learning where he teaches both undergraduate and graduate level

courses. His research interests include college student engagement and retention of his-

torically underserved groups; strengths-based career-life planning; identity issues related

to student development; and immigrant college students’ experiences of attending col-

lege. Additionally, He is involved in the first-year experience program for undergraduates

in the college. He is the lead author of a career planning text aimed at college students:

Hired (4th ed.) published by Pearson Prentice. In his free time, he enjoys cycling along

the Mississippi River in Minneapolis–St. Paul, MN.

Donald E. Eggerth received his doctorate in counseling psychology from the University of

Minnesota. He is currently a senior team coordinator in the education and information divi-

sion of NIOSH. In this position, he coordinates a multistudy research agenda concerning the

work experiences of Latino immigrants. In addition, he is a research fellow with the consor-

tium for multicultural psychology research at Michigan State University and an affiliate

faculty member with the Department of Psychology at Colorado State University. In his spare

time, he enjoys reading, attending the symphony, and traveling with his family.

12 Journal of Career Development 39(1)