programme evaluation
TRANSCRIPT
Programme Evaluation
By
Shiva Raj Badu
Tribhuvan University
Faculty of Education
Dean's Office
Kirtipur
2070
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;dfhnfO{ ¿kfGt/0fug]{ s|ddf ;+;f/sf k|foM h;f] ljZjljBfnox¿n] lgoldt (face-to-face) l;sfO k4ltsf ;fy} v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfO k4ltaf6 klg lzIff k|bfg u/]sf] kfOG5 . ljZjsf w]/} ljZjljBfnox¿ v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfO k4ltsf dfWodaf6 of]Uo dfgj ;+;fwg pTkfbg ug{ ;kmn eO/x]sf5g\ . o;} s|ddf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] lgoldt lzIff k4lt sfod} u/L v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfO k4ltaf6 lzIff k|bfg ug]{ gLlt lnPsf] 5 .
ljBfno If]q ;'wf/ of]hgf -;g\ @))(–@)!%_ cg';f/ dfWolds txdf cWofkg ug]{ lzIfssf] z}lIfs of]Uotf Pd= P8= x'g' kg]{5 . xfn ljBfnox¿df la=P8= u/L dfWolds txdf cWofkg ug]{ lzIfsx¿sf] ;ª\Vof sl/j !#))) /x]sf] 5 . tL lzIfsx¿ Pd\= P8= txdf egf{ eO{ lgodldt ¿kdf cWoog u/L ;dod} ;f] tx k"/f ug{ g;Sg] / ;/sf/n] klg pgLx¿nfO{ cWoog ljbf pknAw u/fpg g;Sg] ePsfn] To:tf lzIfsx¿sf] z}lIfs of]Uotfsf] pGgog x'g ;s]sf 5}g . To:tf lzIfsx¿sf] z}lIfs of]Uotf clej[l4 ug{sf lgldQ v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfO Pp6f dxŒjk"0f{ ljsNk ePsf]n] lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfo / z}lIfs hgzlQm ljsf; s]Gb|aLr ePsf] ;+emf}tfadf]lhd lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfoåf/f ;]d]:6/ k|0ffnLdf cfwfl/t v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfO sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{ yflnPsf] xf] .
v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfO k4ltaf6 lzIff k|bfg ug{sf lgldQ kf7\oqmd, :jfWoog ;fdu|L, ;Gbe{ k':ts, ;"rgf tyf k|ljlw, >[Jo b[Zo ;fdu|L, lzIfs tflnd cflbnfO {cTofjZos cfwf/sf ¿kdf lnOG5 . xfn ljsl;t /fi6«x¿n] v'Nnf tyf b"/ l;sfOdf cgnfOg l;sfO (online learning) nfO{ a9L k|fyldstf lbg] u/]sf] kfOG5 . cgnfOg l;sfOdf klg e6\{o'on sIff (virtual class) lgs} k|efjsf/L dflgPsf] 5 . t/ xfd|f] kl/k|]Iodf ;'?d} ;a} SofDk;n] cg nfOgaf6 oy]i6 dfqfdf :f"rgf tyf ;~rf/ k|ljlw k|of]u ug]{ ;Defjgf sd ePsf]n] cgnfOgsf ;fy} :jfWoog tyf ;Gbe{ ;fdu|Lx¿sf] klg cfjZostf kb{5 . t;y{ lzIffyL{x¿n] ;lhn} kf7\qmdcg';f/sf ljifoj:t'x¿ cWoog ug{ kfpmg\ eGg] p2]Zo /fvL :jfWoog ;fdu|L lgdf{0f ul/Psf] xf] . k|:t't :jfWoog ;fdu|L :gftsf]Q/ tx, k|yd ;]d]:6/df cWoog ug]{ lzIffyL{x¿sf lgldQ tof/ kfl/Psf] xf] . kf7\oqmd adf]lhd k|To]s ljifodf PsfOsf] kl/ro, p2]Zo, ljifoj:t'x?, ljifosf] k|:t'lt, :jd"Nofª\sg, ls|ofsnfk, ;f/f+z tyf PsfO cEof;x¿, cWoog ;fdu|Lsf] ;"rL cflb ;dfj]z u/L of] :jfWoog ;fdu|L lgdf{0f ePsf] 5 . o; ;fdu|Lsf n]vs lzj/fh j8' x'g'x'G5 . o; ;fdu|Lsf n]vs, ljifo ;+kfbs k|f= s'n g/l;Fx >]i7, efiff ;Dkfbs s]zj e';fn, k|fljlws ;ldltsf cWoIf tyf ;b:ox¿ wGojfbsf kfq x'g'x'G5 . k|:t't ;fdu|LnfO{ /f]rs Pj+ k|efjsf/L agfpg ljifo lj1 n]vsn] 7"nf] k|of; ug'{ ePsf] 5 tfklg of] klxnf] k|of; / ;+:s/0f ePsf]n] o; ;fdu|Ldf sdL sdhf]/Lx¿ /xg ;S5g\ . o;sf ;'wf/sfnflu ;Da4 kIo;Fu /rgfTds ;'emfjsf] nflu ck]Iff ub{5' .
=============================== k|f= 8f= k|sfz dfg >]i7 8Lg, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno lzIffzf:q ;ªsfo @)&) c;f/
ljifo;"rL PsfO PsM sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿ 1 != kl/ro 1 @= ljlzi6 p2]Zox? / kf7\oj:t'x? 1 #= k|:t'tLs/0f 1 #=!= sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿ (Key Concepts of Programme Evaluation) 1 #=@ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ 8 #=# sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|sf/x¿ 9 #=$ d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrsf] t'ngf 12 #=% d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿ 14
#=%=! bz{gzf:qLo leGgtfx¿M j:t'lgi7tfjfb / dgf]utjfb 15 #=%=@ ljlwzf:qLo leGgtfx¿M kl/df0ffTds / u'0ffTds ljlwx¿ 17 #=%=# 1fgzf:qLo leGgtfx¿M d"Nofª\sgsf l;¢fGtx¿ 19
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary) 24 %_ cEof; (Exercise) 25 ^_ Suggested Readings Materials 27 PsfO b'O{M sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf kIfx¿ !_ kl/ro (Introduction) 28
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents) 28 #_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation) 28
#=! cfjZostf cWoog 28 #=@ nufgL d"Nofª\sg 33 #=# k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg 34 #=$ pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg 35 #=% cfly{s d"Nofª\sg 36 #=^ ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg 38
$_ ;f/f+z 44 %_ cEof; (Exercise) 46 ^_ Suggested Reading Materials 47 PsfO tLgM d"Nofª\sgsf 9fFrfx¿ #=! d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿df j}wtf 48
#=!=! k|of]ufTds j}wtf 49 #=!=@ u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df j}wtf 55
#=@ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ 57 #=@=! z'¢ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ 58 #=@=@ cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ 59 #=@=# k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ 61
#=# ;j]{If0f 9fFrf 62 #=$ k|fs[lts 9fFrf 64 #=% d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿ 68
#=%=! k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿ 69 #=%=@ ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿ 70 #=%=# k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿ 71
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary) 72
%_ cEof; (Exercise) 73 ^_ Suggested Reading Materials 74 PsfO rf/M sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿ 75 !_ kl/ro (Introduction) 75
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents) 75
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation) 75
#=!= df]8]nsf] cy{ tyf juL{s/0f 75 #=@= :qmfOe]gsf] nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n 77 #=#= k|f]e;sf] leGgtf d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n 78 #=$= :6kmnladsf] l;=cfO=kL=kL= df]8]n 81 #=% :6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]n 85 #=^= :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]n 89 $_ ;f/f+z (Summary) 91 %_ cEof; (Exercise) 92 ^_ Suggested reading materials 94 PsfO kfFrM sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf 95 !_ kl/ro (Introduction) 95
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents) 95
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation) 95 #=! of]hgf lgdf{0fsf k|lqmofx¿ 95
#=!=! d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgWff{/0f 96 #=!=@ d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Ldfª\sg 96 #=!=# sfo{qmdsf pknlAwsf ;"rsx¿ 97 #=!=$ :f"rssf dfkg ljlwx¿ 98 #=!=% ;'dw'/ ;DaGwsf] :yfkgf 99 #=!=^ /fhg}lts / kl/l:ylthGo d'2fx¿ 99 #=!=& k];fut / g}lts dfkb08x¿ 100
#=@ k|:tfjgf n]vg 101 #=@=! cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ / cWoogsf k|Zgx¿sf] n]vg 101 #=@=@ cWoogsf] cf}lrTo / ;Ldfx¿ 102 #=@=# cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f 103 #=@=$ cWoogsf ;fwgx¿ lgdf{0fsf nflu vfsf 104 #=@=% k|:tfjgf lgdf{0f 105
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary) 107 %_ cEof; (Exercise) 108 ^_ Suggested reading materials 109
1
PsfO Ps
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿
Introduction to Programme Evaluation !_ kl/ro (Introduction)
o; PsfOcGtu{t sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ ;d]l6Psf] 5, h;n] ;du|df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] kl/ro k|bfg ub{5 . of] PsfOdf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿, sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿, sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|sf/x¿, d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrsf] t'ngf / d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ffdf ePsf ljljwtfx¿af/]df lj:t[t ¿kdf rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents)
Specific objectives Contents
Explain the key concepts in programme evaluation
Describe the purposes of programme evaluation
Describe various types of programme evaluation, i.e., summative and formative; and internal and external evaluations
Differentiate between evaluation and research
Explain diverse conception of programme evaluation
1.1 Key concepts
1.2 Purposes
1.3 Types
1.3.1 Formative vs summative evaluation
1.3.2 Internal vs external evaluation
1.4 Comparison between evaluation and research
1.5 Diverse conceptions of evaluation
1.5.1 Philosophical differences: Objectivism and subjectivism
1.5.2 Methodological differences: Quantitative and qualitative methods
1.5.3 Epistemological differences: Evaluation theories
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation) #=!= sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿ (Key Concepts of Programme Evaluation)
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿;Fu kl/lrt x'gsf nflu cfjZos sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] kl/efiff, sfo{qmdsf] :j¿k / sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo ;afnx¿nfO{ o; zLif{s cGtu{t ;d]l6Psf] 5 .
#=!=! kl/efiffx¿
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg eGg] ljifo sfo{qmd / d"Nofª\sgsf l;¢fGtx¿ / cEof;x¿sf] ;ld>0f xf] . xfdLn] b}lgs hLjgdf sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf 36gfx¿ ;'g]sf 5f}+ / b]v]sf klg 5f}+ . h:t}M ef}lts k"jf{wf/ ljsf; sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg / ;fdflhs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg . oxfF sfo{qmd
2
;~rfng eO/x]sf] cj:yfdf jf sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 tL sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ;DaGwL lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] cEof; eg]/ a'Efm\g ;lsG5 . To:t} xfdLn] j]nf j]nfdf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg /fd|f];Fu ug'{kb{5, sfo{qmddf x]/km]/, ;'wf/ / kl/jt{gx¿ ul/g'kb{5 . o;f] ubf{ d"Nofª\sg /fd|f] x'G5, p;f] ubf{ d"Nofª\sg /fd|f] x'G5 eGg] h:tf egfOx¿ klg ;do ;dodf ;'Gb} cfPsf / slxn]sfxL+ eGb} cfPsf] klg 5f}+ . o:tf egfOx¿ / ljrf/x¿nfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿sf] ¿kdf dfGg ;lsG5 . lgisif{df xfdL s] eGg ;S5f}+ eg] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] Pp6f To:tf] ljifo xf] h;df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿ / cEof;x¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . csf]{ zAbdf s'g} sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ sfo{qmdsf l;4fGtx¿ / sfo{qmdsf cEof;x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ :ki6 ul/G5 . ;f/df l;4fGt cg';f/ g} sfo{qmd ;~rfng cyf{t\\ cEof; eO/xsf] 5 ls 5}g eg]/ lgwf] ug]{ sfd sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgn] ub{5 .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} vf; sfo{qmdcGtu{tsf ;Dk"0f{ kIfx¿ h:tf] JolStx¿, ;fdu|Lx¿ / ;ª\u7g ldn]/ ag]sf] ;du| ;+/rgfsf] d"Nofª\sg xf] (Program evaluation is the evaluation of a complex of people, materials and organization which makes up a particular program. Worthen and sanders, 1987) .
s'g} sfo{qmd jf gLltsf] af/]df ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿n] ;fdgf ug'{kg]{ clglZrttf / c;'ljwfx¿nfO{ sd ug]{ p2]Zon] cfjZos ;"rgfx¿sf] l;h{gf ug]{ / tL ;"rgfx¿nfO{ cy{k"0f{ ¿kdf ;+Zn]if0f ug]{ Pp6f z[ª\vnfa¢ k|lqmofsf] ¿kdf d"Nofª\sgnfO{ lng ;lsG5 . d"Nofª\sgn] s'g} sfo{qmd jf gLltsf] af/]df p7fOPsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg] sfo{ ub{5 cyjf kl/sNkgfx¿sf] k/LIf0f ub{5 h;af6 cfPsf glthfx¿nfO{ ;DalGwt JolStx¿n] ;"rgfsf] cfwf/sf ¿kdf k|of]u ub{5g\ . zflAbs cy{df, d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} lrhsf] u'0f (merit), u'0f:t/ -quality), dxTj -worth) / d"No -value) lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . h:tf] s'g} j:t'sf] jf ;fdu|Lsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kbf{ xfdLn] To; j:t'sf] cfGtl/s u'0f jf cju'0f x]g'{kb{5, Tof] j:t'sf] cfsif{skg, :t/Lotf / k|efjsfl/tf klg hfFRg' kb{5 . Tof] j:t' jf ;fdu|L xfd|f] nflu dxTjk"0f{ xf] jf xf]Og, xfdLnfO{ slt sfd nfU5, ;f] s'/fsf] n]vfhf]vf klg ul/g'kb{5 . oL s'/fx¿sf ;fy;fy} Tof] j:t' xfdLnfO{ dg k5{ jf kb}{g, Tof] j:t' v/Lb ug{ xfdL slt vr{ ug{ tof/ 5f}F h:tf ljljw kIfx¿ ;d]6]/ j:t' jf ;fdu|Lsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . To;/L g} s'g} sfo{qmd jf gLltsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kbf{ To;sf] u'0f, u'0f:t/, dxTj / d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmofx¿ cjnDag ul/g' cfjZos kb{5 .
Jofks cy{df d"Nofª\sgn] dfkgsf] k|lqmof, cfFsngsf] k|lqmof / d"No lgwf{/0fsf] k|lqmof ;dfj]z ub{5 . csf]{ zAbdf, d"Nofª\sg cGtu{t dfkg (measurement), cf+sng (assessment) / d"No lgwf{/0f (value judgment) u/L tLg j6} k|lqmofx¿ kb{5g\ . dfkg eGgfn] Ps k|sf/sf] ;ª\VofTds j0f{g xf], h;n] s'g} j:t'sf] u'0fsf] dfqfnfO{ lgoda4 ¿kdf cª\s k|bfg ub{5 . cfFsng eGgfn] Ps k|sf/sf] u'0ffTds j0f{g xf], h;n] k|ult, ;'wf/ jf kl/jt{gsf] n]vfhf]vf ub{5 . d"No lgwf{/0f eGgfn] s'g} j:t'sf] u'0f, u'0f:t/, dxTj / d"No cflbsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} sfo{qmdsf] jt{dfg cj:yf kQf nufpg] sfo{nfO{ w]/} xb;Dd dfkgsf] k|lqmofn] ;d]6\5 . ljutb]lv clxn];Dd sfo{qmdn] NofPsf ;'wf/x¿ / kl/jt{gsf] cWoog u/]/ cyjf cfzf u/]sf pknlAwx¿ dWo] jf:tljs ¿kdf k|fKt ul/Psf pknlAwx¿sf] dfqf cg'dfg u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] k|ultsf] n]vfhf]vf ug]{ sfo{x¿ cfFsngsf] k|lqmof cGtu{t kb{5g\ eGg ;lsG5 . To;}u/L s'g} sfo{qmdnfO{ /fd|f] jf g/fd|f], 7Ls jf a]7Ls, c;n jf v/fa, pko'St jf cg'ko'St, kof{Kt jf ckof{Kt cflb eg]/ lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmofnfO{ d"No lgwf{/0fsf] k|lqmofsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .
xfdLn] b}lgs hLjgdf b'O{ lsl;dsf sfo{qmdx¿ b]V5f}+ . klxnf], ef}lts k"jf{wf/ ljsf;sf] sfo{qmd / bf];|f] ;fdflhs ljsf; sfo{qmd . z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿ eg]sf ;fdflhs ljsf;;Fu ;DjlGwt sfo{qmdx¿ x'g\ . xfdL ;a}nfO{ yfxf ePs} s'/f xf] ls ef}lts k"jf{wf/ ljsf; sfo{qmdsf] clGtd nIo eg]sf] ;dfh ljsf; / dfgjLo lxtsf] ;Daw{g ug'{ xf] . To:t} xfdLnfO{ of] klg yfxf 5 ls z}lIfs ;+:yfx¿ cGtu{t klg ef}lts k"jf{wf/ ljsf; sfo{qmdx¿ rln/x]sf x'G5g\ h;sf] nIo lzIffsf] u'0f:t/df ;'wf/ Nofpg pko'St jftfj/0f l;h{gf ug'{ /x]sf] x'G5 . To:t} sfo{qmdx¿nfO{ ;/sf/L :t/sf, ;fd'bflos :t/sf / lghL :t/sf sfo{qmdx¿ eg]/ tLg efudf ;d]6\g ;lsG5 . To;}u/L
3
bL3{sfnLg / cNksfnLg sfo{qmdx¿ eg]/ klg ljefhg ug]{ u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf ljljw lsl;dx¿ x'G5g\ .
s'g} klg ;dfhdf ;/sf/n] cfˆgf d"No, dfGotf / l;4fGtsf] cfwf/df lglZrt nIox¿ k|fKt ug{sf]] nflu of]hgfx¿ / gLltx¿ to ub{5 / cfjZostfcg';f/ sfo{qmdx¿ -programs) / cfof]hgfx¿ (projects) ;~rfng ub{5g\ . sfo{qmdsf] cy{ cEof; klg xf] cyf{t\\ ul/Psf lqmofsnfkx¿ klg xf] . sfo{qmdnfO{ slxn]sfxL+ kl/of]hgf jf cfof]hgf (project) sf] ¿kdf p:t}–p:t} lx;fan] k|of]u ePsf] kfOG5, t/ leGgtf s] xf] eg] cfof]hgf eGg] zAb eGbf sfo{qmd eGg] zAbn] a[xt\ cy{ /fVb5 . Pp6f sfo{qmddf PseGbf a9L cfof]hgfx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ / sfo{qmd cfof]hgfeGbf a9L nfdf] cjlwsf] / bL3{sfnLg nIosf nflu ;~rfng ul/Psf] x'g ;Sb5 .
sfo{qmd eGgfn] s'g} Pp6f cyjf PseGbf a9L ;DalGwt p2]Zox¿ k|fKt ug{sf] nflu ul/Psf z[ª\vnfa4 ;DalGwt lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ hgfpF5 . (A program is a group of related activities that is intended to achieve one or several related objectives. Mc David and Hawthorn, 2006).
To;}u/L z}lIfs sfo{qmd eGgfn] /fli6«o :t/df ljt/0f ul/Psf z}Ifl0fs ;fdu|Lx¿sf] ;d"x, Pp6f ljBfnon] u/]sf z}Ifl0fs lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;d"x cyjf Pp6f ljBfyL{sf z}lIfs cg'ejx¿sf] ;d"x klg x'g ;Sb5 . (An educational program may be a set of instructional materials distributed nationally, the instructional activities of a single school, or the educational experiences of a single pupil. Cronbach, 1963).
Dffly pNn]v ul/Psf sfo{qmd / z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf kl/efiffx¿sf] cy{ ;xh} a'em\g ;lsG5 . Pd=P8=txsf] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ljifon] z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ s'/fnfO{ hf]8 lbPsfn] To;}df Wofg s]lGb|t ug'{ cfjZos 5 . lzIffzf:qsf] Pp6f ljBfyL{sf] gftfn] xfdLn] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ sfo{qmdx¿ s] s] x'g ;Sb5g\ To;sf pbfx/0fx¿df xfd|f] Wofg k'Ug' cfjZos 5 .
z}lIfs sfo{qmdcGtu{t /fli6«o :t/sf, If]qLo :t/sf, lhNnf :t/sf jf :yfgLo :t/sf lzIff;DaGwL sfo{qmdx¿ kb{5g\ . g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df /fli6«o :t/sf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿ h:tf] lgMz'Ns kf7\ok':ts ljt/0f sfo{qmd, 5fqj[lQ sfo{qmd, lzIfs tflnd sfo{qmd, ;fIf/tf sfo{qmd, v'Nff ljBfno lzIff sfo{qmd, k/LIff ;~rfng sfo{qmdx¿, k7gkf7gsf sfo{qmdx¿, k|fylds lzIff sfo{qmd, pRr lzIff sfo{qmd, ljBfno egf{ sfo{qmd, ljBfno If]q ;'wf/ sfo{qmd cflb 5g\ . To;}u/L s'g} Pp6f z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] ultljlwx¿nfO{ z}lIfs sfo{qmdcGtu{t lng ;lsG5 . h:tf] s'g} Pp6f ljBfno ljz]if, jf sn]h ljz]ifsf] lqmofsnfkx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgs} Pp6f ljifo If]q x'g ;Sb5 . To:t} lhNnf lzIff sfof{no, ;|f]t s]Gb|, lzIff ljefu, lzIff dGqfno, z}lIfs hgzlSt ljsf; s]G›, kf7\oqmd ljsf; s]G›, k/LIff lgoGq0f sfof{no, ljZjljBfnox¿, ljleGg txsf ;ldltx¿, kl/ifb\x¿, / cfof]ux¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgs} ljifo If]qleq kb{5 . To;}u/L s'g} Ps hgf ljBfyL{n] jf ljBfyL{sf] ;d"xn], s'g} Ps lzIfsn] jf lzIfsx¿sf] ;d"xn] ug]{ sfo{qmdx¿nfO{ klg z}lIfs sfo{qmdcGtu{t /fVg ;lsG5 .
xfdLn] ;dfhdf w]/}h;f] cfof]hgf d"Nofª\sg (project evaluation) sf] s'/f a9L ;'Gg] ub{5f}+ . o;sf vf; sf/0fx¿ klg 5g\ . h:tf] ls cfof]hgfx¿sf] ;do;Ldf k|foM bL3{sfnLg x'Fb}g, lglZrt x'G5, dfkgof]Uo p2]Zox¿ lgwf{/0f ul/Psf x'G5g\, ah]6 lglZrt x'G5 / To;}n] cfof]hgfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf aGb5 . Pp6f z}lIfs sfo{qmdcGtu{t ljleGg z}lIfs cfof]hgfx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . ;du| z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf cnfjf 5'§f5'§} z}lIfs cfof]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ cfjZostf kg{ ;S5 . To;}n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of] ljifocGtu{t z}lIfs cfof]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ ;dfj]z x'G5 . o;/L z}lIfs sfo{qmdcGtu{t kf7\oqmd, z}lIfs k|0ffnL, z}lIfs ;+:yf, / lzIff;Fu ;DalGwt cfof]hgf / sfo{qmdx¿ ;d]l6G5g\ . o:tf ljljw vfnsf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu ;}4flGts cfwf/ k|bfg ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ljifon] ub{5 .
4
#=!=@ sfo{qmdsf] :j¿k
o;eGbf dfly sfo{qmdsf] kl/efiffsf] af/]df rrf{ eO;s]sf] 5 . oxfF sfo{qmdsf] :j¿k jf :jefjx¿nfO{ tfls{s ¿kdf k|:t't ul/G5 .sfo{qmdnfO{ :f/nLs/0f u/]/ x]l/of] eg] s] kfOG5 eg] sfo{qmdcGtu{t ;fwgx¿ / ;fWox¿ aLrdf ;DaGwx¿ x'G5g\, h;nfO{ p2]ZopGd'v x'g] u/L of]hgf agfP/ sfof{Gjog ul/G5 (Programs are means-ends relationships which are designed and implemented purposively) . oxfF ;|f]t ;fwgx¿, of]hgfx¿, lqmofsnfkx¿ / k|lqmofnfO{ ;fwg (means) jf dfWodsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . p2]Zox¿ / nIox¿nfO{ ;fWox¿ (ends) sf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . ;fWo eGgfn] ck]lIft pknlAw (expected outcomes) nfO{ hgfpF5 . jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ rflxF sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 k|fKt x'G5g\ . o;cg';f/ sfo{qmdleq b'O{ j6f efux¿ x'G5g\M Pp6f ;fwg (means) / csf]{ ;fWo (ends) .
sfo{qmdsf] :j¿k a'‰gsf] nflu sfo{qmdnfO{ cf}wf]lus pTkfbg k|0ffnL;Fu hf]8]/ x]g{ ;lsG5 (House, 1984) . Pp6f pBf]udf Pp6} sfo{ klg af/Daf/ bf]xf]¥ofOg] / z[ª\vnfa¢ ¿kdf sfo{x¿ ul/g] x'G5g\ . sRrf kbfYf{x¿, hgzlStx¿ / d]l;gx¿ h:tf ;|f]t;fwgx¿af6 pknAw 1fg / ;"rgfx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf ck]lIft pTkfbgx¿ tof/ x'g] lsl;daf6 lglZrt tl/sfx¿ ckgfP/ k|of]u ul/Psf x'G5g\ . o; b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ sd;]sd sfo{qmdsf tLg efux¿ x'G5g\M klxnf]–nufgL (inputs), bf];|f]–k|lqmof (processes) / t];|f]–pTkfbg (outputs) .
Morgan (1997) n] ;ª\u7g jf ;+:yfx¿nfO{ j0f{g ug{sf] nflu v'nf k|0ffnLx¿ (open systems) sf] cjwf/0ff cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ . v'nf k|0ffnLsf] cjwf/0ffn] ;ª\u7g jf ;+:yfx¿ / jftfj/0fsf] aLrsf] cGt/lqmofnfO{ ;dfj]z ub{5 . o;sf] cy{ s'g} ;ª\u7g, ;+:yf jf sfo{qmdn] jftfj/0f;Fu ;DaGw x'g] u/L lng] / lbg] sfo{ ub{5 . Pp6f ;ª\u7gleq jftfj/0faf6 nufgLx¿ k|fKt x'G5g\ / tL nufgLx¿nfO{ lqmofsnfkx¿df kl/0ft ul/G5 / k}bf x'g] pTkfbgx¿n] ;ª\u7g / o;sf] jftfj/0fsf] aLrdf d'Vo cGt/lqmofsf] ¿kdf sfo{ ub{5 . o;/L v'nf k|0ffnL cjwf/0ffn] ;ª\u7g jf sfo{qmdx¿nfO{ ultzLn ¿kdf a'‰g ;xof]u u/]sf] 5 . o;sf] cy{ sfo{qmdx¿n] jftfj/0faf6 lng] sfo{ ubf{ / jftfj/0fnfO{ lbg] sfo{ ubf{ Pscfk;df aGg] ;DaGwx¿ (linkages) ;doqmd ;Fu;Fu} kl/jt{g x'g ;S5g\ / o:tf kl/jt{gsf] nflu d'Vo cfwf/ k[i7kf]if0f xf] . k[i7kf]if0f rflxF sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt x'G5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] p2]Zo lgwf{/0f u/]b]lv sfo{qmdsf] sfof{Gjog tyf d"Nofª\sg u/L k|fKt ePsf] k[i7kf]if0fsf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdnfO{ ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ;"rgfx¿sf] k|of]u ug]{ r/0f;Ddsf] Pp6f ;du| rqmnfO{ v'nf k|0ffnL elgPsf] xf] . o; b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ sfo{qmdx¿ eg]sf v'Nnf k|0ffnLx¿ x'g\ . To;}n] sfo{qmd of]hgf ug]{, sfof{Gjog ug]{ / d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{x¿ v'Nnf k|0ffnLsf] b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ ul/Psf x'G5g\ . o;cg';f/ sfo{qmdnfO{ ;+:yfut k|lqmof tyf ck]lIft pknlAwx¿df dfq klg ;Lldt ul/b}g . v'nf k|0ffnLsf] b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ sfo{qmdnfO{ u'0ffTds ¿kdf lnOG5 / sfo{qmdsf] k|lqmof / k4ltdf ;'wf/ Nofpg] s'/fdf hf]8 lbG5 . v'nf k|0ffnLsf] ¿kdf sfo{qmdx¿nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ j0f{g ug{ ;lsG5M
w]/}h;f] sfo{qmdx¿sf clGtd ;Ldfx¿ x'G5g\ . sfo{qmd / o;sf] jftfj/0fsf] aLrdf cjwf/0ffut jf ;ª\u7gfTds ;Ldfx¿ x'G5g\ . t/ o:tf ;Ldf/]vfx¿ k|ToIf cjnf]sg ug{ g;lsg] klg x'g ;Sb5g\ .
sfo{qmdx¿ p2]Zod"ns x'G5g\ . sfo{qmdx¿ dflg;åf/f lgdf{0f ul/Psf x'G5g\ h;sf] dfWodaf6 xfdLn] dxTj lbPsf p2]Zox¿ k"/f ug]{ ck]Iff ul/G5 .
sfo{qmdsf ;+/rgfx¿ (structures) x'G5g\, ;+/rgfn] lqmofsnfkx¿ (activities) ub{5g\, lqmofsnfkx¿af6 glthfx¿ (results) cyf{t\\ pTkfbgx¿ (outputs) / pknlAwx¿ (outcomes) lg:sG5g\ . t;y{ oL ;a} kIfx¿ Pscfk;df ;DalGwt (linked) x'G5g\ .
sfo{qmdx¿ ljleGg jftfj/0fdf ;~rfng ul/G5g\ h;n] ubf{ sfo{qmdsf nflu / d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] nflu cj;/x¿ / cK7\of/fx¿ b'j} cfOkb{5g\ .
s'g} Pp6f sfo{qmdsf] :j¿knfO{ ;lrq klg b]vfpg ;lsG5 . sfo{qmd lsg ;'¿ ul/G5, s;/L cufl8 a9fOG5, sfo{qmdn] cGtdf s] lbG5 h:tf kIfx¿ ;d]6]/ sfo{qmdsf] :j¿knfO{ :ki6 ug{ ;lsG5. sfo{qmdsf] ;lrq :j¿kn] sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ug{, sfof{Gjog ug{ / d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu Pp6f
5
;}4flGts cjwf/0ff agfpg ;xof]u ub{5 . tnsf] sfo{qmdsf] tfls{s :j¿k (program logics) b]vfpg] lrqn] sfo{qmdsf dxTjk"0f{ kIfx¿ ;d]6]sf] 5 .
lrq !=!M sfo{qmdsf] tfls{s :j¿k
Dfflysf] lrqdf sfo{qmd;Fu ;DalGwt 5 j6f kIfx¿nfO{ Pp6f ;/n /]vfdf b]vfOPsf] 5 . s'g} sfo{qmd ;'¿ ug'{eGbf cufl8 ;dfhdf /x]sf ;d:ofx¿ ;Daf]wg ug'{kg]{ cfjZostf dx;'; ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5 . olb o:tf] lsl;dn] s'g} cfjZostf dx;'; ePkl5 s] ug]{, s;f] ug]{ eGg] ljrf/ljdz{ ;'¿ x'G5 . cfjZostf k"/f ug{sf] nflu s:tf] cj:yf x'g'kb{5, s:tf kl/jt{gx¿ x'g'kb{5, s:tf vfnsf 1fg, ;Lk / wf/0ff cfh{g u/]sf] x'g'k5{ ;f] s'/fx¿ ljrf/ u/]/ o:tf lsl;dsf pknlAwx¿, Jojxf/x¿ / cj:yfx¿ eOlbP t cfjZostf k"/f x'g] lyof] xf]nf eg]/ OR5f, cfsf+Iff / rfxgfx¿ k|s6 ul/G5g\ . o;/L OR5f ul/Psf pknlAwx¿, Jojxf/x¿ / cj:yfx¿dWo] k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] pknlAwx¿, Jojxf/x¿ / cj:yfx¿sf] cg'dfg ug'{kb{5 . ck]Iff ul/Psf pknlAwx¿ / k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] egL dflgPsf pknlAwx¿nfO{ ;d]6]/ sfo{qmdsf nIo tyf p2]Zox¿ lglZrt ul/G5g\ . sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ k|fKt ug{sf nflu ;fwg;|f]t, ah]6, ;fdu|Lx¿, hgzlSt / 1fgsf] cfjZostf kb{5 h;nfO{ nufgL elgG5 . nufgLsf] kof{Kt Joj:yf x'g ;s]g eg] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog x'g ;Sb}g . o;/L sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf nflu cfjZos ;Dk"0f{ kIfx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] nufgL dfGg'kb{5 .
sfo{qmddf pknAw nufgLx¿nfO{ kl/rfng ug]{, k|zf]wg ug]{ / ldnfpg] k|lqmof sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf lqmofsnfkx¿ cyf{t\\ k|lqmofx¿ x'g\ . k|lqmof cGtu{t sfo{qmdsf] k|zf;g ug]{ / ;~rfng ug]{ k|lqmofx¿ kb{5g\. o;cGtu{t p2]Zo k|fKt x'g] u/L nufgLx¿sf] Joj:yfkg lqmofsnfkx¿ kb{5g\ . csf]{ zAbdf, nufgLx¿nfO{ pTkfbgdf kl/0ft ug]{ ;Dk"0f{ lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] sfof{Gjog k|lqmofn] ;d]6\5 .
To;}u/L sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 ;DkGg ul/Psf sfo{x¿sf] dfqfnfO{ a'emfpF5 . k|foh;f] pTkfbgx¿ u0fgf ug{ ;lsg] x'G5g\ . pTkfbgx¿n] sfo{qmdsf w]/}h;f] b]Vg ;lSg] / :ki6 vfnsf glthfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . pTkfbgx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ePkl5 ;j{k|yd / tTsfn k|fKt x'g] glthfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu tflnd sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg eGgfn] tflnd sfo{qmddf ;xefuL eO{ tflnd k|fKt JolStx¿sf] ;ª\VofnfO{ hgfpF5 . To;}u/L tflnd sfo{qmdsf] cjlwdf tflnd lbOPsf 3G6fx¿sf] ;ª\VofnfO{ klg pTkfbgsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 lsgeg] o:tf] lsl;dsf tflnd cjlw hgfpg] 3G6fn] sfo{ ;DkGg ul/Psf] dfqfnfO{ hgfpF5 . k|lt JolSt tflnd vr{, k|lt 3G6f tflnd vr{, / k|lt JolSt cf};t tflnd 3G6f cflbnfO{ klg pTkfbgsf] ¿kdf u0fgf ug{ ;lsG5 . ;xefuLx¿sf] pQL0f{ k|ltzt / cf};t pknlAw k|fKtfª\snfO{ klg pTkfbgsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . To;}u/L sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] sfo{If]qdf, JolStsf] hLjgdf, kl/jf/df, ;d'bfodf / /fi6«nfO{ k'¥ofPsf] of]ubfgx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 . o:tf pknlAwx¿ k|foM u/]/ bL3{sfnLg / ;fdflhs vfnsf x'G5g\ . sfo{qmdsf pknlAwn] JolStsf] Jojxf/df cfpg] kl/jt{g / hLjgdf Nofpg] kl/jt{gnfO{ ;ª\s]t ub{5 . sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿n] ;dfhsf ;DalGwt ;d:ofx¿ / cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ub{5g\ . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbgn] eGbf pknlAwn] Jofks cy{ /fVb5 .
#=!=# d'Vo d'2f jf ;afnx¿
oxfF sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ Wofg s]lGb|t ug'{kg]{ d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿ (key concepts) nfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'2f jf ;afnx¿ (issues) sf] ¿kdf pn]Nv ul/Psf] 5 . oL d'2fx¿n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf p7fpg' kg]{ Ph]G8fx¿nfO{ ;ª\s]t ub{5 . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo cjwf/0ff eGgfn] To:tf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] zLif{s, p2]Zo / sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿nfO{ lgb]{lzt ub{5 . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ s'g–s'g lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿df s]lGb|t eP/ d"Nofª\sg ul/g'kg]{ xf] / s'g–s'g vfnsf k|Zgx¿df s]lGb|t geP klg x'g] xf] eGg] s'/f g} sfo{qmd
cfjZostfx¿ p2]Zox¿ nufgLx¿ lqmofsnfkx¿ pTkfbgx¿ pknlAwx¿
6
d"Nofª\sgsf] ;aeGbf dxTjk"0f{ / d'Vo ;afn jf d'Vo d'2f (issue) xf] . Dofs 8]le8 / xyf]g{ -@))^_ sf cg';f/ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf dxTjk"0f{ k|Zgx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\M
-s_ s] sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L lyof] (Was the program effective?) sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwaLrsf] ;DaGwn] sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tfnfO{
hgfpF5 eg] sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf cWoog ug{sf] nflu sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg / pknlAwx¿ (outcomes) aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg / jf:tljs pknlAwaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoogaf6 sfo{qmds} sf/0fn] pknlAwx¿ ePsf x'g\ jf xf]Ogg\ egL lgwf] ug{ ;xof]u k'Ub5 . oxfF p2]Zo eGgfn] ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ (intended outcomes) / pknlAw eGgfn] jf:tljs pknlAwx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 h;df pknlAwx¿n] sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿nfO{ ;d]6\g ;Sb5 .
lrq !=@M sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf d"Nofª\sgsf] tfls{s cjwf/0ff
sfo{qmdsf] k|efj s:tf] 5 (What is the impact of the program)? sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf] cfFsng ug'{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] . sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoog ug{sf] nflu sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogaf6 ePsf pTkfbgx¿sf] k|efjsfl/tfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ ug'{k5{ . csf]{ zAbdf, sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg ubf{ sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ / sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .
lrq !=#M sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu tfls{s cjwf/0ff
k|foh;f] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ xfdLn] p7fpg] u/]sf] k|Zg o:tf] x'g ;Sb5M sfo{qmdn] /fv]sf p2]Zox¿ s] slt k|fKt eP (To what extent did the program achieve its intended objectives)? of] k|Zgcg';f/ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ sfo{qmdn] nlIft u/]sf] p2]Zox¿sf] k|flKtsf] dfqf lglZrt ug]{tkm{ d"Nofª\sg sfo{ cufl8 a9fpg'kg]{ x'G5 .To;}u/L d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ xfdLn] p7fpg] u/]sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] k|Zg o:tf] klg x'g ;Sb5M s] sfo{qmdn] ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ k|fKt ug{ ;Sof] (Did the program achievie its intended outcomes)? sfo{qmdsf ck]lIft pknlAwx¿nfO{ hgfpgsf nflu sfo{qmdleqsf JolStx¿n] sfo{qmdsf ck]lIft p2]Zox¿ to ub{5g\ . o;/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ck]lIft p2]Zox¿ k|flKt eP ePgg\ eg]/ cWoog ug]{ ls ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ k|fKt eP ePgg\ eg]/ cWoog ug]{ t eGg] s'/f klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f ;afn x'g ;Sb5 . of] ;afn eg] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ sfo{qmdleq ;Lldt eP/ cWoog ug]{ ls sfo{qmdsf] jftfj/0fnfO{ klg ;d]6]/ cWoog ug]{ t eGg] s'/f xf] .
To;}u/L sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf d"Nofª\sgsf nflu c¿ b'O{ j6f ;afnx¿nfO{ klg p7fpg ;lsG5 . klxnf] k|Zg cjnf]sg ul/Psf pknlAwx¿ s'g xb;Dd ck]lIft pknlAwx¿;Fu ;ª\ultk"0f{ 5g\ (To what extent are the observed outcomes consistent with the intended outcomes)? o; k|Zgcg';f/ cfzf ul/Psf pknlAwx¿ / jf:tljs ¿kdf k|fKt ul/Psf pknlAwx¿sf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df cWoog ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . o; k|Zgn] ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ jf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ sfo{qmdsf sf/0fn] k|fKt ePsf] xf] ls xf]Og eGg] s'/f vf]Hb}g . csf]{ k|Zg s'g xb;Dd cjnf]sg ul/Psf pknlAwx¿ sfo{qmdsf sf/0fn] k|fKt u/]sf] xf] (To what extent did the program achieve the observed outcomes)? o; k|Zgcg';f/ sfo{qmds} sf/0fn] k|fKt ePsf pknlAwx¿sf] klxrfg u/]/ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . o; k|Zgdf sfo{qmdeGbf aflx/sf s'g} tTjx¿sf sf/0fn] pknlAwx¿ ePsf x'g\ jf xf]Ogg\ eGg] s'/fsf] hjfkm vf]Hg'kg]{ x'G5 . dfly pNn]v ul/Psf kfFr j6f k|Zgx¿ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ x'g\ . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf o:tf cg]sg\ k|Zgx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . oL k|Zgx¿ sfo{qmdsf] ;kmntf d"Nofª\sg ug]{tkm{ nlIft 5g\ . To:f}n] oL ;a} k|Zgx¿n]
sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ (program outputs)
sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ (actual outcomes of the program )
sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ (objecives) jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ (actual outcomes)
7
sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;xof]u ub{5g\ . dfly pNn]v ul/Psf k|Zgx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf d"Nofª\sg ug]{ k|Zg;Fu ;DalGwt u/]/ x]g{ ;lsG5 .
-v_ s] sfo{qmd bIftfk"0f{ lyof] (Was the program efficient)? sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ bIftfsf] :t/ cWoog ug]{ sfo{ klg Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf].
sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf eGg' / sfo{qmdsf] bIftf eGg' km/s km/s cjwf/0ff xf] . sfo{qmd a9L k|efjsf/L eP/ klg sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ /fd|f] eP/ klg nufgL a9L eO/x]sf] jf vr{ a9L eO/x]sf] 5 jf ;do a9L nflu/x]sf] 5 eg] sfo{qmdsf] bIftfsf] :t/ sdhf]/ dflgG5 . sfo{qmdsf] bIftf cWoog ug{ bIftfsf b'O{ kIfx¿af/] cWoog ug{ cfjZos x'G5 . klxnf] k|fljlws bIftf / bf];|f] cfly{s bIftf . sfo{qmdsf nufgLx¿ / sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿sf] cg'kftnfO{ k|fljlws lx;fan] sfo{qmdsf] bIftf elgG5 . k|foh;f] bIftfsf] u0fgf ubf{ nufgLx¿nfO{ k};f jf vr{sf] ¿kdf cg'dfg u/L k|ltPsfO pTkfbg ubf{ nfUg] nufgLsf] dfqfsf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] bIftf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] bIftf u0fgf u/]kl5 bIftfsf] :t/ d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu s'g} lglZrt dfkb08x¿ (standards), cfwf/ ljGb'x¿ (benchmarks) jf cfwf/ /]vfx¿ (baselines) ;DaGwL ;"rgfx¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{ ul/G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ;DkGg ePsf] sfo{sf] k|ltPsfO vr{ jf k|ltljBfyL{ pTkfbg ubf{ nfut vr{ u0fgf u/L sfo{qmdsf] bIftf u0fgf ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] lsl;dsf] k|ltPsfO vr{nfO{ cl3Nnf] jif{sf] k|ltPsfO vr{;Fu jf c¿ sfo{qmdsf] k|ltPsfO vr{;Fu jf cg';Gwfg / l;4fGtx¿af6 :yflkt dfkb08x¿;Fu t'ngf u/L d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
lrq !=$M sfo{qmdsf] bIftf:t/ d"Nofª\sgsf] tfls{s cjwf/0ff
To;}u/Lsfo{qmdsf] cfl{y{s bIftfsf] u0fgf ug{ ;lsG5 . o;sf] nflu nfut nfe ljZn]if0f (cost-benefit analysis) ul/G5 . sfo{qmdsf ;Dk"0f{ nufgLx¿nfO{ k};fdf abn]/ hDdf nfut vr{ lgsfnLg5 / sfo{qmdsf ;Dk"0f{ pTkfbg / pknlAwx¿nfO{ k};fdf abn]/ Nffe /sd kQf nufOG5 . o;kl5 slt /sd vr{ ubf{ slt /sd nfe x'g cfof] To;sf] ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] bIftfsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ slxn]sfxL+ cfly{s bIftfsf] cWoog ug{ h¿/L kb{5 . s'g} sfo{qmdaf6 k|fKt x'g] pknlAwx¿nfO{ k};fdf abNg sl7g x'g] jf ;Dej gx'g] x'g ;Sb5g\ . k|foh;f] ;fdflhs / z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] pknlAwx¿nfO{ k};fdf abn]/ hDdfhDdL kmfObf kQf nufpg] ul/b}+g . o;sf] ;§fdf sfo{qmdsf] nfut k|efjsfl/tfsf] ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 . sfo{qmdsf] vr{nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] pknlAwx¿;Fu t'ngf u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] nfut k|efjsfl/tf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 . o;af/]df lj:t[t rrf{ bf];|f] PsfOsf] cfly{s d"Nofª\sg zLif{sdf ul/Psf] 5 .
-u_ s] sfo{qmdsf] Joj:yfkg / sfof{Gjog pko'St lsl;dn] ul/Psf] lyof] (Was the program appropriately managed and implemented)?
o; k|Zgn] sfo{qmddf ;dfj]z ePsf ;+/rgfx¿ / k|ljlwx¿sf] pko'Sttfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ ;ª\s]t ub{5 . o;cg';f/ sfo{qmdsf] lgdf{0f tfls{s lsl;dn] ul/Psf] 5 ls 5}g, sfo{qmdsf] ;+/rgf p2]Zo k|flKtsf] nflu cy{k"0f{ 5 ls 5}g, sfo{qmdsf of]hgfsf/ / Joj:yfksx¿n] sfo{qmdsf] ;ª\u7g ubf{ x/;Dej pko'Qm pkfox¿ k|of]u u/]sf 5g\ ls 5}gg\, pknAw ;|f]t;fwg, 1fg / ;"rgfx¿sf] ;b'kof]u u/]sf 5g\ ls 5}gg\ h:tf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ vf]hL sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 . ;f/f+zdf eGg'kbf{ sfo{qmdsf] pko'SQtf d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu sfo{qmdsf nufgLx¿, lqmofsnfkx¿, pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿ aLrsf] tfls{s ;dGjonfO{ cfwf/ dfGg ;lsG5 .
lrq !=%M sfo{qmd Joj:yfkgsf] pko'Sttf d"Nofª\sgsf nflu tfls{s cjwf/0ff
sfo{qmdsf nufgLx¿ (program inputs)
sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ (program outcomes)
sfo{sdsf nufgLx¿ (inputs) sfo{sdsf pTkfbgx¿ (outputs)
sfo{qmdsf lqmofsnfkx¿ (program activities)
sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ (program outputs)
8
-3_ s] sfo{qmd ;fGble{s lyof] (Was the program relevant)? sfo{qmdsf] cf}lrTo, dxTj / ;fGble{stf d"Nofª\sg ug'{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{
kIf xf] . sfo{qmdsf] ;fGble{stf cWoog ug{sf nflu cfjZostfx¿ / p2]Zox¿aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ug{' kb{5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug]{ vfnsf nIox¿, p2]Zox¿, gLltx¿ / of]hgfx¿ /x]5g\ eg] sfo{qmdnfO{ ;fGble{s, cf}lrTok"0f{ jf dxTjk"0f{ dfGg ;lsG5 . slxn]sfxL+ sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L x'Fbfx'Fb} klg sfo{qmdsf] dxTj, cf}lrTo / ;fGble{stf sd x'g ;Sb5 . ;dfhsf] abln+bf] kl/j]z, k|fyldstfx¿ / gLltx¿sf sf/0f sfo{qmdsf] ;fGble{stf sda];L x'g ;Sb5 . sfo{qmd ;fGble{s / cfjZos x'Fbfx'b} klg sfo{qmd pko'St ¿kdf sfof{Gjog ug{ g;Sbf jf ljleGGf sf/0fn] sfo{qmdsf] bIftf / k|efjsfl/tf sd x'g ;Sb5 .
lRfq !=^M sfo{qmdsf] ;fGble{stf d"Nofª\sgsf] tfls{s cjwf/0ff
-ª_ s] sfo{qmd kof{Kt lyof] (Was the program adequate)?
sfo{qmdn] ;Daf]wg ug'{kg]{ ;d:ofx¿ ljleGg lsl;dsf x'g ;Sb5g\ . ;fy} sfo{qmdaf6 ljljw vfnsf cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug'{kg]{ cfzf ul/Psf x'G5g\ . To:tf ;d:of / cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{ sfo{qmdn] ;s]sf] 5 jf 5}g eg]/ cWoog ug]{ sfo{ klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] . sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L eP tfklg ckof{Kt x'g ;Sg] / pko'St sfo{qmd eP klg ckof{Kt x'g ;Sg] ePsf]n] sfo{qmdsf] kof{Kttfaf/] d"Nofª\sg ul/g'kg]{ x'G5 . sfo{qmdsf] kof{Kttf yfxf kfpg sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿n] ;d:ofx¿ / cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{ ;Sof] jf ;s]g ;f] s'/fsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ cfjZos x'G5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ / cfjZostfx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] kof{Kttfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . oxfF a'‰g h¿/L s] 5 eg] sfo{qmdn] /fv]sf ;a} p2]Zox¿ k"/f x'Fb}df sfo{qmdnfO{ kof{Kt dfGg ;ls+b}g lsgeg] p2]Zox¿ / cfjZostfx¿sf] aLrdf tfnd]n gePsf] jf p2]Zon] sltko cfjZostfx¿nfO{ g;d]6]sf] klg x'g ;Sb5 . slxn]sfxL+ sfo{qmd dxTjk"0f{ / ;fGble{s x'Fbfx'Fb} klg sfof{Gjog x'g g;s]sf]n] jf pknlAw /fd|f] gx'gfn] sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ ckof{Kt x'g ;S5g\ .
lrq !=&M sfo{qmdsf] kof{Kttf d"Nofª\sgsf] tfls{s cjwf/0ff
sfo{qmd d'Nofª\sgsf kfFrj6f d'Vo ;afnx¿nfO{ tfls{s cjwf/0ffx¿ ;lxt dfly 5nkmn ul/of] .
#=@ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿
d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zon] d"Nofª\sg ug{'[kgf{sf sf/0fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ub{5 . h:tf] s'g} sfo{qmd rln/x]sf] 5 tyf ;f] sfo{qmddf w]/} ;d:ofx¿ / sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ ePsf 5g\ eGg] nfu]df d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo Psflt/ sfo{qmd ;~rfng ubf{ cfOk/]sf sl7gfOx¿, x'g uPsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿, ef]Ug'k/]sf ;d:ofx¿ / ;Defljt r'gf}tLx¿ kQf nufpg'kg]{ x'G5 eg] csf]{lt/ sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ljleGg pkfox¿sf] vf]hL ug'{ / pko'St ljsNk 5gf]6 ug{ ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpg' x'g hfG5 . o;/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿sf] s]Gb|ljGb' sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ Nofpg ;xof]u ug'{ xf] eGg ;lsG5 .
sfo{qmdsf cfjZostfx¿ (program needs) sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ (program objectives)
sfo{qmdsf cfjZostfx¿ (program d )
jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ (actual outocomes)
lqmofsnfk
z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] :j¿ksf] af/]df j0f{g ug'{xf];\ . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿sf] rrf{ ug'{xf];\ . sfo{qmd d'Nofª\sgsf kfFrj6f zLif{s n]Vg'xf];\ .
9
ZfflAbs lx;fan] d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] d"No lgwf{/0fsf] k|lqmof xf] . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo sfo{qmdsf] pko'Sttf, bIftf, k|efjsfl/tf, ;fGble{stf / kof{Kttf h:tf dxTjk"0f{ ;afnx¿sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{' xf] . o:tf d"Nofª\sgsf dxTjk"0f{ ;afnx¿sf] pQ/ vf]h]/ ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ pko'St ;"rgf k|bfg ug'{ g} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo x'g hfG5 . d"Nofª\sgsf o:tf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/sf cfwf/df sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ Nofpg / sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug{ ;xof]u k'Ub5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿n] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ Wofg lbg'kg]{ kIfx¿nfO{ ;ª\s]t ub{5 hals d"Nofª\sgsf] e"ldsf eGgfn] d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt ePsf ;"rgfx¿sf] k|of]u ug]{ tl/sfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf s:tf] 5 / sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug]{ pkfox¿ s] s:tf x'g ;S5g\ h:tf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg' d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ x'g\ eg] To:tf k|Zgsf pQ/x¿sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug'{ cyjf sfo{qmdsf af/]df lg0f{o ug'[{ d"Nofª\sgsf] e"ldsf x'g hfG5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgn] ug]{ ck]lIft sfo{x¿ b'O{ lsl;dsf x'G5g\ M klxnf] lgdf{0ffTds e"ldsf / bf];|f] lg0f{ofTds e"ldsf . csf]{ zAbdf d"Nofª\sgn] ug]{ sfo{x¿sf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg b'O{ lsl;dsf x'G5g\ . klxnf], lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ Nofpg' xf] . bf];|f], lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmdsf] hjfkmb]xLtf lgwf{/0f ug'{ xf] . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf] e"ldsf k|f]PlS6e (proactive) x'G5 eg] lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgsf] e"ldsf l/]6««f]PlS6e (retroactive) x'G5 .
;f/f+zdf d"Nofª\sgsf ck]lIft k|flKtx¿ / ck]lIft pknlAwx¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ eGg ;lsG5 eg] sfo{qmdnfO{ k|efljt ug]{ / lgb]{lzt ug]{ sfo{x¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sgsf] e"ldsf eGg ;lsG5 . d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] Wofg d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo k|fKt ug]{ s'/fdf s]lGb|t x'G5, hals pgn] ug]{ sfo{x¿sf] kl/0ffd:j¿k sfo{qmd ;'wf/ ug{ jf k|df0fLs/0f ug{ ;xof]u k'u]sf] x'G5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgn] ug'{kg]{ sfo{x¿ d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ kl/nlIft x'g] x'gfn] d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo / d"Nofª\sgsf] e"ldsfsf] aLrdf glhssf] ;DaGw /x]sf] x'G5 .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ ljleGg lsl;dn] pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 . h:tf] s'g} gofF sfo{qmdsf nflUf cfjZostfx¿ kQf nufpg', sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf lgdf{0fdf ;xof]u ug'[{, sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpg', / lg0f{ostf{x¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;xof]u ug'{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . To;}u/Lsfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] pko'SQtf kQf nufpg', sfo{qmdsf] bIftfsf] :t/ kQf nufpg', sfo{qmdsf] ;fGble{stf kQf nufpg', kof{Kttf kQf nufpg', k|efjsfl/tf kQf nufpg', nfut k|efjsfl/tf kQf nufpg', / sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿ kQf nufpg' h:tf p2]Zox¿ /fvL sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . ;f/df eGg'kbf{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ tLg lsl;dsf x'G5g\ M klxnf] sfo{qmdsf] jt{dfg cj:yf kQf nufpg', bf];|f] sfo{qmdsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ kQf nufpg', / t];|f] sfo{qmddf ;'wf/sf nflu pkfox¿ vf]Hg' .
#=#= sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|sf/x¿
p2]Zosf cfwf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgnfO{ b'O{ efudf afF8\g ;lsG5M lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg / lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO/x]sf] cj:yfdf sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ Nofpg] p2]Zon] ul/g] d"Nofª\sg xf] . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug{sf] nflu k[i7kf]if0f k|bfg ub{5 . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgnfO{ sfo{qmdsf] ljsf;sf nflu ul/g] d"Nofª\sg eGg ;lsG5 h;n] ;+:yfx¿nfO{ alnof] agfpg / pknlAwx¿df ;'wf/ ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] ;'wf/fTds d"Nofª\sg xf], h'g k|f]PlS6e (proactive) lsl;dsf] x'G5 . o:tf] vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgn] 36gf 36\g'eGbf cl3 g} ;Defljt kl/0ffdx¿sf] af/]df ;hu u/fpF5, ;'wf/sf nflu pkfox¿sf] vf]hL ub{5 / ;'wf/ ug]{ df}sf k|fKt x'G5 . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgdf sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿sf] klg cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 t/ To:tf pknlAwx¿af6 clGtd pTkfbg / clGtd k|efjx¿sf] cWoog ug{ ;ls+b}g . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmdsf] ;'¿jft ;Fu;Fu} ;'¿ u/L sfo{qmd ;dfKt x'g' eGbf cl3;Dd lg/Gt/ ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ o:tf] vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] k"0f{ / clGtd d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;Sb}g .
10
lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf] u'0f, u'0f:t/, dxTj / d"Nosf] lgwf{/0f ug{sf] nflu vf;u/L sfo{qmdsf] cGtdf ul/g] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ a'emfpF5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tfsf] :t/ / pkof]lutfsf] :t/nfO{ k|df0fLs/0f ub{5 . lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] hjfkmb]xLtfsf] :t/ (Level of accountability) lgwf{/0f ub{5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmd ;'rf¿ ug]{ ls aGb ug]{ eGg] h:tf dxTjk"0f{ lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg l/6«f]PlS6e lsl;dsf] (retroactive) x'G5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] 36gf 3l6;s]kl5 36gfsf] af/]df ;dLIff ub{5 . lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmd ;~rfng eP/ pknlAwx¿ b]lvPkl5 pklAwx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg u/L sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf, pkof]lutf / hjfkmb]xLtfsf] lgwf{/0f ub{5 . To;}n] o:tf] vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgaf6 klxn] g} k}bf eO;s]sf glthfx¿ cyf{t\\ pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿df ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsg] ;Defjgf /xFb}g. t/ cfufdL gofF sfo{qmdx¿df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu pko'St lg0f{o ug{ lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgn] lbzfaf]w u5{ / ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 .lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgnfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf b[li6n] clt dxTjk"0f{, clt cfjZos, clGtd / k"0f{ d"Nofª\sg dflgG5 .t/ lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg gul/sg lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg dfq ug{ yflnof] eg] o:tf] lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf / Joj:yfkgnfO{ sfo{qmdsf] ljsf;sf b[li6n] ck"/f] dfGg'kb{5 . ca lgdf{0ffTds / lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgsf leGgtfx¿nfO{ lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v ug{;lsG5 .
tflnsf !=! lgdf{0ffTds / lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgaLrsf leGgtfx¿
lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg
sfo{qmd ;'wf/ ug]{ p2]Zo x'G5 .
sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO/x]sf] j]nfdf ul/G5 .
k|f]PlS6e e"ldsf x'G5 .
sfo{qmdsf] ljsf; ub{5 .
tTsfn k[i7kf]if0f k|bfg ub{5 .
k|foM cgf}krfl/s x'G5 .
k|lqmof s]lGb|t x'G5 .
d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ k|fo cfGtl/s x'G5g\ .
;ankIfx¿ s]–s] 5g\, sdhf]/Lx¿ s]–s] 5g\, s] ;'wf/ ug{ cfjZos 5, s;/L ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsG5 h:tf k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 .
sfo{qmdsf] pkof]lutfsf] :t/ lgwf{/0f ug]{ p2]Zo x'G5 .
sfo{qmdsf] cGtdf ul/G5 .
l/6«f]PlS6e e"ldsf x'G5 .
hjfkmb]xLtfsf] ljsf; ub{5 .
sfo{qmdsf] k"0f{ ¿kdf d"No lgwf{/0f ub{5 .
cf}krfl/s x'G5 .
pTkfbg s]lGb|t x'G5 .
d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ k|foM afx\o x'G5g\ .
glthfx¿ s]–s] ePsf 5g\, s'g cj:yfdf glthf k|fKt ePsf x'g\, k|efjsfl/tf s:tf] 5 h:tf k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 .
d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg b'O{ lsl;dsf x'G5g\M -s_ cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg / -v_ afx\o d"Nofª\sg . sfo{qmddf ;+nUg JolStx¿af6 g} sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 eg] o:tf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg eGb5g\ . sfo{qmddf k|ToIf ¿kdf ;+nUg gePsf, :jtGq ¿kdf /x]sf / aflx/af6 NofOPsf JolStx¿af6 sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 eg] o:tf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ afx\o d"Nofª\sg eGb5g\ .
d"Nofª\sg lg/Gt/ rln/xg] k|lqmof xf]. sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf lgdf{0fb]lv sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eOsg k"/f ePkl5 ;d]t d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ x'g ;Sb5 . sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg slxn] cgf}krfl/s txdf / slxn] cf}krfl/s ¿kdf ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu s'g} sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ubf{ vr{ 5'6\ofOPsf] x'G5 eg] s'g} sfo{qmddf o:tf] vr{ g5'6\ofOPsf] klg x'g ;Sb5 . s'g} cNksfnLg sfo{qmd x'G5g\ eg] s'g} bL3{sfnLg, b;f}+ jif{;Dd lg/Gt/ rln/xg] / aGb gul/g] k|sf/sf klg x'G5g\ . s'g}
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sfo{qmd Ps b'O{ 7fpFdf dfq :yfgLo ¿kdf ;~rfng ul/Psf x'G5g\ . s'g} sfo{qmd aflx/L bft[ ;+:yfx¿af6 k|fKt ;xof]uaf6 ;~rflnt x'G5g\ eg] s'g} sfo{qmd ;/sf/L :t/df ;~rflnt x'G5g\ . s]xL sfo{qmdx¿ :yfgLo :t/df pkef]Stfx¿;Fu z'Ns lnP/ ;~rfng ul/Psf klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . s'g} sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿nfO{ 7f]; ¿kdf b]Vg ;lsg], u0fgf ug{ ;lsg] / gfkmf gf]Szfgsf] ¿kdf k};fdf abNg ;lsg] x'g ;S5g\ eg] s'g} sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ yfxf kfpg / /fd|f];Fu a'‰g nfdf] ;do;Dd cg';Gwfg ug'{kg]{ klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . o:tf ljljw kl/l:yltx¿df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kbf{ slxn]sfxL+ cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg dfq, slxn]sfxL+ afx\o d"Nofª\sg dfq / slxn]sfxL+ b'j} vfnsf d"Nofª\sgx¿ ul/Psf x'G5g\ . s'g lsl;dn] sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ eGg] s'/fsf] lgwf] ug{sf] nflu d'Vo ¿kdf sfo{qmdsf nflu k};f pknAw u/fpg] bftfx¿sf] / nlIft hg;ª\Vofsf] lxtnfO{ Wofg lbOPsf] x'g'kb{5 . sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ubf{v]l/ g} s'g–s'g k|sf/n] d"Nofª\sg ul/g] xf] ;f] s'/fsf] klg of]hgf ul/Pdf /fd|f] x'\G5 . oxfF cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg / afx\o d"Nofª\sgsf kmfObf / a]kmfObfx¿sf af/]df lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
tflnsf !=@ cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sgsf kmfObf / a]kmfObfx¿
kmfObfx¿ a]kmfObfx¿
cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sgdf d"Nofª\sgstf{ sfo{qmds} JolSt ePsf]n] gofF JolStsf] lgo'lSt ul//xg' kb}{g .
d"Nofª\sgstf{n] nfdf] ;do;Dd Wofg lbP/ lg/Gt/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;Sb5g \.
d"Nofª\sgstf{n] d"Nofª\sgsf ;fy;fy} sfo{qmdsf ljljw lqmofsnfkx¿ ug{ ;Sb5g\ .
d"Nofª\sgstf{nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lj:t[t, ;"Id / uxg, hfgsf/Lx¿ k|fKt x'G5g\ .
d"Nofª\sgstf{nfO{ cltl/St vr{ lbO/xg' gkg]{ x'gfn] vr{ sd x'G5 .
sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ug{, nufgL ;b'kof]u ug{, / sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg / pknlAwx¿ a9fpg cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg Hofb} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .
lrghfg x'gfn] s'/fsfgL ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5 . d"Nofª\sgstf{ / sfo{qmdsf of]hgfsf/,
Joj:yfks, Ph]G6x¿, ;xof]uLx¿, ;xefuLx¿ / bftfx¿ Pj+ nlIft hg;ª\Vof;Fu ;'dw'/ ;DaGw sfod ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5, w]/} ;do nfUb}g, cf}krfl/s / cgf}krfl/s b'j} ¿kdf d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
d"Nofª\sg sfo{ :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf ug{ ;lsG5 .
lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu a9L pkof]uL x'G5 . d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf nflu a9L bIf JolStsf]
cfjZostf kb}{g . d'n'se/df sfo{qmd ;~rfng ePsf k|To]s s]Gb|df
d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . d"Nofª\sg sfo{df Ps¿ktf sfod ug{ sl7g x'G5 .
cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sgdf d"Nofª\sgstf{ :ki6 ¿kdf gtf]lsPsf] x'g ;S5 cyjf d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] sfof{b]z :ki6 gx'g ;S5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf] sfo{df lg/Gt/tf gx'g ;S5 . d"Nofª\sgstf{ x]/]km]/ / ;¿jf eO/xg ;S5g\ .
w]/} lsl;dsf sfo{x¿ ug'{kbf{ emGem6 dfGg ;S5g\ .
cltl/St kfl/>lds gkfpFbf sfd ug]{ hfFu/ 36\g ;S5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿sf] k|fyldstf tf]Sg / juL{s/0f ug{ sl7g x'G5 .
cfkm"nfO{ gsf/fTds c;/ kg]{ s'/fdf d"Nofª\sgstf{ xlRsg ;S5g\ .
lrghfg a9L x'gfn] dfgjLo ;DaGw ;a};Fu ;'dw'/ gx'g ;S5 .
d"Nofª\sgstf{ lgikIf x'G5 eGg] ljZjf; gx'g ;S5 .
cgf}krfl/s ¿kdf ul/Psf d"Nofª\sgx¿sf] lnlvt b:tfj]h tof/ gul/Psf] x'g ;Sb5 .
cfˆgf] sfo{qmdnfO{ /fd|f] b]vfpg rfxg] k|j[lQ x'G5 . k"jf{u|xn] a9L c;/ u5{ .
lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu /fd|f] dflg+b}g . bIf / k];ffut d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] cefj ePdf
d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf] ljZj;gLotf, a:t'lgi7tf, lgikIftfdfly k|Zg lrGx v8f x'G5 .
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tflnsf !=# Affx\o d"Nofª\sgsf kmfObf / a]kmfObfx¿
kmfObfx¿ a]kmfObfx¿
afXo d"Nofª\sgdf d"Nofª\sgstf{ :jtGq x'G5g\ .
d"Nofª\sgstf{ k];ffut / bIf x'G5g\ .
lgikIf x'g] ljZjf; ul/G5 .
sfof{b]z tf]lsPsf] x'G5 .
cf}krfl/s d"Nofª\sg x'g] x'gfn] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ Jojl:yt, j}1flgs, j:t'lgi7, ljZj;gLo / j}w agfpg w]/} k|of; ul/Psf] x'G5 .
;a};Fu ;dfg Jojxf/ ug{ ;S5g\ .
lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu /fd|f] dflgG5 . vf;u/L sfo{qmdsf] dWofjlw d"Nofª\sg / clGtd d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu pko'St x'G5 .
gd'gf 5gf]6 u/L 5f]6f] ;dodf sfo{qmdsf] ;du| d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
AffXo d"Nofª\sgdf aflx/af6 d"Nofª\sgstf{ vf]Hg ;do nfU5, vr{ nfU5 / slxn]sfxL+ gkfOg ;S5 .
nfdf] ;dosf] nflu, lg/Gt/ d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu / lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu Tolt pko'St x'Fb}g .
sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lj:t[t / ;"Id hfgsf/Lx¿ x'Fb}gg\ .
d"Nofª\sg sfo{df s[lqd jftfj/0fsf] l;h{gf eO{ To;sf] c;/ kg{;S5 .
sfo{qmdsf ;DalGwt JolStx¿n] slxn]sfxL+ c;xof]u klg ug{ ;S5g\ .
d'n'se/sf k|To]s s]Gb|sf] ljz]if cj:yfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ sl7g x'G5 .
#=$= d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrsf] t'ngf
d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} j:t'sf] d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmof xf] h;df ;f] j:t'k|lt dflg;x¿n] slt dxTj lbG5g\, slt k|fyldstf lbG5g\, ;f] j:t' dflg;sf] nflu slt pkof]uL 5, slt k|efjsf/L 5 h:tf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ k|fKt ul/G5 . d"Nofª\sg cf}krfl/s jf cgf}krfl/s x'g;S5 . cgf}krfl/s d"Nofª\sg sfo{ b}lgs hLjgdf :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf ;j{;fwf/0f JolStx¿af6 eO/xg] sfo{ xf] . d"Nofª\sgdf cjnf]sg ug]{ / k|ltlqmof JoSt ug]{ k|lqmof kb{5 . o; k|lqmofdf j:t'sf] u'0fsf] k|ToIfLs/0f ug]{ / b]lvPsf ;To s'/fx¿ k|efj kg]{ u/L JoSt ug]{ ul/G5 h;af6 lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;lhnf] xf];\ .
cg';Gwfg Pp6f cf}krfl/s k|lqmof xf] . cg';Gwfg of]hgfa4 / Jojl:yt ¿kdf ;~rfng ul/G5 . cg';Gwfg eGgfn] tYout ;To kQf nufpg] lqmofsnfk xf] h;df 1fg k|fKt ug'{, l;4fGt ljsf; ug'{, kl/sNkgfsf] k/LIf0f ug'{, sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGw :yflkt ug'{, b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ug'{ h:tf p2]Zox¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . x'g t d"Nofª\sg h:t} cg';Gwfg klg u'0ffTds jf kl/df0ffTds x'g ;Sb5 / d"Nofª\sg klg cg';Gwfg h:t} cf}krfl/s x'g ;Sb5 .
lqmofsnfk
d"Nofª\sgsf] k"j{;lqmo (proactive) e"ldsf / kZr;lqmo (retroactive) e"ldsfsf] dxTj :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
afx\o d"Nofsg ug'{kgf{sf sf/0fx¿ pNn]v ug'{xf];\ . u'0ffTds b[li6sf]0fsf] cfwf/df z}lIfs d"Nofª\sg / z}lIfs cg';GwfgaLrsf]
;DaGwsf] af/]df 5nkmn ug'{xf];\ . z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df u'0ffTds ljlw / kl/df0ffTds ljlwdWo] s'g ljlw
dxTjk"0f{ xf]< sf/0fx¿ pNn]v ug'{xf];\ .
13
cg';Gwfgsf k|sf/x¿sf] s'/f ubf{ au{ / un -!(&(_ sf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfg klg Ps k|sf/sf] cg';Gwfg xf] . Kof6g -!(()_ sf cg';f/ cg';Gwfg kfFr k|sf/sf 5g\M -s_ cfwf/e"t cg';Gwfg, -v_ Jofjxfl/s cg';Gwfg, -u_ lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfg, -3_ lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfg / -ª_ sfo{d"ns cg';Gwfg . o;/L d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfg eg]sf] Ps k|sf/sf] cg';Gwfg xf], h'g sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu ul/G5 eGg] s'/f :ki6 x'G5 .
z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg / z}lIfs cg';GwfgaLrdf Pscfk;df ldNbf]h'Nbf]kg / ;femf s'/fx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . cWoog ljlwsf lx;fan] z}lIfs d"Nofª\sg / z}lIfs cg';Gwfg b'j}df ;dfgtf x'g ;S5g\ . cg';Gwfgdf k|of]u x'g] cWoogsf 9fFrfx¿, dfkgsf ;fwgx¿, ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf k|lqmofx¿ / ;"rgf ljZn]if0fsf tl/sfx¿ z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L cWoogsf ljlwx¿df z}lIfs d"Nofª\sg / cg';Gwfgdf ;dfgtf eP tfklg cWoogsf p2]Zox¿df eg] leGgtf b]Vg ;lsG5 . klxnf], s'g} z}lIfs j:t', 36gf jf k|lqmofsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug'{kg]{ cfjZostf dx;'; ePdf d"Nofª\sgsf] sfo{ ;'¿ ul/G5, h;sf] p2]Zo lg0f{ostf{nfO{ lg0f{o ug{sf nflu pko'St ;"rgf k|bfg ug'{ xf] . o;sf] ljk/Lt k|foh;f] b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L r/x¿ (variables) sf] aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df lgdf{0f ul/Psf] kl/sNkgfsf] k/LIf0f ug{sf nflu cg';Gwfgsf] sfo{ ;'¿ ul/G5 h;sf] p2]Zo kl/sNkgf :jLsf/ ug]{ jf c:jLsf/ ug]{ eGg] af/]df Pp6f 7f]; lgisif{ lgsfNg' /x]sf] x'G5 . x'g t cg';Gwfgsf glthfx¿af6 Psflt/ sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug{sf nflu lgb]{zg / cGt/b[li6 k|fKt x'g ;S5 eg] csf]{lt/ d"Nofª\sgsf ;"rgfx¿ cg';Gwfgsf kl/sNkgfx¿ k/LIf0f ug{sf nflu ;fGble{s x'g ;Sb5g\ . h]xf];\, d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrsf] d'Vo leGgtf s] xf] eg] Jofjxfl/s lg0f{o ug{sf nflu k|fyldstf lbg] ls ;}4flGts lx;fan] kl/sNkgf k/LIf0f ug]{ s'/fdf k|fyldstf lbg] eGg] s'/fdf /x]sf] 5 .
bf];|f], sfo{sd d"Nofª\sg / z}lIfs cg';GwfgaLrsf] leGgtf s] xf] eg] cWoogaf6 k|fKt ePsf glthfx¿nfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 ls ;ls+b}g eGg] xf] . k|foh;f] d"Nofª\sg ;Lldt p2]Zon] ul/G5 . s'g} vf; sfo{qmd ;kmn 5 jf 5}g eGg] kQf nufpg] p2]Zon] d"Nofª\sg ul/g] x'gfn] d"Nofª\sgsf] glthfnfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ h¿/t kb}{g . o;sf] ljk/Lt, r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ JofVof ug{ Jofks ¿kdf :jLsfo{ x'g ;Sg] vfnsf l;4fGtx¿ (principles) kQf nufpg] p2]Zon] s'g} vf; sfo{qmd jf ;fdu|Lsf] af/]df cg';Gwfg ul/g] x'gfn] cg';Gwfgsf glthfx¿nfO{ cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ul/G5, lsgeg] o;df lnOPsf ;"rgfsf ;|f]tx¿ hg;ª\Vofsf gd'gf x'G5g\ h;n] ;xL ¿kdf hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ub{5g\ . x'g t s'g} d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿ a9L ;fdfGoLs/0fof]Uo x'g ;Sg] / s'g} cg';Gwfgsf glthfx¿ cToGt} ;Lldt ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] x'g ;Sb5g\ . oxfFlg/ d"Nofª\sg / cg';Gwfgsf] aLrdf vf; leGgtf s] xf] eg] d"Nofª\sgeGbf cg';Gwfg sfo{ ubf{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] glthfx¿ / lgisif{x¿ lgsfNg] s'/fdf a9L dxTj lbOPsf] x'G5 .
t];|f], d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLr leGgtf s] 5 eg] d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbg] ls r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df ;To s'/f kQf nufpg] s'/fdf hf]8 lbg] eGg] s'/f /x]sf] 5 . d"Nofª\sgstf{n] z}lIfs j:t' 36gf jf k|lqmofsf] u'0f, u'0f:t/, d"No jf dxTjsf] af/]df ;"rgfx¿sf] ljZn]if0f u/]/ glthfx¿ lgsfN5g\ . pbfx/0fsf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿ o:tf x'g ;S5g\M ;dfj]zL ax'n eflifs lzIff sfo{qmd Psn dft[efifL ljz]if lzIff sfo{qmdeGbf /fd|f] 5, cyjf ;"rgfbftfx¿sf] ljrf/df k|wfgfWofksx¿sf sfo{If]qx¿, sfof{b]zx¿, clwsf/x¿ / e"ldsfx¿df ;'wf/ ug'{ cfjZos 5, cflb . cg';Gwfg ubf{ z}lIfs j:t', 36gf, jf k|lqmofsf ljleGg r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df ;To s'/f kQf nufpg] s'/fdf a9L Wofg s]lGb|t x'G5, h;df s'g} vf; sfo{qmdsf] d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ uf}0f x'G5 . x'g t cg';Gwfgsf glthfx¿ / lgisif{x¿nfO{ cfwf/ agfP/ lg0f{ostf{x¿n] d"No lgwf{/0f / lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;Sb5g\ . cg';Gwfgstf{n] lgsfNg] glthfx¿ o:tf x'g ;Sbg\M x r/sf] Pp6f sf/s tTj y r/ xf] eGg] b]lvG5, cyjf x, y / z r/x¿sf aLrdf ;sf/fTds ;DaGw /x]sf] b]lvG5 cflb .
o;/L z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg / z}lIfs cg';GwfgaLrsf] d"ne"t leGgtf ljlw / k|lqmofdf xf]Og, p2]Zo / k|fyldstfdf /x]sf] x'G5 . sltko lzIff If]qdf ul/Psf cg';Gwfgx¿n] d"Nofª\sgsf ;afnx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg] x'gfn] o:tf cg';GwfgnfO{ d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfg eGg ;lsG5 h;n] lgsfn]sf glthfx¿ / lgisif{x¿ z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu s]lGb|t x'G5g\ . csf]{ zJbdf, cg';Gwfgsf]
14
cfwf/df z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ kl/kf6L / k|rng a9\b} uPsf] 5 . o;/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrsf] ;DaGw a9\bf] 5 eGg ;lsG5 .
tflnsf !=$M d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrsf leGgtfx¿
d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfg
d"Nofª\sg lg0f{o ug]{ s'/fdf a9L s]lGb|t x'G5 .
;fdfGoLs/0fsf] ;Defjgf Go"g x'G5 .
dxTj lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ ub{5 .
;fdflhs pkof]lutf a9fpg] p2]Zo x'G5 .
cg';Gwfg lgisif{ lgsfNg] s'/fdf a9L s]lGb|t x'G5 .
;fdfGoLs/0fsf] ;Defjgf pRr x'G5 .
;To kQf nufpg] sfo{ ub{5 .
1fg k|flKt / l;4fGt lgdf{0fsf] p2]Zo x'G5 .
#=% d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿
d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿sf] ljsf;qmd a'‰gsf] nflu dflg;sf] ;f]rfOdf leGgtf, sfd ug]{ tf}/ tl/sfdf leGgtf / 1fgsf] l;4fGt tyf ;+/rgfdf /x]sf leGgtfx¿ s]nfpg h¿/L x'G5 . s'g} j:t', 36gf jf k|lqmofsf] d"No lgwf{/0f ug{sf nflu tLg j6f kIfx¿df :ki6tf rflxG5 . klxnf], j}rfl/s kIf xf] h;n] ;+;f/nfO{ x]g]{ / hLjgnfO{ lrGg] b[li6sf]0f / ljrf/wf/f k}bf ub{5 . of] bz{gzf:qLo kIf xf], h;n] jf:tljstf / ;Totfsf] :jefjsf] jsfnt ub{5 . o;n] clGtd uGtJosf] lgwf] ub{5 . ;To–c;To, 7Ls–a]7Ls, c;n–v/fa 5'6\ofpgsf] nflu bfz{lgs cfwf/ cfjZos 5 h;nfO{ z"Godf /fv]/ d"No lgwf{/0f xF'b}g . d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu ljrf/ / bz{g cfjZos 5 . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿sf] ljsf; bz{gaf6 k|efljt 5 eGg] :jtM l;4 x'G5 . bf];|f], k|lqmofut kIf xf], h'g d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu cfjZos kb{5 . k|lqmofut kIf eGgfn] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu ckgfOg] k|lqmofx¿, ljlwx¿, tl/sfx¿ / /0fgLltx¿nfO{ eGg vf]lhPsf] xf] . d"Nofª\sgsf nflu to ul/Psf] 9fFrf, k|lqmof / k|Zgx¿n] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ k|efljt x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu xfdLn] h:tf] k|Zg ub{5f}+, To:t} pQ/ k|fKt x'G5 . To;}n] s:tf] k|Zg ug]{ eGg] s'/f dxTjk"0f{ 5 h;sf] lgwf{/0f ljlwn] ub{5 . ctM d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff a'‰gsf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿df :ki6tf cfjZos kb{5 .
t];|f], d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff a'‰gsf] nflu cfjZos csf]{ dxTjk"0f{ kIf 1fgsf] kIf xf], h;n] j:Tf'sf] :jefjnfO{ :ki6 ub{5 . d"Nofª\sg ug{ vf]lhPsf] j:t', 36gf jf k|lqmofsf] :jefjcg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f x'G5 . o;sf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf] ljifoj:t' klxNofpg' cfjZos 5 . ljifoj:t' ;DaGwL 1fg, 1fgsf ;|f]tx¿, 1fgsf l;4fGtx¿, 1fgsf ;+/rgfx¿ / 1fgsf cfwf/x¿nfO{ 1fgzf:q elgG5 . d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:qn] d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ bzff{pF5 . d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿n] d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff lglZrt ub{5g\ . ctM d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿ a'‰gsf nlu oxfF 1fgzf:qLo leGgtfx¿sf] ;d]t rrf{ ug'{ cfjZos 5 . o;/L ;f/df bz{gzf:q, ljlwzf:q / 1fgzf:qx¿sf] ;DaGwaf6 d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿sf] lgdf{0f ePsf] s'/fnfO{ lgDg lrqdf b]vfOPsf] 5 .
15
lrq !=*M d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿sf] lgdf{0f
#=%=!= bz{gzf:qLo leGgtfx¿M j:t'lgi7tfjfb / dgf]utjfb
;To s'/f s] xf], ;To s'/f sxfF 5, ;To s'/f s:tf] x'G5 / ;To s'/f s;/L k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 h:tf cfwf/e"t k|Zgsf pQ/df ljljwtfx¿ kfOG5g\ lsgeg] ;+;f/df y/Ly/Lsf dflg;x¿ 5g\ / ltgsf ljrf/df ljljwtfx¿ 5g\ . k|fs[lts lj1fg / ;fdflhs lj1fg b'j}nfO{ :jLsfo{ x'g] g t s'g} Psn bz{g 5 g t d"Nofª\sgsf] Psf]xf]/f] bz{gnfO{ ;a}n] :jLsf/ ug]{ cj:yf 5 . To;}n] bz{lgs / j}rfl/s dt leGgtfx¿sf sf/0f d"Nofª\sgdf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿ lgdf{0f x'g'nfO{ :jfefljs dfGg ;lsG5 . ;+;f/sf j:t'x¿sf] cWoogsf nflu cjwf/0ffx¿sf] lgdf{0f k|lqmofnfO{ tnsf] lrqn] :ki6 b]vfpF5 .
lrq !=(M cWoogsf cjwf/0ffx¿sf] lgdf{0f
oxfF cToGt leGg / km/s km/s 5]pdf /x]sf b'O{ j6f bz{gx¿– j:t'lgi7tfjfb / dgf]utjfbsf] af/]df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . j:t'lgi7tfjfb Ps lsl;dsf] bz{gzf:qLo ljrf/ xf] h'g j}1flgstfjfb (positivism) / pQ/–j}1flgstfjfb (post-positivism) df cfwfl/t 5 . j}1flgstfjfb To:tf] ljrf/ xf] h;n] k|fs[lts lj1fgnfO{ ;xL, ;To, / k"0f{ dfGb5 . o; ljrf/ cg';f/ k|fs[lts lj1fgdf uNtL x'Fb}g eGg] ljZjf; ul/G5 . pQ/–j}1flgstfjfbn] k|fs[lts lj1fgdf klg s]xL q'l6x¿ / uNtLx¿ x'g;Sg]tkm{ ;r]t ub{5 . j}1flgstfjfb / pQ/–j}1flgstfjfb cg';f/ ;+;f/sf] / ;dfhsf] cWoog j}1flgs k4lt cg';f/ ug{ ;Dej 5 / cfjZos 5 . pQ/–j}1flgstfjfbn] k|fs[lts lj1fgdf ;dofg's"n kl/jt{g ug{ ;lsg] ljZjf; ub{5 . oxfF k|fs[lts lj1fg eGgfn] ef}ltszf:q, /;fogzf:q, hLjzf:q, ul0ft cflbnfO{ hgfpF5 . j}1flgstfjfb / pQ/j}1flgstfjfbsf cg';f/ ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] If]qdf ;d]t k|fs[lts lj1fgsf lgodx¿ nfu" x'G5g\ eGg] ljZjf; ul/G5 . oxL ljZjf;sf sf/0f z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflUf j:t'lgi7tfjfbL b[li6sf]0fsf] k|of]u ug'{ ;Dej dflgG5, cfjZos dflgG5 / lglj{sNk dflgG5 .
ljlws]lGb|t l;¢fGtx¿ d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw
j:t'utjfb
ljlwzf:qLo ljrf/x¿
1fgzf:qLo ljrf/x¿
bz{gzf:qLoljrf/x¿
Dfgf]utjfb
;+VofTds Uf'0ffTds
Kf|fs[lts lj1fgsf ljifoj:t'x¿
;fdflhs lj1fgsf ljifoj:t'x¿
bz{gzf:qLo ljrf/x¿M j:t'utjfb / dgf]utjfb 1fgzf:qLo ljrf/x¿M
Kf|fs[lts lj1fg / ;fdflhs lj1fg
ljlwzf:qLo ljrf/x¿M ;+VofTds / u'0ffTds Jff:tljstfsf] cl:tTjM
Eff}lts ;+;f/ / ;fdflhs ;+;f/
Df"Nos]lGb|t l;¢fGtx¿
Kf|of]us]lGb|t l;¢fGtx¿
16
j:t'lgi7tfjfbL b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ k|fs[lts lj1fg / j}1flgs 1fg g} ;To xf] . o; lsl;dsf] ljrf/df ;To ToxfF aflx/ 5 ;+;f/df / ;dfhdf 5 h;sf] af/]df yfxf kfpg j:t'lgi7 tl/sfaf6 cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . ;To s'/f kQf nufpgsf] nflu j}1flgs tl/sfaf6 cWoog ug'{kb{5 . o; lsl;dsf] ljrf/wf/fdf jf:tljstf / ;To EfGg] s'/f j:t'lgi7 x'G5, Psn x'G5, / o;df tfls{s Ps¿ktf /x]sf] x'G5 eGg] ljZjf; ul/G5 . j:t'lgi7tfjfbsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf ;"rgfx¿ j}1flgs ¿kdf j:t'lgi7 x'g'k5{ cyf{t\ d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿ k/LIf0fof]Uo (verifiable) x'g'k5{ . o;sf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿ afx\os/0f (externalized) x'g'k5{ cyf{t\\ ljBdfg cj:yfsf] :ki6 ¿kdf pNn]v ug'{kb{5 tfls km/s km/s d"Nofª\sgstf{n] p:t} cj:yfdf d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;s"g\ / k6s k6s ul/Psf d"Nofª\sgaf6 p:t} glthfx¿ lg:sg ;Sg] ;Defjgf /xf];\ .
dgf]utjfb cyf{t\\ ljifoutjfb (subjectivism) eg]sf] j:t'lgi7tfjfbL ljrf/sf] 7Ls ljk/Lt ljrf/ xf] . ljifoutjfbLsf cg';f/ ef}lts ;+;f/sf] cWoogsf nflu ;d]t j}1flgstfjfb / pQ/j}1flgstfjfbx¿ cw'/f / ck"/f 5g\ / logn] ;fdflhs lj1fgsf If]qx¿ / d"Nofª\sgsf If]qx¿df ;To s'/f kQf nufpg ;St}gg\ lsgeg] logsf] If]q ;fF3'/f] / ;ª\s'lrt 5 . ljifoutjfbL ljrf/ cg';f/ ;+;f/ / ;dfhsf] cWoogsf nflu k|fs[lts lj1fg ck"0f{ 5 / of] k"0f{ x'g ;Sb}g . ljifoutjfbL ljrf/ slyt j}1flgs ljrf/wf/fdf cfwfl/t geO{ dfgjLo ljrf/wf/f (humanistic paradigm) df cfwfl/t 5, ;fdflhs lj1fg (social science), ;fF:s[lts lj1fg (cultural science) / ;dLIffTds lj1fg (critical science) df s]lGb|t 5 . o; ljrf/wf/f cg';f/ ;Totfsf] lgdf{0f, k'glg{df{0f / ljlgdf{0f x'g] ub{5, h'g dflg;n] ug]{ s'/f xf] . h'g s'/f ;To xf] eg]/ xfdLn] lgdf{0f u5f}{, dfGotf lbG5f}+ / ljZjf; u5f}{+, ToxL ;To x'G5 . dflg;n] cfˆgf] hLjgdf ef]u]sf 36gfx¿ / cg'ejsf] cfwf/df kl/l:ylt cg's'n cy{x¿ (meanings), nufpF5g\, ;Totfsf] af/]df ;'ema'emsf] ljsf; u5{g\ / To;nfO{ JoSt ub{5g\ . o;/L jf:tljstf / ;To eGg] s'/f aflx/ x'g] s'/f xf]Og, dfgjLo cg'ejaf6 lgdf{0f x'g] s'/f xf] egL ljZjf; ug]{ x'gfn] o:tf] lsl;dsf] ljrf/nfO{ dgf]utjfb elgPsf] xf] . o; lsl;dsf] ljrf/wf/fleq ljleGg l;4fGtx¿ 5g\ . h:tf]M lgdf{0fjfb, k'glg{df{0fjfb, cGt/b[li6jfb / ax'njfb cflb . o; lsl;dsf] ljrf/n] ljifout jf:tljstf (subjective realities), ljifout ;Totf (subjective truth), ax'–jf:tljstf (multiple realities), ax';Totf (multiple truths), ljk/Lt jf:tljstf (conflicting realities) cflbnfO{ dfGotf lbG5 . o;n] ljZjJofkL ;TotfeGbf :yfgLo / JolStut ;TotfnfO{ :jLsf/ ub{5 .
ljifoutjfbn] d"Nofª\sgsf] j}wtfsf] nflu j}1flgs ljlwsf] ;§f cg'ejnfO{ cfwf/ dfGb5 . o;cg';f/ 1fg cGtu{t :ki6 / 7f]; ¿kdf zAbdf JoSt ug{ g;lsg] (tacit) s'/fx¿ klg kb{5g\ . To;}n] o; ljrf/ cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿ cfGtl/sLs/0f (internalized) x'G5g\ . d"Nofª\sgstf{n] k|of]u ug]{ ljBdfg cj:yfx¿ / tl/sfx¿nfO{ c¿n] :ki6;Fu a'‰g jf k'gM ToxL tl/sf cg';/0f ug{ g;Sg] x'G5g\ . o; ljrf/ cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf] k[i7e"ld, of]Uotf / b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] ;fGble{stf dfly d"Nofª\sgsf] ljifout j}wtf lge{/ ub{5 .
o;/L j:t'lgi7jfbL ljrf/ / ljifolgi7jfbL ljrf/sf sf/0f d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿, 9fFrfx¿, ;fdu|Lx¿df Jofks ljljwtf ePsf 5g\ . j:t'lgi7jfbL ljrf/ / ljifolgi7jfbL ljrf/sf s]xL ;Lldttfx¿ / cfnf]rgfx¿nfO{ tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
xfp; -!(*)_ n] z}lIfs d"Nofª\sg sfo{df j:t'lgi7jfb (objectivism) nfO{ cfsif{s g/x]sf] atfPsf 5g\ lsgeg] o;n] z}lIfs / ;fdflhs jftfj/0fdf n's]/ /x]sf d"Nox¿, kIfkftx¿ / k"jf{u|xx¿nfO{ a]jf:tf u5{ . To:t} SofDkj]nsf cg';f/ ;g\ !(^) sf] bzs;Dd j}1flgs bz{gsf] ¿kdf tfls{s j}1flgstfjfbsf] k|e'Tj lyof] . ;g\ !(*) sf] bzsdf cfOk'Ubf kl/l:yltdf k'0f{tM kl/jt{g cfPsf] 5 . o;/L cfhsn bz{g, ;dfhzf:q / lzIffdf tfls{s j}1flgstfjfb (logical positivism) nfO{ k|foh;f] ljZjJofkL ¿kdf c:jLsf/ ul/Psf] 5 -SofDkj]n, !(*$_ . To:t}, :qmfOe]g -!(*$_ sf cg';f/ j}1flgstfjfbsf kIfdf ar]v'r]sf s'g} kIfkftL ljrf/x¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sgsf] If]qaf6 pTd"ng ul/g'kb{5 . To:t}, u'jf / lnª\sg -!(*!_ n] kl/sNkgfTds–lgudg ljlwåf/f cWoog ubf{ s'g} uNtL x'Fb}g eGg] dfGotfnfO{ r'gf}tL lbPsf 5g\ lsgeg] pgLx¿sf cg';f/ z}lIfs jftfj/0fdf j}1flgs tl/sfn] cWoog ug{ ;ls+b}g .
17
ljifolgi7jfbL (subjectivism) ljrf/sf] klg k|z:t cfnf]rgfx¿ ePsf 5g\ . h:tf] ls, o;n] cj}1flgs k|lqmofx¿nfO{ dfGotf lbG5, Pp6} j:t'sf] d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf glthfx¿ km/skm/s x'Gf ;Sb5g\, slxn]sfxL+ glthfx¿ lj/f]wfef;k"0f{ x'G5g\, k'gk{/LIf0f ug{ g;lsg], ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ g;lsg] x'G5g\, / lgisif{ lgsfNg g;lsg] cj:yf cfpg ;S5 -af]¿z / sf]/8, !(*)_.
#=%=@= ljlwzf:qLo leGgtfx¿M kl/df0ffTds / u'0ffTds ljlwx¿
ljleGg bz{gzf:qLo dfGotfx¿sf sf/0f d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿df klg leGgtfx¿ x'g' :jfefljs} xf] . d"n ¿kdf bz{gzf:qLo ljrf/x¿n] g} cWoogsf ljlwx¿ lgwf{/0f ub{5g\ . pbfx/0fsf] nflu j:t'lgi7jfbL ljrf/n] kl/df0ffTds cWoog (quantitative inquiry) sf] jsfnt ub{5 eg] ljifolgi7jfbL ljrf/n] u'0ffTds cWoog (qualitative inquiry) sf] jsfnt ub{5 . To:t}, d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] k[i7e"ld, bIftf / k|fyldstfcg'¿k d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿sf] k|of]udf ljljwtfx¿ x'g] ub{5g\. To;}u/L d"Nofª\sg ul/g] ljifoj:t'sf] :jefjcg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿df x]/]km]/ x'G5g\ . pbx/0fsf] nflu ef}lts k"jf{wf/ lgdf{0f sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg / ;fdflhs ;]jf lj:tf/ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ ljlwx¿ :jefj}n] leGg x'g ;S5g\ . Jofks cy{df eGg'kbf{ cWoog ljlwx¿ b'O{ k|sf/sf 5g\M klxnf], kl/df0ffTds cWoog ljlw / bf];|f], u'0ffTds cWoog ljlw .
kl/df0ffTds ljlw ;g\ !(%) / ^) sf] bzslt/ z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu a9L nf]slk|o / a9L k|rngdf cfPsf] ljlw xf] . kl/df0ffTds ljlw eg]sf] Ps k|sf/sf] cWoog ljlw xf], h;n] vf;u/L k|fs[lts lj1fgdf ckgfOg] cWoog ljlwnfO{ ckgfpF5 . kl/df0ffTds cyf{t\\ ;ª\VofTds ljlwn] k|of]ufTds / cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]udf hf]8 lbG5 . ;fdflhs lj1fgdf a9L k|of]u x'g] ;j]{If0f ljlw klg kl/df0ffTds ljlwsf] pbfx/0f xf] . o; ljlwdf zlAbs ¿kdf /x]sf ;"rgfnfO{ ;ª\Vofdf abn]/ tYofª\szf:qLo ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u u/L tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . kl/df0ffTds cWoogn] tYofª\szf:qLo k/LIf0fsf nflu pko'St x'g] lsl;daf6 tYofª\sx¿ ;ª\sng ug]{, ljZn]if0f ug]{ / l;h{gf ug]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbG5 .kl/df0ffTds cWoogn] Jofks ;}4flGts b[li6sf]0faf6 ;fgf–;fgf efux¿sf] ¿kdf lgdf{0f ul/Psf ljlzi6 kl/sNkgfx¿sf] k/LIf0f ug]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbG5 . o; lsl;dsf] cWoog cf}krfl/s, of]hgfa4, a:t'lgi7 / t6:y x'G5 . o;df dfkgsf ;fwgx¿df Ps¿ktf / ljZj;gLotf x'G5g\ . o:tf] cWoogsf glthfx¿ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ / k'gk|{of]u ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf x'G5g\ .
tflnsf !=% kl/df0ffTds ljlwsf ;an kIfx¿ / cfnf]rgfx¿
;an kIfx¿ cfnf]rgfx¿
kl/df0ffTds ljlw j}1flgs lx;fan] zlStzfnL dflgG5 .
of] ljlwdf ljZj;gLotf, j}wtf, j:t'lgi7tf, / t6:ytf h:tf u'0fx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ .
of] ljlwn] cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] k|ltlglwTj ub{5 .
o; ljlwaf6 k|fKt lgisif{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
glthfx¿sf] k'gk{/LIf0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
z}lIfs If]qsf] d"Nofª\sgdf of] ljlw Jofks gLltut k|of]hgx¿sf] nflu pko'St dflgG5 .
dflg;sf 1fg / cg'ejx¿nfO{ ;ª\Vofdf ;Lldt ug{ ;ls++b}g. ;ª\Vofdf ;Lldt ug{ vf]lhof] eg] 1fg / cg'ejx¿sf] uxg cWoog x'g ;Sb}g .
;+;f/df ljifout jf ljifolgi7 s'/fx¿sf] cl:tTj 5, h;sf] cWoog ljifolgi7 tl/sfn] g} ug'{kb{5, j:t'lgi7 u/Lsfn] ug{ ;ls+b}g .
cWoogsf] k"j{–lgwf{l/t of]hgf / 9fFrf :yfgLo kl/j]zdf pko'St gx'g ;S5 .o; ljlwsf] cWoog 9fFrfdf nrstfsf] cefj x'G5 .
aflx/L JolStx¿af6 afx\o b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ t6:y / /fd|f] cWoog x'G5 eGg] l;4fGt (etic theory) Tolt cy{k"0f{ 5}g .
o; ljlwaf6 cWoog ubf{ ;Dk"0f{tfdf cWoog x'Fb}g / k"0f{ ;"rgf k|fKt x'Fb}g .
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u'0ffTds ljlwn] ;g\ !(&) sf] bzsdf z}lIfs If]qsf] d"Nofª\sgdf cfˆgf] k|efj kfg{ ;kmn
dflgG5 . u'0ffTds ljlw eGgfn] To:tf] vfnsf] cWoog ljlw xf] h'g vf;u/L 3/kl/jf/, ;dfh jf ljBfno h:tf ;fdflhs / :jefljs jftfj/0fdf ;~rfng ul/G5 . of] pknlAwdf eGbf ;fdflhs k|lqmofx¿df a9L s]lGb|t x'G5 h;n] jf:tljs, uxg / pRr:t/sf ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt u/L lj:t[t j0f{g ug{ hf]8 lbG5, ;"rgfsf] ;ª\sng / ljZn]if0f ug{sf] nflu cWoogstf{nfO{ g} d'Vo ;fwg dfGb5 . ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf nflu ax'–ljlwx¿ / v'Nnf cfudg ljlwsf] k|of]u ub{5 / ;xefuLx¿sf] b[li6sf]0faf6 cy{x¿ lgsfN5, h;n] ubf{ b}lgs hLjgsf lsofsnfkx¿nfO{ :ki6 ug{ ;Sb5 .
tflnsf !=^ u'0ffTds ljlwsf ;an kIfx¿ / cfnf]rgfx¿
;an kIfx¿ cfnf]rgfx¿
u'0ffTds ljlwn] ;du|tfdf cWoog ub{5 . vl08t b[li6sf]0fn] cWoog ul/b}g .
o; ljlwaf6 uxg, lj:t[t / ;"Id cWoog ;Dej 5 .
o; ljlwsf] of]hgf / 9fFrfdf nrstf x'G5 .
o; ljlwn] dfgjLo Jojxf/sf pRr:t/sf hl6ntfx¿sf] phfu/ ug{ ;S5 .
o; ljlwdf tyfslyt j}1flgs r:dfn] ge]6\g] kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6]/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
o; ljlwn] kl/df0ffTds cWoog ljlwsf] dxTjnfO{ k"0f{ ¿kdf vf/]h ub}{g, a¿+ ;dfj]z ug]{ k|of; u5{ .
kl/df0ffTds cWoog ljlweGbf u'0ffTds cWoog ljlw sdhf]/ vfnsf] ljlw xf]Og .
o; ljlwdf s[lqd kl/l:yltx¿ l;h{gf gul/sg :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf cWoog ul/G5 .
afx\o JolStx¿sf] b[li6sf]0feGbf ;xefuLx¿sf] b[li6sf]0f (emic view ) nfO{ dxTj lbOG5 .
u'0ffTds ljlw j}1flgs 5}g. To;}n] o; ljlwdf ljZj;gLotf, j}wtf, j:t'lgi7tf / t6:ytf x'Fb}g .
of] ljlw dgf]ut 5 . k"jf{u|x / kIfkftx¿n] el/k"0f{ 5 .
of] ljlwdf cWoogsf] ljifoj:t' ljlzi6 x'Fb}g. cWoog sfo{ ;DkGg ug{ w]/} hl6ntfx¿ cfpF5g\ .
a9L bIf hgzlStsf] cfjZostf kb{5 / cWoog If]qdf nfdf] ;do;Dd cWoog ug'{kg]{ x'G5 .
o; ljlwaf6 k|fKt glthfcg';f/ r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGw :yflkt x'Fb}g / To;}n], eljiojf0fL ug{ ;lsb}g .
glthfx¿sf] ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{, k'gk{|of]u ug{, / k'gk{/LIf0f ug{ ;lsb}g .
kl/df0ffTds / u'0ffTds cWoog ljlwx¿df Jofks / ;}4flGts leGgtfx¿ /x]sf] kfOG5 h;nfO{ tnsf] tflnsfdf b]vfOPsf] 5 . bz{gzf:qLo lx;fan] d"ndf leGgtf x'Fbfx'Fb} / s'g} vf; cWoogstf{sf] s'g} vf; ljlwdf k|fyldstf x'g ;Sg] cj:yf /xFbf/xFb} klg kl/df0ffTds / u'0ffTds b'j} ljlwx¿df s]xL ;femf s'/fx¿, b'j} ljlwnfO{ hf]8\g ;lsg] cj:yfx¿ / b'j} ljlwnfO{ Ps csf{sf] ;xof]uL ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] cj:yfx¿ ePsf] x'gfn] ldl>t ljlwsf] cjwf/0ff alnof] ¿kdf b]vfk/]sf] 5 . cWoog ul/g] j:t', 36gf jf k|lqmofsf] /fd|f];Fu cWoog ug{sf] nflu kl/df0ffTds ljlw, u'0ffTds ljlw jf ldl>t ljlw h'g ljlw a9L cy{k"0f{, dxTjk"0f{ / ;fGble{s x'G5, ToxL ljlwsf] k|of]u ul/g'kb{5 eGg ;lsG5 . oxfF bz{gzf:qLo ljrf/x¿ cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿ lglZrt ug'{kg]{ b]lvG5 . vf; s'/f s] xf] eg] b'j} ljlwsf cf–cfˆgf dxTj / ;Ldfx¿ ePsf] x'gfn] b'j} ljlwsf ;sf/fTds kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6\g] / gsf/fTds kIfx¿nfO{ x6fpg] p2]Zon] ldl>t ljlwsf] k|of]u ;Dej klg 5 / cfjZos klg 5 . To;}n] ;g\ !(*) / () sf] bzskl5 sltko ;Gbe{df ldl>t ljlwsf] k|of]unfO{ pko'St dfGg yflnPsf] 5 . o;/L cWoog ljlwx¿df leGgtf ePsf x'gfn] d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ffx¿df klg ljljwtf ePsf x'g\ eGg ;lsG5 .
19
tflnsf !=& kl/df0ffTds / u'0ffTds ljlwx¿df leGgtf
kl/df0ffTds cWoog u'0ffTds cWoog
j:t'lgi7jfbdf ljZjf; ul/G5 .
j}1flgstfjfb / pQ/–j}1flgstfjfbdf cfwfl/t 5 .
k|fs[lts lj1fgsf] If]qdf pko'St 5 .
j}1flgs b[li6sf]0fnfO{ a9fjf lbG5 .
d"No/lxt j:t'lgi7 / t6:y cWoog x'G5 .
;Gbe{/lxt ljZn]if0f u/L lg/k]If ;To kQf nufOG5 .
;"rgfx¿nfO{ ;ª\Vofdf ablnG5 .
kl/sNkgfsf] k/LIf0f ug{ tYofª\szf:qLo cf}hf/x¿sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
cf}krfl/s / of]hgfa4 k|lqmofx¿ ckgfOG5g\ .
cWoogsf] 9fFrf k"j{lgwf{l/t x'G5g\ .
o; lsl;dsf] cWoogdf k|of]ufTds k/LIf0fx¿, of]hgfa4 cjnf]sgx¿ / ;j]{If0f ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
cWoogsf] ljlzi6 s]Gb|ljGb' x'G5 .
lgudg ljlw k|of]u ul/G5 .l;4fGtsf] cfwf/df JolStut 36gfx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 .
cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vof 7"nf] x'G5 .
;xefuLx¿;Fu JolStut k|Zgx¿ ul/+b}g / Pp6f b"/Ldf /x]/ cWoog ul/G5 .;xefuLx¿sf] b[li6sf]0f eGbf afx\o JolStsf] b[li6sf]0f lg0ff{os dflgG5 .
r/x¿aLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ eljiojf0fL ul/G5 .
glthfx¿df ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsGf] Ifdtf pRr x'G5 .
ljifolgi7jfbdf ljZjf; ul/G5 .
cGt/b[li6jfb / ax'njfbdf cfwfl/t 5 .
;fdflhs lj1fgsf] If]qdf pko'St 5 .
dfgjLo b[li6sf]0fnfO{ a9fjf lbG5 .
d"No;fk]If ljifout÷dgf]ut cWoog x'G5 .
kl/l:ylthGo ljZn]if0f u/L ;fk]If ;To kQf nufOG5 .
tYofª\sx¿nfO{ zAbdf JofVof u/L cy{ nufOG5 .
kl/sNkgfx¿sf] j0f{g ug{sf] nflu lj:t[t cGt/lqmof, uxg lrGtgdgg\ / :jfefljs efiffsf] k|of]u u/L ;'ema'emsf] ljsf; ul/G5 .
cgf}krfl/s / nlrnf k|lqmofx¿ ckgfOG5 .
cWoog If]qdf uP/ cWoogsf] 9fFrf ljsf; ul/G5 .
o; lsl;dsf] cWoogdf cGtjf{tf{, nlIft ;d"x 5nkmn, ;xefuLd"ns cjnf]sg, hLjgL, b}lgsL, / lkmN8 gf]6x¿sf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
cWoogdf k"0f{tfsf] b[li6sf]0f x'G5 .
cfudg ljlwsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . JolStut 36gfx¿sf] cfwf/df l;4fGtx¿sf] rrf{ ul/G5 .
cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vof ;fgf] x'G5 .
;xefuLx¿;Fu JolStut k|Zgx¿ ul/G5, ;s];Dd glhssf] ;DaGw sfod ul/G5 / pgLx¿sf] b[li6sf]0f g} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .
r/x¿aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] j0f{g ub{5 .
glthfx¿nfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsb}g .
#=%=#= 1fgzf:qLo leGgtfx¿M d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿
d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿ a'‰gsf nflu cfjZos d'Vo bz{gzf:qLo ljrf/x¿ / d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf ljlwx¿sf] rrf{ o;eGbf klxn] ul/;lsPsf] 5 . oxfF 1fgzf:qLo b[li6sf]0faf6 d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿sf] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 h;n] d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ k|:6 kfb{5g\ . x'g t bz{gzf:q, ljlwzf:q, / 1fgzf:qsf] aLrdf kf/:kl/s ;DaGw /xG5 . h:tf] ls 1fg / cg'ejaf6
20
ljrf/sf] l;h{gf x'G5 / ljrf/wf/fcg'¿k 1fgsf] lgdf{0f ul/G5 . To:t} cWoog ug{ k|of]u ul/g] ljlwn] 1fgsf] lgdf{0f k|efljt x'G5 / cWoog ug'{kg]{ ljifoj:t'sf] :jefjcg'¿k ljlwsf] 5gf]6 ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . To;}n] ljrf/, ljlw / 1fgsf] cnu cnu rrf{ ug'{ Ps sl7g sfo{ xf] lsgeg] oL tLg j6} kIfsf] aLrdf lglZrt ;Ldf /]vfx¿ sf]g{ ufx|f] 5 . ljrf/ (philosophy), ljlw (methodology) / 1fg (epistemology) sf ljljw kIfx¿nfO{ 5'6\ofpg dfly plNnlvt lrq !=* / !=( x]g'{ xf]nf .
1fgzf:q cyf{t\\ 1fg cWoog If]q (epistemology) eGgfn] 1fgsf] l;4fGt / 1fgsf] ;+/rgfnfO{ hgfpF5, h;n] 1fgsf] :j¿knfO{ :ki6 ub{5 . d"ntM 1fgzf:qnfO{ b'O{ efu nufpg ;lsG5M klxnf], k|fs[lts lj1fgsf] If]q cyf{t\\ ef}ltszf:q / hLjzf:q, / bf];|f], ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] If]q h:tf] ;f+:s[lts, /fhgLlts, cflYf{s, z}lIfs If]q cflb. oxfF a'‰g ;lsg] s'/f s] 5 eg] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ ljifoj:t'x¿ cyf{t\\ j:t'x¿, 36gfx¿ jf k|lqmofx¿ s'g} j]nf k|fs[lts lj1fgsf] If]q;Fu glhs / s'g} j]nf ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] If]q;Fu glhs x'g ;Sb5g\ . To;}n] o:tf] l:yltdf ;f]xL kl/l:ylt cg'¿k g} d"Nofª\sgsf wf/0ffx¿ lgdf{0f ul/G5g\ / d"Nofª\sg sfo{x¿ ul/G5g\ .
d"Nofª\sg cWoog cfkm}+df Pp6f cnu ljifo klg xf] . To;}n] oxfF d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:q eGgfn] d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿nfO{ hgfpF5, h;n] d"Nofª\sgsf] :j¿k / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;+/rgfnfO{ :ki6 ub{5g\ . s'g} j:t'sf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ;d]6\g'kg]{, Wofg lbg'kg]{ / dxTj lbg'kg]{ eg]/ d"Nofª\sgsf wf/0ffx¿ lgdf{0f ul/Psf x'G5g\, h;nfO{ d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿ eGg ;lsG5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:qLo leGgtfx¿nfO{ a'em\g] p2]Zon] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ j:t' cyf{t\\ cWoogsf] PsfOsf] :jefjnfO{ aflx/L kIf cyf{t\\ ¿k kIf / d"Nofª\sgsf d"ne"t l;¢fGtx¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sg ;DaGwL 1fgzf:qsf] leqL kIf jf cfGtl/s kIf cyf{t\\ ;f/ kIfsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . o;cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ j:t'sf] :jefjnfO{ k|fs[lts jf ;fdflhs If]q cg'¿k a'em\g ;lsG5 eg] d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:qLo leGgtfsf] ;f/e"t kIfsf] ¿kdf d"Nofª\sgsf l;¢fGtx¿ / wf/0ffx¿nfO{ dfGg ;lsG5 . oxfF clNsg / lqm:6L -@))$_ n] k|:t't u/]sf d"Nofª\sgsf] ;}4flGts j[Ifsf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:qLo leGgtfsf] ;f/e"t kIfsf] af/]df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 h;n] d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw wf/0ffx¿nfO{ :ki6 ub{5g\ .
clNsg / lqmi6L -@))$_ n] d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw wf/0ffx¿nfO{ df]6fdf]6L ¿kdf tLg zfvfdf afF8]sf 5g\ . oL ;a} vfnsf wf/0ffx¿sf] ;}4flGts cfwf/sf] ¿kdf Pp6f ;fdflhs cWoog sfo{, hjfkmb]xLtf / lgoGq0fsf] sfo{ /x]sf 5g\ eGg] s'/f :ki6 b]lvG5 . o;sf] cy{ s] xf] eg] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] d"ntM ;fdflhs cWoog xf] / o;sf] d"n p2]Zo sfo{qmddf hjfkmb]xLtf a9fpg' / cfly{s lgoGq0f sfod ug'{ xf] . oxfF sfo{qmdsf] lgoGq0f eGgfn] ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ k|flKtsf nflu sfo{qmdnfO{ lglZrt tl/sfaf6 ;~rfng ug{ ;xof]u ug'{ eGg] a'lemG5 . hjfkmb]xLtfsf] ljleGg cfofdx¿ 5g\ . jfUg/ -!(*(_ sf cg';f/ klxnf] cfofd 36gf jf sfo{qmdsf] af/]df ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ l/kf]l6{ª ug'{ xf], bf];|f] cfofd sf/0fx¿ bzf{P/ sfo{qmdsf] cj:yf af/]df :ki6Ls/0f lbg' xf] / t];|f] cfofd ljutsf] lqmofsnfksf] af/]df lhDd]jf/ JolStnfO{ pQ/bfoL aGg / agfpgsf nflu ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg ug'{ xf] .
d"Nofª\sgsf] ;}4flGts j[Ifsf] Pp6f d'Vo zffvfn] d"Nofª\sg sfo{df cg';Gwfg / cg';Gwfgsf ljlwx¿sf] k|of]udf hf]8 lbG5, h;nfO{ ljlw s]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿ eGg ;lsG5 .o; zfvfsf d'Vo l;4fGtsf/sf ¿kdf cf/= 8An'= 6fOn/ / 8f]gfN8 SofDkj]n cflb x'g\ . To:t}, csf]{ d'Vo zfvfn] d"No k|bfg ug]{ sfo{df d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] e"ldsf / ;xefuLx¿sf] e"ldsfnfO{ hf]8 lbG5, h;nfO{ d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .d"Nos]lG›t l;¢fGtsf/x¿df dfOsn :qmfOe]g, Plnc6 cfO:g/, /f]a6{ :6]s cflb x'g\. To:t}, t];|f] d'Vo zfvfn] d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿sf] k|of]u ug]{ tl/sf / ;"rgfsf k|of]ustf{x¿df hf]8 lbG5, h;nfO{ k|of]u s]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿ eGg ;lsG5 . o; zfvfsf d'Vo l;4fGtsf/x¿ 8]lgon :6kmnlad, hf];]km xf]n], dfOsn Kof6g cflb x'g\. ca, oL tLg k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿sf] af/]df tn 5f]6s/Ldf rrf{ ul/Psf] 5.
-s_ d"Nofª\sgsf ljlws]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿
6fOn/n] ;g\ !($) sf] bzsdf d"Nofª\sgsf] ;f/tTjsf] ¿kdf z}lIfs dfkgnfO{ hf]8 lbPsf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] z}lIfs p2]Zox¿ k|flKtsf] dfqf lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . z}lIfs dfkgn] ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ k|fKt eP gePsf] lgwf{/0f ug]{ ePsf]n] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ dfkgdf hf]8
21
lbg'k5{ eGg] 6fOn/sf] ljrf/ 5 . d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ ug'{kg]{ ljlw / k|lqmofdf a9L hf]8 lbPsf] x'gfn] 6fOn/sf] ljrf/nfO{ ljlw s]lGb|t l;4fGtdf /flvPsf] xf] . 6fOn/sf] ljrf/nfO{ p2]Zos]lGb|t d"Nofª\sg klg eGg] ul/G5 . p2]Zosf] cfwf/df dfkg ug]{ ljlwdf hf]8 lbg] d"Nofª\sg ;DaGwL b[li6sf]0fx¿ cl3 ;fg]{ SofDkj]n -!(&#_, kf]kmfd -!(&#_ cflb l;4fGtsf/x¿nfO{ klg ljlw s]lGb|t l;4fGtsf/sf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 . 8f]gfN8 SofDkj]n -!(%&_ n] d"Nofª\sg sfo{df k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ubf{ /fd|f] x'G5 eGg] ljrf/ cufl8 ;f/] . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ug{ randomized field experiment ljlw ckgfOg' kb{5 . pgsf] ljrf/df cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] klg cfjZostfcg';f/ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}u/L P8jf8{ ;rDofg -!(^&_ n] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ cg';Gwfgsf ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbPsf 5g\ . To;}u/L yf]d; s's -!(^^_ n] d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu k|of]ufTds 9fFrfeGbf cw{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ pkof]uL dfg]sf 5g\ . To;}u/L /f]j6{ af]¿zn] ;g\ @))) df d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu k/Dk/fut j}1flgs cg';Gwfg ljlw pko'St x'g] ts{ cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ . lk6/ /f];Ln] ;g\ !(*% df l;4fGt–lgb]{lzt d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ug{ ;xof]u u/]sf 5g\ . pgn] ;fdflhs cg';Gwfgsf k|lqmofx¿ ckgfO{ Jofks / ;du| d"Nofª\sg ug{ ax'cfoflds / a[xQ/ b[li6sf]0f ckgfpg'kg]{ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . x'–;fO–r]gn] ;g\ !(*# / ;g\ !(*& df l;4fGt–lgb]{lzt d"Nofª\sgsf] jsfnt u/]sf 5g\ / o:tf] lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sgsf] ljsf;df dxTjk"0f{ k|efj kf/]sf 5g\ . So/f]n j]O;n] ;g\ !((! Dff d"Nofª\sg sfo{ /fhgLlts k|lqmof ePsfn] /fhg}lts ;Gbe{nfO{ Vofn u/]/ d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbPsf 5g\ . ln= h]= qmf]gJofsn] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ lg/Gt/ k|lqmofsf] ¿kdf lnPsf 5g\ . pgsf pg';f/ d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmddf ;'wf/sf] k|lqmof :yflkt ug'{k5{ . oxfF qmf]gJofssf] ljrf/nfO{ ljlw–s]lGb|t l;4fGt cGtu{t /flvPsf] eP tfklg pgsf] ljrf/x¿ d"Nofª\sgsf] k|of]utkm{ kl/nlIft 5g\ .
-v_ d"Nofª\sgsf d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿
d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{df d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] e"ldsfdf a9L hf]8 lbg] l;4fGtx¿nfO{ d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGt elgPsf] xf] . o; lsl;dsf] l;4fGtsf Pp6f d'Vo l;4fGtsf/ dfOsn :qmfOe]g x'g\ . :qmfOe]g -!(*^_ n] d"Nosf] lj1fgnfO{ g} d"Nofª\sg dfGb5g\ . d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ d"Nofª\sgstf{n] g} ug'{k5{ / d"Nosf] af/]df lg0f{o ug]{ sfo{ klg d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] g} xf] . d"Nofª\sgstf{n] d"No lgwf{/0f ubf{ ;Defljt pkef]Stfx¿ cyf{t\\ nlIft ;d"x / ;j{;fwf/0fx¿sf] lxtnfO{ Wofg lbP/ ug'{k5{ eGg] :qmfOe]gsf] ljrf/ 5 . pgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿sf] lgwf{/0f ug]{, dxTjk"0f{ pknlAwx¿ klxrfg ug]{, / sfo{qmdn] s] slt cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{ ;Sof] eGg] s'/f ljrf/ u/L sfo{qmdsf] d"No lgwf{/0f ug'{kb{5 . o;/L :qmfOe]gn] d"No lgwf{/0fsf] l;4fGt (value judgemt theory) cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ . To;}u/L Plnc6 cfO:g/ -!((!_ n] d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu kf/vLkg / ;dfnf]rgfsf] l;4fGt cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgstf{ z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf u'0fx¿nfO{ dl;gf];Fu b]Vg;Sg], a'‰g;Sg], 5'6\ofpg ;Sg], cg'ej ug{;Sg] x'g'kb{5 . o;sf ;fy} d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{qmdsf u'0fx¿sf] af/]df ;xefuLx¿n] a'‰g] u/L snfTds ¿kdf JoSt ug{ ;Sg'k5{ cyf{t\\ ;dfnf]rgfTds j0f{g ug'{kb{5 . o;/L cfO:g/sf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg u'0ffTds cWoog ljlw;Fu ;DalGwt 5 . o;sf] ljk/Lt :qmfOe]gsf] d"Nofª\sg;DaGwL ljrf/ eg] kl/df0ffTds cWoog ljlwdf a9L cfwfl/t ePsf] b]lvG5 . h]xf];\, b'j} l;4fGtsf/x¿sf] ljrf/ d"Nos]lGb|t ePsf] x'gfn] Pp6} zfvfcGtu{t /flvPsf] xf] .
yf]d; jf]a]G;n] ;g\ !(&# df ljk/Lt b[li6sf]0f ePsf d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿sf] k|of]u u/]/ /fd|f] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] ts{ cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ . b'j} kIfn] ;femf ;"rgfx¿ / cltl/St ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng / ;+Zn]if0f ub{5g\ / cf–cfˆgf] ts{ k|:t't ub{5g\ . o;/L d"Nofª\sg ubf{ d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] ;Defljt k"jf{u|xx¿nfO{ sd ug{ ;lsG5 . o; lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sgdf k"j{–;xdlt ul/Psf lgodcg';f/ lgisif{ lgsfnLg5 . jf]a]G;n] h:t} /f]a{6 jf]Nkmn] ;g\ !(&% df Goflos gd'gf k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . jf]Nkmsf cg';f/ c8\8f cbfntdf h:t} Goflos l;4fGt cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ul/g'kb{5 h;df d"Nofª\sgstf{n] lgikIf / OdfGbf/ eP/ ;j{;fwf/0fsf] lxtnfO{ Wofg lbP/ d"No lgwf{/0f / lg0f{o ug'{kb{5 . /f]a6{ :6]ssf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ;Gbe{–;fk]If x'G5 h;df ;/f]sf/jfnfsf] b[li6sf]0fx¿ dxTjk"0f{ x'G5g\ / 36gf cWoog (case studies) ;aeGbf /fd|f] ljlw dflgG5 . o; k|lqmofaf6 d"Nofª\sg ubf{ d"Nofª\sgstf{n] 36gfsf] af/]df uxg, lj:t[t, Jofks / pRr :t/sf] j0f{g (thick description) ug'{kb{5 . :6]ssf] ljrf/nfO{ ;}4flGts j[Ifsf] tLg j6f d'Vo zfvfx¿dWo] s'g} klg zfvfdf /fVg ;lsg] eP tfklg clNsgn]+ d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtcGtu{t /fv]sf 5g\ .
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;g\ !(&( df a]/L d}s 8f]gfN8sf] ljrf/df k[ys b[li6sf]0fx¿ /fVg] ;/f]sf/jfnfsf] d"Nox¿nfO{ k|:t't ug]{ s'/fdf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] Wofg lbg'kb{5 . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg sfo{ k|zf;lgs, lg/ª\s'z, / k|hftflGqs u/L ljleGg ;Gbe{x¿df ul/G5 . d}s 8f]gfN8sf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ljleGg c8fgx¿, b[li6sf]0fx¿ / d"Nox¿sf] ;Gbe{df ;Demf}tfsf/sf] e"ldsf lgjf{x ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . To;}u/L cg]{:6 xfp;n] ;g\ !((! / !((# df d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ ;fdflhs Gofosf] l;4fGtnfO{ cfwf/ agfpg'kg]{ cyf{t\\ sdhf]/ / zlStljxLgx¿sf] kIfdf OdfGbf/Ltfk"j{s Gofo ug'{kg]{ ts{ u/]sf 5g\ . o;/L xfp;sf] ljrf/ d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t /x]sf] :ki6 5 .
To;}u/L Ouf]g o'jf / of]gf lnª\sgn] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtsf] ljsf;df dxTjk"0f{ of]ubfg u/]sf 5g\ . u'jf / lnª\sg -;g\ !(*(_ sf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ubf{ JolStut b[li6sf]0fx¿ / JofVofsf] cfwf/df lgdf{0f ul/g] ax'–jf:tljstfx¿nfO{ :jLsf/ u/L ltgLx¿sf] ljrdf ;Demf}tf / ;xdlt ug{ ;xhLs/0f ul/g'kb{5 . pgLx¿sf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ul/g] lg/Gt/sf] cGt/lqmofTds k|lqmofaf6 Pp6f ;+o'St ;xdltsf] lgdf{0f sfo{ ;'¿ x'G5 . pgLx¿sf] o:tf] ljrf/ lgdf{0fjfbL ljrf/wf/f (constructivist paradigm) df cfwfl/t 5 .
-u_ d"Nofª\sgsf k|of]us]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿
d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt glthfx¿ / ;"rgfx¿sf] k|of]udf a9L hf]8 lbg] d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿nfO{ k|of]us]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿ elgPsf] xf] . o; lsl;dsf] l;4fGtsf d'Vo l;4fGtsf/ 8]lgon :6kmnlad x'g\ . pgsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg sfo{n] sfo{qmdsf d'Vo lg0f{ostf{x¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf af/]sf lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;xof]u ug'{kb{5 . :6kmnlad -@))!_ sf cg';f/ lg0f{ostf{x¿ / ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ ;Fu;Fu} a;]/ d"Nofª\sgsfo{sf] lgwf{/0f ug'{kb{5 tfls dxTjk"0f{ k|Zgx¿sf] af/]df lg0f{ostf{nfO{ cfjZos kg]{ ;"rgfx¿ ;dod} / ;fGble{s ¿kdf k|bfg ug{ ;lsof];\ . :6kmnladn] sfo{qmdsf] p2]Zo / of]hgfx¿;DaGwL lg0f{o ug{ ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg, sfo{qmdsf] ;|f]t;fwg / k|lqmofut 9fFrf;DaGwL lg0f{o ug{ nufgL d"Nofª\sg, sfo{qmdsf] ;~rfngdf /x]sf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ kQf nufO{ ;'wf/;DaGwL lg0f{o ug{sf] nflu k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg / sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{~rfngaf/] lg0f{o ug{sf nflu pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg u/L rf/ k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sgx¿ ug'{kg]{ k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . :6kmnladsf] ljrf/ h:t} dfNsf]d k|f]e;n] sfo{qmdsf / k|zf;lgs JolStx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] Joj:yfkg ug{ / ;'wf/sf lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpgsf nflu lg/Gt/ d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ ljrf/ cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\. x'g'kg]{ :t/ (standard) / jt{dfg sfo{;Dkfbgsf] :t/ (performance) aLrdf t'ngf u/L leGgtf (discrepancy) kQf nufO{ o:tf lsl;dsf leGgtfx¿ x6fpgsf nflu pko'St lg0f{ox¿ ug]{ pkfox¿ k|f]e;n] k|:t't u/]sf 5g\. k|f]e;n] sfo{qmdsf] kl/efiffsf] r/0f, :yfkgfsf] r/0f, k|lqmofsf] r/0f, pTkfbgsf] r/0f / nfut ljZn]if0fsf] r/0f u/L kfFr r/0fx¿df d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\. ;}4flGts lx;fan] 6fOn/sf] p2]Zos]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|efljt eP tfklg k|f]e;n] sfo{qmdsf] Joj:yfkg;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ ug]{ s'/fdf Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf a9L hf]8 lbPsf] x'gfn] oxfF k|f]e;sf] ljrf/nfO{ k|of]us]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf] l;4fGtcGtu{t /flvPsf] xf] .
To;}u/L hf];]km xf]n]sf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf/L Joj:yfkgsf nflu ;xof]u ug'{kb{5 .xf]n]n] ;g\ !(*# df rf/ txsf] d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . klxnf], k|f/lDes d"Nofª\sg (initial assessment for evaluation) xf] h;af6 d"Nofª\sgsf] ;DefJotf / d"Nofª\sgsf ;"rgfx¿ k|of]u ug{sf] nflu Joj:yfksx¿nfO{ x'g] pkof]lutfsf] hfFr ug]{ sfo{ ul/G5 . bf];|f], b|'t–k[i7kf]if0f d"Nofª\sg xf] h;af6 ;lhn} k|fKt x'g] ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng u/L tTsfn k[i7kf]if0f k|bfg ul/G5 . t];|f], sfo{;Dkfbg :t/ jf pknlAwx¿sf] cg'udg (performance or outcome monitoring) xf] h;af6 ck]lIft :t/ cg';f/ sfo{;Dkfbg / pknlAwx¿ eO/x]sf] 5 jf 5}g eGg] kQf nufOG5 . rf}yf], uxg d"Nofª\sg (intensive evaluation) xf] h;af6 sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tfaf/] sf/0f / k|efjx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 .
To;}u/L dfOsn Kof6gn] ;g\ !((& df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df pkof]lutfs]lGb|t d"Nofª\sg / ljsf;fTds d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ pkof]lutfs]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf nflu -s_ d"Nofª\sgsf] ;"rgf k|of]u ug{ jf:tljs JolStx¿ klxrfg ug]{, -v_ d"Nofª\sgsf] pkof]lutf sfod ug]{ s'/fdf pgLx¿sf] k|lta4tf lglZrt ug]{, -u_ d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿df ;xefuL u/fpg], -3_
23
d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{df ;lqmo / k|ToIf ¿kdf ;+nUg u/fpg], / -ª_ yk k|rf/k|;f/ / sfof{Gjogsf nflu lg0f{ox¿ ug]{ u/fpg] h:tf kfFr j6f k|lqmofx¿ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . To:t} pgsf] ljrf/df ljsf;fTds d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu sfo{qmdsf] ljsf; ug]{ / Joj:yfkg ug]{ sfo{x¿df d"Nofª\sgstf{n] k/fdz{bftfsf] e"ldsf v]Ng'k5{ .
Dffle{g clNsgn] ;g\ !(&@ df :6kmnladsf] gd'gf h:t} lg0f{ostf{x¿nfO{ cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg u/L ;xof]u k'¥ofpgsf] nflu d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ eg] ;g\ !((! Dff pgn] Kof6gsf] h:t} pkof]lutfs]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgdf a9L hf]8 lbPsf 5g\ . To;}n] clNsgn] k|of]ustf{s]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ dxTj lbPsf 5g\ eGg ;lsG5 . To:t} h]= a|f8\n] slhG; ;xeflutfd"ns d"Nofª\sgsf] kIfdf 5g h;df d"Nofª\sgstf{ / lg0f{ostf{x¿ ;Fu;Fu} ldn]/ ;xefuLtfd"ns tl/sfaf6 d"Nofª\sg k|lqmof ckgfpF5g\ . To:t} xnL k|]l:snn] ;g\ @))! Dff ;ª\u7gfTds l;sfO / ljsf;sf nflu d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbPsf 5g\ . pgn] d"Nofª\sg k|lqmofnfO{ ¿kfGt/0ffTds l;sfOsf] dxTjk"0f{ cf}hf/ dfg]sf 5g\ .
To;}u/L lhg lsªn] ;g\ !((* df ;xeflutfd"ns d"Nofª\sgsf nflu / d"Nofª\sgsf ;"rgfsf] k|of]u a9fpgsf nflu cGt/lqmofTds d"Nofª\sgsf] cEof;sf] l;4fGt cl3 ;f/]sf 5g\ . lsªsf] l;4fGt d"Nofª\sg k|lqmofdf ;xeflutfd"ns jftfj/0f l;h{gf ug]{ s'/fdf s]lGb|t 5 . lsªsf] ljrf/df ;xeflutfd"ns / cGt/lqmofTds d"Nofª\sgsf nflu -s_ :jLs[t zlSt ;+/rgf, -v_ cg'ejx¿sf] cy{k"0f{ cfbfgk|bfg, -u_ :jod\;]jsx¿ / g]t[Tj, -3_ k|z:t ;do, -ª_ k|z:t ;|f]t;fwg, / -r_ cGt/JolStut / ;ª\u7gfTds ljZjf; x'g'kb{5 .
Hff]g Pd= cf]j]gn] ;g\ !((* df ;/f]sfjfnfsf] ;+nUgtf / d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt ;"rgfsf] k|of]udf hf]8 lbPsf 5g\. pgsf cg';f/ ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] cfjZostf / rf;f]sf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sgstf{ nlrnf], ;xefuLd"ns, / cGt/lqmofTds x'g'kb{5 .cf]j]gsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf] of]hgf agfpFbf, ;Demf}tf ubf{, 9fFrf lgdf{0f ubf{ / ;~rfng ubf{ d'Vo Wofg lbg'kg]{ s'/f eg]sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] pkof]lutf / k|of]usf] kIf xf]. To;}u/L 8]le8 lkm6/Dofgn] ;g\ !((^ df ;zStLs/0f d"Nofª\sgsf] jsfnt u/]sf 5g\ h;df d"Nofª\sgstf{n] tflnd lbg], ;xhLs/0f ug]{, jsfnt ug]{, phfu/ ug]{ / d'St ug]{ h:tf sfo{x¿ ;d]t ub{5g\ . lkm6/Dofgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf ;xefuLx¿ / ;~rfnsx¿nfO{ cfˆgf] sfo{qmdsf] pgLx¿ cfFkm}n] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu d"Nofª\sgstf{n] l;sfpg'kb{5, :j–d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;Ifd agfpgsf nflu ;xof]u ug'{kb{5, h;n] ubf{ lg/Gt/ d"Nofª\sg x'G5, / pTkL8Ltx¿ ;zSt x'G5g\, ;xefuLx¿ ;d:ofx¿af6 d'St x'g ;Ifd aGb5g\ . cGttM lkm6/Dofgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf ;xefuLx¿ g} d"Nofª\sgstf{ aGb5g\ . lkm6/Dofgsf] ljrf/cg';f/ sfo{qmdsf ;xefuLx¿n] ;dfwfgsf pkfox¿ klxNofpF5g\ / ;fdflhs kl/jt{gsf nflu ;lqmo e"ldsf v]Nb5g\ .
o;/L d"Nofª\sgsf tLg lsl;dsf l;¢fGtx¿ – ljlws]lG›t, Df"Nos]lG›t / k|of]us]lG›t l;¢fGtx¿ Aff/] dfly rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . oL l;¢fGtx¿n] d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ :ki6 u/]sf 5g\ . d"Nofª\sgsf l;¢fGtx¿n] d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:qLo leGgtf a'em\g ;xof]u ub{5g\ . o;/L ;ª\If]kdf, d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿sf] lgdf{0f sfo{ ljrf/, ljlw / 1fgsf] cj:yfaf6 k|efljt x'G5g\ eGg ;lsG5 .
lqmofsnfk
d"Nofª\sgsf ljlws]lGb|t l;4fGtsf] dxTj :ki6 ug'{xf];\ . d"Nofª\sgsf k|of]us]lGb|t l;4fGtsf] dxTj pNn]v ug'{xf];\ . d"Nofª\sgsf] d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtsf] dxTj :ki6 ug'{xf];\ . s'g} sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg ug'{kbf{ To;sf] ljZj;gLotf / lgikIftf
s;/L a9fpg ;lsG5< pkfox¿ k|:t't ug'{xf];\ .
24
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary)
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] sfo{qmdsf / d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿ / cEof;x¿sf] ;lDd>0f xf] . s'g} vf; sfo{qmdsf JolStx¿ ;fdu|Lx¿ / ;ª\u7g ldn]/ ag]sf] ;du| ;+/rgfsf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg elgG5 . s'g} j:t'sf] u'0f, u'0f:t/, dxTj / d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmof g} d"Nofª\sg xf] . d"Nofª\sgn] dfkg, cfFsng / d"No lgwf{/0fsf k|lqmofx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 . sfo{qmd eGgfn] s'g} Ps jf PseGbf a9L ;DalGwt p2]Zox¿ k|fKt ug{sf nflu ul/Psf z[ª\vnfa4 ;DalGwt lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;d"xnfO{ hgfpF5 hjls z}lIfs sfo{qmd eGgfn] /fli6««o :t/df ljt/0f ul/Psf z}lIfs ;fdu|Lx¿sf] ;d"x, Pp6f ljBfnon] u/]sf z}Ifl0fs lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;d"x, cyjf Pp6f ljBfyL{sf z}lIfs cg'ejx¿ x'g ;Sb5 .
sfo{qmdsf ;fwgx¿ / ;fWox¿sf aLrdf ;DaGwx¿ x'G5g\, h;nfO{ nIo cg'¿k of]hgf agfP/ sfof{Gjog ul/G5g\ . o;cg';f/ sfo{qmdsf nufgL / k|lqmofx¿nfO{ ;fwg cyf{t\\ dfWod / sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ / pknlAwx¿nfO{ ;fWo dflgG5 . s'g} klg sfo{qmdsf cfjZostfx¿, p2]Zox¿, nufgLx¿, k|lqmofx¿, pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿sf] aLrdf qmlds ;DaGwx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . o:tf ;DaGwx¿sf] cWoog / n]vfhf]vf ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgn] ub{5 . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ s'g–s'g lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿df s]lGbt eP/ d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 / s'g–s'g k|Zgx¿df s]lGb|t x'g' cfjZos 5}g eGg] s'/fsf] lgwf] ug'{ g} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;aeGbf dxTjk"0f{, d'Vo ;afn jf d'Vo d'2f (issue) xf] . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg] tl/sfx¿nfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿ (key concepts) sf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .
s] sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L lyof] eGg] k|Zgsf] pQ/ sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt x'G5 . sfo{qmdsf] k|efj s:tf] 5 eGg] k|Zgsf] pQ/ k|fKt ug{ sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t}u/L sfo{qmdsf] bIftfsf] :t/ (efficiency level) kQf nufpg sfo{qmdsf nufgLx¿ / sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGw cWoog ug{ cfjZos kb{5 . To:t}u/L sfo{qmd Joj:yfkg / sfof{Gjogsf] pko'Sttf cWoog ug{ sfo{qmdsf nufgLx¿, lqmofsnfkx¿, pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿ aLrsf] tfls{s ;dGjonfO{ cfwf/ dfGg ;lsG5 . ;fy} sfo{qmdsf] cf}lrTo, dxTj jf ;fGble{stf cWoog ug{sf nflu sfo{qmdsf] cfjZostfx¿ / sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿aLrsf] ;DaGw cWoog ul/G5 . To;}u/Lsfo{qmdsf] kof{Kttf cWoog ug{sf nflu sfo{qmdsf] jf:tljs pknlAwx¿n] sfo{qmdsf cfjZostfx¿ slt k"/f ug{ ;s] t eGg] s'/fsf] cWoog ug'{kb{5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgsf] pQ/ vf]Hg' g} d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo xf] . To;}n] sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf kQf nufpg', sfo{qmdsf] k|efj kQf nufpg', sfo{qmdsf] bIftfsf] :t/ kQf nufpg', sfo{qmdsf] ;fGble{stf, kof{Kttf, pko'Sttf cflb kQf nufpg' g} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf dxTjk"0f{ p2]Zox¿ x'g ;S5g\ . h]xf];\, sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ tLg efu nufpg ;lsG5 . klxnf], sfo{qmdsf] jt{dfg cj:yf kQf nufpg', bf];|f] sfo{qmdsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ / tLgsf sf/0fx¿ kQf nufpg' / t];|f], sfo{qmddf ;'wf/sf nflu pkfox¿ vf]Hg' .
p2]Zosf cfwf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgnfO{ b'O{ efudf afF8\g ;lsG5M klxnf], lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg, h;sf] k"j{;lqmo e"ldsf (proactive role) x'G5 eg] bf];|f], lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg, h;sf] kZr;lqmo e"ldsf (retroactive role) x'G5 . To;}u/Ld"Nofª\sgstf{sf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg b'O{ lsl;dsf] x'G5M klxnf] cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sg, h'g sfo{qmddf ;+nUg JolStx¿af6 ul/G5 eg] bf];|f], afx\o d"Nofª\sg, h'g sfo{qmddf k|ToIf ;+nUg g/x]sf :jtGq JolStx¿af6 u/fOG5 . cWoogsf] tof/L, ljlw, / ;fwgsf lx;fan] z}lIfs d"Nofª\sg / z}lIfs cg';GwfgaLrdf ;dfgtfx¿ x'g ;Sg] ePtf klg d"Nofª\sg / cg';GwfgaLrdf s]xL vf; leGgtfx¿ b]Vg ;lsG5 . h:t} d"Nofª\sgn] dxTj lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ ub{5 hjls cg';Gwfgn] ;To kQf nufpg] sfo{ ub{5 . d"Nofª\sgn] ;fdflhs pkof]lutf a9fpg] p2]Zo /fVb5 eg] cg';Gwfgn] 1fg k|flKt / l;4fGt lgdf{0f ug]{ p2]Zo /fVb5 . d"Nofª\sg lg0f{o ug]{ s'/fdf s]lGb|t x'G5 eg] cg';Gwfg lgisif{ lgsfNg] s'/fdf s]lGb|t x'G5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿df ljljwtf x'g'nfO{ :jfefljs dflgG5 lsgeg] d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff bz{gzf:qLo, ljlwzf:qLo / 1fgzf:qLo ljrf/x¿af6 k|efljt 5 . bz{gzf:qLo ljrf/x¿nfO{ b'O{
25
efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5M Pp6f j:t'utjfbL ljrf/ / csf]{, dgf]utjfbL jf ljifolgi7jfbL ljrf/ . To:t} ljlwzf:qLo ljrf/x¿ klg b'O{ lsl;dsf 5g\M Pp6f ;ª\VofTds cWoog ljlw / csf]{ u'0ffTds cWoog ljlw . To:t} 1fgzf:q klg b'O{ lsl;dsf 5g\M Pp6f k|fs[lts lj1fgsf ljifoj:t'x¿ / csf]{ ;fdflhs lj1fgsf ljifoj:t'x¿ . d"Nofª\sgsf] 1fgzf:qn] d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿ / ltgsf cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 . d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ tLg lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿af6 ;d]6\g ;lsG5 . h:tf]M ljlws]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿, d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿ / k|of]us]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿ . d"Nofª\sgsf ljlws]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿ cGtu{t 6fOn/, SofDka]n, s's, /f];L cflbsf ljrf/x¿nfO{ /fVg ;lsG5 eg] d"Nos]lGb|t l;4fGtx¿df :qmfOe]g, cfO:g/, :6]s, xfp;, u'jf / lnª\sg cflbsf] ljrf/x¿nfO{ /fVg ;lsG5 . To;}u/Lk|of]u s]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf l;4fGtx¿sf] ¿kdf :6kmnlad, k|f]e;, Kof6g, clNsg cflbsf ljrf/x¿nfO{ lng ;lsG5 .
%_ cEof; (Exercise) Subjective questions: Short answer type
1. What is an educational program? Clarify the concept and purposes of program evaluation with examples.
2. How do you establish logics of a program? Explain key concepts and issues of program evaluation.
3. What is program evaluation? How it differs from student evaluation? Clarify. 4. Differentiate between roles and goals of evaluation of an educational program with
suitable examples. 5. Explain strengths and weaknesses of formative and summative evaluations in the
context of program evaluation. 6. Differentiate between internal evaluation and external evaluation in terms of the
evaluation of a program. 7. Point out the philosophical differences in program evaluation and explain their
assumptions with examples. 8. What do you mean by subjectivist epistemology? Give suitable examples. 9. Justify the reasons behind the preference to qualitative evaluation in the context of
the evaluation of a program.
Subjective questions: Long answer type 10. Differentiate between goals of an educational program and goals of an evaluation of
the educational program with examples. Explain the proactive and retroactive roles of the evaluation of an educational program.
11. Explain strengths and weaknesses of internal and external evaluations in the context of program evaluation.
12. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative techniques of evaluation.
13. Explain the origins of diverse conceptions of program evaluation.
Objective questions 1. Efficiency of a program may be judged through
a. the relationship between objectives and outcomes b. the relationship between inputs and outputs c. the relationship between inputs and process d. the relationship between inputs and outcomes
2. Effectiveness of a program may be judged through a. the relationship between objectives and outputs b. the relationship between objectives and outcomes c. the relationship between cost and outputs
26
d. the relationship among inputs, process and outputs 3. Adequacy of a program is judged based on
a. the relationship between needs and objectives b. the relationship between needs and outcomes c. the relationship between inputs and outcomes d. the relationship between inputs and outputs
4. Which evaluation focuses to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a specific program? a. formative evaluation b. summative evaluation c. meta-evaluation d. component evaluation
5. Which evaluation focuses to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the specific program, policy, product or pupil being studied? a. formative evaluation b. summative evaluation c. meta evaluation d. component evaluation
6. Which type of evaluation studies the effectiveness of a program? a. formative evaluation b. process evaluation c. summative evaluation d. proactive evaluation
7. The goal of evaluation usually relates to a. teacher training activity b. judgments of worth or merit to specific value question c. the process of curriculum development d. a data collecting activity
8. When evaluation is retroactive in nature, it serves as a basis for a. reliability b. validity c. accountability d. credibility
9. The major concern of educational evaluation is a. replicability b. generalization c. truth d. decision
10. Which philosophy assumes that science is perfect? a. constructivism b. post-modernism c. positivism d. post-positivism
11. Based on objectivism, which statement is true? a. There are multiple truths in the world. b. Truths are human constructions. c. Meanings are given based on their context. d. Truth is there out in the world.
12. Objectivism assumes a. single reality b. multiple reality c. localized reality d. conflicting reality
13. Objectivism uses data collection and analysis techniques that yield results a. reproducible by other experts b. not reproducible by other experts c. accumulated experiences as their way to understanding d. knowledge is conceived as largely tacit
14. Which science falls under scientific filed of epistemology? a. natural science b. social science c. cultural science d. critical science
15. Quantitative inquiry assumes a. conflicting realities b. local realities c. contextual reality d. single reality
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16. Quantitative inquiry generally focuses on a. standardization, precision and objectivity b. thick description c. utilization of the observer as the chief instrument d. conducting the study in natural settings
17. Qualitative inquiry is based on a. positivism b. post- positivism c. objectivism d. pluralism
18. Which is the emergent design for an evaluation study? a. survey design b. quantitative design c. qualitative design d. scientific design
Answer Key: Answer key of the objective questions as given in exercise one of the first chapter is given below:
1. b 2. b 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. c 7. b 8. c 9. d 10. c
11. d 12. a 13. a 14. a 15. d 16. a 17. d 18. c
6) Suggested Readings Materials Alkin, M. C. and Christie, C. A. (2004). An evaluation theory tree. In Marvin C. Alkin
(ed.), Evaluation roots: Tracing theorists’ views and influences, pp. 12-65 .California, USA: Sage.
Guba, E. G. and Lincoln, Y. S. (1981). Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness of evaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. Washington, USA: Jossey- Bass.
Mc David, J. C. and Hawthorn, L. R. L. (2006). Program evaluation and performance measurement: An introductin to practice. New Delhi, India: Sage.
Patton. M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation research methods (2nd ed.). New Delhi, India: Sage.
28
PsfO b'O{
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf kIfx¿
Aspects of Programme Evaluation !_ kl/ro (Introduction)
o; PsfOcGtu{t ;du| ¿kdf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu ;d]l6g'kg]{ ljleGg kIfx¿nfO{ pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . oL kIfx¿n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf efux¿ jf c+zx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . oL ;a} kIfx¿ ;d]6]/ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ul/of] eg] sfo{qmdsf] ;dli6ut d"Nofª\sg x'g hfG5 . cGoyf s'g} kIfnfO{ j]jf:tf u/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ul/of] eg] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg cw'/f], ck"/f] / Psf+uL klg x'g ;Sb5 . o; PsfOcGtu{t cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg, pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg, cfly{s d"Nofª\sg / ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg u/L 5 k|sf/sf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf kIfx¿sf] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . of] PsfO cWoog ul/;s]kl5 ljBfyL{x¿ lzIff If]qdf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo kIfx¿sf] af/]df kl/lrt x'g]5g\ .
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents)
ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ kf7\oj:t'x¿
Describe various aspects of programme evaluation
Develop guidelines for meta- evaluation
2.1 Needs assessment
2.2 Input evaluation
2.3 Process evaluation
2.4 Product evaluation
2.5 Economic evaluation
2.6 Meta-evaluation
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation)
#=!= cfjZostf cWoog
cfjZostf cWoog (needs assessment) u/]/ sfo{qmdx¿sf] ljsf; ul/g] x'gfn] sfo{qmdx¿n] cfjZostfx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ub{5g\ . s'g} klg sfo{qmdsf] nIo cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug'{ /x]sf] x'G5 . cfjZostf cWoog u/]/ sfo{qmdsf j[xQ/ nIox¿ / p2]Zox¿ ls6fg ul/G5g\ . sfo{qmdsf o:tf a[xQ/ nIox¿ / p2]Zox¿ cfjZostf ;Daf]wg ug]{ vfnsf x'g'k5{ cyf{t\\ cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{sf nflu sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ ;fGble{s x'g'k5{ . sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿n] cfjZostfnfO{ kof{Kt ¿kdf ;d]6]sf] x'g'kb{5 . cfjZostf k"/f ug{sf] nflu g} sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ul/G5, ;|f]t;fwg / nufgLsf] Joj:yf ul/G5 / sfo{qmdsf] ;~rfng ul/Psf] x'G5 . sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbgn] / pknlAwn] cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{ ;xof]u u/]sf] x'g'kb{5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿n] cfjZostfx¿ kof{Kt ¿kdf k"/f u/]sf] jf gu/]sf] olsg ug{ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] ;'¿jftb]lv cGt;Dd, cyf{t\\ sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf, Joj:yfkg / ;~rfng k|lqmof;Dd cfjZostf cWoogsf] dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf x'G5 . ;du| sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu of]hgf d"Nofª\sg, sfof{Gjog d"Nofª\sg / pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] ;d]t cfjZostf cWoogn] cfwf/ ljGb'x¿ (benchmarks) / cfwf/ /]vfx¿ (baselines) lgwf{/0f ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . To;}n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf cfjZostf cWoog xf]
29
eGg ;lsG5 . klxnf] PsfOdf rrf{ ul/Psf] sfo{qmdsf] tfls{s cjwf/0ffn] klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf cfjZostf cWoogsf] dxTj :ki6 ub{5 . ca cfjZostf cWoogsf cy{, p2]Zox¿ / k|lqmofx¿sf] af/]df o;eGbf tn rrf{ ul/G5 .
cy{ / p2]Zox¿
cfjZostf cWoogsf] ;Gbe{df cfjZostfnfO{ tLg lsl;dn] kl/eflift ul/Psf] kfOG5 . To;dWo] z}lIfs cfjZostf cWoogsf] nflu k|foh;f] leGgtfsf] b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ cfjZostfsf] kl/efiffnfO{ cfwf/ dfGg] u/]sf] kfOG5 . sf}kmDofg -!(&@_ sf cg';f/ cfjZostfx¿ eGgfn] tL If]qx¿ x'g\ h;df jf:tljs cj:yf ck]lIft cj:yfeGbf sd x'G5 (Needs are areas in which actual status is less than desired status. Kaufman, 1972) . To;}u/L dflg;sf k|fyldstfx¿nfO{ klg cfjZostfsf] ¿kdf pNNf]v ul/Psf] kfOG5 . :6kmnlad -!(*%_ sf cg';f/ s'g} vf; ;Gbe{ ;d"xsf ax';ª\Vos ;b:ox¿åf/f ck]Iff ul/Psf] kl/jt{g g} cfjZostf xf] (A need is a change desired by a majority of some reference group, Stufflebeam, 1985) . t];|f] b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ cfjZostf eGgfn] s'g} s'/fsf] cefj jf cg'kl:yltnfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] ubf{ s'g} If]qdf xflg x'G5 . :qmfOe]g / /f]y -!(^*_ sf cg';f/ Go"gtd\ ;Gtf]ifhgs txdf gk'luPsf] jf sfod g/x]sf] cj:yf g} cfjZostf xf] (A need is a state in which a minimum satisfactory level has not been reached or maintained, Scriven and Roth, 1978) . o;/L cfjZostf eGgfn] s'g} vf; p2]Zosf nflu pkof]uL, geO{ gx'g], gePdf xfgL x'g;Sg], jt{dfgdf pknAw gePsf] t/ k|fKt ug{ ;lsg], cefj dx;'; ePsf] j:t' jf cj:yfnfO{ hgfpF5 . oxfF cfjZostf eGgfn] ;d:ofx¿, sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ / sl7gfOx¿af6 kf/ kfpgsf nflu cfjZos j:t'x¿ jf cj:yfx¿ hgfpF5 .
cfjZostfsf] cy{sf] af/]df :ki6 x'gsf] nflu cfjZostfx¿sf] :j¿ksf] af/]df rrf{ ug'{ cfjZos 5 . of] :jfefljs 5 ls dflg;sf cfjZostfx¿ kl/jt{g eO/xG5g\ . To:t} cfjZostfx¿ ;fk]lIft x'G5g\, cyf{t\\ cfjZostfsf] dfqf, lsl;d / dxTj kl/l:ylthGo x'G5g\ . cfjZostfx¿ p2]ZopGd'v x'G5g\ cyf{t\\ Pp6f p2]Zosf] nflu Ps lsl;dsf j:t'x¿ cfjZos x'G5g\ eg] csf]{ p2]Zosf] nflu cGo s'/fx¿ cfjZos kb{5g\ . sltko cfjZostfx¿nfO{ dgf]ut (subjective) dflgG5 cyf{t\\ j:t'lgi7 dflg+b}g lsgeg] cfjZostfx¿ eg]sf] s'g} vf; kl/l:yltdf dfgjLo lg0f{o, d"No / cGt/lqmofsf pkhx¿ x'g\ . dflg;cg';f/ cfjZostfsf] cjwf/0ffdf leGgtf x'g ;Sb5g\ . vf;u/L ;|f]t ;fwgsf] sf/0fn] / d"No dfGotfsf] sf/0fn] o:tf] x'g] ub{5 . To;}u/L ;d'bfodf dflg;x¿n] b}lgs hLjgdf dx;'; u/]sf] cfjZostf / aflx/af6 cWoog ug{ uPsf JolStx¿n] cjnf]sg u/]sf cfjZostfx¿df leGgtf x'g ;Sb5g\ .
cfjZostfsf] :j¿ksf] af/]df rrf{ ubf{ cfjZostfsf] lsl;dsf] af/]df klg rrf{ ug'{ cfjZos 5 .dfgj cfjZostfnfO{ cfwf/e"t / pRr:t/sf] u/L b'O{ efudf afF8\g ;lsG5 eg] cfwf/e"t, ;fdflhs / PsLs[t u/L tLg efudf klg afF8\g ;lsG5 . To:t} df:nf]sf] cfjZostfsf] z[+vnf cg';f/ cfjZostfx¿nfO{ kfFr efudf afF8\g ;lsG5 . h:tf]M z/L/zf:qLo, ;'\\/Iff, ckgTj, ;Ddfg, / cfTd cg'e"lt. To:t} cfjZostfnfO{ zf/Ll/s, z}lIfs / ;fdflhs cfjZostfx¿sf] ¿kdf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 .To:t}, ljBfyL{sf cfjZostfx¿, lzIfssf cfjZostfx¿, / cleefjssf cfjZostfx¿ eg]/ klg cfjZostfx¿ cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .cfjZostf cWoog ubf{ cfjZostfx¿nfO{ tLg txdf /fvL k|fyldstf tf]Sg ;lsG5 . h:tf] geO{ gx'g] cfjZostf, ePdf /fd|f] dflgg] cfjZostf / gePdf klg km/s gkg]{ cfjZostfx¿ .
cfjZostfsf] cy{ s]nfpg] ;Gbe{df z}lIfs cfjZostfsf] cy{ :ki6 x'g' h¿/L 5 .z}lIfs cfjZostf eGg] ljlQs} lzIff;Fu ;DalGwt cfjZostf eGg] a'lemG5, h'g ljBfyL{sf], lzIfssf] jf ljBfnosf] cfjZostf klg x'g ;Sb5 . ;f/df, of]hgfa4 ¿kdf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿ ;~rfng u/]/ x6fpg jf 36fpg ;lsg] leGgtfx¿nfO{ z}lIfs cfjZostf eGg ;lsG5 .oxfF cfjZostfx¿sf] cfFsng ug]{ cWoogx¿nfO{ cfjZostf cWoog elgPsf] xf]. ck]Iff ul/Psf vf; kl/l:yltx¿ / ljBdfg kl/l:ylt aLrsf] leGgtf dfkg ug]{ Pp6f Jojl:yt ljlwnfO{ cfjZostf cWoog elgG5 (Needs assessment is a systematic approach to measuring the discrepancy between an existing situation and some desired set of circumstances.). To:t}, /f];L / lk|mDofg -!(*(_ sf cg';f/
30
cfjZostf cWoog eg]sf] s'g} ;d:of jf cfjZostfsf] lsl;d, ulx/fO / If]qsf] Jojl:yt n]vfhf]vf xf] . (Needs asessment is the systematic appraisal of the type, depth and scope of a problem or a need. Rossi and Freeman, 1989) . lzIff If]qdf cfjZostf cWoog ug'{kbf{ ljBfyL{sf cfjZostfx¿, lzIfssf cfjZostfx¿, cleefjssf cfjZostfx¿ jf ljBfnosf cfjZostfx¿sf] cWoog ug'{kg]{ x'g ;Sb5 . cfjZostf cWoog vf;u/L sfo{qmdsf] ;'¿jft r/0fdf ug'{kb{5 . o;sf] cy{ cfjZostf cWoognfO{ Ps k6sdf ;Lldt ug'{ pko'St xf] eGg vf]lhPsf] xf]Og, of] lg/Gt/ x'g'kb{5 . sfo{qmd ljsf; ug'{eGbf klxn], sfo{qmd ljsf; ug]{ l;nl;nfdf / sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug]{ cjlwdf klg cfjZostf cWoog h¿/L kb{5 . ljBfyL{sf ljifout z}lIfs cfjZostfx¿, cleefjssf ck]Iffx¿ / cfjZostfx¿, ljBfnosf] ef}lts ;'wf/sf cfjZostfx¿, Joj:yfkg ;'wf/sf cfjZostfx¿ cflb If]qdf z}lIfs cfjZostf cWoog ug'{kg]{ x'g ;Sb5 . ctM z}lIfs cfjZostf cWoogsf] :j¿k cg';f/ cfjZostf cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ x'G5g\ . ;ª\If]kdf, z}lIfs cfjZostf cWoogsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ tn lbOPsf] 5 .
of]hgf lgdf{0f ug{ / sfo{qmdsf] ljsf; ug{sf] nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg ug'{, sfo{qmdsf nIo tyf p2]Zox¿ lgwf{/0f ug'{, lzIfs, ljBfyL{, z}lIfs k|lqmof / k|0ffnLdf /x]sf ;d:ofx¿ / sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ klxrfg ug'{, k|of;x¿ / ;|f]t;fwgx¿nfO{ s]lGb|t ug'{kg]{ If]qx¿ lglZrt ug'{ .
cfjZostf cWoog ug]{ k|lqmofx¿
cfjZostf cWoog ubf{ s;/L ;'¿ ug]{, s;/L ;~rfng ug]{ / s;/L ;DkGg ug]{ eGg] tl/sfx¿nfO{ g} oxfF cfjZostf cWoogsf k|lqmofx¿ elgPsf] xf] . cfjZostf cWoogsf] k|lqmofnfO{ rf/ r/0fdf j0f{g ug{ ;lsG5 . klxnf] r/0fdf tof/L, bf];|f] r/0fdf ;"rgf ;ª\sng, t];|f] r/0fdf ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f, rf}yf] r/0fdf k|ltjb]g tof/ u/L ;"rgfsf] k|of]u ug]{ sfo{x¿ u/]/ cfjZostf cWoog ;DkGg ul/G5 h;nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf tn k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
-s_ tof/L
cfjZostf cWoog ;'¿ ug{sf] nflu tof/L u/]/ of]hgf agfpg' kb{5 .tof/L ug{sf] nflu klxnf] s'/f, ;fdflhs, cfly{s, /fhg}lts / z}lIfs ;Gbe{x¿ cWoog u/L cWoog If]qsf] / cWoog ug]{ ljifoj:t'sf] lj:t[t hfgsf/L k|fKt ug'{k5{ . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ljBfyL{sf] z}lIfs cfjZostf cWoog ug]{ xf] eg] ljBfyL{sf ;fdflhs, cfly{s / /fhg}lts ;Gbe{x¿ cWoog ug'{kb{5 . To:t} ljBfyL{ k9\g] ljBfnosf] lsl;d, tx, sIff / ljifox¿sf ;Gbe{x¿ cWoog u/L hfgsf/L k|fKt ug'{kb{5 . bf];|f] s'/f, cfjZostf cWoog s;sf] nflu ul/Psf] xf], cfjZostf cWoogsf k|of]ustf{x¿ sf] x'g\, ltgnfO{ cfjZostf cWoog k|ltj]bgsf] pkof]lutf / dxTj s] 5, pgLx¿n] cfjZostf cWoog u/]kl5 s] ug{ rfxG5g\, tL s'/fx¿ af/] :ki6tf x'g' cfjZos 5 . o;/L cfjZostf cWoogsf] k|of]ustf{x¿ / cfjZostf cWoogsf] k|of]ux¿af/] k|:6 x'g cfjZos kb{5 . t];|f] s'/f, tof/L ug]{ qmddf cfjZostf cWoogsf] k|:tfjgf, of]hgf jf lgb]{lzsfx¿ lgdf{0f ug'{k5{ . o;sf nflu ;j{k|yd cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ to ug'{kb{5, cWoogsf] ;Ldfª\sg ug'{k5{ . Wofg lbP/ cWoog ug'{kg]{ d'2fx¿ / d"Nox¿ lgwf] ug'{kb{5, cfjZos kg]{ ;"rgfsf lsl;dx¿ lgwf{/0f ug'{kb{5, ;"rgf k|fKt x'g] ;|f]tx¿ ls6fg u/L gd'gf 5gf]6 ug'{kb{5 / ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ljlwx¿ lgwf] u/L cfjZos cf}hf/x¿sf] lgdf{0f ug'{kb{5 . To;}u/L ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0fkZrft\ k|ltj]bg k]; ug]{ / k|ltj]bgaf6 k|fKt ePsf ;"rgfx¿sf] ;b'kof]u ug]{ of]hgf agfpg'kb{5 .
-v_ ;"rgf ;ª\sng
kof{Kt tof/L ul/;s]kl5 cfjZostf cWoog ;~rfng ug{sf] nflu cWoog If]qdf uP/ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{] sfo{ ug{'kb{5 . cWoog If]qsf nlIft ;d"xsf ljz]iftf / ltgsf cj:yf, ltgsf ck]Iff, ltgsf ljrf/ / k|ltlqmofx¿ ;ª\sng ug{ / cWoog ug{ s]lGb|t x'g'kb{5 . o;sf nflu gd'gf 5gf]6df k/]sf ;xefuLx¿ / ;"rgfbftfx¿;Fu lgdf{0f ul/Psf cf}hf/x¿sf] k|of]u u/L ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug'{kb{5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu k|Zgkq lgdf{0f ul/Psf] 5 eg] k/LIff ;~rfng ug{ ;lsG5 . k|ZgfjnL agfOPsf] 5
31
eg] k|ZgfjnL ljt/0f u/L eg{ lbP/ el/Psf k|ZgfjnLx¿ ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}u/L cGt/jftf{ u/L k|fKt ul/Psf ;"rgfx¿sf] ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}u/L ;j]{If0f kmf/dx¿ k|of]u u/L ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsG5 . /]s8{x¿sf] cWoog u/L ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}u/L lkmN8df hfg'k"j{, jf lkmN8df 5Fb}df jf lkmN8af6 kms]{/ cfPkl5 ljleGg b:tfj]hx¿ / k"j{;flxTosf] cWoog / k'g/fjnf]sg u/L ;fGble{s ;"rgfx¿sf] ;ª\u|x ug{ ;lsG5 .
-u_ ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f
;"rgf ;ª\sng ul/;s]kl5 ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . ;"rgf ljZn]if0f ubf{ cfjZostfx¿sf] k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f ug'{kb{5 . cfjZostfx¿sf] k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f ug]{ b'O{ j6f tl/sfx¿ 5g\ . klxnf], ;ª\VofTds ljlw cg';f/ cfjZostfsf] k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . o;df ;a}eGbf a9L dxTjk"0f{ cfjZostfb]lv qmd ldnfP/ ;jeGbf sd dxTjk"0f{ cfjZostf;Dd pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 . o;sf nflu x/]s cfjZostfsf] dxTj cg';f/ cª\sg ug]{ / ;f]xL cª\sgsf] cfwf/df qmd ldnfpg ;lsG5 . cfjZostfx¿sf] dxTjcg';f/ cª\sg ug]{ sfo{ pQ/bftfx¿, cjnf]sgstf{x¿ jf d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿n] ug{ ;Sb5g\ . To;}u/L nlIft cj:yf / jf:tljs cj:yf aLrsf] leGgtf klxNofP/ pSt leGgtfsf] dfqf cg';f/ cfjZostfx¿sf] qmd ldnfpg ;lsG5 . o;/L ;ª\VofTds ljlwcg';f/ cfjZostfx¿sf] qmd ldnfpFbf dxTjsf] cª\sg / leGgftfsf] dfqf lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{x¿dWo] s'g} Pp6f k|lqmofaf6 ;DkGg ug{ ;lsG5 . ;/n efiffdf eGg'kbf{ w]/} pQ/bftfx¿af6 w]/} k|ltlqmof k|fKt ePdf dxTjk"0f{ cfjZostf / yf]/} pQ/bftfx¿af6 yf]/} k|ltlqmof k|fKt ePdf ;f]xL qmd cg';f/ dxTjk"0f{ cfjZostf dfgL cfjZostfx¿sf] qmd lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
bf];|f], u'0ffTds ljlwcg';f/ cfjZostfx¿sf] k|fyldstf qmd lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . of] ljlw ;ª\VofTds ljlw h:tf] ;/n 5}g . u'0ffTds ljlwdf Pp6f hl6n k|sf/sf] ljZn]if0ffTds k|lqmof ckgfOG5 h;df cfjZostfx¿sf] qmd lgwf{/0f s'g} 7f]; / lglZrt dfkb08sf] cfwf/df geO{ dgf]ut (subjective) cfwf/df ul/G5 cyf{t\\ Ps lsl;dsf] lrGtg k|lqmof (reflective process) sf] cfwf/df ul/G5 . lrGtg k|lqmof eg]sf] Pp6f o:tf] k|lqmof xf] h;df JolSt cfFkm}n] cfFkm}nfO{ k|Zgx¿ ;f]lw/xG5g\ / pQ/x¿ vf]lh/xG5g\ . o; k|lqmofdf JolSt :jod\ ;Gt'i6 geP;Dd cfGtl/s cGt/lqmof hf/L /xG5 . o;/L u'0ffTds ljlwdf cfjZostfx¿sf] k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{df cGt/lqmofTds k|lqmofsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . o; k|lqmofdf pko'St x'g] vfnsf s]xL k|Zgx¿ tn lbOPsf] 5 M
cfjZostfx¿ s]s] x'g\< s;s;sf cfjZostfx¿ x'g\< slt dflg;x¿ k|efljt 5g\< olb cfjostfx¿ k"\/f ul/Pg eg] k|efjx¿ (consequences) s] s] x'g hfnfg\< s] of] lsl;dsf] cfjZostf z}lIfs lqmofsnfkx¿af6 k"/f ug{ ;lsG5< s] of] Tolt uDeL/ k|s[ltsf] cfjZostf xf], h'g c¿ z}lIfs cfjZostfx¿ eGbf klxn] k"/f ug{
h¿/L eO;s]sf] 5< s] clxn] tL cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{sf] nflu ;|f]t ;fwgx¿ kof{Kt 5g\<
-3_ glthfx¿sf] k|of]u
;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0faf6 cfjZostfx¿sf] k|fyldstf lgwf{/0f ul/;s]kl5 klxrfg ul/Psf cfjZostfx¿sf] af/]df :ki6tf x'g] u/L k|ltj]bg lbg'kb{5 . o;sf nflu cfjZostfcg';f/ b:tfj]hx¿ tof/ ug{ ;lsG5 . cfjZostf cWoogsf x/]s r/0fx¿df ;"rgfsf] k|jfx / ;~rf/ ug'{kg]{ x'g ;Sb5 . ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ cfjZos ;"rgf z[ª\vnfa4 ¿kdf lbg'kg]{ x'G5 . ;"rgf k|fKt ug]{ ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf cfjZostfx¿nfO{ ljrf/ u/L ;doleq} ;"rgf lbg'kb{5 tfls ;"rgfsf] k|of]u ug]{ sfo{ ;/n xf];\ . cfjZostf cWoogaf6 cfjZostfx¿ klxrfg ul/G5g\, ;d:ofx¿ klxrfg\ ul/G5g\, ug'{kg]{ sfo{x¿ klxrfg ul/G5g\ / cfzf ul/Psf pknlAwx¿ klxrfg ul/G5g\, h;af6 sfo{qmdsf nIo / p2]Zox¿ lglZrt ug{ ;xof]u k'U5 . o;/L cfjZostf cWoog u/L k|fKt ePsf glthfx¿sf] ;b'kof]u ul/G5 .
o;/L cfjZostf cWoogsf k|lqmofx¿sf] af/]df rrf{ ul/Pcg';f/ cfjZostf cWoog ubf{ cfjZostf cWoogsf] of]hgf / tof/L ug]{ klxnf] sfo{ xf] eg] To;sf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng ug]{ bf];|f] sfo{ xf] . t];|f] sfo{sf] ¿kdf ;ª\sng ul/Psf ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f ug]{ sfo{ kb{5 eg]
32
rf}yf] sfo{sf] ¿kdf cfjZostf ljZn]if0faf6 k|fKt ;"rgfx¿sf] k|of]u ug{sf nflu k|ltj]bg tof/ ug'{kb{5 / ;f] k|ltj]bgcg';f/ cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{sf] nflu sfo{qmdsf of]hgfx¿ agfpg] ul/G5 . dfly pNn]v ul/Psf rf/ lsl;dsf sfo{x¿nfO{ cfjZostf cWoogsf ;fwf/0f k|lqmofsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . McDavid and Hawthorn (2006)] n] pb\w[t u/] cg';f/ McKilhip (1998) n] cfjZostf cWoogsf k|lqmofx¿nffO{ cf7 r/0fx¿df ljlzi6 ¿kdf pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ k|:t't ul/G5 M
/fhgLlts, ;fdflhs, cfly{s / z}lIfs kl/l:yltx¿;Fu kl/lrt x'g], cfjZostf cWoogsf k|of]ustf{x¿ / k|of]ux¿nfO{ klxrfg ug,]{ nlIft hg;ª\VofnfO{ klxrfg ug]{, nlIft hg;ª\Vof;dIf pknAw ;]jf / ;'ljwfx¿sf] jt{dfg l:ylt cWoog ug,]{ ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng / /]s8{ ug]{ . ;xfos (complementary) /0fgLltx¿ ckgfP/ cfjZostfx¿
klxrfg ug]{, k|ltj]bgsf] b:tfj]h tof/ ug]{ h;n] k|df0fx¿, cfwf/ ljGb'x¿ (benchmarks), lgisif{x¿ /
l;kmfl/;x¿nfO{ PsLs[t u/f];\ , cfjZostf cWoogsf glthfx¿nfO{ ;~rf/ ug]{, cfjZostf cWoogaf6 k|fKt l;kmfl/;x¿nfO{ sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg].
To;}u/L cfjZostf cWoogsf k|lqmofx¿nfO{ ;g\ !((% sf] lzIffsf] Pg;fOSnf]k]l8ofdf leGgtfsf] b[li6sf]0fsf] cfwf/df ;}4flGts lx;fan] lgDg rf/ r/0fx¿df pNn]v ul/Psf] kfOG5M
ck]lIft l:ylt (targeted status or standards) lgwf{/0f ug]{ . o;sf nflu cfbz{ l:ylt, dfGotfx¿, dfgfª\sx¿, ck]Iffx¿ cflb lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .
jt{dfg l:ylt lgwf{/0f ug{ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug]{ . o;sf nflu p2]Zocg';f/ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ul/G5 . leGgtfx¿sf] vf]hL ug{sf] nflu ck]lIft l:ylt / jt{dfg l:ylt aLr t'ngf ug]{ . sfo{qmdsf nIox¿ lgdf{0f ug{sf nflu cfjZostfx¿ klxrfg ug]{ .
Dffly pNn]v ul/Psf rf/j6f r/0fx¿af6 s] :ki6 x'G5 eg] cfjZostf cWoog ubf{ ck]lIft l:ylt / jt{dfg l:yltsf] aLrdf t'ngf ug]{ sfo{ lgs} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . cfjZostfx¿ cWoogsf] l;nl;nfdf ck]lIft l:yltx¿ lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ Pp6f ;}4flGts lqmofsnfk xf] eg] jt{dfg l:ylt lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ Pp6f Jofjxfl/s lqmofsnfk xf] eGg ;lsG5 . oxfF cfjZostf cWoogsf] nflu lgwf{/0f ug'{kg]{ ck]lIft l:ylt, cfwf/ljGb'x¿ (benchmarks) jf dfkb08x¿ (standards) sf af/]df rrf{ ug'{ cfjZos 5 . cfjZostf cWoog ubf{ jt{dfg l:ylt;Fu t'ngf ug'{kg]{ dfkb08sf ;|f]tx¿ lgDg k|sf/sf x'g ;Sb5g\M
dfgj cfjZostfsf cjwf/0ffx¿nfO{ dfkb08x¿sf ¿kdf lng ;lsG5, h'g ljleGg l;4fGtx¿, df]8]nx¿ / 9fFrfx¿df cfwfl/t x'g ;S5g\ . h:tf] dfgj cfjZostfsf af/]df df:nf]sf] cfjZostfsf z[+vnfx¿, ljleGg cg';Gwfgaf6 k|:tfljt 9fFrfx¿ / ljrf/x¿ cflb .
;dfhsf g}lts / dfgjLo d"Nox¿nfO{ cfwf/ dfgL dfkb08x¿ to ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf d"Nox¿n] dfgj hfltaf6 Ps csf{sf] nflu s] ug'{kb{5 / s] ug'{ x'Fb}g eGg] ;ª\s]t ub{5g\ . o:tf d"Nox¿ ;fdflhs, ;f+:s[lts jf wfld{s lsl;dsf x'g ;Sb5g\ .
t'ngfof]Uo cGo hg;ª\Vofx¿df k|bfg ul/Psf ;]jf, ;'ljwfsf txx¿ / lsl;dx¿sf] jt{dfg l:yltnfO{ cfjZostf cWoogsf] nflu cfwf/ dfGg ;lsG5 cyf{t\\ o:tf] jt{dfg l:yltnfO{ dfkb08 dfGg ;lsG5 . o:tf dfkb08x¿nfO{ ;fk]If dfkb08 elgG5 .
;]jf k|bfg ug]{ sfo{df jf sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogdf ;+nUg sd{rf/L / JolStx¿sf ljrf/x¿, k|fyldstfx¿ / ck]Iffx¿nfO{ dfkb08sf cfwf/x¿ dfGg ;lsG5 .
o;/L cfjZostf cWoogsf k|lqmofx¿cGtu{t cfjZostf cWoogsf dfkb08x¿ lglZrt ug]{ sfo{ ljleGg tl/sfaf6 ug{ ;lsg] s'/f dfly plNnlvt dfkb08sf ;|f]tx¿af6 :ki6 x'G5 .
lzIff If]qdf z}lIfs cfjZostfx¿ cWoog ubf{ k|foh;f] k|of]udf cfpg;Sg] dfkb08x¿sf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿ tn lbOG5 M
33
lzIffsf p2]Zox¿, lzIff cfof]u jf ;ldltsf l;kml/;x¿, kf7\oqmd, b:tfj]h jf lzIfs lgb]{lzsfdf pNn]v ul/Psf s'/fx¿, z}lIfs gLltx¿, lgodx¿, cfrf/;+lxtfx¿ / lgb]{zgx¿, z}lIfs of]hgfx¿, p:t}–p:t} cl3Nnf] ;d"xsf] l:ylt jf ldNbf]h'Nbf] csf]{ ;d"xsf] l:ylt, 7"nf] ;d"xsf] cf};t
l:ylt, /fd|f] dflgPsf] ;d"xsf] l:ylt, ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] ck]Iffx¿, k|fyldstfx¿ / ljrf/x¿ cflb .
#=@ nufgL d"Nofª\sg
nufgL d"Nofª\sg (input evaluation) sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] . sfo{qmdsf] nufgL eGgfn] sfo{qmdnfO{ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu cfjZos ;~rfns nufgL (operator input) / ;~rflnt nufgL (operant input) b'j} kb{5g\ . ;~rfns nufgLdf b'O{ lsl;dsf JolStx¿ h:tf] -s_ sd{rf/Lx¿ (staff), / -v_ ;xefuLx¿ (participants) k5{g\ eg] ;~rflnt nufgLdf ;|f]t;fdu|Lx¿ h:tf] -s_ ef}lts k"jf{wf/x¿, -v_ lgodx¿, ;+/rgfx¿ / ;'ljwfx¿, -u_ ;fdu|Lx¿, -3_ p2]Zox¿, of]hgfx¿ / gLltx¿, / -ª_ ah]6 kb{5g\ . o;/L nufgL d"Nofª\sg cGt{ut Psflt/ vf;u/L hgzlStsf] 5gf]6 / ;xefuLx¿sf] 5gf]6sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ kb{5 eg] csf]{lt/ k"jf{wf/x¿sf] d"Nofª\sg h:tf] ejgx¿, sf]7fx¿, kmlg{r/x¿, zf}rfnox¿, vfg]kfgL, d}bfg cflbsf] d"Nofª\sg, lgodx¿, ;+/rgfx¿ / ;'ljwfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg, ;fdu|Lx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg h:tf] kf7\o;fdu|Lx¿, lzIf0f ;fdu|Lx¿ / sfkLsndx¿ cflbsf] d"Nofª\sg, p2]Zox¿, gLltx¿ / of]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg, / ah]6sf] d"Nofª\sg ;d]t nufgL d"Nofª\sg cGtu{t /fVg ;lsG5 . 5f]6s/Ldf eGg'kbf{, k"jf{wf/x¿sf] d"Nofª\sg, ;fdu|Lx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg / hgzlStsf] d"Nofª\sg, / of]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg g} nufgL d"Nofª\sg xf] . nufgL d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ljleGg lsl;dsf nufgLx¿sf] jt{dfg l:ylt, ltgsf] ;b'kof]u, / ldtJooLtf, nufgLsf] ;DefJotf, nufgL;DaGwL ;d:ofx¿, nufgLsf] kof{Kttf, nufgLsf] ;fGble{stf cflb kIfx¿ ;d]l6g' kb{5 .
nufgL d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmdsf] ;+/rgf lgdf{0f ug]{ sfo{x¿;Fu ;DalGwt lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf nflu ul/G5 . sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿sf] 9fFrf lgdf{0f ug]{ cyf{t\\ sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿sf] ¿k/]vf lgwf{/0f ug]{ p2]Zon] sfo{qmdsf] nufgL d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 eGg] ljrf/ :6kmnladsf] 5 . csf]{ zAbdf, nufgL d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmdsf nIox¿ k|fKt ug{sf nflu ;|f]t;fwgx¿sf] kl/rfng / ;b'kof]u ug'{ xf] . cem} :ki6;Fu eGg'kbf{ nufgL d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] Ifdtf lgwf{/0f ub{5, ;|f]t ;fwgx¿sf] l:ylt :ki6 ub{5, of]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 / j}slNks /0fgLltx¿ 5gf]6 ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . o;/L nufgL d"Nofª\sgsf] dxTj :ki6 x'G5 .
nufgL d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ lgwf{/0f ul/;s]kl5 ul/G5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sg vf;u/L sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug'{eGbf cufl8 ul/G5 . :6kmnladsf cg';f/ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug'{eGbf klxn] nufgL d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 . o;af/] lj:t[t rrf{ PsfO rf/sf] CIPP model cGtu{t ul/Psf] 5 . To:t} nufgL d"Nofª\sg cGtu{t kg]{ ah]6sf] d"Nofª\sg / nfut vr{sf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu o;} PsfOsf]
lqmofsnfk
z}lIfs cfjZostf cWoog u/]/ z}lIfs p2]Zox¿ s;/L lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5< pbfx/0f;lxt rrf{ ug'{xf];\ .
;+VofTds / u'0ffTds ljlwx¿ k|of]u u/L cfjZostfx¿ cWoog ubf{ s;/L ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5< j0f{g ug'{xf]; \.
z}lIfs cfjZostfx¿ cWoogsf nflu dfkb08x¿ s] s] x'g ;Sb5g\< pbfx/0f lbP/ pNn]v ug'{xf];\ .
34
ah]6sf] cfly{s d"Nofª\sgsf] zLif{sdf 5'§} rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . h]xf];\, cfjZostfcg';f/ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf klg o:tf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
oxfF nufgL d"Nofª\sgsf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿sf] af/]df pNn]v u/f}+ . k"jf{wf/x¿ s] s] pknAw 5g\, slt ;ª\Vofdf pknAw 5g\, kof{Kt 5g\ ls 5}gg\, tL k"jf{wf/x¿ sltsf] pko'St 5g\, k"jf{wf/ ;DaGwL ;d:ofx¿ s] s] 5g\, k"jf{wf/df s;/L ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsG5 h:tf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg] sfo{ nufgL d"Nofª\sgdf ul/G5 . To;}u/L ah]6sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{k¥of] eg] sfo{qmsf] p2]Zo k|fKt ug{sf] nflu cfjZos ah]6 slt xf] / pknAw ePsf] ah]6 slt xf], ah]6 kof{Kt 5 ls 5}g, eg]/ p2]Zosf] ;Gbe{df d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 Psflt/ eg] csf]{lt/ ah]6sf] ;b'kof]usf] l:ylt s] 5, b'¿kof]usf] l:ylt s] 5, pknAw ah]6sf] ;b'kof]u a9fpg], b'¿kof]u 36fpg] / ldtJolotf a9fpg] j}slNks pkfox¿ s] x'g ;S5g\ h:tf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ vf]Hg'kb{5 .
#=# k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg
sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf ul/g] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg elgG5 h;n] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ubf{ ckgfOPsf k|lqmofx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ubf{ ug'{kg]{ lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ubf{ lgwf{l/t k|lqmofx¿sf] ;b'kof]u, ltgdf lgoGq0f / ;'wf/ ug'{ xf] . cem :ki6;Fu eGg'kbf{ lgwf{l/t ljlw / k|lqmof cg';f/ lqmofnfkx¿ ug{ ;xof]u ug'{, hyfefjL lsl;dn] ljlw, k|lqmof / lqmofsnfkx¿ x'g glbg' / cfjZostfcg';f/ lgwf{l/t ljlw, k|lqmof / lqmofsnfkx¿df ;'wf/ u/L pko'St tl/sfn] pko'St lqmofsnfkx¿ ;~rfng ug{ ;xof]u ug'{ g} k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo xf] . k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ljleGg lsl;dn] ug{ ;lsG5 . qmf]gJofssf ljrf/df k|lqmof cWoog tLg lsl;dsf x'G5g\ h;sf] tn rrf{ ul/Psf] 5M
-s_ lgisif{ljxLg cWoog
o:tf] cWoogn] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogdf eO/x]sf ljlwx¿, k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿sf] j0f{g dfq ub{5, t/ s'g} lgisif{ lb+b}g . o:tf] cWoogn] eO/x]sf ljlwx¿, k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿sf] /]s8{ ub{5 t/ ;d:ofx¿, sf/0fx¿, c;/x¿, / pkfox¿sf] af/]df Jojl:yt lsl;dn] ljZn]if0f ub}{g / s'g} lgisif{ lbb}+g . h:t}M sIff lzIf0f eO/x]sf] j]nfdf lzIfs / ljBfyL{ lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ug'{ lgisif{ljxLg cWoog xf] .
-v_ ultzLn kl/sNkgf cWoog
o:tf] cWoog sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf ul/G5 . o:tf] cWoogn] sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ultzLn ;DaGwsf] cWoog ub{5 . o;n] sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df kl/sNkgfx¿sf] l;h{gf ub{5 cyf{t\\ ;Defljt lgisif{x¿ lgsfN5 t/ o:tf lgisif{x¿ clGtd x'Fb}gg\ . h:t} sIff lzIf0f eO/x]sf] j]nfdf s'g} ljlw, ;fdu|L, lqmofsnfk jf 36gfsf ;Defljt sf/0fx¿sf] vf]hL ul/G5 / o:tf o:tf sf/0fx¿n] ubf{ To; lsl;dsf ljlw, ;fdu|L, lqmofsnfk jf 36gf ePsf x'g ;S5g\ eg]/ j0f{g ul/G5 . To:t} sIff lzIf0f eO/x]sf] j]nfdf s'g} ljlw, ;fdu|L, lqmofsnfk jf 36gfsf ;Defljt c;/x¿sf] vf]hL ul/G5 / To; lsl;dsf ljlw, ;fdu|L, lqmofsnfk jf 36gfsf o:tf o:tf k|efjx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ egL j0f{g ul/G5 . o;/L sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df ;Defljt lgisif{sf] cg'dfg ul/G5 cyf{t\\ kl/sNkgfx¿ lgdf{0f ul/G5g\ . o:tf] cWoogn] sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] ultzLntfnfO{ b]vfpF5 . csf]{ zAbdf, o:tf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt lgisif{x¿ kl/jt{g eO/xg] x'G5g\ .
-u_ lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg
o:tf] cWoogn] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 . lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgdf sfo{qmdsf cGtl/d pknlAwx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgdf ;dfj]z x'g] pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿ clGtd x'Fb}gg\ t/ lgdf{0fsf] qmddf /x]sf x'G5g\ . lgdf{0ffTds
35
d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] k"0f{ d"Nofª\sg ub}{g . t/ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogdf ;'wf/ ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . Hf:t} s'g} sfo{qmdsf] dWofjlw d"Nofª\sg (midterm evaluation) ug'{ lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf] pbfx/0f xf] .
;ª\If]kdf k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ubf{ jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿sf] /]s8{ ug]{ / ltgsf] j0f{g ug]{, of]hgfcg';f/ lqmofsnfkx¿ eP gePsf] cg'udg ug]{, sfof{Gjogsf] k|lqmofdf cfPsf / cfpg ;Sg] ;d:ofx¿;Fu kl/lrt x'g], cfjlws k[i7kf]if0fsf nflu pko'St ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt u/L ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ k|bfg ug]{ h:tf ljleGg sfo{x¿ ug'{kb{5 . k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgsf] af/]df yk :ki6 ug{sf nflu PsfO rf/cGtu{tsf ljleGg df]8]nx¿df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
#=$ pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg
pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ -products or outputs_ / pknlAwx¿ -outcomes_ b'j}sf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ hgfpF5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf c;/x¿ -effects_ jf k|efjx¿ -impacts_ sf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 . To;}n] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;a}eGbf a9L dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] / o:tf] d"Nofª\sg a9L k|rngdf /x]sf] kfOG5 . lsgeg] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgaf6 w]/}h;f] sfo{qmdsf] ;xh d"Nofª\sg x'g ;Sg] ljZjf; ul/G5 . t/ pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmdsf] ;Dk"0f{ kIfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg x'Fb}g lsgeg] of] Pp6f kIf dfq xf] . sfoqmdsf] bIftf -efficiency_, sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf -effectivencess_ / sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg -impact evaluation_ u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . sfo{qmdsf] bIftf, k|efjsfl/tf / k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ vf;u/L sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ul/;s]kl5 ul/G5 . t/ o;sf] cy{ cfjZostfcg';f/ sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO/x]sf] j]nfdf pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsb}g eGGf] xf]Og t/ sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO/x]sf] j]nfdf ul/g] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgn] k"0f{ / jf:tljs pTkfbgsf] d"Nofª\sg x'Fb}g eGg vf]lhPsf] dfq xf] . ca oxfF pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿sf] af/]df rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf -internal efficiency_ cWoog u/]/ To; sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbgsf] l:ylt kQf nufpg ;lsG5 . s'g} sfo{qmddf ul/Psf nufgLx¿;Fu To; sfo{qmdaf6 ePsf pTkfbgx¿sf] ;DaGwn] cfGtl/s bIftfnfO{ hgfpF5 . csf]{ zAbdf s'g} sfo{qmddf nufgLsf] t'ngfdf pTkfbgx¿sf] j[l4n] To; sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf j[l4 ePsf] dfGg ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] pTkfbgsf] ;ª\VofTds ;"rsn] To; ;+:yfsf] cfGtl/s bIftfsf] l:yltnfO{ b]vfpF5 . h:tf] s'g} sIffsf ljBfyL{x¿sf] cf};t k|fKtfª\s -average achievement) nfO{ cfwf/ dfgL s'g} ljBfnosf] cfGtl/s bIftfsf] cj:yf cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/ -promotion rate_ n] ljBfnosf] cfGtl/s bIftfnfO{ ;ª\s]t u5{ . To:t} nfut bIftf -cost efficiency_ cWoog ug{k|lt pQL0f{ ljBfyL{ k|ltjif{ nfut vr{sf] u0fgf ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} v'b egf{ b/ -net enrolment rate_ u0fgf u/L ljBfno lzIff sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftfsf] l:ylt cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}u/L sIff 5f]8\g] b/ -dropout rate_ / sIff bf]xf]¥ofpg] b/ -repetition rate_ x¿ 36]df cfGtl/s bIftf ;sf/fTds ePsf] dflgG5 . To;}u/L l6sfp b/ -retention rate/survival rate_ df ;'wf/ x'g' ljBfno lzIffsf] cfGtl/s bIftfsf nflu ;sf/fTds dfGg ;lsG5 . To;}u/L tx k"/f ug]{ b/ -cycle completion rate_ / ;ª\qmd0f b/ -transition rate_ df ;'wf/ x'g' klg cfGtl/s bIftfsf nflu ;sf/fTds dflgG5 . To;}u/LljBfyL{x¿nfO{ sf];{ k"/f ug{ nfu]sf] cgfjZos ;dofjlwnfO{ ljBfno lzIffdf sd ug{ ;lsPdf sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf a9\g hfG5 . sfo{qmdsf] bIftfsf] l:ylt yfxf kfpg k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] ;"rsx¿sf] u0fgf ug]{ tl/sfx¿ PsfO kfFrdf lbOPsf] 5 .
sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf u0fgf u/L k|foM pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg u/]sf] kfOG5 . t/ sfo{qmdsf] jf:tljs ¿kdf pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu cfGtl/s bIftfeGbf afx\o bIftf a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . oxfF cfGtl/s bIftfaf6 vf;u/L pTkfbg -outputs) sf] d"Nofª\sg x'g] ub{5 g ls pknlAWf -outcomes) sf] . pTkfbg -product) d"Nofª\sgsf nflu pTkfbg -outputs) sf] d"Nofª\sg dfq kof{Kt
lqmofsnfk
nufgL d"Nofª\sgsf] dxTj :ki6 ug'{xf];\ . k|s[of d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
36
5}g t/ pknlAWfx¿ -outcomes) ;d]tsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/g' cfjZos 5 . oxfF pTkfbg -output) eGgfn] tTsfnLg pTkfbgnfO{ hgfpF5, h'g k|foM ;ª\VofTds ¿kdf b]lvG5 eg] pknlAWf -outcome) eGgfn] bL3{sfnLg kmfObf, k|efj jf pknlAwx¿nfO{ hgfpF5, h'g k|foM u'0ffTds ¿kdf cg'dfg ug'{kg]{ x'G5 .
s'g} sfo{qmdsf] afx\o bIftf -external efficiency_ eGgfn] ;DalGwt dflg;sf] hLjgdf / ;dfhdf To; sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ -products or outputs_ sf]] k|efj, c;/, kmfObf jf pknlAwx¿sf] l:yltn] To; sfo{qmdsf] afx\o bIftf lgwf{l/t x'G5 . To;}n] afx\o bIftf cWoog ubf{ tTsfnLg pTkfbg s] s] eof], slt eof] eg]/ k'Ub}g, t/ bL3{sfnLg ¿kdf hLjgdf, ;dfhdf, ahf/df, sfo{If]qdf ePsf pknlAwx¿ / kmfObfx¿nfO{ cWoog ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . afx\o bIftf cWoog ug{sf] nflu pQL0f{ ljBfyL{x¿sf] >d jhf/df dfusf] l:ylt, pQL0f{ ljBfyL{x¿sf] /f]huf/Lsf] l:ylt, sfo{If]qdf sfo{bIftfsf] l:ylt, sfo{ If]qdf cfOk/]sf ;d:ofx¿sf] ;dfwfgsf nflu v]n]sf] of]ubfg, JolStsf] b}lgs hLjgdf / kl/jf/df sfo{qmdn] kf/]sf] k|efj jf pknlAw / sfo{qmdn] ;dfhdf k'¥ofPsf] of]ubfg cflb kIfx¿ ;d]6]/ sfo{qmdsf] afx\o bIftf cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] afx\o bIftf cWoog ug{sf] nflu kmnf]–ck cWoogx¿ / u'0ffTds ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u pko'St x'G5 .
sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf nflu sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf / afx\o bIftfsf] af/] dfly rrf{ ul/;lsPsf] 5 . pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df dfly plNnlvt b'O{ lsl;dsf cjwf/0ffx¿sf] k|of]u gul/sg k|efj d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿ ug]{ ul/Psf] klg kfOG5 . dfly pNn]v ul/Psf cfGtl/s bIftf / afx\o bIftfsf cjwf/0ffx¿n] sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efj -net effects_ nfO{ eGbf klg sfo{qmdsf] ;du| / ;xh k|efj -gross efects_ nfO{ a9\tf ;ª\s]t ub{5g\ / oL b'j} lsl;dsf cjwf/0ffx¿ pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df sfo{qmdsf] cGtdf ul/g] d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0fx¿ x'g\ . t/ k|efj d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ffn] sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efj cWoog ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf a9\tf hf]8 lbPsf] kfOG5 / o:tf] k|efj d"Nofª\sgsf cWoogx¿nfO{ sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug'{eGbf klxn], ;~rfng eO/x]sf] cj:yfdf / sfo{qmd ;DkGg eO;s]kl5 tLg j6} ;Gbe{df pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 . x'g t sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf / afx\o bIftfnfO{ cfwf/ dfgL sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 Psflt/ eg] csf]{lt/ sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf / afx\o bIftfsf] cWoog ubf{ sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efjx¿df Wofg lbg' pko'St x'G5 .
k|efj d"Nofª\sg -impact assessment_ eg]sf] nlIft hg;ª\Vofdf ck]lIft lbzfdf s'g} sfo{qmdn] NofPsf kl/jt{gx¿sf] dfqfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{ xf] . s'g} sfo{qmdsf z'4 k|efjx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ k|efj d"Nofª\sg elgG5 . z'4 k|efjx¿ eGgfn] s'g} vf; sfo{qmdn] dfq kf/]sf k|efjx¿ cyf{t\\ pknlAwx¿ x'g\ h;df pSt sfo{qmd afx]s cGo aflx/L kIfx¿n] kf/]sf k|efjx¿nfO{ x6fO;lsPsf] x'G5 . z'4 k|efjx¿ cWoog ubf{ tTsfnLg / bL3{sfnLg k|efjx¿nfO{ ;+dfj]z ug'{sf ;fy} d'Vo k|efjx¿ / ;fO8 Okm]S6x¿nfO{ klg ;dfj]z ul/G5 . t/ ;xh k|efj -gross effects_ sf] ;§fdf z'4 k|efj -net effects_ dfq ;dfj]z ul/G5 . z'4 k|efjx¿sf] u0fgf ug{sf] nflu sfo{qmd;Fu c;DalGwt / afx\o kIfx¿nfO{ sfo{qmddf, cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf / k|efjx¿df ldl;g lbOFb}g . o;sf nflu vf;u/L j}1flgs / k|of]ufTds 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t cWoog ug'{kg]{ x'g ;S5 .
o;/L pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] pknlAwsf] :t/ lgwf{/0f ub{5 . sfo{sdsf] pknlAwsf] :t/ lgwf{/0f ug'{ g} pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo xf] . csf]{ zAbdf pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmdsf] dxTj lgwf{/0f -worth determination_ ug{ ;lsG5 . cem} :ki6;Fu eGg'kbf{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tfsf] n]vfhf]vf ug{sf] nflu pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg cfjZos 5 eg] sfo{qmdsf] bIftf d"Nofª\sg ug{ klg pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg g} cfjZos 5 . To;}u/L sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug{, sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbgsf] kof{Kttf / pTkfbgsf] ;fGble{stf cWoog ug{ klg pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg g} ul/G5 . :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 h;sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{~rfng ;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ -recycling decisions_ ug{ ;lsG5 . pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] af/]df PsfO rf/ cGtu{t d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿df yk :ki6 ul/Psf] 5 .
#=% cfly{s d"Nofª\sg
cfly{s d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] / of] d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f ljlw klg xf] . sfo{qmdsf] cfly{s kIfnfO{ dxTj lbP/ cfly{s ;Gbe{ / kl/l:yltnfO{ d'Vo cfwf/ dfgL sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{ cfly{s d"Nofª\sg -ecomomic evaluation_ eGg ;lsG5 .
37
cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg, pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg eg] h:t} cfly{s d"Nofª\sg klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f 5'§} kIfsf] ¿kdf lbg ;lsG5 lsgeg] sfo{qmdsf] ;du| d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu Psflt/ cfly{s d"Nofª\sgnfO{ a]jf:tf ug{ ;ls+b}g eg] csf]{lt/ cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg / pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ul/;s]kl5 cem} klg cfly{s ;Gbe{df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ cfjZos x'g ;Sb5 -lj:t[t hfgsf/Lsf nflu PsfO rf/sf] k|f]e; df]8]n x]g'{xf];\_ . x'g t cfly{s d"Nofª\sg nufgL d"Nofª\sg / pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg;Fu hf]l8Psf] cjwf/0ff xf] . t/ nufgL d"Nofª\sg cfly{s d"Nofª\sg;Fu dfq hf]l8Psf] cjwf/0ff xf]Og . nufgL d"Nofª\sg t of]hgfsf] d"Nofª\sg;Fu hf]l8Psf] / To;;Fu ;DjlGwt cjwf/0ff xf] -lj:t[t hfgsf/Lsf nflu PsfO rf/ cGtu{t d"Nofª\sg df]8]nx¿ x]g'{xf];\_ . o;/L cfly{s of]hgf / ah]6sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] kIf nufgL d"Nofª\sg;Fu ;DalGwt b]lvG5 t/ cfly{s d"Nofª\sgn] ah]6sf] d"Nofª\sgeGbf a9L / Jofks cy{ /fVb5 . o;y{ oxfF cfly{s d"Nofª\sgnfO{ nufgL d"Nofª\sgcGtu{t rrf{ gu/L 5'§} /flvPsf] xf] . ;f/df cfly{s d"Nofª\sgnfO{ nufgL d"Nofª\sg jf pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg;Fu ;DalGwt u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 eGg vf]lhPsf] xf] . sltko sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ nufgL d"Nofª\sg jf pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg gegLsg cfly{s b[li6sf]0f / cfly{s ljlw jf k|lqmof ckgfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug]{ u/]sf] kfOG5 . cfly{s d"Nofª\sgsf k|rlnt rf/ lsl;dsf ljlwx¿nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5M
-s_ nfut ;DefJotf ljZn]if0f
j}slNks sfo{qmdx¿sf] vr{x¿nfO{ ljrf/ u/L s'g sfo{qmddf vr{ ug'{ pko'St x'G5 / s'g sfo{qmddf vr{ ug'{ cg'ko'St x'G5 eGg] s'/f lgwf{/0f ug{sf] nflu nfut ;DefJotf ljZn]if0f -cost feassibility analysis_ ul/G5 . o:tf] cWoogdf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] k|To]s ljsNksf] nfut vr{x¿ ;xh cg'dfg ub{5 / pknAw ah]6;Fu tL vr{x¿nfO{ t'ngf ub{5 . o; k|lqmofdf lbOPsf] ah]6leq /x]/ sfo{qmd ;DkGg ug{ ;lsG5 jf ;ls+b}g ;f] s'/f lgwf{/0f ul/G5 . o;/L ul/g] ;DefJotf ljZn]if0f vf;u/L sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug'{eGbf klxn] ug'{kb{5 .
-v_ nfut pkof]lutf ljZn]if0f
j}slNks sfo{qmdx¿ jf gLltx¿df nfUg] nfutvr{nfO{ tL sfo{qmd jf gLltx¿sf] sfof{Gjogaf6 cfzf ul/Psf] pkof]lutf;Fu t'ngf u/]/ nfut pkof]lutf ljZn]if0f -cost utility analysis_ ul/G5 . oxfF pkof]lutf eGgfn] d'Vo lg0f{ostf{n] lbg] ljifout÷dgf]ut dxTjsf] cfwf/df dfkg ul/g] pknlAwx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . o;/L pkof]lutfsf] u0fgf ug{sf] nflu b'O{eGbf a9L pknlAwx¿nfO{ ldnfP/ Pp6f ;"rs jf cfwf/ lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5.
-u_ nfut nfe ljZn]if0f
j}slNks sfo{qmdx¿ jf gLltx¿sf] ;Dk"0f{ nfut vr{ / kmfObfx¿ b'j}nfO{ s'g} /sd jf k};fdf ¿kfGt/0f ul/sg t'ngf u/]/ nfut nfe ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . o:tf] cWoogdf s'g} sfo{qmdsf ;Dk"0f{ nufgLx¿nfO{ vr{ n]vL s'g} k};fdf ¿kfGt/0f ug'{kb{5 eg] sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogaf6 k|fKt ;a} lsl;dsf pTkfbgx¿ / pknlAwx¿nfO{ ToxL k};fdf u0fgf u/L gfkmf jf gf]S;fgdf hgfpg ldNg] u/L pNn]v ug'{kb{5 . j:t' pTkfbg sfo{qmddf nfut nfe ljZn]if0f ;xh x'G5 eg] ;fdflhs / z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿df o:tf] ljZn]if0f Tolt pko'St gx'g ;S5 .
-3_ nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f
nfut k|efjsfl/tf eGgfn] s'g} sfo{qmddf nfu]sf] ;Dk"0f{ nfut vr{x¿ -costs_ / To; sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿ -effects_ aLr t'ngf u/]/ nfut k|efjsfl/tf cWoog ug'{kb{5 h'g Pp6f hl6n sfo{ xf] . oxfF k|efjx¿ -effects_ n] sfo{qmdsf] pkof]lutf -utility_ / sfo{qmdsf nfex¿ -benefits_ b'j}nfO{ ;d]6\5 / o;eGbf a9L Jofks cy{ /fVb5 . ljleGg sf/0fx¿n] ubf{ nfut nfe ljZn]if0f / nfut pkof]lutf ljZn]if0f ug{ cg'ko'St ePsf] cj:yfdf nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f pko'St x'g ;Sb5 . vf;u/L ;fdflhs / z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgdf nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0fnfO{ ;/n agfpgsf nflu oxfF o;sf] ;/nLs[t kl/efiff lbOPsf] 5 .
Pp6f sfo{qmddf nfu]sf] ;Dk"0f{ nfut vr{x¿nfO{ s'g} k};fdf ¿kfGt/0f u/L pSt /sdnfO{ To; sfo{qmdsf d'Vo nIox¿sf] k|flKtsf] PsfOx¿;Fu t'ngf ul/G5 eg] o:tf] lsl;dsf] cfly{s
38
d"Nofª\sgnfO{ nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f elgG5 . To;}u/L nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f ubf{ p:t}–p:t} p2]Zo ePsf ldNbfh'Nbf sfo{qmdx¿sf] 5'§f5'§} cfly{s d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 / ltlgx¿ k|To]ssf] nfut vr{x¿ t'ngf ul/G5 . o; k|lqmofdf nfut vr{sf] t'ngfdf glthfx¿ / pknlAwx¿df s] slt /fd|f] ePsf] 5 jf ;'wf/ ePsf] 5 To;sf] cfwf/df nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f ul/G5 . oxfF pxL vr{df glthf /fd|f] ePsf] 5 eg] nfut k|efjsfl/tf -cost effectiveness_ a9]sf] eGg ;lsG5 . To:t} pxL glthfx¿ k|fKt ug{sf] nflu vr{x¿ sd ug{ ;lsPsf] 5 eg] nfut bIftf -cost efficiency_ a9]sf] eGg ;lsG5 . To:t} vr{ klg sd ug{ ;lsof] / glthf klg /fd|f] ug{ ;lsof] eg] nfutsf] pTkfbsTj -cost productivity_ a9]sf] eGg ;lsG5 . vf;u/L ;fdflhs / z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿df nfut vr{ 36\of] ls 36]g eGg'eGbf klg glthf / pknlAw /fd|f] eof] ls ePg, slt ;'wf/ eof] eGg] s'/f a9L dxGjk"0f{ x'g] x'gfn] nfut bIftf / nfut pTkfbsTjeGbf nfut k|efjsfl/tfsf] af/]df k|foh;f] cWoogx¿ s]lGb|t x'G5g\ .
nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0fsf] p2]Zo s'g} Ps lsl;dsf] nfut vr{df ;aeGbf a9L /fd|f] glthf lbg] ljsNkx¿sf] vf]hL ug'{ xf] . To;}n] nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f ubf{ lsleGg sfo{qmdx¿ / ltgLx¿dWo] j}slNks lg0f{ox¿sf cfly{s nfutx¿ kQf nufOG5 / d'Vo nlIft pknlAwsf] Pp6f ;ª\VofTds gfk;Fu tL vr{x¿nfO{ t'ngf ul/G5 . oxfF, cfly{s nfutn] nufgLsf cj;/ nfutx¿ -opporunity costs_ nfO{ ;dfj]z u5{ . cj;/ nfutx¿ eGgfn] s'g} sfo{qmddf nufgL jf vr{ ul/;lsPsf] sf/0faf6 u'Dg k'u]sf cj;/x¿sf] d"NonfO{ hgfpF5 . olb s'g} sfo{qmddf nufgL ug'{sf] ;§fdf csf]{ j}slNks ;aeGbf /fd|f] k|of]udf nufgLx¿nfO{ nufOPsf] x'GYof] eg] Tof] cj:yfdf x'g hfg] vr{x¿nfO{ cj;/ nfutx¿ elgG5 . To:t} nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f ubf{ k|efjsfl/tf dfkgsf] k|ltPsfO cf};t vr{sf] u0fgf ug'{ cfjZos k5{ Psflt/ eg] csf]{lt/ ;LdfGt nfut k|efjsfl/tf cg'kft kQf nufpg'kg]{ x'G5 . ;LdfGt nfut k|efjsfl/tf cg'kft eGgfn] k|fKt ul/Psf] pknlAwsf] k|To]s yk PsfOsf] ;LdfGt nfutnfO{ hgfpF5 . nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f ug]{ tl/sfnfO{ ;/nLs/0f u/L r/0fa4 ¿kdf lgDgcg';f/ lbOPsf] 5 (Mc David and Hawthorn, 2006):
j}slNks sfo{qmdx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ug]{, s'g–s'g nfex¿ cyf{t\\ kmfObfx¿ / vr{x¿ dxTjk"0f{ 5g\ lgwf{/0f ug]{, vr{x¿ / nfex¿nfO{ juL{s/0f u/L ltgsf] dfkgsf] nflu ;"rsx¿ 5gf]6 ug]{, sfo{qmdsf] cjlwdf k/]sf k|efjx¿nfO{ ;ª\VofTds ¿kdf pNn]v ug]{, ;a} lsl;dsf] nfutx¿nfO{ k};fdf u0fgf ug]{, vr{x¿nfO{ ltgsf] jt{dfg d"Nodf n}hfg], nfutx¿nfO{ pknlAwx¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{, cyjf nfutx¿nfO{ k|To]s j}slNks sfo{qmdsf]
nfutx¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{, ;+j]bgzLntfsf] ljZn]if0f ug]{, o;sf] nflu nfutx¿ / nfex¿sf] ljt/0fsf] j0f{g ug]{, dfly ul/Psf t'ngfx¿ / ;+j]bgzLntfx¿sf] ljZn]if0fsf] cfwf/df ;'emfjx¿ lbg] .
#=^ ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf ljljw kIfx¿sf] rrf{ ubf{ d"Nofª\sg k|lqmofsf] g} d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . /fd|f] k|ltj]bg lbg] u/L pko'St tl/sfaf6 7f]; d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsof] eg] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg u/]sf] ;fy{s jGb5 . s]jn d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu d"Nofª\sg u/]/, cyjf q[l6k"0f{ d"Nofª\sg u/]/ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg sdhf]/ eof] eg] d"Nofª\sgsf] ljZj;gLotf, j}wtf, pkof]lutf / dxTj sdhf]/ x'g hfG5 . csf]{ zAbdf, d"Nofª\sgsf] ld;g -mission_ / sfo{qmdsf] ld;g -mission_ x/fpg ;S5 . oxfF d"Nofª\sgsf] ldzg cyf{t\\ d'Vo nIo eGgfn] sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug'{ xf] . o;/L cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg, pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg / cfly{s d"Nofª\sg h:t} d]6f–d"Nofª\sg cyf{t\\ ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] . ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgn] d"Nofª\sgsf of]hgfsf] ;dLIff ub{5, d"Nofª\sgsf cEof;x¿sf] ;dLIff ub{5\, d"Nofª\sgsf gtLhfx¿sf] k|of]usf] l:yltsf] ;dLIff ub{5 / sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf ;'wf/ ug{sf] nflu ;xof]u ub{5 . o;/L cGttM ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug{sf] nflu cfwf/x¿ v8f ub{5.
39
;dLIff d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} vf; d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ hgfpF5 / o;n] d"Nofª\sg k|lqmofsf] cfˆg} sfo{ / cEof;sf] d"Nofª\sg ;d]tnfO{ hgfpF5 (Meta-evaluation refers not only to the evaluation of particular studies, but also to the evaluation of the very function and practice of evaluation itself. Nilson and Hogben, 1983_ . ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo d"Nofª\sgnfO{ cy{k"0f{ agfpg' / d"Nofª\sgsf ;Defjgfx¿sf] e/k'/ pkof]u ug'{ xf] . o;sf nflu ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgn] d"Nofª\sgsf k"j{;flxTosf] ;dLIff ub{5 cyf{t\\ klxn] ul/Psf ;DalGwt d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] ;dLIff ub{5 .
;dLIff d"Nofª\sg b'O{ lsl;dn] ug{ ;lsG5 . klxnf], lgdf{0ffTds ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg xf], h;df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ eO/x]sf] j]nfdf d"Nofª\sg ultljlwsf] ;dLIff ul/G5 . o:tf] ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgn] d"Nofª\sg sfo{df / sfo{qmddf ;d]t ;'wf/ ug{sf] nflu k"j{ufdL÷cu|ufdL e"ldsf -proactive role_ v]Nb5 . bf];|f], lg0f{ofTds ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg xf], h;df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] sfo{ ;DkGg eO;s]kl5 pSt d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ul/G5 . o:tf] lg0f{ofTds ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgn] ljutdf ul/Psf] d"Nofª\sgdf / ljutdf ul/Psf] sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug{sf] nflu s'g} ;xof]u k'¥ofpFb}g t/ tL lqmofsnfkx¿df ;+nUg JolStx¿nfO{ pgLx¿n] u/]sf sfo{x¿k|lt hjfkmb]xL jf pQ/bfoL agfpg ;xof]u ub{5 . To;}n] lg0f{ofTds ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] pQ/ufdL÷kZrufdL e"ldsf -retroactive role_ k|d'v x'G5 . oxfF, k"j{ufdL e"ldsfn] eljZotkm{ ljrf/ u/]/ ca s] ug]{ eGg] pQ/ lbg] x'gfn] rfn' d"Nofª\sgdf tTsfn ;'wf/ ug{ e"ldsf v]N5 eg] pQ/ufdL e"ldsfn] ljuttkm{ ljrf/ u/]/ sf/0fx¿ s]nfpg] x'gfn] ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] dxTj;d]t lgwf{/0f ub{5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug{sf nflu cfwf/x¿
d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu Stufflebeam (1971) n] tLg j6f cfwf/x¿ k|:t't u/]sf 5g\ . klxnf]—j}1flgs cfwf/, bf];|f], Jofjxfl/s cfwf/, / t];|f], nfutsf] cfwf/ . pgsf cg';f/ log} tLg cfwf/x¿nfO{ ljrf/ u/L d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] ;dLIff ug{ ;lsG5 . :6kmnladn] d"Nofª\sgsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf, afx\o j}wtf, lj:j;gLotf / j:t'lgi7tfnfO{ d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf x'g'kg]{ j}1flgs u'0fx¿ dfg]sf 5g\ . To;}u/L c;n d"Nofª\sgdf x'g'kg]{ Jofjxfl/s cfwf/x¿cGtu{t ^ lsl;dsf u'0fx¿nfO{ pgn] ;d]6]sf 5g\ . tL x'g\M -s_ d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo;Fu ;"rgfx¿sf] ;fGble{stf, -v_ d"Nofª\sgsf] dxTj cyf{t\\ o;n] lbPsf k|fyldstfx¿, -u_ d"Nofª\sgsf] If]q cyf{t\\ o;sf] Jofkstf, -3_ d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] ljZjfl;nf]kgf, -ª_ d"Nofª\sgn] u/]sf] ;dosf] kfngf, / -r_ d"Nofª\sgsf] k|rf/k|;f/ cyf{t\\ tbg'¿k sfof{Gjogsf] tof/L . To;}u/L :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sgdf x'g'kg]{ t];|f] dxTjk"0f{ cfwf/ eg]sf] nfut bIftfsf] cfwf/ xf] h;cGtu{t d"Nofª\sg ;DkGg ug{sf] nflu ul/Psf] vr{sf] ldtJolotf, ;b'kof]u / nfutcg';f/sf] glthfnfO{ cfwf/ dfgL cf}lrTok"0f{ vr{ cyf{t\\ ljj]sk"0f{ vr{ eP gePsf] x]g'{k5{ . d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] ;dLIff ug{sf nflu cfwf/x¿sf] af/]df lj:t[t rrf{ PsfO rf/sf] d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿df ;dfj]z ul/Psf] 5 . oxfF d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug{sf] nflu pkof]uL x'g] ;+o'St /fHo cd]l/sfdf z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf dfkb08x¿ ljsf; ug{sf nflu lgdf{0f ul/Psf] ;+o'St ;ldlt -Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1981_ n] k|:tfj u/]sf dfkb08x¿sf] tn rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
pSt ;+o'St ;ldltn] z}lIfs sfo{qmd, cfof]hgf / ;fdu|Lx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu pkof]uL x'g], Jofks If]q ;d]6\g], ;/n efiffdf ;/n lsl;dsf dfkb08x¿ lgdf{0f u/]sf] lyof] . tL dfkb08x¿ z}lIfs sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu s'g} z}lIfs k|f]h]S6 jf ultljlwsf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu / s'g} z}lIfs ;fdu|Lsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf 5g\ . To;}u/Ld"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] ;dLIff ug{sf nflu oL dfkb08x¿nfO{ dxTjk"0f{ dflgPsf] kfOG5 . x'g t ljleGg lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu, ljleGg kl/:ylt / ;Gbe{df ul/g] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu Pp6} dfkb08 jf s7f]/ dfkb08 cg'ko'St x'g ;S5 / vt/gfs klg x'g ;S5 lsgeg] o:tf] dfkb08n] ubf{ l;h{gzLntf, df}lnstf, pkof]lutf / ;fGble{stf h:tf kIfx¿ sdhf]/ aGg ;S5g\ . To;}n] o; v08df pNn]v ul/Psf k|To]s dfkb08nfO{ k|To]s d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ubf{ clgjfo{ ¿kdf cfwf/ dflgg'k5{ eGg] s'g} h¿/L 5}g . oL dfkb08x¿nfO{ s]jn k|:tfj ul/Psf] dfq xf] . logsf] ;r]tgfk"j{s k|of]usf] cfjZostf /xG5 eGg] s'/f pSt ;ldltn] hgfPsf] 5 . pSt ;ldltn] z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf nflu k|:tfljt #) j6f dfkb08x¿nfO{ rf/ efudf juL{s/0f u/]sf] 5 h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ j0f{g ul/G5M
40
-s_ pkof]lutfsf dfkb08x¿
s'g} klg sfo{qmd pkof]uL x'g'k5{ . To;}u/L sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofsg cWoog klg pkof]uL x'g' cfjZos 5 . pkof]lutfsf dfkb08x¿ (utility standards) cfjZostfx¿;Fu hf]l8Psf x'G5g\ . ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf cfjZostfx¿nfO{ ;Daf]Gwg ug{sf nflu sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgx¿ ul/Psf x'G5g\ . To;}n] pkof]lutfsf dfkb08x¿cGtu{t ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ hf] d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿;Fu ;DaGw /fV5g\, ltgLx¿ hfgsf/ x'g'kg]{, ltgsf ;"rgfsf cfjZostfx¿;Fu hfgsf/ x'g'kg]{, / ltgLx¿nfO{ ;fGble{s vfnsf ;"rgfx¿ ;doleq} k|bfg u/]sf] x'g'kg]{ h:tf u'0fx¿ ;dfj]z ul/Psf 5g\ . d"Nofª\sgn] ;DalGwt ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿sf] Jofjxfl/s cfjZostfx¿ k"/f ug{sf nflu sfd ub{5 eGg] s'/fsf] ;'lglZrt ug{ pkof]lutfsf dfkb08x¿ kl/nlIft 5g\ . pkof]lutfsf dfkb08x¿ cf7 j6f 5g\ h'g tn lbOPsf] 5 .
;/f]sf/jfnfsf] klxrfgM d"Nofª\sgdf ;+nUg cyjf d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|efljt x'g] ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] klxrfg ul/Psf] x'g'k5{, tfls ltgsf cfjZostfx¿ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsof];\ .
d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] ljZjfl;nf]kgfM d"Nofª\sg ;~rfng ug]{ JolStx¿ d"Nofª\sg ;DkGg ug{sf nflu ljZjfl;nf], e/kbf]{ / bIf x'g'kb{5, tfls ltgLx¿n] lgsfn]sf glthfx¿ a9L dfqfdf kTofl/nf] / :jLs[t x'g ;sf];\ .
;"rgfsf] If]q / 5gf]6M lglZrt lsl;dsf ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿sf cfjZostfx¿ / lxtx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug]{ vfnsf ;fGble{s k|Zgx¿nfO{ ;d]6]/ ;"rgfsf If]qx¿ lgwf{/0f ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5, tfls ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] cfjZostfx¿ / lxtx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf ;fGble{s k|Zgx¿cg'¿k ;"rgfx¿ 5gf]6 u/L ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsof];\ .
dxTj;lxtsf] JofVofM d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿sf] JofVof ubf{ k|of]u ul/Psf b[li6sf]0fx¿, k|lqmofx¿ / cf}lrTok"0f{ cy{x¿nfO{ dl;gf];Fu j0f{g ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ tfls d"No lgwf{/0fsf cfwf/x¿ :ki6 xf]pmg\ .
k|ltj]bgdf :ki6tfM d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf j:t'sf], ltgsf ;Gbe{x¿sf] / d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿, k|lqmofx¿ / glthfx¿sf] af/]df d"Nofª\sg k|ltj]bgn] :ki6 ¿kdf j0f{g u/]sf] x'g'kb{5 tfls k|ltj]bgsf kf7sx¿n] s] d"Nofª\sg ul/of], lsg ul/of], s:tf] ;"rgf k|fKt ul/of], lgisif{x¿ s] lgsflnP / s] ;'emfjx¿ lbOP eGg] s'/fx¿ ;lhn};Fu a'‰g ;s"g .
k|ltjb]gsf] ljt/0fM d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿ ;/f]sf/jfnf ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ ljt/0f / k|;f/ ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ tfls pgLx¿n] glthfx¿sf] n]vfhf]vf ug{ / k|of]u ug{ ;s"g\ .
k|ltj]bgsf] ;do;LdfM k|ltj]bgx¿ k|bfg ug]{ sfo{ ;do;Ldf leq} x'g'k5{, h;n] ubf{ lbOPsf] ;"rgf ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿n] ;dod} /fd|f];Fu k|of]u ug{ ;St5g\ .
d"Nofª\sgsf] k|efjM ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿nfO{ lbOPsf ;'emfjx¿cg';f/ sfo{ ug{ k|f]T;fxg ldNg] u/L d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf / o;sf] ;~rfng ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5 h;n] ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf] k|efj a9L xf];\ .
-v_ ;DefJotfsf dfkb08x¿
s'g} klg sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu ;DefJotf cWoog ug{ cfjZos kb{5 . oxfF ;DefJo -feasible_ eGgfn] sfof{Gjogdf hfgsf nflu slt ;Dej / ;xh 5 ;f] s'/fnfO{ hgfpF5 . d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf] ;dLIff ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf] ;DefJotf x]g'{k5{ . d"Nofª\sg cWoog pkof]uL x'g'k5{ eGg] klxnf] dfkb08sf] rrf{ o;cl3 ul/;lsPsf] 5 . d"Nofª\sg cWoog ;~rfng ug{ ;Dej / ;xh x'g'k5{ eGg] bf];|f] dfk08sf] rrf{ oxfF ul/Psf] xf] .
d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿ nfut k|efjsf/L x'g'kb{5 / jf:tljs ;f+;fl/s kl/l:yltx¿df ;~rfngof]Uo x'g'k5{ eGg] s'/fnfO{ dx;'; u/L ;DefJotfsf dfkb08x¿ pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . ;du|df, ;DefJotfsf dfkb08x¿ (feasibility standards) cGtu{t d"Nofª\sgx¿ oyfy{jfbL, ljj]sk"0f{, s'6g}lts, /fhgLlts ¿kdf k|an, / ldtJooL x'g'k5{ . o;cGtu{t tLg lsl;dsf dfkb08x¿ pNn]v ul/Psf 5g\M
41
Jofjxfl/s k|lqmofx¿M d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿ Jofjxfl/s x'g'k5{ cyf{t\\ ;xh¿kdf d"Nofª\sg sfo{x¿ ;DkGg ug{ ;lsg] x'g'k5{ . o;sf nflu cj/f]wx¿nfO{ sdeGbf sd ul/sg cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ .
/fhgLlts k|antfM ljleGg ;d"xsf ljleGg c8fgx¿sf] ;DefjgfndO{ b[li6ut u/L s'g} ;d"xn] ug{ ;Sg] ;Defljt lj/f]wx¿nfO{, kIfkftx¿nfO{ / glthfsf unt k|of]ux¿nfO{ x6fpg ;lsof];\ / ;fdgf ug{ ;lsof];\ eGg] dfkb08nfO{ /fhgLlts k|antf (political viability) elgPsf] xf] .
nfut k|efjsfl/tfM d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu k|of]u ul/Psf ;|f]t ;fwgx¿ / vr{x¿sf] cf}lrTo kl'i6 x'g] lsl;dsf kof{Kt / dxTjk"0f{ ;"rgfx¿ d"Nofª\sgn] k}bf ug{ ;Sg'kb{5.
-u_ g}ltstfsf dfkb08x¿
s'g}klg sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu g}lts cfwf/x¿ vf]Hg ;lsG5 . g}lts w/ftn :ki6 / alnof] ePsf] sfo{qmdnfO{ pko'St dflgG5 . s'g} klg d"Nofª\sgn] ljleGg dflg;x¿nfO{ km/s km/s 9ª\un] k|efljt ub{5 eGg] tYonfO{ g}ltstfsf dfkb08x¿ (propriety standards) n] k|ltljlDat u/]sf 5g\ . o:tf dfkb08 cGtu{t d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|efljt x'g] JolStx¿sf] enfOsf nflu, sfg'gL lx;fan] / g}lts lx;fan] d"Nofª\sgx¿ ;~rfng ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ eGg] s'/fx¿ kb{5g\ . g}ltstfsf] dfkb08cGtu{t lgDgadf]lhd cf7 j6f dfkb08x¿ ;dfj]z ul/Psf 5g\ .
cf}krfl/s bfloTjM d"Nofª\sgdf ;+nUg cf}krfl/s kIfx¿sf] bfloTjx¿sf] af/]df lnlvt ¿kdf ;xdlt ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ h:fn] ubf{ s] ug]{, slxn] ug]{, s;/L ug]{ / s;n] ug]{ h:tf s'/fx¿sf] af/]df ;Demf}tfkqsf ;t{x¿cg'¿k ;DalGwt kIfx¿ dfGg afWo x'G5g\ cyjf cfjZostfcg';f/ cf}krfl/s ¿kdf k'g;{Demf}tf ug{ ;Sb5g\ .
rf;f]x¿sf] åGåM dflg;sf rf;f]sf s'/fx¿ km/skm/s x'g ;S5g\ h'g slxn]sfxL+ kG5fpg gldNg] jf x6fpg g;lsg] klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf km/skm/s rf;f]sf s'/fx¿df åGå l;h{gf x'G5 . km/s–km/s rf;f]x¿sf aLrdf x'g] åGåx¿nfO{ v'nf ¿kdf / OdfGbf/Ltfk"j{s Jojxf/ ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ tfls o:tf åGåx¿n] ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿ / glthfx¿ sdhf]/ gag"g\ .
k"0f{ / k|:6 cleJolStM d"Nofª\sgsf ;fGble{s glthfx¿ / d"Nofª\sgsf sdL sdhf]/Lx¿nfO{ cleJoSt ul/sg v'Nnf, k|ToIf, / OdfGbf/ ¿kdf df}lvs / lnlvt k|ltj]bgx¿ cfPsf] x'g'k5{ .
;"rgfsf] clwsf/M d"Nofª\sgdf ;+nUg kIfx¿n] ;j{;fwf/0f dflg;x¿sf] yfxf kfpg] clwsf/nfO{ ;Ddfg ul/sg cfZj:t kf/]sf] x'g'k5{ . ;j{;fwf/0f JolSTfx¿sf] ;'/Iff / uf]Kotfsf clwsf/x¿;Fu ;DjlGwt ljwfg / l;4fGtx¿sf] cwLgdf /xL ;"rgfsf] clwsf/nfO{ ;'lglZrt ug]{ u/L d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ .
;DalGwt dflg;sf clwsf/x¿M d"Nofª\sg;Fu ;DalGwt dflg;sf lxtx¿ / clwsf/x¿sf] ;Ddfg / ;+/If0f ug]{ lx;fan] d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf / ltgsf] ;~rfng ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ .
dfgjLo cGt/lqmofx¿M d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿n] cGt/lqmofx¿ ubf{ d"Nofª\sg;Fu hf]l8Psf cGo JolStx¿sf] dfgjLo ;Ddfg / dfgjLo dxTjnfO{ sb/ u/]sf] x'g'k5{ .
;Gt'lnt k|ltj]bgM d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] j:t'sf] ;an / b'a{n kIfx¿nfO{ k|:t't ubf{ d"Nofª\sg k|ltj]bg k"0f{ / lgikIf x'g'k5{ tfls ;an kIfx¿nfO{ alnof] agfpg / ;d:ofx¿nfO{ ;dfwfg ug{ ;lsof];\ .
ljQLo pQ/bfloTjM d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ;|f]t ;fwgsf] vr{ ubf{ / ljt/0f ubf{ 7f]; cfly{s k|lqmofx¿ hjfkmb]xL eP/ k"/f u/]sf] x'g'k5{ cyjf o:tf] k|lqmof ljj]s;ª\ut / g}ltstfk"0f{ x'g'k5{ .
-3_ z'4tfsf dfkb08x¿
s'g} klg sfo{qmd j}1flgs x'g'k5{, ;xL x'g'k5{ / k|fljlws ¿kdf kof{Kt x'g'k5{ . sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ z'4tfsf] dfkb08 k|of]u ul/G5 eg] d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf] ;dLIff ug{;d]t oxL z'4tfsf] dfkb08 cfjZos kb{5 . d"Nofª\sgn] ;xL, z'4 / 7f]; ;"rgfx¿ k}bf ug{ ;s]sf] 5 jf 5}g eGg] s'/f;Fu z'4tfsf] dfkb08 ;DjlGwt 5 . o; dfkb08cGtu{t k|fKt ul/Psf ;"rgfx¿ k|fljlws ¿kdf kof{Kt x'g'k5{ / lgisif{x¿ tYodf cfwfl/t x'g'k5{ . o; lsl;dsf z'4tfsf dfkb08x¿n] ;du|df d"Nofª\sgsf] j}wtfsf] l:yltnfO{ hgfpF5g\ . z'4tfsf] dfkb08x¿ (accuracy standards) cGtu{t lgDgadf]lhd !! j6f dfkb08x¿ ;dfj]z ul/Psf 5g\M
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ljifoj:t'sf] klxrfgM d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] ljifoj:t'sf] kof{Kt ¿kdf 5fglag ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . d"Nofª\sgsf] ljifoj:t' s'g} sfo{qmd, k|f]h]S6, ;fdu|L jf s'g} ;+:yf klg x'g ;S5 . d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] ljifoj:t'sf] ljleGg :j¿kx¿, kIfx¿ / cjojx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . ltgsf] :ki6 / kof{Kt ¿kdf klxrfg ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ .
;Gbe{ ljZn]if0fM sfo{qmdsf ;Gbe{x¿nfO{ lj:t[t ¿kdf / kof{Kt ¿kdf 5fglag ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ tfls d"Nofª\sgsf ljifoj:t'x¿dfly kg]{ ;Gbe{sf k|efjx¿nfO{ klxrfg ug{ ;lsof];\ .
p2]Zo / k|lqmofx¿M d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zo / k|lqmofx¿nfO{ kof{Kt ¿kdf / lj:t[t ¿kdf j0f{g ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ tfls ltgsf] klxrfg ug{ / n]vfhf]vf ug{ ;lsof];\ .
dxTjk"0f{ ;"rgfsf ;|f]tx¿M ;"rgfsf ;|f]tx¿nfO{ lj:t[t ¿kdf / kof{Kt ¿kdf j0f{g ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ tfls tL ;|f]tx¿af6 k|fKt dxTjk"0f{ ;"rgfx¿sf] cfjZostfcg';f/ hfFr x'g ;sf];\ .
j}w dfkgM ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ;fwgx¿ / k|lqmofx¿ j}w x'g'k5{ . o:tf ;fwgx¿af6 k|fKt ;"rgfx¿nfO{ tf]lsPsf] sfo{df k|of]u u/L JofVof ubf{ j}wtf k|fKt x'g] lglZrt xf];\ .
ljZj;gLo dfkgM ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ;fwgx¿ / k|lqmofx¿ ljZj;gLo x'g'k5{ . o:tf ;fwgx¿ tf]lsPsf] sfo{sf nflu ljZj;gLo ePsf] lglZrt xf];\ .
;"rgfsf] lgoGq0fM d"Nofª\sgsf] qmddf ;ª\sng ul/Psf, ljZn]if0f ul/Psf / pNn]v ul/Psf ;"rgfx¿sf] Jojl:yt ¿kdf ;dLIff / ;'wf/ ul/Psf] x'g''k5{ tfls d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿ q'l6k"0f{ gxf]pg\ .
;++VofTds ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0fM d"Nofª\sgdf ;ª\VofTds ;"rgfx¿sf] pko'St / Jojl:yt ¿kdf ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ h;n] ubf{ ;ª\VofTds ;"rgfsf] :jLsf/of]Uo JofVofx¿ ;'lglZrt xf]];\ .
u'0ffTds ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0fM d"Nofª\sgdf u'0ffTds ;"rgfx¿sf] pko'St / Jojl:yt ¿kdf ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ h;n] ubf{ u'0ffTds ;"rgfsf] :jLsf/of]Uo JofVofx¿ ;'lglZrt xf];\ .
k|df0fdf cfwfl/t lgisif{x¿M d"Nofª\sgdf lgsflnPsf lgisif{x¿ :ki6 ¿kdf k|df0fx¿df cfwfl/t x'g'k5{ tfls tL lgisif{x¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsof];\ .
j:t'lgi7 k|ltj]bgM d"Nofª\sgsf s'g} kIfn] ltgsf k"jf{u|xx¿, kIfkftx¿ / JolStut efjgfx¿åf/f tf]8df]8 ug{ jf aª\Uofpg g;Sg] lsl;dn] k|ltj]bgx¿ j:t'lgi7 x'g'k5{ . d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿nfO{ / k|ltj]bgx¿nfO{ j:t'lgi7 agfpg d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿n] ;xof]u u/]sf] x'g'k5{ .
o;/L dfly pNn]v ul/Psf rf/ k|sf/sf dfkb08x¿– pkof]lutf, ;DefJotf, g}ltstf / z'4tfsf dfkb08x¿sf] k|of]u u/L s'g} z}lIfs sfo{qmd cyjf s'g} z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug{ ;lsG5 . tL rf/ k|sf/sf dfkb08x¿sf] cfjZostfcg';f/ d"Nofª\sg sfo{df k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] s'/f o; cl3 g} rrf{ ul/;lsPsf] 5 . ;f/df s] eGg ;lsG5 eg] s'g} klg z}lIfs sfo{qmd pkof]uL x'g'k5{ . sfo{qmd pkof]uL eP/ dfq k'Ub}g, sfof{Gjogdf hfg ;lsg] ;DefJo x'g'k5{ . s'g} sfo{qmd pkof]uL -useful_ / ;DefJo -feasible_ dfq eP/ k'Ub}g, ;f] sfo{qmd gLltut ¿kdf, ;}4flGts ¿kdf, lgod;ª\ut, ;fdflhs / g}ltstfsf] lx;fan] klg pko'St x'g'k5{ . s'g} sfo{qmd pkof]uL / ;DefJo x'Fbfx'b} klg g}lts / ;fdflhs d"Nosf lx;fan] cg'ko'St -unfit_ klg x'g ;S5 . s'g} sfo{qmd sfd nfUg] vfnsf] 5, sfof{Gjog ug{ ;lsG5 / ;fdflhs lx;fan] :jLsfo{ 5 eg] olt tLg j6f kIfx¿ dfq eP/ k'Ub}g. oL s'/fx¿sf] ;fy} sfo{qmd q'l6/lxt, j}1flgs / z'4 -accurate_ x'g' cfjZos 5, h'g ljZj;gLo, j}w / j:t'lgi7 xf];\ eGg] ck]Iff ug'{ :jfefljs x'G5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgdf oL rf/ k|sf/sf dfkb08x¿sf] ;xh ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . h;/L sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgdf oL rf/ k|sf/sf dfkb08x¿sf] k|of]u ul/G5, To;}u/L d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{df ;d]t log} rf/ k|sf/sf dfkb08x¿sf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] x'gfn] z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf nflu oL dfkb08x¿sf] dxTj :ki6 b]lvG5 .
dfly pNn]v ul/Psf ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf dfkb08x¿ cln a9L k|ljlws, ;ª\s'lrt / s7f]/ k|s[ltsf x'gfn] ltgsf] k|of]u u/L ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ s]xL hl6n / ckof{Kt dx;'; x'g ;Sb5 . o; ;Gbe{df Worthen and Sanders (1987) n] k|:t't u/]sf ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf ;fwf/0f cfwf/x¿ (general criteria) sf] k|of]u a9L ;/n / ;xh b]lvG5 . To;}n] tL cfwf/x¿ oxfF rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . pgLx¿n] z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ubf{ k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf c;n d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf !! j6f ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . tL !! j6f ljz]iftfx¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] u'0f:t/
43
d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;fwf/0f cfwf/x¿sf] ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 h;nfO{ lgDgadf]lhd ;ª\If]kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5M
cjwf/0ffut :ki6tfM c;n vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgdf cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff :ki6 x'G5 . cjwf/0ff :ki6 x'gsf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿, e"ldsfx¿ / ljlwx¿ :ki6;Fu pNn]v ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . d"Nofª\sgnfO{ cWoog ug{ vf]lhPsf] ljifoj:t'df s]lGb|t ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5 / c;DalGwt kIfx¿nfO{ x6fOPsf] x'Gf'kb{5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf ljifoj:t'x¿sf] j0f{gM c;n d"Nofª\sgdf cWoog ug{ vf]lhPsf ljifoj:t'x¿sf] ;du|df / lj:t[t ¿kdf j0f{g ul/Psf] x'G5 h;n] ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf ;Gbe{x¿ / kl/l:yltx¿sf] af/]df hfgsf/L k|fKt ug{ ;xh x'G5 .
;/f]sf/jfnfx¿nfO{ dfGotfM c;n d"Nofª\sgn] ;/f]sf/jfnf ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ dfGotf k|bfg u/]sf] x'G5 / ltgsf] k|ltlglwTj ;'lglZrt u/]sf] x'G5 .
/fhgLlts ;d:ofx¿k|lt ;+j]bgzLntfM c;n d"Nofª\sgn] cWoogsf] qmddf cfpg] ;Sg] ;efljt /fhgLlts, JolStut / g}lts ;d:ofx¿k|lt ;+j]bgzLn eO{ ltgsf] ;Gtf]ifhgs ¿kdf ;fdgf u/]sf] x'G5 .
cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ / ltgsf ;|f]tx¿M c;n d"Nofª\sgn] cfjZos kg]{ vfnsf ;"rgfx¿ / ltgsf ;|f]tx¿nfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf pNn]v u/]sf] x'G5 .
Jofkstf / ;dfj]zLtfM c;n d"Nofª\sgn] ;a} dxTjk"0f{ If]qx¿, kIfx¿ / ;afnx¿nfO{ ;dfj]z ul/sg ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng u/]sf] x'G5 t/ c;DalGwt ;"rgfx¿df cndlnPsf] x'g' x'Fb}g .
k|fljlws kof{KttfM c;n vfnsf] d"Nofª\sg k|fljlws ¿kdf kof{Kt x'g' kb{5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgsf] 9fFrfn] / k|lqmofn] k}bf u/]sf ;"rgfx¿ j}w, ljZj;gLo / j:t'lgi7 x'G5g\ cyf{t\\ j}1flgs x'G5g\ .
nfutsf] ;dLIffM c;n vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgn] k|of]u EfPsf ;|f]t;fwgx¿ / nfut vr{sf] ;dLIff u/]sf] x'G5 .
:ki6 dfkb08x¿M c;n vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgn] cWoog ul/Psf j:t'x¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu k|of]u ul/Psf dfkb08x¿ jf cfwf/x¿nfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf pNn]v u/]sf] x'G5 .
lg0f{o / ;'emfjx¿M c;n vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgn] cWoogaf6 k|fKt ePsf glthfx¿sf ;fy} tYox¿sf] cfwf/df lg0f{ox¿ / ;'emfjx¿ k|:t't u/]sf] x'G5 .
k|ltj]bgx¿sf] ljt/0fM c;n vfnsf] d"Nofª\sgn] cfjZos k/]sf] j]nfdf / pko'St ;dodf ;/f]sf/jfnf ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sgsf k|ltj]bgx¿ pko'St 9fFrfx¿df tof/ u/L ljt/0f ub{5 .
;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ubf{ Wofg lbg'kg{] s'/fx¿
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{ tLg r/0fdf ug{ ;lsG5 . klxnf], d"Nofª\sgsf of]hgfx¿sf] ;dLIff ug]{, bf];|f], d"Nofª\sgsf] sfo{k|ultsf] ;dLIff ug]{, / t];|f] d"Nofª\sg ;DkGg eO;s]l5 d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿sf] ;dLIff ug]{ . oxfF d"Nofª\sgsf of]hgfx¿sf] ;dLIff ug]{ / sfo{k|ultsf] ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{n] ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] lgdf{0ffTds k|of]unfO{ hgfpF5 eg] d"Nofª\sg ;DkGg eO;s]kl5 clGtd k|ltj]bgx¿sf] / o;sf glthfx¿sf] ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{ ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] lg0f{ofTds sfo{ xf] . o;/L ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ lgdf{0ffTds / lg0f{ofTds u/L b'O{ k|sf/sf x'G5g\ .
sfo{qmdsf ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf ultljlwx¿sf] ;dLIff ug{ rf;f] lbg'nfO{ :jfefljs dflgG5 . ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] lgdf{0ffTds k|of]usf nflu sfo{qmdsf ;~rfnsx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿åf/f cfkm"n] u/]sf sfo{sf] cfFkm}n] ;dLIff ug'{ pko'St x'G5 eg] ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] lg0f{ofTds k|of]usf nflu afx\o, bIf / :jtGq JolStx¿åf/f ;dLIff u/fpg' pko'St x'G5 .
;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ vl6Psf d"Nofª\sgstf{ :jod\n] ug{ ;S5g\ . cfkm"n] lgdf{0f u/]sf] d"Nofª\sg of]hgfsf] cfFkm} ;dLIff ug{ ;Sb5g\ . To:t} cfkm"n] sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ;~rfng ul//x]sf] cj:yfdf sfo{k|ultsf] ;dLIff klg d"Nofª\sgstf{ :jod\åf/f ug{ ;Sb5g\ . To:t} d"Nofª\sg ;DkGg eO;s]kl5 d"Nofª\sg k|ltj]bgx¿sf] / d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿, lgisif{x¿, ;'emfjx¿sf] ;dLIff klg pxL d"Nofª\sgstf{ :jod\n] / sfo{qmdsf ;~rfnsx¿ ldn]/ ug{ ;Sb5g\ .
44
t/ cfˆgf] d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf] cfFkm}n] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ w]/} k"jf{u|x / JolStsf dgf]ut k|efjx¿ kb{5g\ . To;}n] csf]{ d"Nofª\sgstf{åf/f cfˆgf] ;fyLsf sfo{x¿sf] ;dLIff ug{ u/fpg ;lsG5 cGoyf k"j{lgwf{l/t ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf dfk08x¿ cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ug{' kb{5 .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf k|ltj]bgx¿, lgisif{x¿, ;'emfjx¿ / o;sf k|efjx¿ k|fKt ug]{ JolStx¿ cyf{t\\ ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿åf/f klg ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ug{ u/fpg ;S5g\ . o:tf JolStx¿n] cfˆgf b[li6sf]0fx¿ / ;Gbe{cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf of]hgfx¿, sfo{k|ultx¿ / d"Nofª\sgsf k|ltj]bgsf] ;dLIff ub{5g\ . pgLx¿n] d"Nof+gsf] k|fljlws / k];fut kIfnfO{ eGbf klg d"Nofª\sgsf] pkof]lutf / ;fGble{stf h:tf kIfnfO{ dxTj lbP/ d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff u/]sf x'g ;Sb5g\ .
To;}u/L;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ afx\o, bIf / :jtGq JolSt jf JolStx¿sf] ;d"xåf/f ug{ u/fpg ;lsG5 . o;/L ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ubf{ pRr:t/sf bIf JolStx¿åf/f d"Nofª\sg k|ltj]bgx¿sf] k'g/fjnf]sg u/fpg' pko'St x'G5 . vf;u/L cfGtl/s JolStx¿åf/f d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug'{eGbf afx\o JolStx¿åf/f d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff u/fpFbf k"jf{u|xx¿, kIfkftx¿ / dgf]ut efjgfx¿ sd u/L ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgnfO{ a9L e/kbf]{ agfpg ;lsG5 . o;} ;Gbe{df ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ug'{kg]{ sfo{x¿ lgDgadf]lhd 5g\M
of]hgfsf] ;DefJotf / ;antf ;'lglZrt ug{ d"Nofª\sg of]hgfsf] k'g/fjnf]sg ug]{, of]hgf / ah]6cg';f/ ePsf sfo{x¿sf] cg'udg ug]{, d"Nofª\sgsf ;fwgx¿, k|lqmofx¿ / pTkfbgx¿ -l/kf]6{, cflb _ sf] u'0f:t/sf] hfFr ug]{, cfjZos ;+zf]wgx¿sf] nflu d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] ;dLIff ug]{ tyf d"Nofª\sg sfo{df cfPsf
;d:ofx¿ ;dfwfgsf nflu / d"Nofª\sgsf] pkof]lutf a9fpgsf nflu ;'wf/sf pkfox¿ vf]Hg], sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf ultljlwx¿df ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf k|efjx¿ k/LIf0f ug]{ .
$_ ;f/f+z
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf 5 j6f kIfx¿ 5g\ . tL x'g\M cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg, pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg, cfly{s d"Nofª\sg / ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg . ck]Iff ul/Psf vf; kl/l:yltx¿ / ljBdfg kl/l:ylt aLrsf] leGgtf dfkg ug]{ Pp6f Jojl:yt ljlw g} cfjZostf cWoog xf] . of]hgfa4 ¿kdf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿ ;~rfng u/]/ x6fpg jf 36fpg ;lsg] vfnsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿, cefjx¿ jf leGgtfx¿nfO{ z}lIfs cfjZostfsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . cfjZostf cWoogaf6 sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf agfpg, p2]Zo lgwf{/0f ug{, sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ / ;d:ofx¿ kQf nufpg / ug'{kg]{ sfo{x¿ / ltgsf If]qx¿ lglZrt ug{ ;xof]u k'Ub5 . cfjZostf cWoog ubf{ ck]lIft dfkb08 lgwf{/0f ug]{, jt{dfg l:ylt kQf nufpg ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug]{, leGgtfx¿ jf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿sf] vf]hL ug]{, / cfjZostfsf] If]q, lsl;d / ulx/fO kQf nufpg] sfo{x¿ ul/G5g\ .
nufgL eGgfn] sfo{qmdnfO{ sfof{Gjog ug{ jf ;~rfng ug{ cfjZos kg]{ ;Dk"0f{ kIfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . nufgL d"Nofª\sg cGtu{t vf;u/L sd{rf/L 5gf]6sf] d"Nofª\sg / ;xefuLx¿ 5gf]6sf] d"Nofª\sg kb{5 Psflt/ eg] csf]{lt/ ef}lts k"jf{wf/x¿sf] d"Nofª\sg, ;fdu|Lx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg, lgodx¿, ;'ljwfx¿ /
lqmofsnfk
s'g} ljBfnosf] cfGtl/s bIftf / afx\o bIftf eGgfn] s] a'lemG5< pbfx/0f;lxt j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
z}lIfs If]qdf nfut k|efjsf/Ltf ljZn]if0f lsg dxTjk"0f{ 5< s'g} ljBfnosf] nfut k|efjsf/Ltf ljZn]if0f ug'{ k¥of] eg] s;/L ug{
;lsPnf< j0f{g ug'{xf];\ . tkfO{+sf] ljrf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] s'g kIf a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5<
sf/0f;lxt cfˆgf] ljrf/ lbg'xf];\ . pkof]lutfsf] dfkb08nfO{ cfwf/ dfg]/ tkfO{+ s'g} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg
k|ltj]bgsf] s;/L ;dLIff ug'{x'G5< j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
45
;+/rgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg, p2]Zox¿, gLltx¿ / of]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg / ah]6sf] d"Nofª\sg kb{5 . nufgL d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ljleGg lsl;dsf nufgLx¿sf] jt{dfg l:ylt, ltgsf] ;b'kof]u / ldtJolotfsf] l:ylt, nufgLsf] ;DefJotfsf] l:ylt, nufgL ;DaGwL ;d:ofx¿, nufgLsf] kof{Kttf, ltgsf] ;fGble{stf cflb kIfx¿ ;d]l6G5g\ . nufgL d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿sf] ;+/rgf, of]hgf / 9fFrf lgdf{0f ug'{ xf] . nufgL d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmdsf] Ifdtf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 .
sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf ul/g] d"Nofª\sg k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg xf] h;df sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ubf{ ckgfOPsf k|lqmofx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ubf{ lgwf{l/t k|lqmofx¿sf] ;b'kof]u, ltgdf lgoGq0f / ;'wf/ ug'{ xf]. k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ubf{ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿sf] /]s8{ ug]{, ltgsf] j0f{g ug]{, of]hgfcg';f/ lqmofsnfkx¿ eP gePsf] cg'udg ug]{, sfof{Gjogsf] k|lqmofdf cfPsf / cfpg ;Sg] ;Defljt ;d:ofx¿;Fu kl/lrt x'g] / cfjlws k[i7kf]if0fx¿ k|bfg ug]{ h:tf sfo{x¿ ul/G5g\ .
pTkfbg (product) d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ (outputs) / pknlAwx¿ (outcomes) b'j}sf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ hgfpF5 . sfo{qmdsf] lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 h;sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{+~rfng ug]{, gug]{ jf s;/L ug]{ eGg] s'/fx¿sf] lg0f{o ul/G5 . pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] pknlAwsf] :t/ lgwf{/0f ub{5 / o;n] sfo{qmdsf] dxTj lgwf{/0f ub{5 . sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf d"Nofª\sg ug{, sfo{qmdsf] bIftf d"Nofª\sg ug{, sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug{, pTkfbgsf] kof{Kttf / pTkfbgsf] ;fGble{stf d"Nofª\sg ug{ klg pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg g} ul/G5 . ;ª\If]kdf, sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s bIftf / afx\o bIftf cWoog ug{ pTkfbgsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{ cfjZos 5 .
cfly{s d"Nofª\sgnfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f efu dfGg ;lsG5 cyjf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f 5'§} ljlwsf] ¿kdf klg lng ;lsG5 . sfo{qmdsf] cfly{s kIfnfO{ dxTj lbP/ cfly{s of]hgf, cfly{s nfut / cfly{s nfenfO{ d'Vo cfwf/ dfgL sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 eg] To;nfO{ cfly{s d"Nofª\sg elgG5 . cfly{s d"Nofª\sgnfO{ nufgL d"Nofª\sg / pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ffx¿;Fu ;DalGwt t/ k[ys cjwf/0ffsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . cfly{s d"Nofª\sg ug]{ rf/ lsl;dsf ljlwx¿ k|rlnt 5g\M nfut ;DefJotf ljZn]if0f, nfut pkof]lutf ljZn]if0f, nfut nfe ljZn]if0f / nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f . z}lIfs / ;fdflhs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgdf nfut k|efjsfl/tf ljZn]if0f a9L pkof]uL dflgG5 .
;dLIff d"Nofª\sgn] d"Nofª\sgsf of]hgfx¿sf], d"Nofª\sgsf cEof;x¿sf] tyf d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿sf] k|of]usf] l:yltsf] ;dLIff ub{5 / cGttM sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf ;'wf/ ug{ tyf d"Nofª\sg sfo{df ;+nUg JolStx¿nfO{ hjfkmb]xL jgfpg ;xof]u ub{5 . ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgnfO{ cy{k"0f{ agfpg' xf] / d"Nofª\sgsf ;Defjgfx¿sf] e/k'/ pkof]u ug'{ xf] . ;dLIff d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] s'g} vf; d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] d"Nofª\sg k|lqmofsf] cfˆg} sfo{ / cEof;sf] d"Nofª\sg ;d]tnfO{ hgfpF5 . d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf] ;dLIff ug{sf nflu :6kmnlad -!(&!_ n] tLg j6f cfwf/x¿ h:tf] j}1flgs cfwf/x¿, Jofjxfl/s cfwf/x¿ / nfutsf] cfwf/ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ eg] ;+o'St /fHo cd]l/sfdf z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf dfkb08x¿ ljsf; ug{sf nflu lgdf{0f ul/Psf] ;+o'St ;ldlt -!(*!_ n] rf/ lsl;dsf dfkb08x¿ cGtu{t #) j6f cfwf/x¿ pNn]v u/]sf] 5 . tL rf/ lsl;dsf dfkb08x¿ dWo] pkof]lutfsf] dfkb08n] sfo{qmdsf] / d"Nofª\sgsf] pkof]lutfnfO{ ;d]6\5 eg] ;DefJotfsf] dfkb08n] sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] nflu / d"Nofª\sg ;~rfngsf] nflu ;/ntf / ;xhtf x'g] kIfx¿ ;d]6\5 hals g}ltstfsf] dfkb08n] dfgjLo g}ltstf, gLltut / sfg"gL kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 eg] z'4tfsf] dfkb08n] sfo{qmdsf] / d"Nofª\sgsf] k|fljlws / j}1flgs kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6]sf] 5 . To;}u/L cf]b]{g / :ofG8;{ -!(*&_ n] k|:t't u/]sf !! j6f c;n d"Nofª\sgsf ljz]iftfx¿sf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug{ ;lsG5 .
46
%_ cEof; (Exercise) Subjective questions: Short answer type
1. Point out the procedures of conducting need assessment of a program. 2. Why is process evaluation important in educational program evaluation? Explain
with examples. 3. Clarify the purposes of process evaluation and explain various ways of conducting
process evaluation studies. 4. Describe the process of status survey of inputs of a program and its product
evaluation with appropriate examples. 5. What do you mean by internal efficiency and external efficiency of an educational
program? Justify your answers. 6. In what context do you use internal efficiency and external efficiency as aspects of
program evaluation? And why? 7. What types of designs do you suggest for the evaluation of internal efficiency of a
program ? Explain. 8. Write the justification behind cost effectiveness analysis of an educational program. 9. In what context do you use cost efficiency and cost effectiveness as aspects of
program evaluation. Explain. 10. What is meta-evaluation? Why is it important in educational program evaluation? 11. Delineate the major considerations while conducting meta-evaluation.
Subjective questions: Long answer type
12. How do you identity and evaluate inputs of a school? Explain with examples. 13. What are the criteria for judging an evaluation report? Explain the criteria with their
rationale. 14. Describe the different types of evaluation to be carried out for evaluating a
program.
Objective questions 1. The needs of people refer to
a. the needs observed by the observers b. the needs felt by the evaluators c. the needs reported by the observers d. the needs experienced by themselves
2. Need assessment study is conducted to a. locate problems disturbing in program implementation b. detect discrepancies in program planning c. assess the extent to which the program has met its objectives d. identify discrepancies between intended and actual situation of a program
3. Needs assessment study refers to a. identify discrepancies between intended and actual situation of a program b. assess the extent to which the program has met its objectives c. find out discrepancies in program planning d. locate problems hindering program implementation
4. Input evaluation is conducted for a. structuring decision b. intrinsic effect
c. planning decision d. implementing decision
47
5. Evaluation of en-route products before the evaluation of a complete product is a. component evaluation b. input evaluation c. internal evaluation d. process evaluation
6. Impact assessment of a program is the evaluation of its a. primary effects b. secondary effects c. net effects d. intended effects
7. Cost effectiveness studies may be undertaken a. during program planning phase b. after a program has been in existence c. after net effectiveness of the program has been estimated d. all of the above
8. Cost effectiveness analysis aims to a. run a project efficiently b. explore alternatives that provide best results for the given cost c. identify the utilization of the given budget d. none of the above
9. The purpose of cost-effective analysis is to a. keep the expense of a project at minimum level b. run a project efficiently within the fixed budget c. find out how the given budget is utilized in the project d. explore alternatives that provide best result for any given cost
10. The extent to which the information is believable to client who needs it is known as a. accuracy b. credibility c. utility d. feasibility
Answer key: Answer key of the objective questions as given in exercise two of the second chapter is given below. 1. d 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. a 6. c 7. d 8. b 9. d 10. b
6. Suggested Reading Materials Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation (1981). Standards for evaluation
of educational programs, projects and materials. In B. R. Worthen and J. R. Sanders (1987). Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines, pp. 371-375 .USA: Longman.
Mc David, J. C. and Hawthorn, L. R. L. (2006). Program evaluation and performance measurement: An introductin to practice. New Delhi, India: Sage.
Rossi, P. H. and Freeman, H. E. (1989). Evaluation: A systematic approach (4th ed.). New Delhi, India: Sage.
Worthen, B. R. and Sanders, J. R. (1987) . Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines. USA: Longman.
48
PsfO tLg
d"Nofª\sgsf 9fFrfx¿
Evaluation Models kl/ro (Introduction)
o; PsfOcGtu{t d"Nofª\sg cWoog ug{sf nflu k|of]u ul/g] 9fFrfx¿sf] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . oL 9fFrfx¿nfO{ d"Nofª\sg cg';Gwfgsf 9fFrfx¿ cyjf cg';Gwfgsf 9fFrfx¿ klg eGg ;lsG5 . cWoogsf 9fFrfx¿n] cWoogsf] ;antf (strength) nfO{ k|:t't ub{5g\ . cWoogsf] 9fFrf o;/L lgdf{0f ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ ls To;af6 cWoog ljlw / k|lqmofx¿sf] ;antf ;'lglZrt x'g ;sf];\ . cWoogsf] 9fFrfn] cWoog ljlw / k|lqmofx¿sf] lbzf lglZrt u5{ / q'l6x¿ sd u/L cWoog sfo{ ;DkGg ug{ dfu{ lgb]{zg lbG5 . o; PsfOdf ;j{k|yd d"Nofª\sgsf 9fFrfx¿sf] j}wtfsf] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . To;kl5 d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf tLg k|sf/sf 9fFrfx¿ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿, ;j]{If0f 9fFrfx¿ / k|fs[lts 9fFrfx¿sf] af/]df j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 . cGtdf z}lIfs sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]ux¿sf] af/]df ;ª\If]kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t' (Specific objectives and contents)
ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ kf7\oj:t'
Describe various evaluation designs.
Explain validity of evaluation designs from quantitative and qualitative perspectives.
Explain uses of the evaluation designs for educational programmes.
3.1 Evaluation designs and their uses
Experimental designs
Survey designs
Naturalistic designs
3.2 Validity of evaluation designs
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation)
#=!= d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿df j}wtf
d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿sf] j}wtfn] cWoogsf] z'4tfnfO{ hgfpF5 . d"Nofª\sg cWoognfO{ q'l6/lxt ¿kdf, ;an ¿kdf / k|fljlws lx;fan] z'4 ¿kdf ;DkGg ug{sf] nflu j}w lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿sf] cfjZostf kb{5 . d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] j}wtf ;'lglZrt ul/Pg eg] To:tf] d"Nofª\sg q'l6k"0f{ x'g;Sg] / cz'4 x'g;Sg] ePsfn] k|fljlws ¿kdf d"Nofª\sg sdhf]/ x'g] ljZjf; ul/G5 . ctM d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] j}wtf sdhf]/ 5 eg] To:tf] 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ul/g' x'Fb}g eGg ;lsG5 .
oxfF d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] j}wtf eGgfn] ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{ k|of]u ul/g] ;fwgx¿ h:tf] k|Zgkq, k|ZgfjnL, cGtjf{tf{ kmf/d cflbsf] dfq j}wtfsf] s'/f ul/Psf] geO{ p2]Zocg';f/ d"Nofª\sg cWoog ul/Psf] xf] / ;f]xL p2]Zocg';f/ ;"rgfx¿sf] ;ª\sng, ljZn]if0f / glthfx¿ k|fKt ul/g] k|lqmofx¿df x'g'kg]{ z'4tfsf] dfqfnfO{ ;d]t d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] j}wtf elgPsf] xf] . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Totf k'li6 ug]{ cfwf/sf] ¿kdf d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] j}wtfnfO{ lng ;lsG5 .
oxfF j}wtfsf] af/]df lj:t[t rrf{ ug'{eGbf klxn] klxnf] PsfOdf pNn]v ul/;lsPsf] d"Nofª\sgsf ljrf/wf/fx¿ / ljlwx¿df /x]sf leGgtfx¿sf] ;Gbe{ pNn]v ug'{ cfjZos 5 . j:t'utjfbL
49
ljrf/wf/fdf cfwfl/t eO{ ul/g] d"Nofª\sgsf] j}wtf hfFr ug{'kbf{ oxL ljrf/wf/fsf] cfwf/df ul/g] cWoogsf] j}wtf k/LIf0f ug{' pko'St x'G5 . To;}u/L ljifout÷dgf]utjfbL ljrf/wf/fdf cfwfl/t eO{ ul/g] d"Nofª\sgsf] j}wtf hfFr ubf{ dgf]utjfbL ljrf/wf/fs} cfwf/df cWoogsf] j}wtf k/LIf0f ug{' pko'St x'G5 .
csf]{ zAbdf Pp6f ljrf/wf/fsf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 eg] ;f]xL ljrf/wf/fsf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf] j}wtf sfod ug{ k|of; ug'{ pko'St x'g] ljZjf; ul/G5 . ctM oxfF ;ª\VofTds / u'0ffTds b[li6sf]0fx¿af6 d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf] j}wtfsf] af/]df km/s–km/s ¿kdf rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . ;ª\VofTds b[li6sf]0f j:t'utjfbL ljrf/wf/fdf cfwfl/t 5 / of] ljrf/wf/fn] j}1flgs / k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] jsfnt ub{5 eg] u'0ffTds b[li6sf]0f dgf]utjfbL ljrf/wf/fdf cfwfl/t 5 / of] ljrf/wf/fn] vf;u/L k|fs[lts cyf{t\\ dfgjLo 9fFrfsf] jsfnt ub{5 . k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] nflu j}wtf / u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿sf] nflu j}wtf u/L d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿sf] j}wtfnfO{ b'O{ efudf ljefhg u/L lgDg jdf]lhd rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
#=!=! k|of]ufTds j}wtf
k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf nflu pko'St x'g] j}wtfnfO{ k|of]ufTds j}wtf elgPsf] xf] . cWoogdf of] lsl;dsf] j}wtf x'g'k5{ egL ;ª\VofTds b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ jsfnt ul/G5 . of] lsl;dsf] j}wtfnfO{ vf;u/L k|of]ufTds / cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿df clwstd agfpg] k|of; ul/G5 . k|of]ufTds j}wtf rf/ lsl;dsf 5g\ . h:tf] cfGtl/s j}wtf, afx\o j}wtf, tYofª\szf:qLo lgisif{ j}wtf -h;nfO{ o;kl5 ;lhnf]sf nflu oxfF tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf elgPsf] 5_ / /rgfTds j}wtf . k|To]s j}wtfsf] tn ;ª\If]kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5.
-s_ cfGtl/s j}wtf
:jtGq r/x¿ -independent variables_ sf] sf/0fn] cfl>t r/x¿ -dependent variables_ dfly k/]sf] k|efj jf:tljs / z'4 5 eGg] s'/f cfGtl/s j}wtf (internal validity) n] ;'lglZrt ub{5 . csf]{ zAbdf s'g} cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtfn] cWoog ul/Psf tTjx¿sf] k|efj cjnf]sg ul/Psf glthfx¿dfly jf:tljs / z'4 ¿kdf k/]sf] 5 eGg] lglZrt ub{5 . oxfF cWoog eGgfn] k|of]ufTds kl/l:yltsf] ;Gbe{df ul/g] d"Nofª\sg jf cg';GwfgnfO{ hgfpF5 . k|of]ufTds kl/l:ylt eGgfn] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] ;Gbe{nfO{ hgfpF5 h;sf] af/]df o; PsfOsf] csf]{ v08df j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 .
k|of]ufTds ;Gbe{df s'g} klg cWoogsf] p2]Zo eg]sf] sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ug'{ xf] . o;/L cWoogsf] p2]Zocg';f/ s]–slt dfqfdf z'4 ¿kdf cWoog ug{ ;lsof] ;f] s'/fnfO{ cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf elgG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ælzIfs tflndsf k|efjx¿Æ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogsf nflu ælzIfs tflnd ;~rfngsf cj:yfx¿Æ nfO{ :jtGq r/x¿ / lzIfsn] tflnd lnPkl5 ;f]xL tflndsf] kmn:j¿k ætL lzIfssf Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿Æ nfO{ cfl>t r/x¿ eGg ;lsG5 . oxfF ælzIfssf] Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿Æ ælzIfs tflnd ;~rfngsf cj:yfx¿Æ s} sf/0fn] ePsf] xf] . tL kl/jt{gx¿ cGo s'g} klg sf/0fn] ePsf] xf]Og / tL kl/jt{gx¿;Fu cGo s'g} sf/sx¿ / ltgsf k|efjx¿ cyf{t\\ afx\o r/x¿sf k|efjx¿ ldl;Psf] 5}g eGg] s'/fsf] ;'lglZrt u/L sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGw sfod ug{ ;lsof] eg] To:tf] cWoogsf] 9fFrfnfO{ cfGtl/s j}wtf ePsf] 9fFrf dflgG5 . csf]{ zAbdf :jtGq r/x¿ / cfl>t r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] z'4 dfkg ug{;Sg] cWoogsf] IfdtfnfO{{ cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf elgG5 h;df afx\o r/x¿ / ltgsf c;/x¿ x6fOPsf] x'G5 .
cfGtl/s j}wtfdf k|efj kfg]{ tTjx¿
cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9fpgsf nflu cfGtl/s j}wtfdf gsf/fTds c;/ kfg{ ;Sg] tTjx¿ klxrfg u/L ltgnfO{ lgoGq0f ug{' cfjZos x'G5 . cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ c;/ ug]{ tTjx¿sf af/]df Cook and Campbell (1979) n] lj:t[t rrf{ u/]sf 5g\ . pgn] klxrfg u/]sf tL tTjx¿ ;ª\If]kdf tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5M
50
!= Oltxf;
Oltxf; (history) eGgfn] oxfF ;DalGwt sfo{qmdeGbf aflx/sf cyf{t\\ afx\o 36gfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] cfl>t r/x¿nfO{ c;/ ug{ ;Sb5 . o:tf 36gfx¿ sfo{qmd rln/x]sf] cjlwdf jf sfo{qmd ;~rfngeGbf cl3sf klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . pbfx/0fsf] nflu lzIfs tflnd rln/x]sf] cjlwdf lzIfsn] s'g} lzIf0f ;+:yfdf cWoog klg ul//x]sf /x]5g\ eg] ;f] cWoogsf] k|efj pgsf] Jojxf/df b]lvG5 g ls tflndsf] dfq c;/ . cfl>t r/x¿df c;/ kfg{ ;Sg] o:tf ljleGg lsl;dsf ætflndsf cj:yfx¿Æ afx]s cGo ;a} lsl;dsf afx\o 36gfx¿nfO{ lgoGq0f u/L cyf{t\\ lzIfsnfO{ To:tf 36gfx¿df ;+nUg x'g glbOsg lgoGq0f u/L cWoog ug{ ;lsof] eg] Oltxf;sf c;/x¿nfO{ x6fpg ;lsG5 h;n] ubf{ Oltxf;sf sf/0faf6 cfGtl/s j}wtfdf kg{;Sg] gsf/fTds c;/ x6\5 . o;/L Oltxf;nfO{ lgoGq0f ubf{ cfGtl/s j}wtf a9\g] ;Defjgf x'G5 .
@= kl/kSjtf
kl/kSjtf (maturation) eGgfn] oxfF ;xefuLx¿sf] Jojxf/x¿ / k|ltlqmofx¿nfO{ c;/ kfg]{ h}ljs / dgf]j}1flgs kl/jt{gx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . o:tf h}ljs / dgf]j}1flgs kl/jt{gx¿ vf;u/L sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] nflu ;xefuLx¿ 5gf]6sf] ;dob]lv sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] cjlwdf / ;xefuLsf Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿ cWoog ug]{ ;do;Ddsf] aLrsf] cjlwdf x'g] pd]/sf] kl/jt{g jf ;dosf] kl/jt{gsf sf/0fn] x'G5g\ . dflysf] pbfx/0fdf ælzIfssf] Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿Æ cWoog ubf{ tflnd ;~rfngsf cj:yfx¿sf sf/0f lzIfssf] Jojxf/df b]lvPsf ;a} kl/jt{gx¿ ;dfj]z ug]{ t/ kl/kSjtf cyf{t\\ h}ljs / dgf]j}1flgs kl/jt{gx¿sf sf/0f Jojxf/df k/]sf c;/x¿ sd ug{ jf lgoGq0f ug{ ;lsof] eg] cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9\g] ;Defjgf x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf kl/kSjtfn] cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ c;/ u5{ . To;}n] kl/kSjtfnfO{ lgoGq0f u/L cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9fpg ;lsG5 . o;sf nflu kl/kSjtfsf sf/0f lzIfssf] Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿nfO{ tflndsf sf/0f lzIfssf Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿;Fu :ki6 ¿kdf leGgtf 5'6\ofO{ cnu ug'{ cfjZos 5 . o;/L kl/kSjtfsf sf/0f lzIfssf] Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿nfO{ cnu u/L tflndsf sf/0f lzIfssf Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿sf] z'4 ¿kdf cWoog ul/of] eg] cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9\5 .
#= 5gf]6
5gf]6 (selection) eGgfn] oxfF sfo{qmd ;+rfngeGbf klxn] g} ;xefuLx¿sf] aLrdf /x]sf leGgtfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . cWoog sfo{qmdsf nflu ;xefuLx¿ 5gf]6 ubf{ ;xefuLx¿sf] aLrsf leGgtfx¿n] cWoog sfo{qmd / cWoog sfo{qmdsf] glthf k|efljt x'g ;S5 . ;xefuLx¿sf] 5gf]6n] Psflt/ ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofsf] ;xL k|ltlglwTj u/]sf] x'g'kb{5 eg] csf]{lt/ k|of]ufTds ;d"x / lgoGq0f ;d"x b'j}df ;dfgtf sfod ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . o;f] x'g ;s]df dfq cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9\5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ;xefuLx¿ aLrsf] pd]/sf] leGgtf, hfltut leGgtf, eflifs leGgtf, lnËLo leGgtf, ufpF / ;x/sf] leGgtf, ltgn] cWoog u/]sf ljifox¿df leGgtf cflb s'/fx¿sf sf/0f ;xefuLx¿sf] aLrdf ;dfgtf sfod gePsf] x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf tflndkl5 b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿ lzIfs tflndsf sf/0f geO{ ;xefuL lzIfsx¿sf] JolStut leGgtfsf sf/0f c;/ b]lvPsf] x'g ;S5 . o;/L ;xefuLx¿sf] aLrsf leGgtfx¿nfO{ lgoGq0f ul/sg cyjf x6fO{ 5gf]6sf] c;/ sd ug{ ;lsG5 h;sf] kmn:j¿k cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9\g] ;Defjgf x'G5 .
$= k/LIf0f
k/LIf0f (testing) eGgfn] oxfF k"j{k/LIf0f (pretest) sf c;/x¿nfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] kZrft\–k/LIf0f (posttest_ df k|fKt x'g] k|ltlqmofx¿df leGgtf NofOlbg ;S5 . oxfF k"j{k/LIf0f eGgfn] cWoog sfo{qmdsf nflu ;xefuLx¿ 5gf]6 ubf{ cyjf k|j]z Jojxf/x¿ yfxf kfpgsf nflu lnOPsf] k/LIffnfO{ hgfpF5 . kZrft\–k/LIf0f eGgfn] sfo{qmd ;~rfngkl5 sfo{qmdsf sf/0f cfPsf Jojxf/x¿ kQf nufpg lnOg] k/LIff jf cjnf]sgnfO{ hgfpF5 . k"j{–k/LIf0fsf c;/x¿sf sf/0f kZrft\–k/LIf0fdf k|fKt ePsf k|ltlqmofx¿ cbnabn jf x]/km]/ x'g;Sg] ;Defjgf /xG5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf kZrft\–k/LIf0fdf k|fKt ePsf k|ltlqmofx¿ sfo{qmd ;~rfngs} kmn:j¿k z'4 ¿kdf k|fKt ePsf x'g\ eg]/ lglZrt ug{
51
;ls+b}g . To;}n] cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9fpgsf nflu k/LIf0fsf c;/x¿ lgoGq0f ug{ jf x6fpg cfjZos x'G5 .
%= ;fwg
;fwg (instruments) eGgfn] oxfF ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ;fwgx¿, cjnf]sgstf{x¿ jf d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿df x'g] kl/jt{gx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 / o;n] ;fwgsf] k|of]udf x'g] txx¿nfO{ ;d]t hgfpF5 . olb ;fwgx¿df Ps¿ktf ePg cyjf ltgdf q'l6x¿ /x]5g\ eg] To:tf ;fwgx¿sf] k|of]uaf6 sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿sf] ;xL dfkg x'g ;Sb}g h;n] ubf{ cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf sdhf]/ x'G5 . cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9fpgsf nflu ;fwgx¿nfO{ q'l6/lxt agfpg] / ltgdf Ps¿ktf sfod u/L k|of]u ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf sfo{qmd ;~rfngkl5 Jojxf/df b]lvPsf kl/jt{gx¿sf] dfkg ubf{ k|of]u ul/Psf ;fwgsf sf/0fn] To:tf Jojxf/ kl/jt{gx¿ 36La9L b]lvg] cj:yf cfpg' x'Fb}g .
^= tYofª\szf:qLo k|ltudg
tYofª\szf:qLo k|ltudg (statitistical regression) eGgfn] 5]psf k|fKtfª\sx¿ cf};ttkm{ df]l8g] k|j[lQnfO{ hgfpF5 . csf]{ zAbdf kZrft\–k/LIf0fdf Go"g k|fKtfª\sx¿ cf};t tkm{ a9\g] / pRr k|fKtfª\sx¿ cf};t tkm{ tflgg] jf 36\g] ;Defjgf /xG5 . o;n] ubf{ sfo{qmd h:tf];'s} eP tfklg Hofb} sd k|fKtfª\s cfpg] jf Hofb} pRr k|fKtfª\s cfpg] ;Defjgf sd x'g hfG5 . o;nfO{ g} tYofª\szf:qLo k|ltudg elgPsf] xf] . o:tf] tYofª\szf:qLo k|ltudgsf] c;/ vf;u/L dfkgsf] ;fwg ljZj;gLo gePdf jf 5]psf k|fKtfª\sx¿ dfq k|fKt ug]{ vfnsf ;xefuLx¿sf] ;d"x lgdf{0f ePdf a9L x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu k"j{k/LIf0fdf Hofb} sd cª\s cyjf Hofb} pRr cª\s k|fKt u/]sf ;xefuLx¿nfO{ 5gf]6 u/L tflnd lbOPsf] 5 eg] tflnd hlt;'s} /fd|f] eP tfklg ltgn] kZrft\ k/LIf0fdf k|fKt ug]{ cª\sx¿ a9\g]qmd ;Lldt x'Gf ;S5 cyf{t\\ cf};t tkm{ tflgg] ;Defjgf /xG5 . o;/L cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9fpgsf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo k|ltudgsf] c;/nfO{ sd ug{ jf lgoGq0f ug{ cfjZos 5 . tYofª\szf:qLo k|ltudgsf] c;/nfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ k|of]ufTds ;d"x / lgoGq0f ;d"x agfO{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf] cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .
&= d[To'
d[To' (mortality) eGgfn] oxfF cWoogsf] cjlwdf ;xefuLx¿sf] ;ª\Vofdf x'g cfpg] sdL jf s6f}tLnfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] ubf{ cWoogsf] gd'gfn] cWoogsf] hg;ª\VofnfO{ k|ltlglwTj ug{ g;Sg] ;Defjgf a9\5 . cWoogdf 5gf]6 ePsf] s'g} ;xefuLsf] cg'kl:ylt jf sIff 5f]8]sf] sf/0fn] cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf sdhf]/ x'g hfG5 . vf;u/L nfdf] cjlwsf] cWoogdf o:tf ;d:ofx¿ a9L b]lvg ;S5g\ . h]xf];\ cWoogsf] nflu 5gf]6 ePsf ;xefuLx¿sf] ;ª\Vofdf s6f}tL x'g glbO{ cyjf ltgsf] ;ª\Vofdf lgoGq0f ug{ ;s]df d[To'sf] c;/nfO{ x6fpg ;lsG5 / cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9\g] ;Defjgf /xG5 .
*= kl/kSjtf, Oltxf; / k/LIf0f;Fu 5gf]6sf] cGt/lqmof
5gf]6sf] cGt/lqmof (interation of selection) eGgfn] oxfF cWoogsf nflu 5gf]6 ePsf ;xefuLx¿df /x]sf leGgtfx¿n] ubf{ ltgsf ljz]iftfx¿cg';f/ km/skm/s 9ª\un] kl/kSjtf, Oltxf; / k/LIf0f;Fu cGt/lqmofx¿ x'g] ub{5g\ eGg] s'/fnfO{ hgfpF5 . csf]{ zAbdf ;xefuLx¿sf ljz]iftfx¿cg';f/ ltgsf h}ljs / dgf]j}1flgs kl/jt{gx¿ km/skm/s x'g ;S5g\ . ltgLx¿df aflx/L 36gfsf c;/x¿ a]Unfa]Un} x'g ;S5g\, / k"j{k/LIf0fsf c;/x¿;d]t ltgLx¿df Ps} k|sf/sf] gx'g ;S5 . kZrft\–k/LIf0fdf ;xefuLx¿df b]lvPsf Jojxf/ sfo{qmdsf] k|efj geOsg ltgLx¿sf] s'g} km/s ljz]iftfsf sf/0f k}bf ePsf x'g ;Sb5g\ cyf{t\\ cGt/lqmofTds c;/ kg{ ;S5 . oxfF cGt/lqmofTds c;/ eg]sf] 5gf]6sf] c;/ dfq geO{ csf]{ tTjsf] ;d]tssf] ;+o'St c;/ xf] . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s:tf] lsl;dsf] tflnd ;~rfng ug]{ eg]/ ;xefuLx¿nfO{ 5gf]6 ug]{ cj;/ lbOof] jf s'g–s'g lsl;dsf ;xefuLx¿ tflnddf ;dfj]z x'g] / sf]–sf] gx'g] eg]/ 5gf]6sf] cj;/ lbOof] eg] o:tf] cj:yfdf ;xefuLx¿sf Jojxf/n] pgLx¿sf] pTk|]/0ffsf] l:yltnfO{ k|efljt ub{5 h;n] ubf{ tflndsf] z'4 k|efjsf] cWoog ug{ ;ls{b}g . o;n] ubf{ cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf sdhf]/ x'G5 . o; lsl;dsf 5gf]6sf] cGt/lqmofTds c;/x¿nfO{ lgoGq0f u/]/ dfq cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf a9fpg ;lsG5 .
52
dfly pNn]v ul/Psf cf7 lsl;dsf tTjx¿nfO{ klxrfg u/L ltgnfO{ plrt lsl;dn] lgoGq0f u/L cWoog ul/of] eg] cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf ;'lglZrt x'g ;S5 eGg] ljZjf; ul/G5 . x'g t dfly pNn]v ul/Psf afx]s cGo tTjx¿n] klg cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtfdf k|efj kfg{ ;Sb5g\ . h:tf]M cWoogstf{sf] k"jf{u|x, sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoogdf s'g} Pp6f 36gf sf/0f xf] ls k|efj xf] eGg] s'/fdf c:ki6tf x'g' cflb . k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u ubf{ cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtf sfod ug]{ k|of; ul/Psf] x'G5 .
-v_ afx\o j}wtf
s'g} vf; cWoogsf] ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] IfdtfnfO{ To; cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf (external validity) elgG5 . s'g} sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df cWoog u/L lgsflnPsf] lgisif{nfO{ ljleGg 7fpF, cj:yf / JolStx¿df ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 eg] To:tf] cWoogdf afx\o j}wtf 5 eGg] dflgG5 . s'g} cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtfsf] l:ylt kQf nufpgsf nflu r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df lgsflnPsf glthfx¿ cWoog ul/Psf] kl/l:ylt;Fu ldNbfh'Nbf ljz]iftfx¿ ePsf cGo PsfOx¿df s]–slt ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] s'/f x]g'{kb{5 . csf]{ zAbdf Ps 7fpFdf s'g} j:t'sf] cWoog u/]/ lgsflnPsf] lgisif{ c¿ jftfj/0f, c¿ ;do / c¿ JolStx¿åf/f cWoog ul/P klg p:t} lgisif{ lg:sG5 eg] pSt cWoogdf afx\o j}wtf /x]sf] k'li6 x'G5 .
x'g t d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ s'g} vf; ;dodf s'g} vf; sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ s'/fdf a9L s]lGb|t x'g] x'gfn] afx\o j}wtf sfod ug]{ s'/fdf clgR5's x'g ;S5g\ / afx\o j}wtfsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ c;fGble{s dfGg ;S5g\ . vf;u/L afx\o j}wtfsf] cjwf/0ff d"Nofª\sgdf eGbf cg';Gwfgx¿df a9L pkof]uL dflGfG5 lsgeg] cg';Gwfgdf sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] af/]df lgisif{ lgsfNg a9L s]lGb|t x'g'kg]{ x'g ;S5 hals d"Nofª\sgdf sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ug]{ s'/fnfO{ dxTj glbg ;lsG5 . x'g t s'g} s'g} 7"nf] :s]ndf ul/g] d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿df eg] afx\o j}wtfsf] dxTj /xG5 .
h'g;'s} cWoogdf afx\o j}wtfeGbf cfGtl/s j}wtf a9L dxTjk"0f{ dflgG5 lsgeg] cfGtl/s j}wtfsf] cefjdf afx\o j}wftfsf] sNkgf ug{ ;ls+b}g . d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿df klg afx\o j}wtf eGbf cfGtl/s j}wtf a9L dxTjk"0f{ dflgG5 . cfGtl/s j}wtfn] cWoog 7Ls tl/sfn] ul/Psf] 5 ls 5}g eGg] s'/f lglZrt ub{5 hals afx\o j}wtfn] cWoogsf] lgisif{ 7Ls 5 ls 5}g, s'g ;Gbe{df / slt 7Ls 5 eGg] s'/fnfO{ ;ª\s]t u5{ . d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf Psflt/ lgisif{ lgsfNg'eGbf ljsNk vf]Hg' / pko'St ;'emfj k|:t't ug'{ a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 eg] csf]{lt/ lgsflnPsf] lgisif{ c¿ ;Gbe{df, c¿ 7fpFdf nfu" x'G5 ls x'Fb}g eg]/ ljrf/ ul//xg' gkg]{ klg x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf afx\o j}wtf sfod ug]{ s'/fnfO{ dxTj lbg' Tolt h¿/L gx'g ;S5 . h]xf];\ cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtfdf k|efj kfg]{ tTjx¿sf af/]df McDavid and Hawthorn (2006) n] lbPsf a'Fbfx¿nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
!= ;xefuLx¿df leGgtf
;xefuLx¿df leGgtf eGgfn] oxfF sfo{qmdsf ;xefuLx¿df leGgtf x'Fbf sfo{qmdsf glthfx¿ klg ;f]xLcg';f/ leGg x'g;Sg] s'/fnfO{ hgfpF5 . ;fwf/0ftof ;xefuLx¿df leGgtf x'Fbf cWoogsf] lgisif{ km/s x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf afx\o j}wtf sdhf]/ x'G5 . ;xefuLx¿sf] hg;ª\Vof ;dfg cyjf ldNbf]h'Nbf] ePdf cWoogsf] lgisif{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] ;Defjgf a9L x'G5 cyf{t\\ afx\o j}wtf /xG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} Pp6f sfo{qmd ;~rfng ubf{ s]6f / s]6L a/fa/ ;ª\Vofdf ld;fP/ ul/of] . t/ kl5 cWoog ubf{ ;f] sfo{qmd dfgf}+, s]6fx¿sf] t'ngfdf s]6Lx¿df a9L k|efjsf/L kfOof] . o;sf] cy{ s] ;f] sfo{qmd c¿ s]6Lx¿nfO{ klg To;/L g} k|efjsf/L xf]nf< s] ;f] sfo{qmd c¿ s]6fx¿nfO{ klg To;/L g} sd k|efjsf/L xf]nf< s] ;f] sfo{qmd s]6fx¿nfO{ dfq /fv]/ ;~rfng ul/of] eg] s]6fx¿nfO{ ;f] sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L gxf]nf< s] ;f] sfo{qmd s]6Lx¿nfO{ dfq /fv]/ ;~rfng ul/of] eg] s]6Lx¿nfO{ k|efjsf/L xf]nf t<
@= sfo{qmdx¿df leGgtf
sfo{qmdx¿df leGgtf eGgfn] oxfF s'g} sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿df leGgtf x'Fbf ;f]xLcg';f/ sfo{qmdsf glthfx¿df x'g] leGgtfnfO{ hgfpF5 . ;fwf/0ftof sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿df leGgtf x'Fbf cWoogsf] lgisif{ km/s x'g ;S5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf afx\o j}wtf sdhf]/ x'G5 . olb PseGbf a9L k6s
53
Pp6f sfo{qmd ;~rfng ubf{ sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿df Ps¿ktf, ;dfgtf jf ldNbf]h'Nbf] /x]5g\ eg] cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf a9L x'g] ;Defjgf /xG5 lsgeg] cWoogsf] lgisif{nfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] cj:yf /xG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} Ps 7fpFdf k"j{k|fylds sfo{qmd ;~rfng ubf{ b'O{ jif{;Dd s]6f s]6Lx¿nfO{ xKtfsf] kfFr lbg;Dd pkl:yt u/fO{ sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/of] / ;fy} x/]s xKtf Ps k6s cleefjsx¿ e]nf u/fO{ 5nkmn ul/of] . kl5 c¿ 7fpFdf ;f] sfo{qmd rnfpFbf cleefjsx¿;Fu 5nkmn ug]{ sfo{ emGeml6nf] dflgof] / 5nkmn ul/Pg . cj cleefjsx¿;Fu 5nkmn u/L ;~rfng ul/Psf] k"j{ k|fylds sfo{qmd / cleefjsx¿;Fu 5nkmn gu/L ;~rfng ul/Psf] k"j{k|fylds sfo{qmdsf glthfx¿ s] p:t} x'G5g\ xf]nf t< o;/L sfo{qmdx¿ ;~rfng ubf{ sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿, cjojx¿ jf tTjx¿df hlt Ps¿ktf x'G5 Tolt g} cWoogsf] lgisif{ ;fdGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] ;Defjgf /xG5 .
#= jftfj/0fdf leGgtf
jftfj/0fdf leGgtf eGgfn] oxfF sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] jftfj/0fdf leGgtf x'Fbf ;f]xLcg';f/ sfo{qmdsf glthfx¿ leGg x'g ;S5g\ eGg] s'/fnfO{ hgfpF5 . ;fwf/0ftof sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf jftfj/0fx¿df leGgtf eof] eg] cWoogsf lgisif{x¿ km/s x'g] ;Defjgf /xG5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf Ps 7fpFsf] sfo{qmdsf] glthfx¿sf] cWoog u/]/ cfPsf] lgisif{ cGo 7fpFsf] cs}{ jftfj/0fdf ;~rfng ePsf] ;f] sfo{qmdsf] glthf;Fu ldNbf]h'Nbf] x'g] ;Defjgf sd x'G5 cyf{t\\ o:tf] kl/l:yltdf cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf sdhf]/ x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf olb ;a} 7fpFdf ;~rfng ePsf sfo{qmdsf jftfj/0fx¿df Ps¿ktf ePdf, ;dfgtf ePdf jf ldNbf]h'Nbf] ePdf Ps 7fpFsf] sfo{qmd cWoog u/L cfPsf] lgisif{ cGo 7fpFsf] sfo{qmdsf nflu ;d]t ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] ;Defjgf /xG5 cyf{t\\ cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf sfod /xG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} sfo{qmd ;x/df ;'ljwf ;DkGg 7fpFdf ;~rfng u/L cWoog ubf{ k|efjsf/L b]lvof] eg] s] ;f] sfo{qmd u|fdL0f Onfsfdf sd ;'ljwf ePsf] 7fpFdf ;~rfng ubf{ p:t} glthf cfpnf t< o;/L jftfj/0fdf leGgtf x'Fbf cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf sd x'g] / jftfj/0fdf ;dfgtf x'Fbf cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf sfod /xg] x'G5 .
$= nlIft pknlAwdf leGgtf
nlIft pknlAwdf leGgtf eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf nlIft pknlAwdf leGgtf x'Fbf sfo{qmdsf glthfx¿ klg ;f]xLcg';f/ leGg x'g ;S5g\ eGg] s'/fnfO{ hgfpF5 . csf]{ zAbdf, sfo{qmdsf] d'Vo nlIft pknlAwdf kl/jt{g x'Fbf sfo{qmdsf glthfdf kg]{ c;/n] cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf k|efljt x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} ;/sf/n] a]/f]huf/ JolStx¿nfO{ s'g} :j/f]huf/ tflnd ;~rfng u¥of], h;af6 sd;]sd jif{df 5 dlxgf;Dd tL JolStx¿nfO{ :j/f]huf/ agfpg] p2]Zo /flvof] . ;f] sfo{qmd ;~rfngkl5 ^) k|ltzt JolStx¿ sd;]sd 5 dlxgf :j/f]huf/ ePsf] cWoogaf6 kQf nufOof] . dfgf}+, csf]{ ;/sf/n] a]/f]huf/ JolStx¿nfO{ sd;]sd jif{df !) dlxgf;Dd :j/f]huf/ agfpg] p2]Zon] To:t} tflnd ;~rfng u¥of] eg] s] cl3Nnf] sfo{qmdsf] glthf h:t} kl5Nnf] sfo{qmdsf] glthfsf] k|efjsfl/tf sfod /xnf< o;/L sfo{qmdsf] d'Vo nIodf Ps¿ktf 5 eg] sfo{qmdsf glthfx¿ ldNbf]h'Nbf] x'g] ;Defjgf x'G5 / o:tf] cj:yfdf Ps 7fpFsf] sfo{qmdsf] glthfsf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt lgisif{ csf]{ 7fpFsf] sfo{qmdsf nflu ;dfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] x'Fbf cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf a9L x'G5 . o;sf] ljk/Lt, sfo{qmdx¿sf d'Vo nIodf g} leGgtf 5 eg] cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf sdhf]/ x'G5 .
-u_ tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf
;ª\VofTds lsl;dsf] cWoogdf x'g'kg]{ Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ u'0fsf] ¿kdf tYofª\szf:qLo lgisif{ j}wtf (statistiacal conclusion validity) -o;kl5 oxfF tYofª\szf:qLo lgisif{ j}wtfnfO{ g]kfnL efiffdf ;/ntfsf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf elgPsf]_ nfO{ lng ;lsG5 . cWoogdf x'g'kg]{ cfGtl/s j}wtf / afx\o j}wtf sfod ug{sf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtfsf] cfjZostf kb{5 . tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf eGgfn] sf/0f / k|efj;DaGwL r/x¿ aLrsf] ;x–leGgtfsf] pkl:ylt / ;antfnfO{ :yflkt ug]{ k|lqmofnfO{ hgfpF5 . ;xleGgtf eGgfn] oxfF s'g} Pp6f r/df s'g} leGgtf ePdf csf]{ r/df klg ;sf/fTds jf gsf/fTds ¿kdf leGgtf x'G5 eGg] sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGw cWoog ug]{ l;4fGtnfO{ a'emfpF5 . x'g t tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf sfod ug{sf] nflu tYofª\szf:qLo ljZn]if0fsf ;afnx¿df
54
lj:t[t ¿kdf Wofg lbg'kg]{ x'G5 . h]xf];\, tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf cGtu{t Cook and Cambell (1979) sf cg';f/ lgDg kIfx¿ ;dfj]z x'G5g\M
gd'gf 5gf]6 k|lqmofx¿ kof{Kt 5g\ eGg] s'/f ;'lglZrt ug'{ cfjZos x'G5 . k|of]u ul/Psf dfkgsf ;fwgx¿ kof{Kt ¿kdf ljZj;gLo x'g'k5{ . pko'St vfnsf tYofª\szf:qLo k/LIf0fx¿sf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ / glthfx¿sf] JofVof 7Ls;Fu
ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ .
-3_ /rgfTds j}wtf
;ª\VofTds cWoogdf sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog ul/G5 . To;}n] sf/0f;Fu ;DalGwt r/x¿ / k|efj;Fu ;DalGwt r/x¿sf] klxrfg ug]{ sfo{ lgs} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . sf/0f;Fu ;DalGwt r/x¿ cyf{t\\ :jtGq r/x¿ -independent variables_ / k|efj;Fu ;DalGwt r/x¿ cyf{t\\ cfl>t r/x¿ -dependent variables_ sf] klxrfg ;xL ¿kdf ul/Psf] 5 eGg] s'/f ;'lglZrt ug]{ sfo{ /rgfTds j}wtfn] ub{5 . csf]{ zAbdf ;}4flGts ¿kdf, n'Kt ¿kdf / jf:tljs ¿kdf s'g–s'g r/x¿sf] cWoog ul/Psf] 5 eGg] k|Zg /rgfTds j}wtf;Fu ;DjlGwt 5 . /rgfTds j}wtf (construct validity) eGgfn] oxfF s'g} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ cWoog ul/Psf r/x¿ / ltgsf cjnf]sg ul/Psf ;DaGwx¿nfO{ sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf /rgfTds u'0fx¿ / ltgsf ;DaGwx¿;Fu ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;Sg] IfdtfnfO{ hgfpF5 . ;/n efiffdf eGg'kbf{ s'g} d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ s'g} r/nfO{ hgfpg k|of]u ul/g] zAbx¿ / sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ubf{ jf ;~rfng ubf{ ToxL r/nfO{ hgfpg] u/L k|of]u ul/Psf zAbx¿ s] Pp6} 5g\, s] p:t} 5g\, s] ;dfg cy{ /fV5g\ h:tf k|Zgsf pQ/x¿ /rgfTds j}wtf cWoog ug{sf nflu cfjZos kb{5 . To:t}, d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf ubf{, d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ;~rfng ubf{ / d"Nofª\sgsf] k|ltj]bg tof/ ubf{ k|of]u ul/Psf d'Vo zAbfjnLx¿n] ;dfg cy{ /fVb5g\ eg] d"Nofª\sgsf] /rgfTds j}wtf a9\5 .vf;u/L sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] tl/sf / sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿nfO{ cWoogsf /rgfTds u'0fx¿ -cyf{t\\ d'Vo zAbfjnLx¿_ ;Fu hf]8\g] tl/sf / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ dfkg ubf{ cWoogsf] /rgfTds j}wtf;Fu ;DalGwt ;d:ofx¿ k}bf x'G5g\ . /rgfTds j}wtfdf k|efj kfg]{ tTjx¿sf] af/]df Cook and Campbell (1979) n] lgDgcg';f/ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\M
/rgfTds u'0fx¿sf] ckof{Kt JofVofM cWoogsf d'Vo zAbfjnLx¿nfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf kl/eflift gul/g' .
Pp6f cfl>t r/sf] dfq dfkg ul/g' . Pp6f dfq ljlw k|of]u u/L cfl>t r/sf] dfkg ul/g' . ;xefuLx¿n] d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] ljrf/ cg'dfg u/L ;f]xLcg';f/ pko'St nfUg] lqmofsnfk ug'{ . d"Nofª\sgsf] glthf /fd|f] b]vfpg] k|of; ug'{ . d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿sf] ck]Iff / ljrf/x¿n] ubf{ k"jf{u|xsf] c;/ kg'{ . ;xefuLx¿n] nlIft sfo{qmd afx]s cGo sfo{qmdsf] af/]df klg hfgsf/L k|fKt ug'{ . k"j{k/LIf0fsf] cg'ejn] ubf{ sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿ x]/]km]/ x'g', cflb .
;ª\If]kdf, Cook and Campbell (2002) n] /rgfTds j}wtf a9fpgsf nflu k|:t't u/]sf pkfox¿nfO{ tn lbOPsf] 5M
cWoogsf d'Vo /rgfTds u'0fx¿nfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf kl/eflift ug'{ cfjZos 5 h;af6 pko'St tl/sfn] dfkg ug{ ;lsof];\ .
ljleGg /rgfTds u'0fx¿nfO{ Pscfk;df gbf]xf]l/g] / gvlK6g] u/L leGgtf 5'6\ofpg cfjZos 5 . k"jf{u|x/lxt ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] lsl;dsf c;n ;fwgx¿sf] ljsf; ug'{ cfjZos 5 . d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿sf] af/]df ax'–;"rsx¿ / ax'ljlwx¿sf] k|of]u ug'{kb{5 . ;xefuLx¿sf] ck]Iffx¿n] ltgsf Jojxf/x¿ k|efljt ug{ ;Sg] x'gfn] To;k|lt ;r]t x'g' cfjZos
5 .
55
o;/L rf/ k|sf/sf k|of]ufTds j}wtfx¿sf] af/]df dfly rrf{ ul/;lsPsf] 5 . j}1flgs cWoogdf x'g'kg]{ tL j}wtfx¿sf] aLrsf] ;DAfGwnfO{ lgDgcg';f/ b]vfpg ;lsG5 .
lrq #=! k|of]ufTds j}wtfsf lsl;dx¿
#=!=@ u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df j}wtf
u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿ eg]sf k|fs[lts 9fFrfx¿ x'g\, h'g dgf]utjfbL÷ljifoutjfbL ljrf/wf/fdf cfwfl/t x'G5g\ eGg] s'/f klxnf] PsfOdf rrf{ ul/;lsPsf] 5 . u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿ eg]sf] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ xf]Ogg\ / oL ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfx¿ klg xf]Ogg\, t/ k|of]ufTds / ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfx¿sf] lj¿4df ;zSt ¿kdf v8f ePsf 9fFrfx¿ x'g\ . o; ;Gbe{df Guba and Lincoln -1985_ n] k|of]ufTds jf ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfx¿df pko'St x'g] s]xL zAbfjnLx¿sf] ;§f u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df a9L pko'St x'g] gofF / km/s zAbfjnLx¿sf] k|of]u ug'{kg]{ s'/f k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . pgLx¿sf cg';f/ j}wtf -validity_ eGg] zAb / o; zAbsf] h'g lsl;daf6 kl/efiff ug{ vf]lhPsf] 5 ;f] s'/fsf] ;Gbe{df u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df j}wtf x'Fb}g, j}wtf ;Dej 5}g, To;}n] oL 9fFrfx¿ cj}1flgs, cg'ko'St, cljZj;gLo, / zª\sf:kb x'G5g\ eg]/ eGg' u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿sf] nflu Gofo;ª\ut x'Fb}g . u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ tyfslyt j}1flgs cfwf/df s;}n] cj}w, c;To, / dgf]ut dfGb}df u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿sf] dxTj, pkof]lutf, ;fGble{stf / k|of]ux¿ vf/]h x'g ;Sb}g . u'jf / lnª\sgsf cg';f/ u'0ffTds cyf{t\\ k|fs[lts 9fFrfx¿sf nflu j}wtf -validity_ eGg] zAbsf] ;§f ljZjf;k"0f{tf -trustworthiness_ eGg] zAbsf] k|of]u ug'{ pko'St x'g ;S5 . pgLx¿sf cg';f/ u'0ffTds cWoogx¿ ljZjf;k"0f{tf -trustworthiness_ slQsf] 5 eGg] s'/f kQf nufpgsf] nflu pko'St x'g] s]xL zAbfanLx¿sf] af/]df tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5M
!= ljZjf; ug{ ;lsg] u'0f
d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Totf hfFr ug{sf] nflu cfGtl/s j}wtf -internal validity_ sf] ;§f d"Nofª\sgsf glthfx¿ dfly lj:jf; ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -credibility_ sf] cj:yf slQsf] :yflkt ul/Psf] 5 ;f] s'/f x]g'{kb{5 . o;sf nflu ;"rgfx¿sf] ;dGjo -corroboration_ sf] l:ylt x]g'{k5{ . ;dGjo -corroboration_ eGgfn] ;"rgfx¿sf] ;Gbe{cg';f/ hf]8\g] sfo{ -linkage_ xf], h;df cufl8 n]lvPsf] ;"rgfnfO{ k5fl8 bf]xf]¥ofO{sg jf pb\w[t ul/sg n]lvG5 / ljleGg lsl;d / ;|f]tsf ;"rgfx¿nfO{ ldnfP/ cy{k"0f{ agfOG5 . glthfx¿nfO{ ljZjf; of]Uo agfpg 58\s] hfFr -cross checking_ / lqsf]0ffTds hfFr -Triangulation_ ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . ;"rgfx¿sf] 58\s] hfFr / lqsf]0ffTds hfFr ul/sg glthfx¿ lgsflnPsf] 5 eg] o:tf glthfx¿df ljZjf; ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -credibility_ :yflkt x'G5 eGg ;lsG5 .
@= k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] u'0f
u'0ffTds cWoogx¿df afx\o j}wtfsf] ;Gbe{ Tolt pko'St x'Fb}g . o;sf] ;§f d"Nofª\sgsf] glthfx¿nfO{ ljleGg ;Gbe{df slQsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 egL ljrf/ ug'{ pko'St x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf, d"Nofª\sgsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] u'0f hfFr ug{sf] nflu :jtM ;fdGoLs/0f -generalizatility_ sf] ;§f cfjZostf / ;Gbe{cg';f/ ;"rgfx¿sf] :yfgfGt/0f ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -transferablility_ sf] cj:yf x]g'{k5{ . o;sf nflu Jofjxfl/s kl/sNkgfx¿ -working hypotheses_ / ;3gtfk"j{s j0f{g -thick description_ h:tf tl/sfx¿ ckgfpg' pko'St x'G5 . h'g j:t'sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] xf] ;f] Jf:t'sf] j0f{g ug]{ h'g kl/l:yltx¿df cWoog ul/Psf]] 5 To;sf] j0f{g ug]{, cWoogdf ;+nUg JolStsf ljz]iftfx¿ / cWoog ul/Psf] ;d'bfo / 7fpFsf] j0f{g ul/sg ldNbfh'Nbf ;d'bfodf d"Nofª\sgsf ;"rgfx¿ / glthfx¿nfO{ k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -applicability_ :yflkt ug{ ;lsG5 .
afXo j}wtf tYofª\szf:qLo
lgisif{ j}wtf
cfGtl/s j}wtf
/rgfTds j}wtf
56
#= k/LIf0f ug{ ;lsg] u'0f
u'0ffTds cWoogx¿sf] glthfx¿df Ps¿ktf hfFr ug{sf] nflu ljZj;gLotf -reliability_ sf] l:ylt x]g'{sf] ;§f cWoogsf] k/LIf0f ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -auditability_ x]g{ ;lsG5 . o;sf nflu bf];|f] ;d"xåf/f b:tfj]hx¿sf] k'g/fjnf]sg u/fpg ;lsG5 / cWoogdf cGt/lglxt l;4fGtx¿ k|of]u u/L sf/0fx¿ / ts{x¿åf/f k'li6 ug{ ;lsG5 . ;"rgfx¿ slQsf] ljZj;gLo -reliable_ 5g\ eGg'eGbf ;"rgfx¿df slQsf] e/kbf]{ u'0f -dependablility_ /x]sf 5g\ eg]/ ljrf/ ug'{ pko'St x'G5 .
$= lglZrt ug{ ;lsg] u'0f
u'0ffTds cWoogx¿df t6:ytfsf] l:ylt hfFr ug{sf] nflu j:t'lgi7tf -objectivity_ sf] ;§fdf lglZrt ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -confirmability_ sf] cj:yf x]g'{ pko'St x'G5 . o;sf nflu d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ klxrfg u/L ltgsf d"No–dfGotfx¿, ljrf/x¿, b[li6sf]0fx¿ / c8fgx¿ d"Nofª\sgdf ;dfj]z ul/G5 / d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] cfˆg} cf:yf, ljZjf;, ljrf/ / b[li6sf]0fx¿;d]t pNn]v u/L cWoogsf] ;}4flGts w/ftnnfO{ :ki6 ul/G5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgsf ;"rgfx¿ / glthfx¿nfO{ lglZrt l;4fGtsf] cfwf/df lgb]{lzt ul/sg cWoogaf6 k|fKt ;"rgfdf lglZrt ug{ ;lsg] u'0f :yflkt ug{ ;lsG5.
o;/L d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿ ljZjf; ug{ of]Uo, ljZjfl;nf] cyjf ljZjf;k"0f{ -trustworthy_ x'g' cfjZos 5 . o;sf nflu u'jf / lnª\sgsf] efiffdf ljZjf; ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -credibility_, k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -applicability_, k/LIf0f ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -auditability_ / lglZrt ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -confirmability_ h:tf ljz]iftfx¿o'St cWoognfO{ /fd|f] vfnsf] u'0ffTds cWoog dfGg ;lsG5 .
k|foM u/]/ ;fdflhs / z}lIfs kl/j]zdf ul/g] d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿ lgolGqt lsl;dsf] k|of]uzfnfsf kl/l:yltx¿df ;~rfng ul/+b}gg\ . o:tf cWoogsf ;Gbe{x¿ / kl/l:yltx¿ ljleGg lsl;dsf x'G5g\ . d"Nofª\sg ul/g] ;fdflhs ;ª\u7gsf] ;Gbe{x¿df s}of}+ clglZrttfsf] jftfj/0f x'G5 . h:tf] tgfjx¿, bafax¿, cfzfx¿, 8/x¿, åGåx¿ / slxn]sfxL+ nf]ex¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Totf cyf{t\\ cflwsfl/stf -authenticity_ Hofb} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . To;}n] u'0ffTds cWoogx¿ ljZjf;k"0f{ -trustworthy_ x'gsf nflu cflwsfl/s -authentic_ x'g' cfjZos k5{ eg] cflwsfl/s x'gsf nflu ljZjf;k"0f{ x'g'k5{ . u'jf / lnª\sgsf] efiffdf u'0ffTds cWoog ljZjf; ug{ of]Uo x'g'k5{ eg] Posavac and Carey (1989) sf] efiffdf d"Nofª\sg cWoog cflwsfl/s -authentic_
klg x'g' cfjZos 5 . pgLx¿sf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ljZjf;k"0f{ -trustworthy_ x'g'k5{ / To;sf ;fy;fy} d"Nofª\sg cflwsfl/s x'gsf nflu lgDg u'0fx¿ ;dfj]z x'g'k5{M
lgikIftfsf] nflu cfjZos rf;f] / lrGtfnfO{ ;Daf]wg u/]sf] x'g'k5{ . ;a} ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] aLrdf ;dembf/L a9fpg'k5{ . l;4fGtnfO{ cEof;;Fu hf]8\g'k5{ . ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿nfO{ ;+nUg u/fP/ ;zStLs/0f ug'{k5{ .
o;/L u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df d"Nofª\sg j}w x'g'k5{ eGg'sf] cy{ ljZjf; ug{ of]Uo -trustworthy_ / cflwsfl/s -authentic_ x'g'k5{ eGg] xf] . ;/n efiffdf eGg'kbf{ d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿ z'4 -accurate_, ;Totfk"0f{ -truthful_, cy{k"0f{ -meaningful_ / pkof]uL -useful_ x'g'k5{ eGg ;lsG5 . o;} ;Gbe{df oxfF Maxwell -2002_ sf] ljrf/ dxTjk"0f{ 5 . pgsf cg';f/ u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df kfFr k|sf/sf j}wtfx¿ x'g ;S5g\ . u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] j}wtfsf k|sf/x¿nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf lgDgadf]lhd lbOPsf] 5M
!= j0f{gfTds j}wtf
j0f{gfTds j}wtf -descriptive validity_ sf nflu tYox¿ z'4 -accurate_ x'g'k5{ . o;sf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo z'4tf cfjZos k5{ . csf]{ zAbdf tYofª\sx¿sf] j0f{gnfO{ z'4 agfpg' cfjZos x'G5 . j0f{gfTds j}wtf tYofª\szf:qLo lgisif{ j}wtf;Fu ldNbf]h'Nbf] cjwf/0ff dflgG5 .
57
@= ;}4flGts j}wtf
d"Nofª\sgstf{n] lgdf{0f u/]sf cWoogsf /rgfTds u'0fx¿df j}wtf x'g'k5{ eGg] s'/fnfO{ ;}4flGts j}wtf -theoretical validity_ elgPsf] xf] . csf]{ zAbdf cWoogstf{n] lgdf{0f u/]sf cWoogsf d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿df ;}4flGts z'4tf cfjZos k5{ . ;}4flGts j}wtf /rgfTds j}wtf;Fu ldNbf]h'Nbf] cjwf/0ff xf] .
#= ;fdfGoLs/0f
cWoogsf] glthfx¿nfO{ pxL ;d'bfoleq / cGo ;d'bfox¿df ldNbfh'Nbf dfGotfx¿ -similar assumptions_ lgdf{0f ug{sf nflu k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] x'g'k5{ . o:tf] ePdf cWoogdf ;fdfGoLs/0f Ifdtf -generalizability_ /x]sf] dflgG5 . of] ;fdfGoLs/0f cjwf/0ff afx\o j}wtf;Fu ldNbf]h'Nbf] cjwf/0ff xf] .
$= JofVofTds j}wtf
JofVofTds j}wtf -interpretive validity_ sf nflu ;xefuLx¿sf] b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] cfwf/df cy{x¿ lgsflnPsf] / JofVof ul/Psf] x'g'k5{.
%= d"Nofª\sg j}wtfM cWoog ubf{ ljleGg d"Nox¿sf] ;Gbe{df lg0f{o ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ eGg] s'/fnfO{ d"Nofª\sg j}wtf -evaluative validity_ elgPsf] xf] . d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ;DjlGwt d"Nox¿nfO{ :ki6;Fu pNn]v u/L lg0f{osf cfwf/x¿ v'nfpg'k5{ h;n] ubf{ d"Nofª\sg j}wtf sfod x'G5 .
#=@ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿
Campbell and Stanley (1966) / Cook and Campbell (1979) n] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg / cg';Gwfgsf nflu j}1flgs 9fFrfsf] ¿kdf k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . Best and Kahn -2001_ / Singh (1997) n] pNn]v u/]cg';f/ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ tLg txdf juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . oxfF k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ ;ª\lIfKt ¿kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . lj:t[t hfgsf/Lsf nflu cg';Gwfg ljlwsf k':tsx¿ cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .
z'4–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ -true-experimental designs) cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ -quasi-experimental designs) k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ -pre-experimental designs)
dfly plNnlvt tLg k|sf/sf 9fFrfx¿sf af/]df rrf{ ug'{eGbf klxn] tL 9fFrfx¿sf] j0f{g ug{sf nflu k|of]u ul/Psf ;ª\s]tsf cy{x¿nfO{ lgDgjdf]lhd :ki6 ul/Psf] 5 .
E = sfo{qmddf ;xefuL ePsf] k|of]ufTds ;d"x -experimental group_ C = sfo{qmddf ;xefuL gePsf] lgolGqt ;d"x -control group_ X = k|of]ufTds ;d"xn] k|fKt u/]sf] sfo{qmd, h;sf] k|efjx¿ dfkg ul/G5 -exposure of the
group to the program) O = sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿sf] cjnf]sg, dfkg / d"Nofª\sg ug]{ k|lqmof -observation_ R= d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu ;xefuLx¿sf] ¥ofG8d (random) 5gf]6, ;xefuLx¿nfO{ ¥ofG8d
ljlwaf6 b'O{ ;d"xdf ljefhg, / ¥ofG8d ljlwaf6 sfo{qmd k|fKt ug]{ ;d"xsf] lgwf{/0f ul/Psf] (randomization)
lqmofsnfk
tkfO{+sf] ljrf/df j}1flgs ¿kdf ul/g] d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿sf nflu s'g lsl;dsf] j}wtf a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5< sf/0f pNn]v ug'{xf];\ .
d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf /rgfTds j}wtf sfod ug'{k¥of] eg] tkfO{+ s] s] k|of;x¿ ug'{x'G5< :ki6 ug{'xf];\ .
58
Series of dashes(----) between rows= ;xefuLx¿sf] 5gf]6 ¥ofG8d ljlwaf6 gul/Psf], cyjf ;xefuLx¿nfO{ b'O{ ;d"xdf ljefhg ubf{ ¥ofG8d ljlw gckgfOPsf], cyjf sfo{qmd k|fKt ug]{ ;d"xsf] lgwf{/0f ¥ofG8d ljlwjf6 gul/Psf] (non-randomization)
k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf ;ª\s]tx¿ h:tf] “x” cyjf “o” nfO{ Pp6f x/kmdf n]Vg'sf] cy{ tL r/x¿sf] k|of]u Pp6} cyf{t\\ pxL ;d"xdf ul/Psf] eGg] s'/fnfO{ hgfpF5 .
plNnlvt ;ª\s]tx¿nfO{ afofFtkm{ n]lvg'sf] cy{ ;'¿df ePsf] 36gf / bfofFtkm{ n]lvg'sf] cy{ kl5Nnf] ;dodf ePsf] 36gfnfO{ hgfpF5 .
plNnlvt ;ª\s]tx¿nfO{ tndfly u/L ;Fu} n]lvg'sf] cy{ pSt 36gfx¿ km/s km/s ;d"xnfO{ Ps}k6s ;~rfng ul/Psf] eGg] s'/f hgfpF5 .
#=@=! z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿
z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ (true experimental designs) nfO{ ;a}eGbf j}1flgs 9fFrf dflgG5 . o:tf 9fFrfx¿df k|of]ufTds ;d"x / lgolGqt ;d"x lgdf{0f ul/Psf x'G5g\ / oL ;d"xx¿sf] aLrdf x/k|sf/n] ;dfgtf :yflkt ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;sf nflu ¥ofG8dfOh];gsf] ljlw ckgfOG5 . oL 9fFrfx¿df cWoogsf] cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ ;'lglZrt ul/Psf] x'G5 . z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf s]xL pbfx/0fx¿ tn ;ª\lIfKt ¿kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
-!_ kZrft\k/LIf0f dfq ePsf] ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf (posttest only equivalent groups design) of] 9fFrfnfO{ kZrft\k/LIf0f dfq ePsf] lgolGqt ;d"x 9fFrf (posttest only control group
design) klg elgG5 . of] 9fFrf k|efjsf/L 9fFrf dflgG5 . o;df j}wtf ;'lglZrt x'G5 . t/ of] 9fFrfaf6 sfo{qmd ;~rfngeGbf klxn]sf] ;xefuLx¿sf] k|j]z Jojxf/ yfxf kfpg ;ls+b}g .
E R X O1
C R O2
o; lsl;dsf] 9fFrfaf6 s'g} sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf] af/]df z'4 ¿kdf cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . dfly ;ª\s]tdf b]vfOPadf]lhd o; 9fFrfdf k|of]ufTds / lgolGqt ;d"xx¿ lgdf{0f ug'{k5{ / ¥ofG8dfOh];gsf] ljlwcg';f/ ;xefuLx¿sf] 5gf]6 ug'{k5{ . o;/L k|of]ufTds / lgolGqt ;d"xx¿sf] aLrdf x/k|sf/n] ;dfgtf /x]sf] ;'lglZrt ul/G5 . k|of]ufTds ;d"xdfly cWoog ug{ vf]lhPsf] sfo{qmd -jf tflnd_ sf] k|of]u ug'{k5{ cyf{t\\ sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug'{k5{ eg] lgolGqt ;d"xnfO{ pSt sfo{qmd / cGo s'g} yk sfo{qmddf ;xefuL x'g glbOsg lgoGq0fdf /fVg'k5{ . sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/;s]kl5 pko'St ;dodf b'j} ;d"xsf] Jojxf/x¿ Ps} k6s Pp6} ljlwåf/f dfkg ul/G5 . lgolGqt ;d"xsf] cf};t k|fKtfª\s / k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] cf};t k|fKtfª\ssf] aLrdf s] s'g} ;fy{s leGgtf 5 eGg] s'/f kQf nufpgsf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo ;"qsf] k|of]u u/L k/LIf0f ul/G5 / k|fKt ePsf] glthfsf] cfwf/df k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] cf};t k|fKtfª\s lgolGqt ;d"xsf] cf};t k|fKtfª\seGbf ;fy{s leGgtf /x] g/x]sf] olsg ul/G5 / ;f]xLcg';f/ sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf] af/]df JofVof ul/G5 . h:tf] lgolGqt ;d"xsf] cf};t k|fKtfª\seGbf k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] cf};t k|fKtfª\s ;fy{s ¿kdf a9L cfPsf] k'li6 ePdf sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L 5 eGg] lgisif{ lgsfnLg5 .
-@_ k"j{k/LIf0f–kZrft\k/LIf0f ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf
k"j{k/LIf0f–kZrft\k/LIf0f ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf (pretest-posttest equivalent groups design) nfO{ z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcGtu{t kg]{ Pp6f lgs} ;an 9fFrf dflgG5 lsgeg] o;df cfGtl/s j}wtf alnof] x'G5 . of] 9fFrf kZrft\k/LIf0f dfq ePsf] ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf -posttest only equivalent groups design) h:t} 9fFrf xf], t/ o;df sfo{qmdeGbf klxn] ;xefuLx¿sf] k|j]z Jojxf/x¿ yfxf kfpgsf nflu k"j{k/LIf0fx¿ ul/Psf x'G5g\ . o; 9fFrfnfO{ k"j{k/LIf0f kZrft\k/LIf0f lgolGqt ;d"x 9fFrf -pretest posttest control group design) klg elgG5 . o; 9fFrfnfO{ ;ª\s]tsf] ¿kdf lgDgadf]lhd k|:t't ul/G5M
E R O1 X O2
C R O3 O4
59
o; 9fFrfdf k|of]ufTds ;d"x / lgolGqt ;d"x b'j}nfO{ ¥ofG8dfOh];gsf] k|lqmofåf/f ;dfgtf sfod ul/G5 / ;fy} sfo{qmd ;~rfngeGbf klxn] b'j} ;d"xsf] k"j{k/LIf0faf6 ;dfgtfsf] l:ylt cWoog ug]{ df}sf k|fKt x'G5 . k|of]ufTds ;d"xdf cWoog ug{ vf]lhPsf] sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/G5 hals lgolGqt ;d"xdf pSt sfo{qmd ;~rfng gu/L lgoGq0fdf /flvG5 . sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO;s]kl5 pko'St ;dodf b'j} ;d"xsf] Jojxf/x¿sf] Ps} k6s Pp6} ljlwåf/f dfkg ul/G5 . ca k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] j[l4 k|fKtfª\s (=O2-O1) / lgolGqt ;d"xsf] j[l4 k|fKtfª\s (=O4-O3) kQf nufOG5 . To;kl5 lgolGqt ;d"xsf] j[l4 k|fKtfª\s (gain score) eGbf k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] j[l4 k|fKtfª\s s] ;fy{s ¿kdf a9L 5 eGg] s'/f kQf nufpgsf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo ;"qsf] k|of]u ul/sg ;fy{stfsf] k/LIf0f ul/G5 . ;fy{stfsf] k/LIf0faf6 k|fKt glthfsf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf af/]df pko'St lgisif{ lgsfnLg5 . h:t} lgolGqt ;d"xsf] j[l4 k|fKtfª\s eGbf k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] j[l4 k|fKtfª\s ;fy{s ¿kdf a9L ePsf] k'li6 ePdf sfo{qmd k|efjsf/L /x]sf] lgisif{ lgsflnG5 .
o;/L dfly pNn]v ul/Psf kZrft\k/LIf0f dfq ePsf] ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf / k"j{k/LIf0f k|Zrft\k/LIf0f ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf u/L b'j} 9fFrfx¿sf] dfWodaf6 sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efjsf] af/]df j}1flgs lx;fan] alnof];Fu d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . To;}n] oL b'j} 9fFrfx¿nfO{ z'¢ k|of]ufTds 9fFrf dflgG5 .
#=@=@ cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿
;fdflhs / z}lIfs kl/l:yltx¿df cWoog ubf{ z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ w/} sl7gfO / emGeml6nf] x'g] x'gfn] cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u ug{ t'ngfTds ¿kdf s]xL ;xh 5 . o:tf 9fFrfx¿n] cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ k|efj kfg]{ s]xL cyf{t\\ Ps jf PseGbf a9L tTjx¿ lgoGq0f ub{5g\ t/ To:tf ;a} tTjnfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ ;Sb}gg\ . cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfdf k|of]ufTds ;d"x / lgoGq0f ;d"xx¿ b'j} x'G5g\ t/ ltgLx¿sf] aLrdf ;dfgtf :yflkt ul/Psf] x'Fb}g lsgeg] o:tf 9fFrfx¿df ¥ofG8dfOh];g k|lqmof ckgfOFb}g . cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcGtu{t kg]{ s]xL 9fFrfx¿nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
-!_ ;do–>]0fL 9fFrf
;do–>]0fL 9fFrf -Time series design) cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿dWo] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ 9fFrf xf] . o; 9fFrfdf s'g} sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug'{eGbf klxn] b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L k6s lglZrt ;dosf] cGt/fndf dfkg ul/G5 / To;kl5 sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/G5 . sfo{qmd ;dfKt ePkl5 b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L k6s lglZrt ;dosf] cGt/fndf dfkg ul/G5 . o; 9fFrfnfO{ Campbell and Stanley (1966) åf/f multiple time series design / Cook and Campbell (1979) åf/f interrupted time series design sf] ¿kdf j0f{g u/]sf] kfOG5 . Campbell and Rossi (1968) n] Psn ;do >]0fL 9fFrf / t'ngfTds ;do >]0fL 9fFrfsf] ¿kdf lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ .
Psn ;do >]0fL 9fFrf -single time series design_ df Pp6f k|of]ufTds ;d"x dfq x'G5 h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/sf] ;ª\s]t k|uf]u u/L hgfpg ;lsG5M
E O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
t'ngfTds ;do >]0fL 9fFrf (comparative time series design) df Pp6f k|of]ufTds ;d"x / Pp6f lgoGq0f ;d"x /xG5g\, h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/sf] ;ª\s]t k|of]u u/L hgfpg ;lsG5M
E O O O O X O O O O
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
C O O O O O O O O
;do >]0fL 9fFrfsf] k|of]uaf6 sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{' cl3sf Jojxf/x¿ / kl5sf Jojxf/x¿nfO{ k6sk6s ;ª\VofTds ¿kdf dfkg u/L k|j[lQx¿ (trends) kQf nufOG5 / sfo{qmdeGbf cl3sf] k|j[lQ / sfo{qmdeGbf kl5sf] k|j[lQ t'ngf ul/G5 . o; lsl;dsf] 9fFrfdf -s_ Pp6f PsfO 36gfnfO{ kl/eflift ul/G5 -v_ ltgsf] ;ª\VofTds ¿kdf cjnf]sgx¿ ul/G5 -u_ cjnf]sg ubf{ lglZrt ;dosf] cGt/fndf w]/} k6s ul/G5 / -3_ lgolGqt sfo{qmd jf :jfefljs sfo{qmdeGbf cl3 / kl5 klg cjnf]sg ul/G5 .
60
@= k"j{k/LIf0f–kZrft k/LIf0f c;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf
k"j{k/LIf0f–kZrftk/LIf0f c;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf -pretest-posttest nonequivalent groups design_ nfO{ c;dfg lgolGqt ;d"x 9fFrf -non-equivalent control group design_ klg elgG5 . of] 9fFrf z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcGtu{t kg{] k"j{k/LIf0f–kZrft\k/LIf0f ;dfg ;d"x 9fFrf -pretest-posttest equivalent groups design_ h:t} 9fFrf xf], t/ o;df randomization gul/g] x'gfn] lgolGqt ;d"x / k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf] aLrdf ;dfgtf :yflkt x'Fb}g . ctM k|of]ufTds / lgolGqt ;d"xx¿sf] aLrdf ;dfgtf :yflkt ug{ g;lsPsf] cj:yfdf of] 9fFrfsf] pkof]u ul/G5 h;df b'j} ;d'xx¿nfO{ ldNbf]h'Nbf] agfpg] k|of; eg] hf/L /flvG5 . o; 9fFrfnfO{ lgDgadf]lhd lrqaf6 ;ª\s]t ul/G5M
E O1 X O2
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
C O3 O4
o; 9fFrfdf b'O{ j6f :jfefljs ;d"xx¿dWo] Pp6f ;d"xnfO{ k|of]ufTds ;d"x / csf]{ ;d"xnfO{ lgolGqt ;d"x dflgG5 h;df k|To]s ;xefuLx¿nfO{ ¥ofG8d ljlwaf6 5gf]6 gul/Psf] x'g ;S5 . t/ s'g ;d"xdf sfo{qmd ;~rfng u/L k|of]u ug]{ / s'g ;d"xdf sfo{qmd ;~rfng gu/L lgoGq0f ug]{ eGg] s'/fsf] lg0f{o ug{ eg] ¥ofG8d ljlw ckgfOPsf] x'g ;S5 . o;sf] cnfjf b'O{ j6f ;d"xx¿df ;xefuLx¿sf] ;ª\Vof a/fa/ ug]{ / ;xefuLx¿sf] lnË, hflt / pd]/ cflb s'/fsf] cfwf/df a/fa/ agfpg] k|of; ul/Psf] x'G5 . sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug'{eGbf cl3 lnOPsf k"j{k/LIf0fsf glthfx¿sf] cfwf/df b'j} ;d"xdf ;dfgtf eP gePsf] s'/f;d]t Vofn ug{ ;lsG5 .
#= 36gfkl5sf cWoog 9fFrfx¿
36gfkl5sf] cWoog 9fFrf (ex-post facto design) df sfo{qmd klxn] g} eO;s]sf] x'G5 h;nfO{ cjnf]sg ug{, x]/k]m/ ug{, jf lgoGq0f ug{ ;Dej 5}g . csf]{ zAbdf cWoogsf] l;nl;nfdf sf/0fx¿sf] cjnf]sg ug{ jf lgoGq0f ug{ ;ls+b}g / sf/0fx¿nfO{ cfjZostfcg';f/ x]/km]/ jf tndfly ug{ kfOFb}g . o; lsl;dsf 9fFrfx¿df jt{dfgdf b]lvPsf k|efjx¿sf] cWoog u/]/ ljutsf sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 cyf{t\\ jt{dfgdf b]lvPsf cj:yfx¿sf] cWoog u/]/ ljutsf ;Defljt sf/0fx¿sf] cg'dfg ul/G5 . o; lsl;dsf] 36gfkl5sf cWoog 9fFrfx¿cGtu{t ;x;DaGw 9fFrf / cfwf/ ;d"x 9fFrf kb{5g\ h;nfO{ lrqfTds ¿kdf lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5M
-s_ ;x;DaGw 9fFrf
Group one O1 O2
;x;DaGw 9fFrf -correlation design_ df 5gf]6 ul/Psf] Pp6f ;d"x x'G5 h;df sfo{qmdx¿ jf 36gfx¿ jf sf/0fx¿ jf sf/s tTjx¿sf] pkl:ylt klxn] g} eO;s]sf] x'G5 . pSt ;d"xdf Psk6s k/LIf0f ul/G5 / km]l/ s]xL ;dosf] cGt/fndf k/LIf0f ul/G5 . o;/L Pp6f ;d"xsf] sd;]sd b'O{ cj:yfx¿sf] hfgsf/L k|fKt x'G5 . o; ;x;DaGw 9fFrfdf jt{dfgdf b]lvPsf k|efjx¿sf] b'O{ j6f cj:yfx¿sf] aLrdf ;x;DaGw u0fgf u/L t'ngf ul/G5 . pSt ;x;DaGw u0fgfsf] glthf ;sf/fTds cyjf gsf/fTds /x]sf] s'/f kQf nufO{ ljutdf ePsf ;Defljt sfo{qmd jf 36gf jf sf/0fx¿sf] af/]df cg'dfg ul/G5 . o; cWoogdf sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGw :yflkt x'Fb}g t/ ;Defljt sf/0fx¿sf] af/]df kl/sNkgf lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
-v_ cfwf/ ;d"x 9fFrf Criterion group O1 O1 Criterion group O2
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - OR, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
O2 O3 O4
61
cfwf/ ;d"x 9fFrf -criterion group design) df b'O{j6f ;d"xx¿ x'G5g\ . oL b'O{ j6f ;d"xx¿ :jfefljs ;d"xx¿ (intact groups) klg x'g ;S5g\ cyjf k"j{k/LIf0fx¿ u/L cfwf/ ;d"x lgdf{0f ul/Psf klg x'g ;S5g\ . cfwf/ ;d"x 9fFrf eg]sf] k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcGtu{t /flvPsf] :jfefljs l:y/ ;d"x t'ngfTds 9fFrf -static group comparison design_ h:t} xf] t/ o;df km/s s] 5 eGbf sfo{qmd ;~rfng klxn] eO;s]sf] x'gfn] cWoog cjlw leq sfo{qmd ;~rfng ;dfj]z x'Fb}g .
#=@=# k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿
k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ ck|of]ufTds 9fFRffx¿ elgG5 lsgeg] o:tf 9fFrfx¿nfO{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfdf x'g'kg]{ u'0f / ljz]iftfx¿ gePsf 9fFrfx¿ dflgG5 . o:tf 9fFrfnfO{ cfGtl/s j}wtf / afx\o j}wtfsf] b[li6n] cToGt sdhf]/ 9fFrf dflgG5 . o;sf] cy{ k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u u/L sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 t/ o:tf] cWoogaf6 cfPsf] lgisif{ zª\sf:kb x'G5 . of] cWoog 9fFrfdf sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGw j}1flgs ¿kn] :yflkt gx'g] dfGotf /flvG5 .
k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] jsfnt ug]{ JolStx¿åf/f ljsf; / gfdfs/0f ul/Psf] o; 9fFrfsf txx¿ klg k|of]ufTds l;4fGtsf] hudf cl8Psf] x'gfn] k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ oxfF k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcGtu{t rrf{ ul/Psf] xf] . oyfy{df k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ eg]sf u}/–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ x'g\ tfklg oL 9fFrfx¿sf] ljz]iftf, u'0f / cju'0fx¿sf] cWoogaf6 s] :ki6 x'G5 eg] k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ cGtu{t ;a} lsl;dsf u}/–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ h:tf] ;j]{If0f 9fFrf / k|fs[lts 9fFrf÷u'0ffTds 9fFrf ;dfj]z x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoogdf ;Lldt u/]sf] b]lvG5 eg] ;j]{If0f 9fFrf / k|fs[lts 9fFrfaf6 sfo{qmdsf] cfjZostf / k|lqmofx¿;d]t cWoog / d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrf / cw{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrf h:t} k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfåf/f sf/0f / k|efjsf] cWoog ul/G5 cyf{t\\ sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ sfo{qmddf ;'wf/sf cg]sf}+ pkfox¿ vf]Hg] sfo{ ug{sf nflu oL 9fFrfx¿df ck"0f{tf b]lvG5 . d"Nofª\sg sfo{ sfo{qmdsf] cGtdf / k|efj cWoog u/]/ dfq ug{ ;lsg] dfGotfdf cfwfl/t ePsf] x'gfn] klg k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ oxfF k|of]ufTds 9fFrf cGtu{t /fv]/ rrf{ ul/Psf] xf] . Campbell and Stanley(1963) sf] juL{s/0fnfO{ cfwf/ dfgL k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ cGtu{t oxfF Singh (1997) / Best and Kahn (2001) n] pNn]v u/]sf 9fFrfx¿nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf tn lbOPsf] 5M
!= cj:yfsf] Psn cWoog 9fFrf
of] 9fFrfdf Pp6f ;d"xdf s'g} sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/G5 / sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf af/]df d"Nofª\sg ug{ Ps k6s cjnf]sg jf d'Nof+sg ul/G5 . To;}n] o;nfO{ cj:yfsf] Psn cWoog 9fFrf (one shot case study design) elgPsf] xf] . o; 9fFrfdf lgolGqt ;d"x /xFb}g / o;df cfGtl/s j}wtf ;a}eGbf sdhf]/ dflgG5 lsgeg] s'g} sfo{qmd ;~rfngkl5 k|fKt ePsf pknlAwx¿ ;f]xL sfo{qmdsf kmn:¿k k|fKt ePsf x'g\ eg]/ lglZrt ug{ ;lsb}g lsgeg] tL pknlAwx¿df j}wtfdf k|efj kfg]{ tTjx¿ h:tf] Oltxf;, kl/kSjtf, 5gf]6, ;fwg cflbsf] c;/;d]t ldl;Psf] x'g ;S5 . o; 9fFrfnfO{ lrqfTds ¿kdf lgDg ;ª\s]t k|of]u u/L b]vfpg ;lsG5M
E X O
cj:yfsf] Psn cWoognfO{ cfwf/ dfgL ;j]{If0f 9fFrf / u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿ w]/} k|of]udf cfPsf kfOG5g\ t/ tL 9fFrfx¿df j}wtf :ylkt ug{sf] nflu cGo tl/sfx¿ h:tf] 58\s] hfFr, lqsf]0ffTds hfFr cflb ckgfOPsf x'G5g\ h'g sfo{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfdf cfjZos 7flg+b}g / kof{Kt klg dflg+b}g . h]xf];\ cj:yfsf] Psn cWoog 9fFRff j}1flgs / k|of]ufTds lx;fan] sdhf]/ dflgP tfklg z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf nflu Jojxf/df z'¢ k|of]ufTds / cw{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfeGbf w]/} k|rngdf 5 eGg ;lsG5 .
@= Psn ;d"x k"j{k/LIf0f kZrft\k/LIf0f 9fFrf
Psn ;d"x k"j{k/LIf0f kZrft\k/LIf0f 9fFrf -one group pretest posttest design_ df k"j{k/LIf0f ;dfj]z ul/g] x'gfn] cj:yfsf] Psn cWoog 9fFrfeGbf ;'wfl/Psf] 9fFrf dflgG5 . Psn ;d"xsf] k"j{k/LIf0f kZrft\k/LIf0f 9fFrfdf Pp6f ;d"x 5gf]6 ul/Psf] x'G5, pSt ;d"xdf sfo{qmd ;~rfng
62
ug'{eGbf klxn] k"j{k/LIf0f ul/G5, To;kl5 sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/G5 / pSt ;d"xdf kZrft\ k/LIf0f ul/G5 . o; 9fFrfnfO{ lrqfTds ¿kdf lgDgadf]lhd ;ª\s]tdf b]vfpg ;lsG5M
E O1 X O2
o; 9fFrfdf k"j{k/LIf0fsf] k|fKtfª\seGbf sfo{qmd ;~rfngkl5sf] k|fKtfª\sdf slt kl/jt{g ePsf] 5 ;f] k|fKtfª\sdf cfPsf] ;'wf/ jf leGgtf cyf{t\\ j[l¢ k|fKtfª\ssf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf lgwf{/0f ul/G5 t/ o; 9fFrfdf klg sfo{qmd ;~rfng kl5 k|fKt ePsf] j[l¢ k|fKtfª\s sfo{qmds} kmn:j¿k k|fKt ePsf] z'¢ k|efj xf] EfGg ;ls+b}g lsgeg] pSt j[l¢ k|fKtfª\sdf Oltxf; cyf{t\\ afXo 36gf, kl/kSjtf cYff{t\ pd]/, k"j{k/LIf0f cYff{t\ O1 cflbsf] c;/ ;d]t b]lvg ;Sb5 . o; 9fFrfdf sfo{qmdeGbf cl3sf ;xefuLsf Jojxf/x¿ yfxf x'g] eP tfklg randomization gul/g] / lgolGqt ;d"x klg gx'g] x'gfn] j}1flgs lx;fan] j}wtfsf b[li6n] sdhf]/ 9fFrf dflgG5 . x'g t of] 9fFrf cj:yfsf] Psn cWoog 9fFrfEfGbf s]xL /fd|f] 9fFrf xf] .
#= :jfefljs ;d"x t'ngfTds 9fFrf
:jfefljs ;d"x t'ngfTds 9fFrf (intact group comparison design) nfO{ l:y/ ;d"x t'ngfTds 9fFrf -static group comparison design_ klg elgG5 . o; 9fFrfdf :jfefljs jf :yL/ lsl;dsf b'O{ ;d"xx¿ lnOG5g\ . h:t} Pp6} ljBfnosf Pp6} sIffsf cnu–cnu ;]S;gsf ljBfyL{x¿ cyjf k|fylds txsf] ;fj{hlgs ljBfnosf lzIfsx¿ / k|fylds txs} lghL ljBfnosf lzIfsx¿ cflb . o:tf b'O{ j6f ;d"xx¿df j}1flgs lx;fan] ;dfgtf :yflkt x'Fb}g . o; 9fFrfnfO{ lrqfTds ¿kdf lgDgadf]lhd ;ª\s]tdf pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5M
E X O1
- - - - - - - - - - - -
C O2
o; 9fFrfdf Pp6f ;d"xdf sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/G5 / csf]{ ;d"xdf pSt sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/+b}g . sfo{qmd ;~rfng sfo{ ;DkGg eO;s]kl5 b'j} ;d"xsf Jojxf/x¿ cjnf]sg ul/G5 . pSt sfo{qmd k|fKt gug]{ ;d"xsf] t'ngfdf sfo{qmddf ;xefuLx¿sf] Jojxf/df slt kl/jt{g ePsf] 5 ;f] sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf d"Nofª\sg ug{ kfOG5 t/ o; 9fFrfdf klg k|of]ufTds / lgolGqt ;d"xsf] aLrdf ;dfgtf gx'g] ePsf]n] 5gf]6sf] c;/ kb{5 . To;}n] of] 9fFrf klg j}1flgs lx;fan] j}wtfsf b[li6n] sdhf]/ 9fFrf dflgG5 . x'g t of] 9fFrfdf t'ngfTds ;d"x dfg]/ t'ngf ug{ kfOg] x'gfn] cj:yfsf] Psn cWoog 9fFrf / Psn ;d"x k"j{k/LIf0f kZrft\k/LIf0f 9fFrfeGbf s]xL /fd|f] 9fFrf xf] eGg ;lsG5 .
#=#= ;j]{If0f 9fFrf
zflAbs lx;fan] ;j]{If0f eGgfn] tYofª\s ;ª\sng k|lqmof xf] . To;}n] ;j]{If0fnfO{ tYofª\s ;ª\sngsf] Pp6f ljlw jf ;fwgsf] ¿kdf lng] u/]sf] kfOG5 . h:t} cGt/jftf{ ;j]{If0f, k|ZgfjnL ;j]{If0f, 3/w'/L ;j]{If0f kmf/d ljBfno ;j]{If0f kmf/d cflb . ;j]{If0fnfO{ tYofª\s ;ª\sngsf] Pp6f ljlw jf ;fwgsf] ¿kdf dfq ;Lldt u/]/ a'‰g' q'l6k"0f{ x'g]5 lsgeg] ;j]{If0fnfO{ cg';Gwfgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ k|sf/sf] ¿kdf ;d]t lng] u/]sf] kfOG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ;fdlhs lj1fgsf] cg';Gwfgdf / z}lIfs cg';Gwfgdf ;j]{If0f cg';Gwfg Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ cg';Gwfgsf] ¿kdf :yflkt eO;s]sf] 5 . oxfF ;j]{If0fnfO{ Pp6f tYofª\s ;ª\sngsf] ljlwsf] ¿kdf jf cg';Gwfgsf] Pp6f k|sf/sf] ¿kdf j0f{g ug{ vf]lhPsf] geO{ ;j]{If0fnfO{ oxfF Ps k|sf/sf] cWoog 9fFrf / Ps k|sf/sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] 9fFrfsf] ¿kdf rrf{ ug{ vf]lhPsf] xf] . ;j]{If0f 9fFrf -survey design_ eg]sf] Ps k|sf/sf] ;ª\VofTds 9fFrf xf] t/ of] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfeGbf km/s 5 . To:t} ;j]{If0f 9fFrf Ps k|sf/sf] j0f{gfTds 9fFRff t xf] t/ of] k|fs[lts jf u'0ffTDfs 9fFrfeGbf leGg / ljk/Lt dfGotfdf cfwfl/t 9fFrf xf] . ;j{]If0f 9fFrf / k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf aLrsf leGgtfx¿nfO{ tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
63
tflnsf #=! ;j{]If0f 9fFrf / k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf aLrsf leGgtfx¿
;j]{If0f 9fFrf k|of]ufTds 9fFrf ;j]{If0f 9fFrf j0f{gfTds xG5 . ;fwf/0ftof 7"nf] gd'gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 . ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] If]qdf pkof]uL 5 . ;d'bfosf] jftfj/0fdf cWoog ul/G5 . ;x;DaGwsf] ljZn]if0f dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . r/x¿sf] lgoGq0f uGf{ ;ls+b}g . cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ c;/ ug]{ tTjx¿
lgoGq0f ul/b}g . lgolGqt ;d"x cfjZos 5}g .
k|of]ufTds 9fFrf k|of]u / k/LIf0fdf cfwfl/t x'G5 .
;fwf/0ftof ;fgf] gd'gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 . ef}lts / k|fs[lts lj1fgdf of] 9fFrf clt
cfjZos 5 . k|of]uzfnfsf] jftfj/0fdf cWoog ul/G5 . sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwsf] cWoog dxTjk"0f{
x'G5 . r/x¿sf] lgoGq0f ul/G5 . cfGtl/s j}wtf sfod ul/G5 . lgolGqt ;d"x cfjZos 5 .
u'0ffTds 9fFrf jf k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] ljk/Lt ;j]{If0f 9fFrf ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t ePsfn] o; 9fFrfnfO{ ldl>t 9fFrfsf] >]0fLdf /fVg' pko'St x'Fb}g . To:t} u}/–k|of]ufTds, k"j{–k|of]ufTds jf j0f{gfTds 9fFrfsf] ¿kdf ;j]{If0f 9fFrfnfO{ kl/eflift ug'{ klg Tolt pko'St 5}g lsgeg] oL 9fFrfx¿ cGtu{t u'0ffTds÷k|fs[lts 9fFrf;d]tnfO{ /flvPsf] kfOG5 ha ls u'0ffTds 9fFrf / ;j]{If0f 9fFrf ljk/Lt cjwf/0ffx¿df cfwfl/t 5g\ . o;/L cWoogsf ljk/Lt 9fFrfx¿nfO{ Pp6} ;d"xdf /fvL juL{s/0f ug'{ 9fFrf juL{s/0fsf b[li6n] Hofb} cg'ko'St xf] eg] csf]{lt/ ;j]{If0f cWoog / u'0ffTds cWoogdWo] b'j} cyjf s'g} Ps cWoognfO{ gh/cGbfh ug{ vf]lhPsf] / ltgsf] dxTjnfO{ vf/]h ug{ vf]lhPsf] dfq xf] eGg' pko'St x'G5 . ;j]{If0f 9fFRff / k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf leGgtfx¿nfO{ tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5M
tflnsf #=@ ;j]{If0f 9fFRff / k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf leGgtfx¿
;j]{If0f 9fFrf k|fs[lts 9fFrf ;j]{If0f 9fFrf ;ª\VofTds cyf{t\\
kl/df0ffTds 9fFrf xf] . 7"nf] :s]ndf ;~rfng ul/G5 . o;n]
7"nf] If]q ;d]6\g ;S5 . ;txL cWoog x'G5 . k"j{lgwf{l/t / of]hgfa¢ 9fFrf xf] . cWoogsf] ljifoj:t'x¿ ljlzi6
(specific) x'G5g\ . cWoog j:t'lgi7 x'G5 . tYodf cfwfl/t ljZn]if0fdf hf]8 lbOG5
. q[l6x¿ sd ug]{, k"j{fu|xx¿ x6fpg],
;"rgfsf] k|fylds ;|f]tnfO{ dxTj lbg], ;ª\VofTds ¿kdf kof{Kt gd'gf 5gf]6 ug]{ / :t/Lo ;fwgx¿sf] lgdf{0f ug]{ h:tf tl/sfx¿ ckgfO{ ;"rgfsf] ;Totf sfod ul/G5 . o;df tYofª\szf:qLo lgisif{ j}wtf / /rgfTds j}wtf sfod ug{ ;lsG5 .
k|fs[lts 9fFrf u'0ffTds 9fFrf xf] .
;fgf] :s]ndf ;~rfng ul/G5 .o;n] ;fgf] If]q ;d]6\5 .
uxg, ;3g / lj:t[t cWoog x'G5 . k"j{lgwf{l/t / of]hgfa¢ 9fFrf xf]Og . of] :jfefljs
ljsf; x'g] 9fFrf (emergent design) xf] . cWoogsf] ljifoj:t' ;fwf/0f / k"0f{ (holistic) x'G5
. cWoog ljifout÷dgf]ut x'G5 . d"Nodf cfwfl/t j0f{gdf hf]8 lbOG5 . cWoogdf ljZjf;k"0f{tf -trustworthiness) /
cflwsfl/stf (authenticity) sfod u/]/ cWoogsf] ;Totf :yflkt ul/G5 . o;sf nflu 58\s] hfFr / lqsf]0ffTds hfFr h:tf ljlwx¿ ckgfOG5 . o;df JofVofTds / d"Nofª\sg ;DaGwL j}wtf sfod ug'{kb{5 .
64
;j]{If0f 9fFrf Ps k|sf/sf] j0f{gfTds lsl;dsf] ;ª\VofTds 9fFrf xf] h;df sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ j0f{g ul/G5 t/ To:tf] ;DaGwnfO{ k|of]u u/]/ cyf{t\\ k/LIf0f u/]/ :yflkt ul/b}g . To;}n] o;nfO{ slxn]sfxL+ j0f{gfTds 9fFrfsf] ¿kdf lng] ul/Psf] kfOG5 . ;j]{If0f 9fFrf Ps k|sf/sf] u}/–k|of]ufTds 9fFrf xf] . t/ ;a} lsl;dsf u}/k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ / ;a} lsl;dsf j0f{gfTds 9fFrfx¿ ;j]{If0f 9fFrf xf]Ogg\ . sltko k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf pbfx/0fx¿nfO{ ;j]{If0f 9fFrf cGtu{t /fVg ;lsG5 t/ ;j]{If0f 9fFrfcGtu{tsf ;a} cWoogx¿nfO{ k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfn] ;d]6]sf] kfOFb}g .
;j]{If0f 9fFrfcGtu{t j0f{gfTds tYofª\sx¿ ;ª\sng ug{sf nflu Jojl:yt, ldtJooL / 5l/tf ljlwx¿ kb{5g\ . Isaac and Michael (1981) sf cg';f/ o:tf tYofª\sx¿ tLg lsl;dsf x'g ;Sb5g\M h:t} -s_ ljBdfg hg;ª\Vofsf ljz]iftfx¿, -v_ ljBdfg cEof;x¿, cj:yfx¿ / cfjZostfx¿, -u_ cg';Gwfg k|Zgx¿ l;h{gf ug{sf nflu k|f/lDes ;"rgfx¿ . To:t} ;j]{If0f 9fFrfdf cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ tLg lsl;dsf x'G5g\M -s_ cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofsf] ljBdfg cj:yf, ljz]iftf / cfjZostfx¿ jf k|efjx¿ kQf nufpg', -v_ sdLsdhf]/Lx¿, ;d:ofx¿, sl7gfOx¿ / sf/0fx¿ kQf nufpg', -u_ jt{dfg cj:yfdf ;'wf/sf pkfox¿ vf]Hg' . ;j]{If0f 9fFrfdf cWoog ug'{kg]{ hg;ª\Vofsf] kof{Kt k|ltlglwTj x'g] u/L gd'gf 5gf]6 ul/G5 / tL gd'gfx¿af6 ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng u/L ;Dk"0f{ hg;ª\Vofsf] cWoog ul/G5 .
#=$= k|fs[lts 9fFrf
k|fs[lts 9fFrfnfO{ kof{ojfrL ¿kdf u'0ffTds 9fFrf dflgG5 . u'0ffTds 9fFrfsf] af/]df PsfO Psdf g} k|z:t rrf{ eO;s]sf] 5 . To:t} u'0ffTds cyf{t\\ k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf cWoogsf] j}wtf :yflkt ug]{ tl/sfx¿sf af/]df oxL PsfOsf] klxnf] v08df rrf{ eO;s]sf] 5 . To:t} k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t d"Nofª\sgsf] gd'gfsf] af/]df rf}yf] PsfOdf rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . oxfF k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf dxTjk"0f{ kIfx¿sf] af/]df ;ª\If]kdf tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
k|fs[lts 9fFrf eg]sf] :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf :jfefljs tl/sfaf6 :jfefljs 36gfx¿sf] cWoog ug]{ 9fFrf xf] . o; 9fFrfn] ax'–jf:tljstfx¿sf] jsfnt u5{ cyf{t\\ ;do, 7fpF, jftfj/0f / kl/l:yltx¿ cg';f/ JolStut jf:tljstfx¿ / ;Gbe{hGo jf:tljstfx¿sf] kl/sNkgf ub{5 . o; 9fFrfn] cWoog ug]{ JolStx¿nfO{ cWoog ul/Psf j:t'x¿af6 k[ys /fVg c;Dej b]V5 cyf{t\\ cWoogstf{sf] cWoog ul/Psf j:t'x¿, 36gfx¿ / k|lqmofx¿dfly k|efj kb{5 eGg] ljZjf; ul/G5 . k|fs[lts 9fFrfn] cWoogdf dfgj;fwgsf] k|of]u ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbG5 cyf{t\\ cWoogstf{sf] ljrf/, efjgf / cg'ejx¿sf] k|of]u u/L cWoog ug'{kb{5 . o; 9fFrfn] sf/0f / k|efjaLrsf ;DaGwx¿nfO{ cnucnu ug{ c;Dej b]V5 lsgeg] ;fdflhs kl/j]zdf sf/0f / k|efjsf] aLrdf ultzLn / cGt/lqmofTds ;DaGwx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ .
k|fs[lts 9fFrfaf6 sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 t/ of] 9fFrf sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoogdf dfq ;Lldt x'Fb}g . o; 9fFrfdf sfo{qmdsf ;Gbe{x¿, kl/l:yltx¿, jftfj/0fx¿, ;fdflhs, /fhg}lts / cfly{s cj:yfx¿nfO{ a]jf:tf u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] cWoog ug{ ;ls+b}g . s'g} sfo{qmd ;~rfngaf6 h] h:tf pknlAwx¿ x'G5g\ tL pknlAwx¿ sfo{qmdsf] k|efj dfq geP/ ;fdflhs, /fhg}lts / cfly{s kl/l:yltx¿sf] pkh dflgG5 . Patton (1990) n] k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf x'g] s]xL dxTjk"0f{ ;afnx¿ p7fPsf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ k|fs[lts 9fFrfåf/f ul/g] cWoogdf gf} j6f ;afnx¿ dxTjk"0f{ 5g\ . tL x'g\M -s_ cWoogsf ljlwx¿, -v_ cWoogsf k|fylds PsfOx¿, -u_ gd'gf 5gf]6sf /0fgLltx¿, -3_ t'ngfx¿, -ª_ ;"rgfsf lsl;dx¿, -r_ ;"rgfsf] u'0f:t/ -5_ cWoogsf] j}wtf, -h_ ;"rgf ljZn]if0fsf] tl/sf / -em_ glthfx¿ lgsfNg] tl/sf .
k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ;fwgx¿ v'Nnf / :jfefljs x'G5g\ h'g k"j{lgwf{l/t / aGb k|sf/sf x'Fb}gg\ . o:tf ;fwgx¿ kl/l:yltcg';f/ nlrnf] eO{ t/n / lgdf{0f x'g] k|sf/sf x'G5g\ . o:tf] cWoogdf v'Nnf cGt/jftf{, v'Nnf k|ZgfjnL, ;xeflutfd"ns cjnf]sg, nlIft ;d"x 5nkmn, 8fo/Lx¿, lkmN8 gf]6x¿, hLjgLx¿ / b:tfj]h cWoogx¿ ;dfj]z x'G5g\ . o; cWoogdf sltko ;"rgfx¿ cgf}krfl/s ¿kdf ;DalGwt JolStnfO{ yfxf glbO{sg klg ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsG5 . sltko ;"rgfx¿sf] 58\s] hfFr ul/G5 . sltko ;"rgfsf] ;DalGwt JolStx¿åf/f k'gk'{li6 ul/G5 . h]xf];\, o; 9fFrfdf ;DjlGwt JolStx¿sf] ;Ddfg / uf]KotfnfO{ pRr sb/ ul/G5 . k|fs[lts 9fFrf d"ntM cj:yf cWoog
65
-case study_ df cfwfl/t 5 . o; 9fFrfdf cWoogsf] j:t' cyf{t\\ k|fylds PsfO;Fu ;DalGwt ;Dk"0f{ kIfx¿ / ltgsf ;a} cfofdx¿sf] dl;gf];Fu cWoog ul/G5 .
:yfgLo kl/j]zdf :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf Jofks -comprehensive_, lj:t[t -in-detail_, uxg -in-depth_ / ;3g -intensive_ ¿kdf ul/g] j0f{gfTds cWoognfO{ u'0ffTds cWoog eGg ;lsG5 . k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf u'0ffTds cWoogsf ljz]iftfx¿ x'G5g\ . u'0ffTds cWoogsf ljz]iftfx¿ -themes_ sf af/]df Kof6gn] pNn]v u/]sf !) j6f dxTjk"0f{ a'Fbfx¿ tn ;ª\If]kdf lbOPsf] 5M
k|fs[lts cWoogM jf:tljs ;f+;fl/s kl/l:yltx¿ h] h;/L :jfefljs ¿kdf eO/x]sf x'G5g\ ltgsf] :jfefljs ¿kdf cWoog ug'{ g} k|fs[lts cWoog -naturalistic inquiry_ xf] . oxfF k|fs[lts cWoog eGgfn] k|s[ltjfb -naturalism_ df cfwfl/t elgPsf] xf]Og, / k|fs[lts lj1fg -natural science_ sf] cWoog elgPsf] klg xf]Og . :jfefljs kl/l:yltx¿nfO{ vnan gk'¥ofOsg, lgoGq0f gul/sg, cgf}krfl/s ¿kdf / yfxf glbP h:tf] u/L v'Nnf ¿kdf cWoog ug'{ g} k|fs[lts cWoog xf] .
u'0ffTds ;"rgfx¿M lj:t[t ¿kdf / ;3g ¿kdf, w]/} j0f{g ug]{, ulx/f];Fu, dl;gf s'/fx¿ s]nfP/ cWoog ug],{ dflg;sf JolStut b[li6sf]0fx¿ / cg'ejx¿ ;d]6\g] / k|ToIf egfOx¿ ;d]6\g] ;"rgfx¿nfO{ g} u'0ffTds ;"rgf -qualitative data_ dflgG5 .
;du|tfsf] b[li6sf]0fM o; b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ cWoog ul/g] ;Dk"0f{ 36gfnfO{ Pp6f hl6n k|0ffnL dflgG5, h'g o;sf c+zx¿sf] of]ukmneGbf a9L x'G5 . ;du|tfsf] b[li6sf]0f -holistic perspective_ cg';f/ hl6n cGt/lge{/tfx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . o;df sf/0f / k|efjsf ;DaGwx¿df dfq s]lGb|t eO{ Pp6f ;/n /]vfdf ;Lldt cWoog ul/+b}g .
ultzLn k|0ffnLx¿M u'0ffTds 9fFrf k|lqmof cWoogdf a9L s]lGb|t x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf of] 9fFrfdf ultzLn k|0ffnLx¿ -dynamic systems_ sf] cWoog ul/G5 h;df kl/jt{g lg/Gt/ eO/xg] x'G5 . Pp6f JolStsf] cyjf Pp6f k'/} ;+:s[ltsf] cWoogdf oxL s'/f nfu" x'G5 .
of]hgfdf nrstfM u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf a'emfO ulx/f] x'Fb} hfFbf cyjf kl/l:yltdf kl/jt{g ePdf cWoogdf ;'wf/ ul/G5 . s7f]/ of]hgfx¿sf] aGwgnfO{ c:jLsf/ ul/G5 . o:tf] 9fFrfdf cfjZostfcg';f/ cWoogsf gofF af6fx¿ cjnDag ul/G5 . o;/L u'0ffTds 9fFrfsf] of]hgfdf nrstf -design flexibility_ x'G5 .
cfudg ljZn]if0fM u'0ffTds 9fFRffdf lgudg -deductive_ eGbf cfudg -inductive_ ljlwsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . o; 9fFrfdf ;}4flGts ¿kdf ljsf; ul/Psf kl/sNkgfx¿sf] k/LIf0f ul/g] lgudg -deductive_ ljlwsf] k|of]unfO{ pko'St dflg+b}g . o;sf] ;§fdf tYout / lj:t[t ;"rgfx¿df k|j]z ug]{ ljlw ckgfOG5 / o;sf] cfwf/df dxTjk"0f{ juL{s/0fx¿ -categories_, cfofdx¿ -dimensions_ / cGt/;DaGwx¿ -interrelationships_ sf] vf]hL ul/G5 . o;sf nflu ;"rgf ;ª\sng ubf{ v'Nnf / :jfefljs k|Zgx¿af6 ;'¿ ul/G5 .
JolStut ;Dks{ / cGt/b[li6M u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf cWoogstf{sf] JolStut ;Dks{ / cGt/b[li6 -personal contact and insight_ sf] k|of]u Hofb} dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 . o; 9fFrfdf cWoogstf{n] cWoog ul/g] dflg;x¿, kl/l:yltx¿ / 36gfx¿;Fu k|ToIf ;Dks{ sfod u/L 3lgi6 ;DaGw agfpF5g\ . cWoogstf{sf] JolStut cg'ejx¿ / cGt/b[li6nfO{ 36gfx¿sf] cWoogsf nflu dxTjk"0f{ dflgG5 .
cg'e"ltk"0f{ t6:ytfM u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf cg'e"ltk"0f{ t6:ytf -empathic neutrality_ vf]lhG5 . cg'e"lt -empathy_ eGgfn] To:tf] cj:yfdf ePsf] eP d s] ug]{ lyPF, d s:tf] x'g] lyPF egL cg'e"ltsf] dx;'; x'g'nfO{ elgPsf] xf] . o; 9fFrfdf k"0f{ j:t'lgi7tf c;Dej dflgG5 / z'4 dgf]ut ljrf/ -pure subjectivity_ n] ljZjf; ug{ ;lsg] u'0f -credibility_ sfod ub}{g . o; 9fFrfdf cWoogstf{nfO{ s'g} s'/f k|dfl0ft ug'{ 5}g, s'g} s'/fsf] jsfnt ug'{ klg 5}g, s'g} JolStut Ph]G8f / :jfy{ 5}g, t/ ;+;f/sf hl6ntd\ kIfx¿nfO{ /fd|f];Fu a'‰g' 5 . o:tf] efjgf af]s]/ cWoogstf{n] JolStut cg'ej / cg'e"ltk"0f{ cGt/b[li6sf] k|of]u ub{5g\ . kl/l:yltcg';f/ pgn] cfFkm} :jod\ lg0f{o gu/L Pp6f t6:y c8fg /fVb5g\ .
df}lns cj:yfnfO{ dfGotfM u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf df}lns cj:yfnfO{ dfGotf -unique case orientation_ k|bfg ul/Psf] x'G5 . o; 9fFrfdf k|To]s cj:yfnfO{ ljz]if / df}lns dflgG5 .
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cWoogsf] klxnf] txdf k|To]s cj:yf -case_ sf] lj:t[t ljj/0f lnOG5 / JolStut cj:yfx¿sf] cWoogsf] cfwf/df ljleGg cj:yfx¿sf] ljZn]if0f -cross-case analysis_ ul/G5 .
kl/l:ylthGo ;+j]bgzLntfM u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf kl/l:ylthGo ;+j]bgzLntf (context sensitivity) x'G5 . o; 9fFrfdf cWoogsf glthfx¿nfO{ ;fdflhs, P]ltxfl;s, :yfgLo / c:yfoL ;Gbe{cg';f/ a'‰g'kg]{ x'G5 cyf{t\\ Pp6f cWoogsf] glthfx¿ ToxL ;Gbe{df dfq pko'St x'g ;Sb5g\ . pSt glthfx¿ cGo 7fpF / ;dodf zª\sf:kb x'g ;S5g\ . To;}n] o:tf glthfx¿sf] ;fdfGoLs/0f ug]{ sfo{ cy{k"0f{ gx'g ;S5 .
u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf ljleGg b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] k|of]u ul/G5 . leGgleGg b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] cfwf/df u'0ffTds cWoogdf ljljwtfx¿ /x]sf] kfOG5 . Kof6gn] u'0ffTds cWoogsf !) k|sf/x¿ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ h;nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf lgDgadf]lhd k|:t't ul/G5M
hftLo cWoogM hftLo cWoog (ethnography) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ dfgjzf:q xf] . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf s'g} ;d"xsf dflg;x¿sf] ;+:s[ltsf] cWoog ul/G5 . o; ;d"xsf dflg;sf] ;+:s[lt s] 5 eGg] k|Zgdf hftLo cWoog s]lGb|t x'G5 .
k|lqmof cWoogM k|lqmof cWoog (phenomenology) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ bz{gzf:q xf] . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf dflg;sf] hLjgdf 36]sf 36gfx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . of] 36gfsf] k|lqmofdf oL dflg;sf cg'ejx¿ s] 5g\ eGg] k|Zgdf k|lqmof cWoog s]lGb|t x'G5 .
cg'ej cWoogM cg'ej cWoog (heuristics) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ dfgj dgf]lj1fg xf] . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf s'g} 36gfsf] af/]df cfˆgf] cg'ej cyf{t\\ ef]ufO / c¿x¿sf] ef]ufOsf] cWoog ul/G5 . of] 36gfdf d]/f] cfkm\gf] cg'ej / c¿x¿ h;n] of] 36gf Jof]xf]/]sf 5g\ ltgsf] ef]ufO s] 5 eGg] k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ cg'ej cWoog ul/G5 .
hftLo k|lqmof cWoogM hftLo k|lqmof cWoog (ethnomethodology) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ ;dfhzf:q xf] . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf dflg;x¿n] cfˆgf b}lgs hLjgsf lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ s;/L cy{k"0f{ agfpF5g\ eGg] af/]df cWoog ul/G5 . ;fdflhs ¿kdf :jLs[t Jojxf/x¿ ug{sf nflu cfˆgf b}lgs lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ dflg;x¿n] s;/L cy{ nufpF5g\ eGg] s'/fdf s]lGb|t eP/ hftLo k|lqmof cWoog ul/G5 .
;fª\s]lts cGt/lqmof cWoogM ;fª\s]lts cGt/lqmof cWoog (symbolic interactionism) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg xf] . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf dflg;sf cGt/lqmofx¿df k}bf ePsf ;femf ;ª\s]tx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . dflg;sf cGt/lqmofx¿nfO{ cy{k"0f{ agfpgsf nflu s] s] ;femf ;ª\s]tx¿ / ;dembf/Lx¿ 5g\ eGg] k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ ;fª\s]lts cGt/lqmof cWoog ul/G5 .
kof{j/0fLo dgf]lj1fgM kof{j/0fLo dgf]lj1fg (ecological psychology) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ kof{j/0f / dgf]lj1fg xf] . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf JolStx¿n] cfˆgf nIox¿ k|fKt ug{sf nflu ug]{ k|of;x¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . s'g} vf; jftfj/0fdf cfˆgf] nIo k"/f ug{sf nflu dflg;x¿n] s'g} vf; Jojxf/x¿ s;/L ub{5g\ eGg] s'/fdf kof{j/0fLo dgf]lj1fg s]lGb|t x'G5 .
k|0ffnLut l;4fGtM k|0ffnLut l;4fGt (systems theory) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ cGt/ljwfut (interdisciplinary) 5 . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf k|0ffnLn] ug]{ sfo{x¿ / ltgsf sf/0fx¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 . ;du|tfdf s'g} k|0ffnLn] s;/L sfo{ ub{5 / lsg u5{ eGg] k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ k|0ffnL cWoog ul/G5 .
cy{x¿sf] cWoogM cy{x¿sf] cWoog (hermeneutics) sf] ljwfut cfwf/x¿ wd{zf:q, bz{gzf:q / ;flxlTos ;dfnf]rgfnfO{ dflgG5 . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf s'g} j:t'sf] ljleGg cy{x¿ lgsfNg ;Dej agfpg] vfnsf s'g} j:t' jf lqmofsnfksf k5fl8 /x]sf cGt/lglxt cj:yfx¿ s]–s] x'g\ eGg] k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ cy{x¿sf] cWoog ul/G5 .
j}rfl/s cWoogM j}rfl/s cWoog (orientational study) sf] ljwfut cfwf/ ljrf/wf/fx¿ / /fhgLlts cy{tGqnfO{ dflgG5 . o; lsl;dsf] u'0ffTds cWoogdf Jojxf/df k|s6 x'g] JolStsf] ljrf/wf/f cg';f/sf] b[li6sf]0f of] 36gfdf s;/L k|bz{g ePsf] 5 eGg] k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ j}rfl/s cWoog ul/G5 .
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a]lgodsf] l;4fGtM a]lgodsf] l;4fGt -chaos theory_ sf] ljwfut cfwf/ ;}4flGts ef}ltszf:q / k|fs[lts lj1fgx¿ x'g\ hxfF a]lgod l;4fGt eGgfn] w]/} ;+j]bgzLn lsl;dsf t/ Pscfk;df ;DjlGwt lrhx¿ ldn]/ ag]sf] ;d"xsf] cWoog xf] h;df s'g} s'/fdf ul/Psf] ;fgf]–;fgf] kl/jt{gn] w]/} k|efj kfb{5 . oxfF u'0ffTds cWoogdf cfk;df gldn]sf 36gf / k|lqmofx¿sf] k5fl8 s] s'g} lgod 5 eGg] k|Zgdf s]lGb|t eP/ a]lgod k|lqmof (disorderly phenomenon) sf] cWoog ul/G5 .
Kof6gn] u'0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf nflu p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6sf !^ j6f tl/sfx¿ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ h;nfO{ tn ;ª\If]kdf pNn]v ul/G5M
;'ljwfhgs gd'gf 5gf]6M ;dosf], >dsf] / vr{sf] ;b'kof]u x'g] lx;fan] cyf{t\\ kfos kg]{ u/L gd'gfx¿ 5gf]6 ul/G5 eg] ;'ljwfhgs -convenient_ ljlw xf]. o; ljlwaf6 gd'gf 5gf]6 u/L u'0ffTds cyf{t\\ k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .of] ljlw :yfgLo kl/j]zsf] cWoognfO{ pko'St x'g ;S5.
z+[vnfa4 gd'gf 5gf]6M cWoogsf nflu pko'St gd'gf 5gf]6 ug{sf nflu ljleGg dflg;x¿sf] z+[vnfa4 ¿kdf ;xof]u lnO{ ;DalGwt JolSt;Dd k'u]/ gd'gf 5gf]6 ug]{ ljlwnfO{ z[ª\vnfa¢ gd'gf 5gf]6 -chain sampling or snowball sampling_ elgG5 .;j{k|yd cWoogstf{åf/f lrg]sf JolSt 5gf]6 ul/G5, ltgsf] ;xof]un] csf]{ JolSt 5gf]6 ul/G5, km]l/ ltgsf ;xof]un] c¿ 5gf]6 ul/G5 / ;DalGwt JolSt;Dd k'luG5 .vf;u/L s'g} uf]Ko s'/fx¿sf] cWoogdf z[ª\vnfa4 gd'gf 5gf]6 pkof]uL x'G5 .
ljrlnt cj:yf 5gf]6M u'0ffTds cWoogdf :jfefljs cj:yf geO{ ljrlnt cj:yfx¿sf] 5gf]6 -deviant case sampling_ ug{ ;lsG5 . h:tf] Hofb} pRr jf Hofb} Go"g cj:yfsf] 5gf]6 ug'{ .
uxlsnf] gd'gf 5gf]6M u'0ffTds cWoogdf k|z:t ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt x'g] uxlsnf] gd'gfsf] 5gf]6 -intensity sampling_ ug{ ;lsG5 h'g ;aeGbf dflysf] jf ;aeGbf tnsf] cj:yf gx'g ;S5 .
clwstd leGgtf gd'gf 5gf]6M ljljw leGgtfx¿ ePsf gd'gfx¿sf] 5gf]6 ug'{ clwstd leGgtf gd'gf 5gf]6 -maximum variation sampling_ xf] .
;dfg gd'gf 5gf]6M leGgtf sd ePsf ldNbfh'Nbf JolStx¿sf] 5gf]6nfO{ ;dfg gd'gf 5gf]6 -homogeneous sampling_ elgG5 . o:tf] 5gf]6af6 nlIft ;d"x 5nkmn ug{ pko'St / ;lhnf] x'G5 / ;fy} ;"rgf ljZn]if0f ;/n aGb5 .
ljz]iftfo'St cj:yf 5gf]6M s'g} vf; ljz]iftf ePsf] cj:yf 5gf]6 ug'{ ljz]iftfo'St cj:yf 5gf]6 -typical case sampling_ xf] . h:t} s'g} df}lns lsl;dsf] ;fwf/0f cj:yf / s'g} cf};t cj:yf x'g ;S5 .
dxTjk"0f{ cj:yf 5gf]6M tfls{s lsl;dsf ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt x'g] / ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt x'g] cj:yfsf] 5gf]6nfO{ dxTjk"0f{ cj:yf 5gf]6 -critical case smpling_ elgG5 .
/fhg}lts ¿kdf dxTjk"0f{ cj:yf 5gf]6M cWoogdf cfsif{0f k}bf ug{sf nflu /fhg}lts ¿kdf dxTjk"0f{ cj:yf -politically important ceses_ sf] 5gf]6 ul/G5 . o;sf nflu /fhg}lts ¿kdf ;+j]bgzLn cj:yfx¿nfO{ x6fpg klg ;lsG5 .
cfwf/ gd'gf 5gf]6M s'g} vf; cfwf/ lgdf{0f u/L ;f] cfwf/ adf]lhdsf ;a} cj:yfx¿sf] 5gf]6 ug'{nfO{ cfwf/ gd'gf 5gf]6 -criterion sampling_ elgG5 . h:tf] % b]lv !) jif{sf ljBfno guPsf ;a} afnaflnsfx¿nfO{ 5gf]6 ug'{ .
lglZrt ug{ ;xof]u ug]{ cj:yfx¿M k|f/lDes ljZn]if0fnfO{ phfu/ ug{ jf ulx/f] jgfpg ;xof]u ug]{ cj:yfx¿ 5gf]6 ug{ ;lsG5 . ckjfbx¿ vf]Hg] jf leGgtfx¿ k/LIf0f ug]{ cj:yfx¿ 5gf]6 ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf cj:yfx¿nfO{ lglZrt ug{ ;xof]u ug]{ cj:yfx¿ -confirming or disconfirming cases_ elgG5 .
l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t gd'gf 5gf]6M cWoogsf ;}4flGts u'0fx¿ k|bz{g ug]{ cj:yfx¿ 5gf]6 ug'{ l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t gd'gf 5gf]6 -Theory based sampling_ xf] . o:tf cj:yfx¿sf] 5gf]6af6 ;}4flGts u'0fx¿nfO{ phfu/ ug{ jf k/LIf0f ug{ ;xof]u k'Ub5 .
cj;/jfbL gd'gf 5gf]6M lkmN8df cgk]lIft ¿kdf k|fKt ePsf] kmfObfsf] ;b'kof]u u/L gd'gf 5gf]6 ug'{nfO{ -opportunistic sampling_ elgG5 . o;af6 gd'gf 5gf]6df nrstf a9\5 .
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juL{s[t p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6M cWoogsf] hg;ª\Vofdf /x]sf ;d"xx¿nfO{ 5'6\ofP/ cfjZostfcg';f/ ;d"xlkR5] gd'gf 5gf]6 ug'{nfO{ juL{s[t p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6 -stratified purposeful sampling_ elgG5 . o;af6 ljleGg pk;d"xsf ljz]iftfx¿ j0f{g ug{ / t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5 .
k"0f{ ;Defjgfdf cfwfl/t p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6M ;Defljt p2]Zod"ns gd'gfx¿ w]/} ePsf] cj:yfdf, ;a}nfO{ lng g;lsPsf] cj:yfdf, k"0f{ ;Defjgfdf cfwfl/t p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6 -random purposeful sampling_ ug{ ;lsG5 cyf{t\\ lr¶f k4ltaf6 gd'gf 5gf]6 ug{ ;lsG5 t/ o:tf] ljlwaf6 ul/Psf] 5gf]6af6 ;a}sf] k|ltlglwTj gx'g ;S5 . To;}n] ;fdfGoLs/0f x'Fb}g . o:tf] ljlwaf6 gd'gf 5gf]6 ubf{ ljZjf; uGf{ ;lsg] u'0f cyf{t\\ ljZjfl;nf]kgf -credibility_ a9\5 .
ldl>t p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6M lqsf]0ffTds hfFrsf nflu, nrstsf nflu / cGo cfjZostf k/]sf] j]nfdf PseGbf a9L p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6 ljlw ckgfpg' ldl>t p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6 (mixed purposeful sampling ) xf] .
dfly pNn]v ul/Psf h'gh's} k|sf/sf] u'0ffTds 9fFrfdf cWoogsf glthfx¿ pNn]v ug'{cl3 ltgsf] oy]i6 ¿kdf k/LIf0f ug]{ / ;'lglZrt ug{ cfjZos x'G5 . u'0ffTds cWoogaf6 k|fKt glthfx¿ xr'jf dfq geP/ ;txL / ckTofl/nf] x'g ;S5g\ . kl/l:ylthGo ;Gbe{ pNn]v gePsf] xr'jf, ;txL / kTof/ gnfUg] glthfnfO{ u'0ffTds glthf eGg ;ls+b}g . ctM k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt x'g] glthfx¿nfO{ u'0ffTds agfpgsf nflu tL glthfx¿nfO{ k/LIf0f / ;'lglZrt ug{sf nflu ljleGg tl/sfx¿ ckgfpg ;lsG5 . tL tl/sfx¿sf] af/]df ;ª\If]kdf tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5M
5gf]6 ul/Psf cj:yfx¿ -cases_ slt k|ltlglwd"ns 5g\ To;sf] hfFr ug]{ . csf]{ zAbdf, 5gf]6 ul/Psf gd'gfsf] ljz]iftfx¿sf] cfwf/df tL gd'gfx¿ s'g–s'g ;Gbe{df, kl/l:yltdf, 7fpFdf, jf ;dodf ldNbfh'Nbf 5g\, To;sf] olsg ug]{ .
cWoogstf{sf k|efjx¿ hfFr ug]{ . csf]{ zAbdf, cWoogstf{sf] cfˆgf] ljrf/, efjgf, pkl:ylt, lqmofsnfk jf egfOaf6 k/]sf jf kg{;Sg] c;/x¿ pNn]v ug]{ .
;"rgfx¿sf] lqsf]0ffTds hfFr ug]{ . o;sf nflu ;"rgfsf ljljw ;|f]tx¿ x'g'kg]{, Pp6} ;"rgf k|fKt ug{ ljljw ljlwx¿ ckgfpg'kg]{, cWoogsf] ;dLIff ljljw JolStaf6 cjnf]sg u/fpg] / km/s–km/s l;4fGtx¿sf] k|of]u ug]{ h:tf tl/sfx¿ ckgfO{ ;"rgfx¿sf] lqsf]0ffTds hfFr ug{ ;lsG5 .
k|df0fx¿sf] dxTj vf]Hg] . tYout ;"rgfx¿dWo] dxTjk"0f{ ;"rgfx¿nfO{ ;dfj]z ug]{ . cWoogdf ;dfj]z u/fpg g;lsPsf cyf{t\\ 5'6]sf JolStx¿sf] /fo lng] . csf]{ zAbdf, gd'gf
5gf]6df kg{ g;s]sf JolStx¿sf] wf/0ff, ljrf/ / b[li6sf]0fx¿ lng] . cWoogsf] af/]df / gd'gfsf] af/]df pgLx¿sf] ljrf/ lng ;lsG5 .
Hofb} leGg cj:yfx¿ -extreme cases) sf] k|of]u ug]{, s'g} s'/fnfO{ :ki6 b]vfpg jf km/s b]vfpg w]/} km/s ePsf cj:yfx¿ jf ltgsf pbfx/0fx¿ k]; ug]{ .
cgf}7f s'/fx¿nfO{ k5\ofpg] . cfZro{hgs cj:yfx¿ / pbfx/0fx¿ vf]Hg] / ltgsf0f{g ug]{ . olb o:tf] x'G5 eg] cyjf To;f] eP To;kl5 s] t h:tf sygx¿ lgdf{0f u/]/ glthfx¿sf] j0f{g
ug]{ . k|efj kfg]{ r/x¿ vf]Hg] / ;Defljt sf/0fx¿ pNn]v ug]{ . glthfx¿nfO{ cfjZostfcg';f/ k'gk|{of]u ug]{ / 7fpF7fpFdf k6s–k6s bf]xf]¥ofpg] . ;"rgfbftfx¿ / hflgkmsf/x¿af6 k[i7kf]if0f lng] . cWoogsf] glthfnfO{ ;DalGwt JolStx¿;Dd
k'u]/ k'gk'{li6 ug]{ . cWoogaf6 k|fKt ePsf] glthfsf] ljkIfdf x'g ;Sg] ;Defljt ts{x¿sf] j0f{g ug]{ / pSt j0f{gsf]
cfwf/df glthfsf] hfFr ug]{ .
o;/L k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] af/]df oxfF ;ª\lIfKt kl/ro lbgsf nflu u'0ffTds 9fFrfsf ljz]iftfx¿, ltgsf k|sf/x¿, gd'gf 5gf]6sf tl/sfx¿ / glthfx¿ k/LIf0f u/L kTofl/nf] agfpg] pkfox¿ pNn]v ul/of] .
#=% d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿
o; PsfOdf k|of]ufTds 9fFrf, ;j]{If0f 9fFrf / k|fs[lts 9fFrf u/L tLg k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sgsf 9fFrfx¿sf] lj:t[t rrf{ ul/;lsPsf] 5 . oxfF ;ª\If]kdf tL 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿ pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
69
#=%=!= k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿
k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿nfO{ :ki6 ug{sf] nflu oxfF z'¢ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿, cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿ / k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿nfO{ ;ª\lIfKt ¿kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
s_ z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿
z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ j}1flgs dflgg] x'gfn] of] 9fFrf Hofb} dxTjk"0f{ 5 . o; 9fFrfcg';f/ cWoog ubf{ k|of]uzfnfsf kl/l:yltx¿ lgdf{0f ug]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbOg] x'gfn] k|of]uzfnfsf] jftfj/0fdf of] 9fFrfsf] k|of]u pkof]uL l;4 5 . o; 9fFrfn] randomization sf] ljlw ckgfO{ lgoGq0f ;d"x / k|of]ufTds ;d"x lgdf{0f u/L b'j} ;d"xdf ;dfgtf :yflkt ub{5 h;n] ubf{ cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ c;/ ug]{ afx\o r/x¿ (extraneous variables) sf] lgoGq0f ug]{ x'gfn] sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efj (net effects) cWoogsf] nflu of] 9fFrfnfO{ zlQmzfnL / k|efjsf/L dflgG5 . z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrf k|of]uzfnfdf k/LIf0f ug{ cyjf lkmN8df k/LIf0f u/]/ x]g{sf nflu klg pkof]uL 5 . h:tf] s[lif cg';Gwfgdf lkmN8 k/LIf0f u/]/ sfo{qmdsf] d'Nof+sg ug{ ;lsG5 . z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf s]xL ;Ldfx¿ 5g\ . vf;u/L ;fdflhs sfo{qmdx¿df / z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] cWoogdf o; lsl;dsf] 9fFrfsf s}og a]kmfObfx¿ 5g\ . o; 9fFrfsf a]kmfObfx¿nfO{ tn pNn]v ul/G5 M
sfo{qmd ljsf;sf k|f/lDes r/0fx¿df k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u pkof]uL x'Fb}g . lgoGq0f ;d"xsf] lgdf{0f sfo{nfO{ ;fdflhs lx;fan] cg}lts dfGg ;lsG5 . Randomization sf] k|of]u u/L ;xefuL 5gf]6 ug]{ sfo{ z}lIfs / ;fdflhs jftfj/0fdf pko'Qm /
;xh gx'g ;S5 . sfo{qmdx¿sf] ;~rfng k|foM h:ff] k|To]s :yfgdf s]xL g s]xL km/s 9ª\un] ul/Psf x'G5g\ cyf{t\\
ltgdf Ps¿ktfsf] cefj x'G5 h;n] ubf{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] ;fGble{stf sd x'G5 . sfo{qmdnfO{ ;fdflhs / /fhg}lts tTjx¿n] o;/L c;/ ub{5g\ ls k|of]ufTds 9fFrfn] lgoGq0f ug{
/ cg'dfg ug{ g;Sg] cj:yf l;h{gf x'g ;S5 . ;Dk"0f{ c;DalGwt afx\o r/x¿nfO{ o; 9fFrfsf] k|of]u u/L lgoGq0f ubf{ sfo{qmd cy{k"0f{ gx'g]
vt/f /xG5 h;n] ubf{ cWoognfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ g;lsg] x'G5 . olb randomization sf] k|of]u u/L lgoGq0f ;d"x lgdf{0f ul/Psf] /x]5 eg] klg pSt ;d"xsf
;b:ox¿n] k|of]ufTds ;d"xsf ;b:o;Fu e]63f6 / cGt/lqmof u/L sfo{qmdsf] af/]df hfgsf/L k|fKt ug{ ;Sb5g\ h;n] ubf{ sfo{qmd k|fKt gug]{ egL tf]lsPsf] ;d"xdf sfo{qmdsf] k|efj kg{ ;S5 . o;n] ubf{ z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ul/sg cWoog ubf{ ;d]t cWoog cz'4 x'g hfG5 .
k/LIf0f eO/x]sf] 5 eGg] hfgsf/Lsf sf/0f ;xefuLx¿n] sfo{qmdnfO{ / sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ k|efljt ul/lbg ;S5g\ .
k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcg';f/ cWoog ug{sf] nflu ;do / vr{ a9L nfUg] x'G5 . a9L vlr{nf] 9ª\un] cWoog u/]/;d]t cy{k"0f{ lgisif{x¿ glg:sg] / lg:s]sf lgisif{x¿ l9nf] u/L k|fKt x'g] x'gfn] ;'wf/sf nflu u'Ghfo; sd} /xG5 .
dfly plNnlvt ljljw lsl;dsf a]kmfObfx¿ /x]sf x'gfn] ;g\ !(^) sf] bzskl5 o; lsl;dsf] z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ z}lIfs sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df ;Lldt ¿kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] kfOG5 . ;g\ !(^) sf] bzskl5 o; lsl;dsf 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u lzIff If]qdf gu0o /x]sf] 5 . o;} s'/fnfO{ phfu/ ub}{ Biswas (2000) n] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgsf ;Gbe{df k/Dk/fut df]8]n -traditional model_ sf] ¿kdf lrlqt u/]sf x'g\ . h]xf];\ ;g\ !($) / !(%) sf] bzsx¿df o; lsl;dsf z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ ;fdflhs / z}lIfs If]qdf k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 eg]/ Jofks k|of]ux¿ ul/Psf] kfOG5 . z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿nfO{ lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5M
sfo{qmd ;DkGg ul/sg sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿ cWoog ug{sf nflu z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
lgoGq0f ;d"x cfjZos x'g] x'gfn] cf+lzs hg;ª\Vofdf nfu" ePsf] sfo{qmdsf] cWoogdf dfq o; lsl;dsf] 9fFrf k|of]u ug{ ;Dej 5 .
;fgf] :t/df k|of]ufTds cWoog cg';Gwfgx¿ ug{ ;lsG5 .
70
s'g} ax'cfoflds sfo{qmdsf] Pp6f kIfnfO{ ;d]6]/ k|of]ufTds cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .
v_ cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿
cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] t'ngfdf a9L nlrnf 5g\, To;}n] ;fdflhs / z}lIfs kl/j]zdf k|of]u ug{ t'ngfTds ¿kdf ;lhnf x'G5g\ .
cWoogsf] l;nl;nfdf sl7gfOx¿ b]vfk/]df cw{ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿df ;'wf/ u/L t'ngfTds ¿kdf alnof] agfpFb} n}hfg ;lsG5 .
ljleGg lsl;dsf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] bL3{sfnLg k|efjx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu ;do >]0fL 9fFrf pkof]uL x'g ;Sb5 .
cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfcGtu{t kg]{ 36gfkl5sf] cWoog 9fFrfsf] k|of]u u/L klxn] g} ;~rfng eO;s]sf sfo{qmdx¿sf] k|efjx¿sf] cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . h:t} ;x;DaGw 9fFrf / cfwf/ ;d"x 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug'{ .
s'g} sfo{qmd Ps}k6s ;~rfng ug{ g;lsg] cj:yfdf klg cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . h:t} Pp6f ;d"xnfO{ tflnd lbg'eGbf cl3 / kl5 Jojxf/ cjnf]sg ug{' jf k/LIffx¿ lng' . o;/L tflnd lbg] JolStsf] ;ª\Vof sd ePsf] cj:yfdf jf Ps}k6s ;a} ;xefuLx¿ hDdf ug{ ufx|f] kg]{ cj:yfdf o:tf] 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
;xefuLx¿nfO{ randomization ljlw ckgfO{ 5gf]6 ug{ g;lsg] cj:yfdf lglZrt ljlwx¿ ckgfO{ t'ngfTds ;d"xx¿ lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5 . h:t} hf]8L ldnfP/. tYofª\szf:qLo ljlw ckgfP/ jf sfo{qmdeGbf klxn] / kl5 cjnf]sgx¿ u/]/ ;xh lgoGq0fsf] tl/sf ckgfpg ;lsG5 .
cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrf klg z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrf h:t} sfo{qmd ;DkGg ul/sg sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿sf] cWoog ug{ pkof]uL 5 .
u_ k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿
k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ randomization ljlw sf] k|of]u ug{ g;lsg] cj:yfdf pkof]udf Nofpg kfOG5 .
lgoGq0f ;d"x cfjZos gkg]{ x'gfn] ;a} hg;ª\Vofdf sfo{qmd nfu" ePsf] cj:yfdf ;d]t of] 9fFrf pkof]uL 5 .
sfo{qmd ;DkGg eO;s]kl5 sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿ cWoog ug]{ s'/fdf of] 9fFrfnfO{ pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 . t/ of] 9fFrf sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efjsf] cWoog gu/L sfo{qmdsf] ;du| k|efj -gross effects_ sf] cWoog ug{ pkof]uL 5 . ;fdflhs / z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu o; lsl;dsf 9fFRffx¿sf] k|foh;f] k|of]u eO/x]sf] kfOG5 .
k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u ug{ ;lhnf] 5 . o:tf 9fFRffx¿nfO{ ;j]{If0f 9fFrf jf u'0ffTds 9fFRffx¿;Fu ldnfP/ k|of]udf Nofpg ;lsG5 .
o; lsl;dsf] 9fFrfdf ;fGble{s ;"rgfx¿, kl/l:ylthGo ;"rgfx¿, ;/f]sf/jfnfsf ljrf/x¿, ljz]if1sf lg0f{ox¿nfO{ k|of]u u/L of] 9fFrfnfO{ j}wtfsf b[li6n] alnof] agfpg ;lsG5 .
o; 9fFrfdf ;d"xx¿dfly lgoGq0f geP tfklg 5fofF lgoGq0fx¿ -shadow controls_ / :jfefljs lgoGq0fx¿ -reflexive controls_ sf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . h:tf] dgf]ut cfwf/x¿ -subjective judgment_ sf] k|of]u u/L 5fofF lgoGq0fx¿sf] l;h{gf ug]{ / sfo{qmdeGbf klxn]sf ;"rgfx¿sf] k|of]u u/L :jfefljs lgoGq0fx¿sf] cj:yf sfod ug{ ;lsG5 .
#=%=@= ;j]{If0f 9fFRffsf k|of]ux¿
;fdflhs, /fhg}lts, Jofj;flos, cfly{s / z}lIfs cWoogx¿df k|of]ufTds 9fFRffx¿sf] k|of]u ug{ g;lsg] cj:yfx¿ w]/} 5g\ . o:tf cWoogdf k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ubf{ s}og a]kmfObfx¿ x'g] vt/f /xG5g\ . t;y{ o:tf 9fFrfx¿sf] ljsNksf] ¿kdf ;j]{If0f 9fFrfnfO{ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 h'g 9fFRffnfO{ ;fdflhs / z}lIfs If]qdf pko'St dflgG5 .
r/x¿sf] lgoGq0f ul//xg' cfjZos kb}{g . To;}n] k|of]uzfnfsf] kl/l:ylt lgdf{0f ug'{ h?/L 5}g t/ ;fdflhs kl/l:yltdf klg k|efjsf/L ¿kdf of] cWoog ug{ ;lsg] ljZjf; ul/G5 .
;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|of]u u/]/ j}1flgs / j:t'lgi7 cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 / j}wtf / ljZj;gLotf sfod ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] 9fFrfdf j}wtf / ljZj;gLotfdf k|efj kfg]{ tTjx¿sf] ¿kdf ;"rgf
71
;ª\sngstf{, pQ/bftf, cWoogsf ;fwgx¿, ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] jftfj/0f / ;"rgf ljZn]if0f k|lqmofx¿nfO{ dflgG5 . o:tf] 9fFrfdf j}wtf / ljZj;gLotf a9fpgsf nflu ;"rgfsf] k|fylds ;|f]tx¿, kof{Kt gd'gf 5gf]6, j}w / ljZj;gLo ;fwgx¿sf] k|of]u, ;"rgfsf] lqsf]0ffTds hfFr cflbnfO{ cfjZos dflgG5 .
Random ljlwsf] k|of]u gul/sg cyjf k|of]u u/]/ / t'ngfTds ;d"x k|of]u gul/sg cyjf k|of]u u/]/ ljleGg cj:yfx¿df ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ubf{ k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿, cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿ / z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] cfjZostfcg';f/ pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|of]u u/]/ cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg / pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg ug'{sf ;fy} sfo{qmdsf ;Dk"0f{ kIfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . sfo{qmdsf] lgdf{0ffTds / lg0f{ofTds b'j} lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu ;d]t ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 .
7"nf] If]qdf Jofks gd'gf 5gf]6 u/]/ ;j]{If0f 9fFrfcg';f/ cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 h'g sd vr{ / sd ;dodf ;DkGg ug{ ;lsG5 .
#=%=#= k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf k|of]ux¿
;ª\VofTds 9fFrfx¿ cyf{t\\ k|of]ufTds 9fFrf / ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] ljsNkdf k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] dfq k"0f{ / z'4 k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfcg';f/ ul/Psf cWoogx¿df ;xof]u k'¥ofpg] p2]Zon] cf+lzs ¿kdf k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} ;ª\VofTds cWoogaf6 k|fKt ;"rgfx¿sf] k|of]u u/L k|fs[lts 9fFrfnfO{ cy{k"0f{ agfpg ;lsG5 .
;fgf] If]qdf uxg cWoog ug{sf] nflu k|fs[lts 9fFrf pkof]uL 5 . :yfgLo ¿kdf / cgf}krfl/s lsl;dn] cWoog ug{sf] nflu of] 9fFrf /fd|f] dflgG5 .
lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf nflu vf;u/L k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgsf nflu of] 9fFrfsf] a9L k|of]u ePsf] kfOG5 . sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sgsf ;fy} sfo{qmdsf cGo ;a} kIfx¿ h:t} cfjZostf, nufgL, k|lqmof cflbsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu ;d]t k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ug{ / sfof{Gjog ug{sf] nflu of] 9fFrf ;xof]ufTds 5 .
;fdflhs, /fhg}lts, z}lIfs / dgf]j}1flgs kl/j]zdf hl6n kIfx¿sf] / ultzLn ;DaGwx¿sf] cWoogsf nflu k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] k|of]u pko'St dflgG5 .
:jfefljs 36gfqmdx¿sf] nfdf] ;do nufP/ cWoog ug{ of] 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . s'g} Pp6f 36gf lj:t[t ¿kdf cWoog u/]/, ;xefuLx¿sf sygx¿nfO{ a6'n]/, dflg;x¿df 5fk
kg]{ tl/sfn] sfo{qmdsf syfx¿ lgdf{0f ug{sf nflu k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] 9fFrfaf6 :jfefljs 36gfx¿sf] :jfefljs hfgsf/L k|fKt x'G5 h;nfO{ k|ToIf, cGt/b[li6k"0f{ / cy{k"0f{ agfOG5 .
lqmofsnfk
k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] cfwf/df ul/g] d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf u'0ffTds j}wtf sfod ug{ s] s:tf k|of;x¿ ug'{k5{< j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
s] ;j]{If0f 9fFrf k|fs[lts 9fFrf / k|of]ufTds 9fFrfeGbf cnu lsl;dsf] 9fFrf xf]< sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] :fGbe{df ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|fs[lts 9fFRff / k|of]ufTds 9fFrf;Fu s:tf] ;DaGw 5< :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFRffsf] dxTj / ;Ldfx¿ pNn]v ug'{xf];\ . k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf ljz]iftfx¿sf] j0f{g ug'{xf];\ . k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf lsg p2]Zod"ns gd"gf 5gf]6 dxTjk"0f{ x'G5< :ki6 ug'{xf];\ . ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf ;Ldfx¿ pNn]v ug'{xf];\ . k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ s] s] 5g\< cf}Nofpg'xf];\ . ;do >]0fL 9fFrfsf] k|of]u u/L sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf/Ltf s;/L d"Nofª\sg ug{
;lsG5< pbfx/0f ;lxt :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
72
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary)
d"Nofª\sgnfO{ q'l6/lxt agfpg, k|fljlws lx;fan] z'4 agfpg, / ;antf k|bfg ug{sf nflu j}w lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿sf] cfjZostf kb{5 . k|of]ufTds / ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfx¿sf] nflu j}wtf / u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿sf nflu j}wtf u/L d"Nofª\sg 9fFrfx¿sf] j}wtfnfO{ b'O{ efudf ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 . k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf nflu j}1flgs b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ cWoognfO{ ;xL / z'4 (accurate) agfpg cfjZos kg]{ j}wtfnfO{ k|of]ufTds j}wtf (experimental validity) elgPsf] xf] . of] lsl;dsf] j}wtf k|of]ufTds / ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfx¿sf nflu cTofjZos dflgG5 .
k|of]ufTds j}wtf rf/ lsl;dsf 5g\M cfGtl/s j}wtf, afx\o j}wtf, tYofª\szf:qLo lgisif{ j}wtf / /rgfTds j}wtf . cWoogdf cfGtl/s j}wtf sdhf]/ ePdf cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf k|efljt x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf cWoogsf] afx\o j}wtf ;'lglZrt ug{sf nflu tYofª\szf:qLo j}wtf, cfGtl/s j}wtf / /rgfTds j}wtf cfjZos kb{5 .
u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df k|of]ufTds j}wtfsf] cefj b]vfP/ o:tf 9fFrfx¿sf] dxTjnfO{ vf/]h ug{ ;ls+b}g . ctM u'0ffTds / k|fs[lts 9fFrfx¿sf nflu cWoogsf] z'4tf / j}wtf sfod ug{ km/s 9ª\un] k|:tfj ul/Psf] 5 . u'jf / lnª\sg -!(*%_ sf cg';f/ cWoogsf] j}wtf eGgfn] ljZjf;k"0f{tf (trustworthiness) nfO{ hgfpF5 h;sf nflu cWoogdf ljZjf; ug{ ;lsg] u'0f, k|of]u ug{ ;lsg] u'0f, k/LIf0f ug{ ;lsg] u'0f / lglZrt ug{ ;lsg] u'0f x'g'kb{5 . kf]hfe]s / s]/L -!(*(_ sf cg[';f/ s'g} cWoogsf] ;Totf / j}wtf k'li6 ug{ cWoog ljZjf;k"0f{ x'g'sf ;fy} cflwsfl/s (authentic) klg x'g'kb{5 . pgLx¿sf cg';f/ lgikIftfsf nflu cfjZos rf;f] / lrGtfnfO{ ;Daf]wg u/]/, l;4fGtnfO{ cEof;;Fu hf]8]/, ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] aLrdf ;dembf/L a9fP/ / ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ ;zStLs/0f u/]/ cWoogsf] cflwsfl/stf (authenticity) a9fpg ;lsG5 . DofS;j]n -@))@_ sf cg';f/ u'0ffTds 9fFrfx¿df kfFr k|sf/sf j}wtf x'g ;Sb5g\M h:tf] j0f{gfTds j}wtf, ;}4flGts j}wtf, ;fdfGoLs/0f ;DaGwL j}wtf, JofVofTds j}wtf / d"Nofª\sg j}wtf .
j]:6 / vfg -@))!_ / l;+x -!((&_ n] pNn]v u/]cg';f/ k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿nfO{ tLg txdf juL{s/0f ul/G5 . klxnf], z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfnfO{ ;AfeGbf j}1flgs 9fFrf dflgG5 h;df cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ ;'lglZrt ul/Psf] x'G5 . o:tf 9fFrfx¿df k|of]ufTds / lgolGqt ;d"xx¿ x'G5g\ / oL ;d"xx¿df ¥ofG8dfOh];gsf] ljlw ckgfO{ ;dfgtf :yflkt ul/Psf] x'G5 . bf];|f], cw{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfdf cWoogsf] glthfnfO{ t'ngf ug{sf] nflu k|of]ufTds / lgolGqt ;d"xx¿ x'G5g\ t/ oL ;d"x¿sf] aLrdf ;dfgtf :yflkt ul/Psf] x'Fb}g . To;}n] o:tf 9fFrfdf cfGtl/s j}wtfnfO{ c;/ ug]{ s]xL tTjx¿ dfq lgoGq0f ug{ ;lsG5 . t];|f], k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfdf k|of]ufTds / lgoGq0f ;d"xx¿ x'Fb}gg\ / o:tf] 9fFrfdf cfGtl/s j}wtf / afx\o j}wtf cToGt sdhf]/ dflgG5 . o:tf] 9fFrfdf Pp6f ;d"xnfO{ csf]{ ;d"x;Fu t'ngf ul/Psf] eP tfklg tL ;d"xx¿ lgolGqt gx'g] x'gfn] ltgdf ;dfgtf :yflkt x'Fb}g .
k"j{k|of]ufTds 9fFRff sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoogdf s]lGb|t 5 ha ls ;j]{If0f 9fFrfnfO{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoogdf ;Lldt ug{ ;ls+b}g . ;j]{If0f 9fFrf eg]sf] Ps k|sf/sf] ;ª\VofTds 9fFrf xf] t/ of] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfeGbf km/s 5 . of] 9fFrf d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf] nflu w]/} k|rngdf /x]sf] 9fFrf xf] . ;j]{If0f 9fFrf Ps k|sf/sf] u}/k|of]ufTds 9fFrf xf] / of] Ps k|sf/sf] j0f{gfTds 9fFrf klg xf], t/ of] 9fFrf k|fs[lts jf u'0ffTds 9fFrfeGbf leGg / ljk/Lt dfGotfdf cfwfl/t 5 . o; 9fFrfdf j}wtf / ljZj;gLotfdf k|efj kfg]{ tTjx¿sf] ¿kdf ;"rgf ;ª\sngstf{, pQ/bftf, cWoogsf ;fwgx¿, ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] jftfj/0f / ;"rgf ljZn]if0f k|lqmofnfO{ dflgG5 . o; lsl;dsf] 9fFrfdf cWoogsf] j}wtf sfod ug{ k|fylds ;|f]tx¿af6 ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug'{kb{5, kof{Kt ;ª\Vofdf gd'gf 5gf]6 ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5 / j}w / ljZj;gLo ;fwgx¿sf] k|of]u ul/Psf] x'g'kb{5 .
k|fs[lts 9fFRff eg]sf] :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf :jfefljs tl/sfaf6 :jfefljs 36gfx¿sf] cWoog ug]{ 9fFrf xf], h'g ;fdflhs lj1fgsf If]qx¿df k|of]u ul/G5 . of] 9fFrf sfo{qmdsf] k|efj cWoog / ;ª\VofTds cWoogdf dfq ;Lldt geO{ :yfgLo kl/j]zdf Jofks, lj:t[t, uxg / ;3g ¿kdf ul/g] j0f{gfTds / u'0ffTds cWoogdf cfwfl/t 9fFRff xf] . k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf !) j6f ljz]iftfx¿ Kof6g -!(()_ n] pNn]v u/]sf 5g\M k|fs[lts cWoog, u'0ffTds ;"rgf, ;du|tfsf] b[li6sf]0f, ultzLn k|0ffnL, of]hgfdf nrstf, cfudgfTds ljZn]if0f, JolStut ;Dks{ / cGt/b[li6, cg'e"ltk"0f{ t6:ytf, df}lns
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cj:yfnfO{ dfGotf, / kl/l:ylthGo ;+j]bgzLntf . To;}u/Lpgn] leGgleGg b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] cfwf/df k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf k|of]u x'g] u'0ffTds cWoogsf !) k|sf/x¿ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\M hftLo cWoog, k|lqmof cWoog, cg'ej cWoog, hftLo k|lqmof cWoog, ;fª\s]lts cGt/lqmof cWoog, kof{j/0fLo dgf]lj1fg, k|0ffnLut l;4fGt cWoog, cy{x¿sf] cWoog, j}rfl/s cWoog / a]lgod k|lqmofx¿sf] cWoog . To;}u/L Kof6gsf cg';f/ k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf !^ lsl;dsf p2]Zod"ns gd'gf 5gf]6sf tl/sfx¿ k|of]u x'g ;Sb5g\ .
z'4 k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df gu0o ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . cw{k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] k|of]u u/L z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿sf] k|efjsfl/tfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 t/ oL 9fFrfx¿sf] ;Lldt dfqfdf k|of]u ePsf] kfOG5 . sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf cWoogsf nflu k"j{–k|of]ufTds 9fFrfx¿sf] Jofks ¿kdf k|of]u ePsf] kfOG5 eg] ;j]{If0f 9fFRffnfO{ sfo{qmdsf] cfjZostf cWoog, nufgL d"Nofª\sg, k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg, pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg, cfly{s d"Nofsg, / ;dLIff d"Nofª\sgdf Jofks ¿kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] kfOG5 . 7"nf] If]qdf d'Vo–d'Vo s'/fx¿ kQf nufpgsf nflu ;j]{If0f 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . :yfgLo kl/j]zdf, cgf}krfl/s cWoogdf, vf;u/L k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg / lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf nflu k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] k|of]u a9L pkof]uL 5 .
%_ cEof; (Exercise)
Subjective questions: Short answer type 1. Explain the validity of the one-time case study design of evaluation. 2. Point out the threats to the internal validity of an evaluation study. 3. How do you relate and differentiate between survey and pre-experimental designs?
In what conditions will you prefer these designs? Explain. 4. Explain survey design as one of the frequently used design in program evaluation
with examples. 5. What are the objectives of evaluation designs? Describe any evaluation design that
is appropriate in an evaluation study with an example.
Subjective questions: Long answer type
6. How do you differentiate among experimental, survey and naturalistic designs? In what conditions will you prefer these designs?
7. Explain the concepts of internal, external, statistical conclusion and construct validity in terms of an evaluation study.
8. Explain validity of evaluation designs from qualitative and quantitative perspectives. Which type of designs will you prefer for an evaluation study of educational programs? And why?
9. Mention the difference between experimental design and pre-experimental design in the context of evaluation study of an educational program. Explain the process and use of one of the experimental designs.
Objective questions 1. Which of the following is the experimental validity in evaluation study?
a. descriptive validity b. construct validity c. evaluative validity d. theoretical validity
2. Differences in subjects prior to treatment is one of the threats to internal validity. Which type of threats is this? a. history b. maturation c. selection d. instrumentation
3. To the extent the results of the study are generalizable across time, geography and environment and human involvement denotes a. reliability b. objectivity
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c. internal validity d. external validity 4. Which one is not an important criteria for judging the adequacy of evaluation
a. external validity b. accuracy c. propriety d. credibility
5. The process of randomization in experimental design includes a. random selection of participants for the study b. random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups c. random exposure of groups to treatment d. all of the above
6. Which design is the most commonly used design for an evaluation study? a. one shot case study design b. true experimental design c. quasi-experimental design d. time series design
7. Which design has the least control over the study situation? a. pre-experimental design b. quasi-experimental design c. ex-post facto design d. experimental design
8. Pre-test-post test design is one of the techniques of a. context evaluation b. process evaluation c. input evaluation d. product evaluation
9. Survey design and naturalistic design are different because of a. the field study b. the non-experimentation c. the emergent design d. the control group Answer key: Answer key of the objective questions as given in exercise three of the third chapter is given below:
1. b 2.c 3. d 4. a 5. d 6. a 7. a 8. d 9. c
6) Suggested Reading Materials Best, J. W. and Kahn, J. V. (2001). Research in education (7th ed.). New Delhi, India:
Prentice Hall.
Biswas, N. B. (2000). Curriuculum studies: A model for Saarc countries. Delhi, India: Indian Publishers Distributors.
Mc David, J. C. and Hawthorn, L. R. L. (2006). Program evaluation and performance measurement: An introductin to practice. New Delhi, India: Sage.
Michael, W.B. and Benson, J. (1995) . Evolution of evaluation design. In T . Husen, and T. Postlethwaite (eds.) (1995). The international encyclopedia of education (2nd ed.). Vol. 2. pp. 2079-2089. UK: Pergamon.
Patton. M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation research methods (2nd ed.). New Delhi, India: Sage.
Posavac, E. J. and Carey, R. G. (1989). Program evaluation: Methods and case studies. USA: Parkside Associates.
Singh, A. K. (1997). Tests, measurements and research methods in behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Patna, India: Bharati Bhawan.
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PsfO rf/
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿
Models of Programme Evaluation !_ kl/ro (Introduction)
o; PsfOcGtu{t :qmfOe]gsf] nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sg df]8]n, k|f]e;sf] leGgtf d"Nofª\sg df]8]n, :6kmnladsf] :fLcfO{kLkL df]8]n, :6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]n / :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]n u/L kfFr j6f d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] kl/ro ;dfj]z 5 . oL k|To]s d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿, k|lqmofx¿, ;an kIfx¿, ;Ldfx¿ / k|of]hgx¿nfO{ o; PsfOn] :ki6 u/]sf] 5 .
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents)
ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ kf7\oj:t'x¿
Explain key concepts, processess, strengths and limitations of each evaluation model
Relate and differentiate among various evaluation models
Derive implications of the evaluation models
4.1 Scriven’s goal free evaluation model
4.2 Provus model
4.3 Stufflebeam’s CIPP model
4.4 Stake’s countenance model
4.5 Stake’s responsive evaluation model
4.6 Relationship and differences among various evaluation models
4.7 Implications of evaluation models
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation) #=!= df]8]nsf] cy{ tyf juL{s/0f
o; PsfOdf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 . d"Nofª\sgsf k|To]s df]8]nsf] af/]df 5'§f5'§} cWoog ug'{eGbf klxn] df]8]nsf] cy{ / d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] juL{s/0faf/] pNn]v ug'{ cfjZos 5 h;sf] cfwf/df df]8]nx¿sf] aLrdf ;DaGw b]vfpg / km/s 5'6\ofpg ;lhnf] x'g]5 . df]8]nsf] cy{, ;an kIf / b'a{n kIfx¿nfO{ tn ;ª\If]kdf pNn]v ul/G5M
df]8]nsf] cy{
df]8]n eg]sf] l;4fGtsf] kof{ojfrL zAb xf]Og t/ l;4fGt -theory_ sf] Ps k|sf/sf] ¿kdf df]8]nnfO{ lng ;lsG5 . csf]{ zAbdf df]8]nx¿ eGgfn] s'g} l;4fGtsf] ljleGg kIfx¿nfO{ phfu/ ug]{ sygx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 cyf{t\\ s'g} l;4fGtsf] s'g} kIfnfO{ :ki6 ug{ ul/g] j0f{gnfO{ df]8]n elgG5 . oxfF df]8]n eGgfn] gd'gf -sample_ eGg vf]lhPsf] k6Ss} xf]Og .
xfdLn] Jojxf/df df]8]n eGg] zAbnfO{ ljleGg ;Gbe{df k|of]u ul//x]sf x'G5f}+ . xfdLnfO{ dgkg]{ vfnsf] cyjf /fd|f] nfUg] vfnsf], q[l6/lxt jf bf]if/lxt dfg]/ s'g} j:t'nfO{ hgfpg df]8]n zAbsf] k|of]u
76
ePsf] kfOG5 . h:t} s'g} /fd|f] ljBfnonfO{ of] ljBfno df]8]nsf] ¿kdf ljsf; ePsf] 5 elgG5 . o;/L x]bf{ df]8]n zAbsf] Pp6f cy{ ;aeGbf /fd|f] eGg] x'g ;S5 . df]8]n zAbsf] csf]{ cy{n] c¿nfO{ b]vfpgsf nflu, a'emfpgsf nflu jf gSsn ug{ ;lhnf] xf];\ eg]/ :ki6 ug]{ p2]Zon] lgdf{0f ul/Psf] j:t' jf ;fdu|LnfO{ hgfpg ;Sb5 . h:t}M s'g} k|ZgkqnfO{ df]8]n k|Zgkq eg]/ ljt/0f ul/Psf] xfdLn] b]v]s} s'/f xf] . To;}u/L df]8]n eGg] zAbn] s'g} j:t' jf ;fdu|Lsf] ljleGg k|sf/x¿, ¿kx¿ jf lsl;dx¿nfO{ hgfpg ;Sb5 . h:t}M s'g} Pp6f l8hfOgsf] sf/nfO{ Pp6f df]8]nsf] sf/ cyjf s'g} Ps} lsl;dsf] ejgnfO{ Pp6} df]8]nsf] ejg elgPsf] x'g ;S5 . o;/L zflAbs lx;fan] df]8]nsf ljleGg cy{x¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ eGg] s'/f :ki6 5 .
o; PsfOdf sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] ;Gbe{df s'/f ubf{ dfly plNnlvt df]8]nsf tLg j6} cy{x¿ w]/yf]/ ldl;Psf] kfOG5 . xfdLn] kf7\oqmd of]hgfsf df]8]nx¿, kf7\oqmd ljsf;sf df]8]nx¿ / kf7\oqmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] af/]df xfdLn] ljleGg ;Gbe{df k9\b} cfPsf 5f}+ . ljleGg ;Gbe{df sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf df]8]nx¿ klg b]Vb} cfPsf 5f}+ . o; ;Gbe{df h'g;'s} df]8]ndf x'g;Sg] ;an / b'a{n kIfx¿nfO{ lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v ul/G5M
tflnsf $=! df]8]nsf ;an / b'a{n kIfx¿
;an kIf b'a{n kIf
df]8]nn] hl6n kIfx¿sf] ;/n ¿kdf a'‰gsf nflu ;xof]u ub{5 .
df]8]nn] l;4fGtsf] ljsf;df ;xof]u ub{5 .
df]8]nn] w]/} ;"rgfx¿nfO{ ;lhnf] / l56f];Fu ldnfpg / JofVof ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 .
df]8]nn] l;4fGt / cEof; aLrsf] leGgtfnfO{ sd ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 .
df]8]nn] lg0f{o k|lqmof / ;~rf/sf] k|lqmofdf kf/blz{tf a9fpF5 .
df]8]nn] cgfjZos ¿kdf ;fdfGoLs/0f ul/lbg ;S5 .
df]8]nn] ubf{ dflg;x¿ tfls{s ¿kdf unt ljZjf;df nfUg ;S5g\ .
df]8]nn] r/x¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ unt ¿kdf b]vfpg ;S5 .
Dff]8]nn] d'Vo cjwf/0ffx¿sf] af/]df unt dfGotfx¿ k|bz{g ug{ ;S5 .
df]8]nn] j}wtf k|fKt gePsf cyf{t\\ cWoogaf6 k'li6 gePsf ;"rgfx¿nfO{ ;dfj]z ug{ ;Sb5 .
Ps 7fpFdf Pp6f ;Gbe{df ljsf; ul/Psf] df]8]n c¿ 7fpFdf c¿ ;Gbe{df pko'St gx'g] ;Defjgf x'G5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] juL{s/0f
df]8]nsf cy{x¿sf af/]df cWoog ul/;s]kl5 ca d"Nofª\sgsf ljleGg df]8]nx¿ yfxf kfpg
ltgsf] juL{s/0fx¿sf] rrf{ u/f}+ . d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿sf] juL{s/0f cWoog u/]kl5 df]8]nx¿jLrsf]
;DaGw / leGgtf cWoog ug{ cfwf/ k|fKt x'g]5 . ljleGg JolStx¿n] ljleGg lsl;dn] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿nfO{ juL{s/0f u/]sf] kfOG5 . To;dWo] -s_ Ornstein and Hunkins (1997) sf]
juL{s/0f, -v_ Biswas (2000) sf] juL{s/0f, -u_ Alkin (1995) sf] juL{s/0f / -3_ Worthen and
Sanders (1987) sf] juL{s/0fx¿nfO{ ;ª\If]kdf lgDg adf]lhd pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
-s_ cG:f{6]Og / xlGsG;n] d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿nfO{ b'O{ efudf afF8]sf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ scientific-positivistic eveluation models cGtu{t Metfessel-Michael’s evaluation model, Provus’s discrepancy evaluation model, Stake’s countenance model, Stufflebeam’s CIPP
model, Judicial approach to evaluation cflb kb{5g\ . To:t} pgsf cg';f/ humanistic and
77
naturalistic evaluation models cGtu{t Eisner’s connoisseurship evaluation model, Stake’s
responsive evaluation model, portraiture model, illuminative evaluation model cflb kb{5g\ .
-v_ To;}u/L ljZjf;n] sf];{ d"Nofª\sgsf ;ft lsl;dsf df]8]nx¿ k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . tL x'g\M objectives based model, traditional model, illuminative model, decision making model, case
study model, Research and development (R and D) model, and the professional model.
-u_ To;}u/L clNsgn] kf7\oqmd d"Nofª\sgnfO{ b'O{ efudf ljefhg u/]sf 5g\M tL x'g\M kf7\oqmdsf] ;fdu|L d"Nofª\sg -curriculum product evaluation) / kf7\oqmdsf] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg -curriculum
program evaluation). pgn] kf7\oqmdsf] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg cGtu{t measurement oriented evaluation, research methodology oriented evaluation, naturalistic evaluation, expertise oriented evaluation, process oriented evaluation, social justice oriented evaluation, decision
maker oriented evaluation, and user oriented evaluation u/L cf7 k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sgsf
lsl;dx¿ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\.
-3_ To;}u/L cf]b{]g / :ofG8;{sf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf ljlwx¿ 5 k|sf/sf 5g\ . pgsfcg';f/ p2]Zos]lGb|t ljlwx¿ cGtu{t Tyler’s model, Hammond’s model, Provus’s discrepancy
evaluation model, Metfessel and Michael’s evaluation model cflb kb{5g\ eg] Joj:yfkgs]lGb|t
ljlwcGtu{t Stufflebeam’s model, Alkin’s model kb{5g\ . To:t} pkef]Stf s]lGb||t ljlw cGtu{t
:qmfOe]g nufotsf] df]8]nnfO{ /flvPsf] 5 . To:t} expertise oriented approaches cGtu{t
accreditation, adhoc panel review cflb ;dfj]z 5g\ . To:t} adversary-oriented approaches
cGtu{t Wolf’s judicial approach nufotnfO{ /flvPsf] 5 . To:t} naturalistic and participant
oriented appoaches cGtu{t Stake’s responsive evaluation nufotnfO{ /flvPsf] 5 .
o; PsfOcGtu{t dfly plNnlvt d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿dWo] kfFr dxTjk"0f{ df]8]nx¿sf] dfq ljj]rgf ul/Psf] 5 .
#=@= :qmfOe]gsf] nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n
;g\ !(^&, !(&@, !(&$ / !(*$ df dfOsn :qmfOe]g (Michael Scriven) n] nIolg/k]If d"Nofª\sg (goal free evaluation) sf] jsfnt u/]sf 5g\ . pgsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] ;a} lsl;dsf pknlAwx¿sf] ;ª\sng ug]{ / tL pknlAwx¿nfO{ dxTjk"0f{ dflgPsf p2]Zox¿;Fu ;+of]hg ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . (Evaluation is the procss of gathering and combining performance data with weighted set of goal scales) . pgsf] ljrf/df s'g} sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] ;f] sfo{qmdaf6 k|fKt ePsf pknlAwx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ k|lqmof xf] h;df tL pknlAwx¿nfO{ dxTjk"0f{ dflgPsf sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿;Fu t'ngf ul/G5 . :qmfOe]gsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ k|flKtsf] dfqf lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmof dfq xf]Og . pgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿sf] k|flKtsf] dfqf lgwf{/0f u/]/ ul/g] d"Nofª\sg ;ª\s'lrt x'G5 . o; b[li6sf]0fcg';f/ sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿sf] cfwf/df p2]Zodf dfq ;Lldt eP/ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{ pko'St x'Fb}g . lsgeg] sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ ;ª\s'lrt x'g ;Sb5g\, yf]/} x'g ;Sb5g\, sd dxTjd"0f{ x'g ;Sb5g\, nlIft ;d"xsf] cfjZostfx¿nfO{ gh/cGbfh ul/Psf] x'g ;Sb5, k|zf;lgs lsl;dsf x'g ;Sb5g\ / p2]Zosf] dxTj kl/jt{gzLn x'g ;Sb5g\ . To:t} sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug{ ;lhnf] agfpgsf nflu ;/nLs[t ul/Psf] x'g ;Sb5 / To:t} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{nfO{ cgfjZos ¿kdf ;xh agfpgsf nflu sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ a9\tf ljlzi6Ls/0f ul/Psf] x'g ;Sb5 h;n] ubf{ dxTjk"0f{ / pRRf:t/sf p2]Zox¿ cf]em]ndf kg{ ;Sb5g\ . To;}u/L sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ s] slt k|fKt eP egL p2]Zox¿sf] k|flKtsf] :t/ dfq lgwf{/0f ubf{ u}/–nlIft pknlAwx¿tkm{ Wofg gk'Ug ;Sb5 .
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u}/–nlIft pknlAwx¿ eGgfn] cgk]lIft pknlAwx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . o:tf pknlAwx¿ sfo{qmdaf6 cfzf gul/Psf pknlAwx¿ x'g\ . sfo{qmdsf] p2]Zon] g;d]6]sf t/ sfo{qmdsf] kmn:j¿k k|fKt ePsf pknlAwx¿ Hofb} dxTjk"0f{ x'g ;Sb5g\ . o:tf pknlAwx¿ sfo{qmdsf] d'Vo pTkfbg geP/ pk–pTkfbg (byproduct) jf ;fO8 Okm]S6 klg x'g ;Sb5g\ . sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf] kmn:j¿k k|fKt ePsf ;sf/fTds pknlAwx¿ dfq ;d]6]/ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;ls+b}g . ;sf/fTds k|efjx¿sf ;fy} sfo{qmdsf gsf/fTds k|efjx¿ ;d]t ;d]6]/ sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/g' kb{5 . o;/L :qmfOe]gsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ p2]Zox¿ cyf{t\\ ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ (intended outcomes) dfq ;d]6]/ d"Nofª\sg gu/L ;a} k|sf/sf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ (actual outcomes) sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/g' cfjZos x'G5 . :qmfOe]gsf] o:tf] lsl;dsf] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ g} nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sg (goal free evaluation) elgPsf] xf] . o;/L nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]nn] cf/= 8An'= 6fOn/ nufotn] k|:t't u/]sf] nIo–;fk]If d"Nofª\sg (goal based evaluation) sf df]8]nx¿df /x]sf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿nfO{ x6fpg ;xof]u u/]sf] 5 . o;n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] bfo/fnfO{ km/flsnf] agfPsf] 5 . ;ª\If]kdf eGg'kbf{, p2]Zosf] cfwf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug'{eGbf klxn] sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿sf] u'0f:t/sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 eGg] :qmfOe]gsf] ljrf/ xf] . d"Nofª\sgsf ;DaGwdf pgn] lgDg ljrf/¿ k|:t't u/]sf 5g\M
:qmfOe]gsf] ljrf/df nIo;fk]If d"Nofª\sg ;Dej 5 / cfjZos klg x'g ;S5 t/ of] k"0f{ 5}g . ctM nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sgnfO{ nIo ;fk]If d"Nofª\sgsf] ljsNksf] ¿kdf eGbf kl/k"/ssf] ¿kdf k|of]u ug{ ;'emfj lbPsf 5g\ .
:qmfOe]Gfsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] cfGtl/s u'0f (intrinsic) d"Nofª\sgeGbf sfo{qmdsf k|efjx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .
pgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] z'4 k|efj (pay-off) d"Nofª\sg ;Dej 5 t/ cfGtl/s u'0f / k|efj b'j} ;dfj]z u/]/ ul/g] pGgt (hybrid) d"Nofª\sgsf] dxTj / pkof]lutf a9L x'G5 .
pgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmdsf ;~rfnsx¿n] cfGtl/s ¿kdf ug'{kb{5 eg] lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg sfo{qmdsf pkef]Stfx¿sf tkm{af6 cyf{t\\ nlIft ;d"xsf] tkm{af6 afx\o d"Nofª\sg ul/g'kb{5 .
pgsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgeGbf lg0f{ofTds d"Nofª\sg a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 lsgeg] d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] sfo{qmdsf] dxTj (worth) lgwf{/0f ug{' xf] h'g s'/f lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgaf6 ;Dej 5}g .
pgsf] ljrf/df t'ngf/lxt d"Nofª\sg (non-comparative evaluation) sf] dxTj 5 t/ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df pko'St ljsNk 5gf]6 ug{sf nflu t'ngfTds d"Nofª\sg (comparative evaluation) a9L pko'St x'G5 .
;Ldfx¿
:qmfOe]gn] k|:t't u/]sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]nn] cWoog ljlwx¿sf] kof{Kt j0f{g ub{}g . d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{sf] j}wtf hfFRg] ljlw pNn]v 5}g . d"Nofª\sgsf cjwf/0ffx¿df c:ki6tf 5g\ .
#=#= k|f]e;sf] leGgtf d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n
dfNsf]d k|f]e; (Malcolm Provus) n] ;g\ !(&# df k|:tfj u/]sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] gd'gfnfO{ leGgtf d"Nofª\sg df]8]n (discrepancy evaluation model) elgG5 . of] df]8]n k4lt Joj:yfkg l;4fGt (systems management theory) df cfwfl/t d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n xf] . d"Nofª\sgsf] of] df]8]nn] sfo{qmdsf] Joj:yfkg ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . To;}n] k|f]e;sf] leGgtfsf] df]8]nnfO{ Joj:yfkg s]lGb|t gd'gfsf] ¿kdf klg lng ;lsG5 t/ k|f]e; df]8]nsf] d'Vo ljz]iftf k/Dk/fut 6fOn/sf] df]8]ndf cfwfl/t /x]sf]n] o; df]8]nnfO{ p2]Zos]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]nsf] ¿kdf Worthen and Sanders (1987) n] pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ .
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k|f]e;sf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] Jojxf/x¿nfO{ dfkb08x¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{ k|lqmof xf] (Evaluation is the process of comparing performance against standards) . pgsf cg';f/ sfo{qmdsf ljleGg kIfx¿nfO{ rfn' /fVg], ;'wf/ ug]{ cyjf cGTo ug]{ eGg] s'/f lgwf{/0f ug'{ g} d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo xf] . k|f]e;sf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ubf{ sfo{qmdsf ljleGg kIfx¿sf] jt{dfg cj:yf / ck]lIft :t/ aLrdf leGgtfx¿ klxrfg ug]{ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 . sfo{qmdsf ljleGg kIfx¿df /x]sf leGgtfx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ jf ;d:ofx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . sfo{qmdsf o:tf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ kQf nufpg] tl/sf / ltgdf ;'wf/ ug]{ tl/sfx¿nfO{ o; df]8]nn] ;/n lsl;dn] phfu/ u/]sf] 5 . k|f]e;sf cg';f/ sfo{qmdsf] ljsf; ug]{ sfo{ / d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ ;Fu;Fu} / lg/Gt/ ug'{kb{5 . k|f]e;sf] o; df]8]ndf sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ug'{kg]{ kfFr j6f kIfx¿ (stages) 5g\ / k|To]s kIfsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ lgDg rf/ sfo{x¿ (components) ;dfj]z 5g\M
sfo{qmdsf dfkb08x¿ (standards) cyf{t\\ ck]lIft :t/ lgwf{/0f ug]{, sfo{qmdsf] jt{dfg cj:yf cyf{t\\ Jojxf/x¿ (performances) lgwf{/0f ug]{, jt{dfg cj:yf cyf{t\\ Jojxf/x¿nfO{ dfkb08x¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{, jt{dfg cj:yf cyf{t\\ Jojxf/x¿ / dfkb08x¿sf] aLrdf /x]sf leGgtfx¿ klxrfg ug]{ /
cfjZos lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf nflu lg0f{ostf{nfO{ ;'emfj lbg].
k|f]e;sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] of] df]8]ndf cfjZostfcg';f/ klxrfg ul/Psf leGgtfx¿sf] cfwf/df ug'{kg]{ lg0f{ox¿ kfFr lsl;dsf 5g\ . klxnf], leGgtfsf] dfqf 5}g eg] sfo{qmdnfO{ oyfjt\ ¿kdf lg/Gt/tf lbg];DaGwL lg0f{o ug]{, bf];|f], leGgtfx¿ /x]5g\ eg] Jojxf/x¿df ;'wf/ jf kl/dfh{g ug]{ lg0f{o ug]{, t];|f], leGgtfx¿ /x]5g\ / jt{dfg cj:yfsf Jojxf/x¿df ;'wf/ ug{ ;ls+b}g eg] dfkb08x¿df g} ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu lg0f{ox¿ ug]{, rf}yf] leGgtfx¿ /x]5g\ / jt{dfg Jojxf/df / dfkb08x¿df ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsPg eg] sfo{qmdnfO{ k'g;{~rfng ug]{ lg0f{o ug]{ . olb sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{~rfng ug{ ;lsPg / leGgtfx¿ w]/} 5g\ eg] sfo{qmdsf] cGTo ug{ jf aGb ug{sf nflu lg0f{ox¿ ug]{ . k|f]e; df]8]ncg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf kfFr j6f kIfx¿ cYff{t\ cj:yfx¿ (stages) 5g\ h;nfO{ lgDgcg';f/ lrqdf b]vfOPsf] 5 M
rf6{ $=! Kf|f]e;sf] leGgtf d"Nof+sg df]8]n S T S T S T S T M M M M C D C D C D C D M M M M P R P R P R P R
S= Standard P= Performance C= Comparison between standard and performance D=Discrepancy between standard and performance M= Modify standard or performance R= Recycle program T= Terminate program
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 5
Stage 3
Stage 4
-s_ of]hgf
sfo{qmdsf] l8hfOg (design) ug]{ / pSt l8hfOgsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ kIf xf] . sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ljsf; ug]{ sfo{ ;Fu;Fu} sfo{qmdsf] of]hgfsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . o; r/0fdf sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿, k|lqmofx¿, lqmofsnfkx¿, ;|f]t;fwgx¿ / ;xefuLx¿sf] af/]df of]hgf tof/ u/L :ki6 ul/G5 cyf{t\\ ltgsf] kl/efiff (definition) ul/G5 . h]h:tf p2]Zox¿ / of]hgfx¿ lgdf{0f ul/G5g\ ltgnfO{ jt{dfgsf Jojxf/x¿ (performance) dflgG5 . x'g'kg]{ eg]/ ck]Iff ul/Psf / :t/Lo dflgPsf p2]Zox¿ / of]hgfx¿nfO{ dfkb08x¿ (standards) jf cfwf/x¿ (criteria) dflgG5 .csf]{ zAbdf lgdf{0f ul/Psf] sfo{qmdsf] p2]ZonfO{ Jojxf/ (performance) / ck]Iff ul/Psf]
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:t/Lo p2]ZonfO{ dfkb08 (standard) dflgG5 . o;/L x'g'kg]{ of]hgf / eO/x]sf] of]hgfsf] aLrdf t'ngf u/L leGgtf vf]lhG5 / cfjZostfcg';f/ leGgtf / sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ /x]5g\ eg] agfOPsf] of]hgfdf ;'wf/ ul/G5 jf x'g'kg]{ eg]/ dflgPsf] :t/Lo of]hgfdf km]/abn u/L cs{} kl/sNkgf jf cfwf/ lgdf{0f ul/G5 . To:t} leGgtf cyf{t\\ sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ w]/} /x]5g\ / ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsPg eg] sfo{qmdsf] 5'§} of]hgf agfpglt/ nfUg' kb{5 jf sfo{qmd aGb ug]{ lg0f{o ug{ cfjZos kg{ ;S5 . olb leGgtfx¿ / sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ /x]g5g\ jf kfOPg eg] sfo{qmdnfO{ cufl8 a9fpFb} lg/Gt/tf lbg'kb{5 .
-v_ :yfkgf
sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf ul/;s]kl5 sfo{qmdsf] :yfkgf (installation) ug]{ r/0f ;'¿ x'G5 . o; r/0fdf sfo{qmdsf k"jf{wf/x¿, ;'ljwfx¿, hgzlStx¿, ;xefuLx¿, ;fdu|Lx¿ cflb nufgLsf cj:yfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 / o; r/0fdf sfo{qmd :yfkgf ug{sf nflu ul/Psf lqmofsnfkx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . :yfkgfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ k|lqmofdf sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf / l8hfOgnfO{ dfkb08 (standard) / sfo{qmdsf] :yfkgf ug{ ul/Psf jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿nfO{ Jojxf/ (performance) dflgG5 . o;/L of]hgf / sfo{qmd :yfkgfsf sfo{x¿ aLrdf leGgtfx¿ (discrepancies) kQf nufP/ cfjZostfcg';f/ lg0f{o ug{ lg0f{ostf{nfO{ ;'emfj lbOG5 . cfjZos lg0f{o eGgfn] leGgtfx¿ /x]g5g\ eg] sfo{qmd oyfjt\ ¿kdf cufl8 a9fpg] cyf{t\\ lg/Gt/tf lbg], leGgtfx¿ /x]5g\ eg] sfo{x¿df ;'wf/ ug]{ jf of]hgfdf ;'wf/ ug]{ lg0f{ox¿nfO{ elgPsf] xf] . olb leGgtfx¿ w]/} /x]5g\ / of]hgfdf kl/dfh{g ug{ ;lsPg jf Jojxf/df kl/dfh{g ug{ ;lsPg eg] sfo{qmdsf] ;'¿jftb]lv k'g;{~rfng (recycle) ug]{ jf sfo{qmd aGb (terminate) ug'{kg]{ lg0f{o x'g ;Sb5 .
-u_ k|lqmof
sfo{qmd :yfkgf ul/;s]kl5 sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf vf; vf; lqmofsnfkx¿ ul/G5g\ . h:t}M lzIfs, sd{rf/Lsf lqmofsnfkx¿, ljBfyL{sf lqmofsnfkx¿, sfo{x¿ / ;~rf/x¿ cflb . sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf o:tf k|lqmofx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{nfO{ k|lqmof (process) d"Nofª\sg elgPsf] xf] .
k|f]e;sf cg';f/ k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ljBfyL{sf] k|ultsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ s'/fdf Wofg lbg'kb{5 . o;sf nflu z}Ifl0fs p2]Zox¿ (instructional objectives) nfO{ dfkb08 (standard) / ljBfyL{sf] Jojxf/df cfPsf kl/jt{gx¿nfO{ Jojxf/x¿ (performance) dflgG5 . o;/L k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ljBfyL{sf] Jojxf/df ck]lIft kl/jt{gx¿ eP gePsf] lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogs} j]nfdf ul/g] x'gfn] o; r/0fdf cGtl/d pTkfbgsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . ljBfyL{sf b}lgs Jojxf/x¿ (p) ck]lIft kl/jt{gx¿ (s) cg'¿k eO/x]sf 5g\ / leGgtfx¿ (d) 5}gg\ eg] sfo{qmd lg/Gt/ ¿kdf cufl8 a9fpg' kb{5 . olb ljBfyL{sf b}lgs Jojxf/x¿ ck]lIft kl/jt{g cg'¿k eO/x]sf 5}gg\ / leGgtfx¿ /x]5g\ eg], of t ljBfyL{sf b}lgs Jojxf/x¿df ;'wf/ ug'{k¥of] gq eg] z}Ifl0fs p2]Zodf g} ;'wf/ ug'{k¥of] . cGoyf leGgtf w]/} ePsf] cj:yfdf / ljBfyL{sf] Jojxf/df jf p2]Zodf ;d]t kl/dfh{g ug{ g;lsPdf sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{+~rfng ug'{k¥of] cyf{t\\ cfjZostfcg';f/ bf]xf]¥ofpg' k¥of] tfls p2]Zox¿ k|fKt ug{ ;lsof];\ . cGoyf sfo{qmd aGb ug'{kg]{ x'g ;Sb5 . o;/L k|f]e;sf cg';f/ dfkb08 (s) / Jojxf/x¿ (p) aLrdf t'ngf u/L leGgtf (d) klxrfg ul/G5 / cfjZos lg0f{ox¿ ul/G5g\ .
-3_ pTkfbg
sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 sfo{qmdsf tTsfnLg pknlAwx¿ cyf{t\\ pTkfbgx¿ (outputs) / sfo{qmdsf bL3{sfnLg pknlAwx¿ (outcomes) sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{nfO{ pTkfbg (product) d"Nofª\sg elgPsf] xf] . k|f]e;sf cg';f/ o; r/0fdf sfo{qmdsf clGtd p2]Zox¿ (terminal objectives) k|fKt ePsf 5g\ jf 5}gg\ eGg] s'/f lgwf{/0f ul/G5 . o;/L pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ubf{ clGtd pTkfbgx¿ (final products) / bL3{sfnLg pknlAwx¿ (longterm outcomes) sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . bL3{sfnLg pknlAwx¿ cWoog ug{sf nflu kmnf] ck cWoog (follow up study) ug'{kb{5 . o; r/0fdf ;Dk"0f{ sfo{qmdsf] k|efj d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ljBfyL{, lzIfs sd{rf/L, ljBfno / ;d'bfosf] ;Gbe{df ljleGg lsl;dsf k|efjx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{k5{ . o;/L k|efj d"Nofª\sg ubf{ sfo{qmdsf nIo tyf p2]Zox¿sf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 .
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o;/L pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg sfo{df sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ dfkb08 (s) / sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿nfO{ Jojxf/x¿ (p) dflgG5 . sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ / sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿sf] aLrdf leGgtfx¿ (d) klxrfg u/]/ pko'St lg0f{ox¿ ug{ ;lsG5 .
-ª_ nfut: k|f]]]]e;n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu nfutVfr{ (cost) sf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ clGtd r/0f dfg]sf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ nfutsf] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ P]lR5s dflgPsf] 5 / o;nfO{ cfjZostfcg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . o; r/0fdf Pp6f sfo{qmdsf] pTkfbgx¿nfO{ cGo ldNbfh'Nbf sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿;Fu t'ngf ug'{k5{ . pbfx/0fsf] nflu Pp6f ljBfnosf] k|ltljBfyL{ nfutvr{ / csf]{ ljBfnosf] k|ltljBfyL{ nfutvr{sf] t'ngf ug'{ . oxfF h'g ljBfnsf] nfut vr{sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ vf]lhPsf] 5 ;f] ljBfnosf] k|ltljBfyL{ nfut vr{nfO{ Jojxf/ (performance) dflgG5 eg] t'ngfof]Uo ljBfnosf] k|ltljBfyL{ nfutvr{nfO{ dfkb08 (standard) dflgG5 . o;/L o:tf] d"Nofª\sgdf s'g} ldNbf]h'Nbf] ljBfnosf] k|ltljBfyL{ nfutvr{ ;fk]If dfkb08 x'G5 eg] k"j{lgwf{l/t k|ltljBfyL{ nfutvr{ lg/k]If dfkb08 x'g ;Sb5 .
To:t} k|f]e;sf cg';f/ nfutvr{sf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ nfut–nfe ljZn]if0f klg ug{ ;lsG5 . oxfF jf:tljs gfkmfnfO{ Jojxf/ (performance) / ck]lIft gfkmf jf k"j{ lgwf{l/t gfkmfnfO{ dfkb08 (standard) dfGg ;lsG5 . x'g t nfut ljZn]if0f ubf{ k};fsf] ;Gbe{df dfq ljrf/ gu/L sfo{qmdsf] ;fdflhs, z}lIfs / /fhgLlts dxTj klg ljrf/ ug'{kg]{ x'G5 .
k|f]e; df]8]nsf] dxTj
sfo{qmd ;~rfns / d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] aLrdf cfk;L ;xof]u a9fpg, k[i7kf]if0f lnglbg / lg/Gt/ ;~rf/ a9fpg of] df]8]n dxTjk"0f{ 5 .
sfo{qmdsf] ;'¿b]lv cGTo;Dd lg/Gt/ ;'wf/ ug{ of] df]8]n pkof]uL 5 . of] df]8]nn] sfo{qmd ;~rfngdf kl/jt{g ug{sf nflu j}slNks k|lqmofx¿nfO{ dfGotf lbPsf] 5
. of] df]8]nn] sfo{qmdsf] ck]lIft u'0f:t/nfO{ pNn]v ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . of] df]8]n sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu k"0f{ (holistic) 5 .
k|f]e; df]8]nsf ;Ldfx¿
d"Nofª\sgdf a9L ;do / vr{ nfU5 . d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf nflu w]/} ;ª\Vofdf bIf JolStsf] cfjZostf kb{5 . ck]lIft u'0f:t/ :yflkt ug]{ ljlw ckof{Kt 5g\ . of] df]8]ndf cf+lzs d"Nofª\sgsf] sNkgf ul/Psf] 5}g .
#=$= :6kmnladsf] l;=cfO=kL=kL= df]8]n
8]lgon Pn= :6kmnlad (Daniel L. Stufflebeam) n] ;g\ !(^(, !(&! / !(*# df lg0f{o–Joj:yfkg s]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf] gd'gf k|:tfj u/]/ z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ of]ubfg u/]sf 5g\ . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] j}slNks lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf nflu pkof]uL ;"rgfx¿sf] JofVof ug]{, ;ª\sng ug]{ / k|bfg ug]{ k|lqmof xf] (Evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives). o; kl/efiffcg';f/ d"Nof+ssgstf{n] sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿nfO{ cfjZos lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf] nflu pko'St ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg ub{5g\ . d"Nofª\sgsf] o; k|lqmofdf tLg j6f r/0fx¿ 5g\ .
lqmofsnfk
nIo;fk]If d"Nofª\sg / nIolg/k]If d"Nofª\sgdf tkfO{+nfO{ s'g d"Nofª\sg ;lhnf] / /fd|f] nfU5< sf/0f lbP/ n]Vg'xf];\ .
k|f]e;sf cg';f/ lzIf0f l;sfO k|s[ofsf] s;/L d"Nofª\sg ug'{k5{< lg0f{o ug]{ ks[ofx¿ pNn]v ug'{xf];\ .
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klxnf], lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf nflu Joj:yfksnfO{ cyf{t\\ lg0f{ostf{nfO{ s:tf ;"rgfx¿ cfjZos kb{5g\ ;f] s'/f :ki6 x'g'k5{ / ;f]xLcg';f/ cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng ug{sf nflu ;"rgfx¿sf] JofVof ug'{kb{5, cyf{t\\ ;ª\sng ug'{kg]{ ;"rgfx¿ kl/eflift u/L lglZrt ug'{kb{5 . bf];|f], tL ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng ug]{ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 . t];|f], ;DalGwt JolStx¿nfO{ lg0f{o ug{sf] nflu ;lhnf] x'g] u/L pkof]uL ;"rgfx¿ pko'St ¿kdf k|bfg ug]{ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 . o;/L :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg ubf{ oL tLg j6f r/0fx¿ cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf] k|lqmof ;~rfng ul/G5 .
:6kmnladsf] ljrf/df lg0f{ostf{nfO{ ;fGble{s / pkof]uL ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg ug'{ g} d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo xf] . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug{ ;xof]u ug'{kb{5 . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo sfo{qmdnfO{ / sfo{qmdsf] pknlAwx¿nfO{ k|dfl0ft ug'{ dfq geP/ sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug'{ / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿df ;'wf/ ug'{ xf] (the purpose of evaluation is not to prove but to improve). :6kmnladn] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgnfO{ rf/ k|sf/df afF8]sf 5g\M
tflnsf $=@ Df"Nof+sgsf k|sf/x¿ / ltgsf] ;DaGw
cfwf/x¿ ck]lIft Jff:tljs
:ffWox¿ != ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sgaf6 p2]Zox¿sf] lgWff{/0f ug]{ / of]hgf;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ ug]{
$= pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿sf] lgwf{/0f ug]{ / sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{~rfng;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ ug]{
;fwgx¿ @= nufgL d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿sf] l8hfOg lgdf{0f ug]{ / :f+/rgf;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ ug]{
#= Kf|s[of d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf k|lqmofx¿df ;'wf/ ug]{ / sfof{Gjog;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ ug]{
-s_ ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg
;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg (context evaluation) eg]sf] sfo{qmdsf] kl/l:yltsf] ljZn]if0f (situation analysis) xf] h;df sfo{qmdsf] aftfj/0fsf] cWoog ul/G5 . ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg Ps k6s u/]/ ;lsg] lqmofsnfk xf]Og . sfo{qmdsf] ;du| d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu cfwf/ ;"rgfx¿ (baseline information) k|bfg ug{sf] nflu ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg ul//xg' kg]{ x'G5 . ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] ;fGble{s jftfj/0fnfO{ kl/eflift ub{5 . o;n] jftfj/0fsf] ;DaGwdf ck]lIft cj:yfx¿ / jf:tljs cj:yfx¿nfO{ lrq0f ub{5, k"/f gePsf cfjZostfx¿ / u'd]sf cj;/x¿df s]lGb|t x'G5 / cfjZostf k"/f gx'g'sf sf/0fx¿ klxrfg ub{5 . :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf (planning decisions) ;Fu ;DalGwt lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf] nflu ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . csf]{ zAbdf ;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo sfo{qmdsf nIox¿ lgwf{/0f ug'{ xf] .
;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg ug]{ tl/sf
sfo{qmdsf] jftfj/0f / kl/l:yltsf] j0f{g ug]{, ;d:ofx¿, cfjZostfx¿ / cj;/x¿sf] klxrfg ug]{, cfjZostf k"/f gx'g'sf sf/0fx¿sf] ljZn]if0f ug]{, sfo{qmdsf ;Defljt pknlAwx¿sf] cfFsng ug]{,
-v_ nufgL d"Nofª\sg
sfo{qmsf p2]Zox¿ k|fKt ug{sf] nflu ;|f]t;fwgx¿sf] ;b'kof]u ug]{ p2]Zon] nufgL d"Nofª\sg (input evaluation) ul/G5 . nufgL d"Nofª\sgaf6 sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf nflu cfjZos kg]{ k"jf{wf/x¿, hgzlStx¿, ;fdu|Lx¿, ;'ljwfx¿, ah]6, gLltlgodx¿, / of]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . nufgL d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf] Ifdtfsf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 .
83
:6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] ;+/rgf ;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ (structuring decisions) ug{sf nflu nufgL d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 . pgsf cg';f/ nufgL d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf k|lqmofx¿sf] l8hfOg lgdf{0f ug'{ (to design program procedures) xf] .
nufgL d"Nofª\sg ug]{ tl/sf
pknAw dfgjLo / ef}lts ;|f]t;fwgx¿sf] j0f{g ug]{, sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf /0fgLltx¿ / k|lqmofut l8hfOgx¿sf] j0f{g ug]{, nufgLsf] ;fGble{stf, ;+DefJotf, pko'Sttf, / ldtJolotf a9fpg] pkfox¿ vf]Hg] .
-u_ k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg
sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf sfo{qmd ;~rfng k|lqmofsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{ g} k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg (process evaluation) xf] . sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog;Fu ;DjlGwt lg0f{ox¿ (implemetation decisions) ug{sf] nflu k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog k|lqmofx¿sf] cg'udg, lgoGq0f / ;'wf/ ug'{ xf] . sfof{Gjog k|lqmofsf] cg'udg ug'{ eGgfn] of]hgfcg';f/ s'g–s'g k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿ eO/x]sf] 5 / s'g–s'g k|lqmof / lqmofsnfkx¿ of]hgfcg';f/ eO/x]sf] 5}g ;f] s'/f kQf nufpg] sfo{ kb{5 . sfof{Gjog k|lqmofsf] lgoGq0f eGgfn] of]hgfcg';f/ sfo{qmd ;~rfng k|lqmof / lqmofsnfkx¿ ;DkGg ug{ ;xof]u ug]{ sfo{ kb{5 . To:t} sfof{Gjog k|lqmofdf ;'wf/ ug'{ eGgfn] sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf nflu lgwf{l/t k|lqmof cyf{t\\ of]hgfdf ;'wf/ ug]{ sfo{ cyjf sfo{qmd ;~rfng ubf{ ul/Psf lqmofsnfkx¿ / k|lqmofx¿df ;'wf/ ug]{ sfo{x¿ kb5g\ .
k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg cGtu{t tLg lsl;dsf /0fgLltx¿ kb{5g\ . klxnf], sfo{qmdsf lgwf{l/t k|lqmofx¿df / sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf k|lqmofx¿df /x]sf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ / ;d:ofx¿sf] klxrfg ug]{ cyjf eljZojf0fL ug]{ sfo{ k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ug'{kg]{ Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ sfo{ xf] . bf];|f], sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO/x]sf] j]nfdf cfjZos ;'wf/x¿ ug{sf nflu lg0f{ostf{nfO{ ;dod} ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg ug]{ sfo{ k|lqmof d"Nofª\sg ubf{ Wofg lbg'kg]{ csf]{ dxTjk"0f{ sfo{ xf] . t];|f], sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO/x]sf] j]nfdf eO/x]sf k|lqmofx¿, 36gfx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿sf] clen]v /fVg] sfo{ xf] lsgeg] eO/x]sf lqmofsnfkx¿sf] b:tfj]hLs/0f ugf{n] dxTjk"0f{ ;"rgfx¿ kl5;Dd x]g{, a'‰g / cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 .
-3_ pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg
sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogaf6 k|fKt ePsf pknlAwx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{ pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg (product evaluation) xf] . o; lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sgn] sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿ (outputs) sf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ (outcomes) sf] klg d"Nofª\sg ub{5 . csf]{ zAbdf sfo{qmdsf] k|efjx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{ g} pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg xf] . pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] cj:yfdf klg x'g ;Sb5 / sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 klg x'g ;Sb5 . sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf] j]nfdf sfo{qmdsf ck"0f{ pTkfbgx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg x'g ;Sb5 h;nfO{ lgdf{0ffTds lsl;dsf] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg elgG5 . To:t} sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 To;sf clGtd pTkfbgx¿ / clGtd pknlAwx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 h;nfO{ lg0f{ofTds lsl;dsf] pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg elgG5 .
pTkfbg d"Nofª\sgsf] d'Vo p2]Zo sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿sf] lgwf{/0f ug'{ xf] . :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{~rfng;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ (recycling decisions) ug{sf nflu pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 . csf]{ zAbdf, sfo{qmdnfO{ oyfjt\ ¿kdf ;~rfng ug]{ jf ;'wf/ / kl/dfh{g u/]/ ;~rfng ug]{ jf sfo{qmd aGb ug]{ eGg] af/]df dxTjk"0f{ lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf nflu pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 . To;}n] :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog eO;s]kl5 k"0f{ pTkfbgx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg u/]/ g} pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 h;sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] af/]df lg0f{o ug{ ;lsof];\ .
pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg ug]{ tl/sf
dfkgof]Uo pknlAw;DaGwL Jojxf/x¿ lglZrt ug]{, tL Jojxf/x¿ dfkg ug]{, k"j{–lgwf{l/t lg/k]If dfkb08 / ;fk]If dfkb08x¿;Fu pknlAwx¿nfO{ t'ngf ug]{,
84
;Gbe{ d"Nofª\sg, nufgL d"Nofª\sg / k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt ePsf ;"rgfx¿sf] cfwf/df pknlAwx¿sf] j0f{g ug]{,
cfjZostfx¿ k"/f eP gePsf] lglZrt ug]{ .
tflnsf $=# lg0f{o k|lqmofsf cj:yfx¿
cj:yfx¿ lqmofsnfkx¿ p2]Zox¿ cfwf/x¿
oyfl:yltk/s k'g:yf{kgf;DaGwL lqmofsnfkx¿
dd{t ug{' k|ffljlws dfkb08 / u'0f:t/ lgwf{/0f
;'wf/fTds ljsf;fTds lqmofsnfkx¿
lg/Gt/ ;'wf/ ug{' ljz]if1åf/f d"Nofª\sg / of]hgfa¢ cWoog
gjk|j¢{gfTds gofF k|j¢{gfTds / l;h{gfTds lqmofsnfkx¿
dxTjk"0f{ ;d:ofx¿sf] ;dfwfg ug{', gofF gofF cfljZsf/ ug{' / k/LIf0f ug{'
cjwf/0ffsf] lgdf{0f, cg'ej cWoog / of]hgfa¢ cWoog
Kfl/jt{gsf/L cfbz{td\ lqmofsnfkx¿ Kf"0f{ kl/jt{g ug'{ d"ne"t ;}¢flGts dfkb08
;L=cfO=kL=kL= df]8]nsf] dxTj
o; df]8]nn] sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf nflu lhDd]jf/L lnPsf k|zf;s / lg0f{ostf{x¿nfO{ ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg ug{ hf]8 lbG5 . of] df]8]n lg0f{ostf{x¿sf nflu ;xof]uL ePsf]n] dxTjk"0f{ dflgG5 .
sfo{qmddf ;'wf/ ug{ / pknlAwx¿df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu k[i7kf]if0f k|bfg u5{ . To;}n] of] df]8]nsf] dxTj 5 .
sfo{qmdsf] h'g;'s} r/0fdf of] df]8]nn] d"Nofª\sg ug{ cg'dlt lbG5 . lg/Gt/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsg] x'gfn] of] df]8]n dxTjk"0f{ 5 .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu of] df]8]n k"0f{ (wholistic) dflgG5 . To;}n] of] df]8]n dxTjk"0f{ 5 . z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf nflu k|of]ufTds 9fFrf pko'St g/x]sf] of] df]8]nn] k'li6 u5{ . k|of]ufTds
9fFrfsf] ;§fdf j}slNks 9fFrfsf] ¿kdf j}1flgs / ;ª\VofTds lx;fan] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{ of] df]8]n pkof]uL 5 .
k|0ffnL ljlw (systems apporach) cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ of] df]8]n pkof]uL 5 .
;L=cfO=kL=kL= df]8]nsf ;Ldfx¿
d"No, ljrf/ / efjgf h:tf kIfx¿nfO{ sd dxTj lbG5, lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof c:ki6 5 / lg0f{o ug]{ ljlw kl/eflift 5}g, lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmofdf d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] ;+nUgtfnfO{ ;Lldt u/]sf] 5, of] df]8]n hl6n, vlr{nf] / w]/} ;do nfUg] lsl;dsf] 5 .
lqmofsnfk
:6kmnladsf] ljrf/df pTkfbg d"Nofª\sg slxn] ul/G5 / s;/L ul/G5< :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf ;fwgx¿ / ;fWox¿ eGgfn] s]
a'lemG5< :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
85
k" jf{ wf / x ¿
Kf| s[ of x ¿
p k n lAw x ¿
k" jf{ wf / x ¿
Kf| s[ of x ¿
p k n lAw x ¿
#=% :6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]n
/f]a6{ O= :6]s (Robert E. Stake) n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu b'O{ lsl;dsf df]8]nx¿ k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . Pp6f ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]n (countenance evaluation model) xf] h;nfO{ k|fljlws j}1flgs lsl;dsf] df]8]n cGtu{t /flvPsf] 5 . zflAbs ¿kdf ¿k cyf{t\\ sfpG6]gfG; eGgfn] JolStsf] cg'xf/ (face) jf cleJolSt eGg] cy{ nfU5 . o; df]8]ndf ¿k d"Nofª\sg eGgfn] z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] ¿k jf cg'xf/ d"Nofª\sg ug]{ cy{ lg:sG5 h;df :6]sn] d"Nofª\sgsf b'O{ j6f ¿kx¿ j0f{g (description) / lg0f{o (judgement) nfO{ dfg]sf 5g\ . pgsf] ljrf/df o; df]8]nn] sfo{qmdsf] ;f/sf] d"Nofª\sg gu/L ¿k kIfsf] d"Nofª\sg ub{5 . sfo{qmdsf] ;f/ kIfsf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]n x]g'{ cfjZos 5 . :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg eg] ¿k d"Nofª\sgsf] 7Ls ljk/Lt k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t 5 h;sf] rrf{ o; PsfOsf] csf]{ v08df ul/Psf] 5 .
:6]ssf] j}1flgs 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]nnfO{ ;d¿ktf ;DefJotf df]8]n (congrunece contingency model) klg elgG5 h;df ;d¿ktf eGgfn] of]hgfsf] ¿k / sfof{Gjogsf] ¿kx¿df Ps¿ktfsf] l:yltnfO{ hgfpF5 . cyf{t\\ sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf / sfof{Gjog Pp6} lsl;dsf], ldNbf]h'Nbf] jf km/s 5 eGg] s'/f ;d¿ktfsf] cWoogaf6 kQf nufOG5 . To:t} ;DefJotf (contingency) eGgfn] nufgL, k|lqmof / pTkfbgsf] aLrdf x'g] ;Defljt cGt/lqmofx¿nfO{ hgfpF5, cyf{t\\ s:tf] nufgL x'Fbf sfo{qmd ;~rfng k|lqmof s:tf] x'g] ;Defjgf 5, cyjf sfo{qmd ;~rfng k|lqmof s:tf] xF'bf s:tf pknlAwx¿ k|fKt eP eg]/ ;Defljt cGt/lqmofx¿ yfxf kfpg ;DefJotf (contingency) sf] cWoog ul/G5 . o;df :6]ssf cg';f/ of]hgfsf] d"Nofª\sgdf tfls{s ;DefJotf (logical contingency) / sfof{Gjogsf] d"Nofª\sgdf k|ToIf k|df0fdf cfwfl/t ;+DefJotfsf] (empirical contingency) sf] cWoog u/L sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ul/G5 h;nfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf tnsf] lrqdf b]vfOPsf] 5 .
cf}lrTo rfxgfx¿ cjnf]sgx¿ dfkb08x¿ lg0f{ox¿
d"Nofª\sgsf] cfwf/ j0f{gfTds tflnsf lg0f{ofTds tflnsf
lrq $=@ :6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]nsf] cjwf/0ff
:6]sn] ;g\ !(^& df k|:t't u/]sf ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]ncg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] j0f{g ug]{ / lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof xf] (Evaluation is the process of describing and judging an educationl program). o; df]8]nn] rfxgfx¿ / jf:tljstfx¿sf] aLrdf ;d¿ktf cWoog ug]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbPsf] 5 . To:t}, sfo{qmdsf k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAwsf] aLrdf ;Defljt ;DaGwx¿sf] cWoog ug]{ sfo{ ul/G5 . To;}u/Lsfo{qmdsf] lg0f{o ug{sf nflu ;fk]If dfkb08 / lg/k]If dfkb08x¿sf] k|of]u ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf hf]8 lbOPsf] 5 . ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]ndf sfo{qmdsf] j0f{g ug{sf] nflu j0f{gfTds tflnsfsf] lgDgadf]lhd k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5M
sfo{qmdsf] cfjZostf / dxTj
86
;d¿ktfsf] cWoog
tfls{s ;DefJotf cjnf]sgdf cfwfl/t ;DefJotf
;d¿ktfsf] cWoog
tfls{s ;DefJotf cjnf]sgdf cfwfl/t ;DefJotf
;d¿ktfsf] cWoog
lrq $=# :6]ssf] ;d¿ktf–;DefJotfsf] j0f{gfTds tflnsf
dflysf] j0f{gfTds tflnsfdf 7f8f] :tDe (column) x¿df b'O{ k|sf/sf ;"rgfx¿ /x]sf 5g\M klxnf] rfxgfx¿ / bf];|f] cjnf]sgx¿ cyf{t\\ jf:tljstfx¿ . oxfF rfxgfx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf of]hgfx¿, /0ffgLltx¿ / p2]Zox¿ x'g\ . oL rfxgfx¿nfO{ :6]sn] tLg efudf afF8]sf 5g\M klxnf] ck]lIft k"jf{wf/x¿, bf];|f] ck]lIft k|lqmofx¿ / t];|f] ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ . oxfF ck]lIft k"jf{wf/x¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{sf nflu cfjZos kb{5g\ eg]/ of]hgf ul/Psf nufgLx¿ cyf{t\\ of]hgfdf pNn]v ul/Psf ;|f]t;fwgx¿ cyjf eOlbP /fd|f] x'GYof] eg]/ cfzf ul/Psf ;|f]t;fwgx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . To:t} ck]lIft k|lqmofx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{sf nflu lgwf{l/t k|lqmofx¿ cyf{t\\ of]hgf / /0fgLltdf pNn]v ul/Psf k|lqmofx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 cyf{t\\ sfo{qmd sfof{Gjogsf nflu o:tf o:tf k|lqmofx¿ eOlbP x'GYof] eg]/ cfzf ul/Psf k|lqmofx¿nfO{ ck]lIft k|lqmof elgPsf] xf] . To:t} ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ x'g\ h;nfO{ sfo{qmd ;DkGg ePkl5 k|fKt x'g]5g\ eg]/ ;'¿df g} cg'dfg u/L cfzf ul/Psf] x'G5 . o;/L sfo{qmdsf rfxgfx¿ kQf nufpgsf nflu ck]lIft k"jf{wf/, ck]lIft k|lqmof / ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ ;DaGwL ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt ug'{kb{5 .
dflysf] tflnsfsf] bf];|f] 7f8f] :tDe (column) df cjnf]sgx¿ lbOPsf] 5 h;n] sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs cj:yfx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . o; :tDedf klg tLg k|sf/sf jf:tljstfx¿ /x]sf 5g\, h:tf] cjnf]sg ul/Psf k"jf{wf/x¿, cjnf]sg ul/Psf k|lqmofx¿ / cjnf]sg ul/Psf pknlAwx¿ . oxfF cjnf]sg ul/Psf k"jf{wf/ eGgfn] sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf nflu sfo{If]qdf tof/ ul/Psf k"jf{wf/x¿nfO{ hgfpF5 h;n] jf:tljs nufgLsf] cj:yfnfO{ a'emfpF5 . sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] nflu lgdf{0f ul/Psf k"jf{wf/x¿, h'6fOPsf ;|f]t;fwgx¿, pknAw hgzlSt / pknAw ah]6nfO{ jf:tljs k"jf{wf/ elgPsf] xf] . To:t} cjnf]sg ul/Psf k|lqmofx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . sfo{qmd ;~rfng ubf{ ul/Psf k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿ elgPsf] xf] . To:t} sfo{qmdsf] jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdn] xfl;n u/]sf pknlAwx¿nfO{ hgfpF5 . sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/;s]kl5 k}bf ePsf pTkfbgx¿ cyf{t\\ kmfObfx¿ / a]kmfObfx¿nfO{ oxfF sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿ elgPsf] xf] . o;/L sfo{qmdsf] jf:tljstfx¿ kQf nufpgsf] nflu tLg k|sf/sf
ck]lIft k"jf{wf/x¿
ck]lIft k|s[ofx¿
ck]lIft pknlAwx¿
cjnf]sg ul/Psf pknlAwx¿
cjnf]sg ul/Psf k|lqmofx¿
cjnf]sg ul/Psf k"jf{wf/x¿
87
jf:tljs cj:yfx¿sf] cWoog ug'{k5{ . sfo{qmdsf] jf:tljs k"jf{wf/, jf:tljs k|lqmof / jf:tljs pknlAw;Fu ;DalGwt ;"rgfx¿ sfo{qmdsf] cjnf]sg u/]/ jf dfkg u/]/ ;ª\sng ug'{kb{5 .
o;/L sfo{qmdsf rfxgf;Fu ;DalGwt tLg k|sf/sf ;"rgfx¿ / sfo{qmdsf jf:tljstf;Fu ;DalGwt tLg k|sf/sf ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt ul/;s]kl5 tL ;"rgfx¿sf] b'O{ lsl;dn] t'ngf ug{ ;lsG5 . klxnf], rfxgf / jf:tljstf;DaGwL ;"rgfx¿sf] t'ngf ubf{ :6]ssf ljrf/df ;d¿ktf (congruence) sf] b[li6n] cWoog ug'{k5{ . csf]{ zAbdf, of]hgfcg';f/sf] nufgL pknAw 5 ls 5}g, of]hgfcg';f/sf] lgwf{l/t k|lqmof cg';/0f u/L lqmofsnfkx¿ ul/Psf] 5 ls 5}g / of]hgfcg';f/sf pknlAwx¿ slt k|fKt eP / slt k|fKt ePgg\ eGg] s'/fsf] lgwf] u/L sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ tL k|To]s kIfsf] j0f{g ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . o;/L dflysf] j0f{gfTds tflnsfdf b'O{ j6f 7f8f] :tDex¿sf] aLrsf] ;DaGw cWoog ubf{ ;d¿ktf jf Ps¿ktfsf] b[li6n] cWoog ul/G5 .
bf];|f], dflysf] j0f{gfTds tflnsfdf t];f{ x/km (row) x¿sf] aLrdf /x]sf ;DaGwx¿nfO{ cWoog ug{sf] nflu :6]ssf] ljrf/df ;DefJotf (contingency) sf b[li6n] cWoog ug'{k5{ . o;/L cWoog ubf{ ck]lIft k"jf{wf/, ck]lIft k|lqmof / ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ aLrsf ;DaGwx¿ tfls{s ;DefJotf (logical consistency) sf b[li6n] cWoog ul/G5 ha ls cjnf]sg ul/Psf jf:tljs k"jf{wf/x¿, cjnf]sg ul/Psf jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿ / cjnf]sg ul/Psf jf:tljs pknlAwx¿sf] aLrdf /x]sf ;DaGwx¿ cWoog ubf{ k|df0fdf cfwfl/t ;DefJotf (empirical contingency) sf b[li6n] cWoog ul/G5 . ;/n efiffdf eGg'kbf{ s:tf lsl;dsf k"jf{wf/x¿ ePdf s:tf lsl;dsf k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿ ug{ ;lsG5 eg]/ tfls{s ¿kdf ;Defjgfsf] j0f{g ug]{ sfo{ Psflt/ ul/G5 eg] csf]{lt/ s:tf lsl;dsf k"jf{wf/x¿ pknAw x'Fbfx'Fb} klg s:tf lsl;dsf k|lqmof / lqm|ofsnfkx¿ ul/P eg]/ k|df0fdf cfwfl/t /x]/ b]lvPsf ;Defjgfx¿sf] j0f{g ug]{ sfo{ ul/G5 . To:t} ck]lIft pknlAwx¿ k|fKt ug{sf nflu lgwf{/0f ul/Psf ck]lIft k|lqmof / lqmofsnfkx¿ s] slt pko'St 5g\ eGg] s'/f yfxf kfpgsf nflu tfls{s lx;fan] cyf{t\\ ;}4flGts lx;fan] ;Defljt ;DaGwsf] cfwf/df Psflt/ j0f{g ug'{kb{5 eg] csf]{lt/ sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] kmn:j¿k cyf{t\\ ul/Psf lqmofsnfkx¿ / jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿sf sf/0f k|fKt ePsf pknlAwx¿sf] aLrdf k|df0fdf cfwfl/t eO{ sfod ePsf ;DaGwx¿sf] lgwf] u/L j0f{g ug'{kb{5 . o;/L ;f/df Psflt/ rfxgfsf] ;Gbe{df ck]lIft nufgLx¿, ck]lIft k|lqmofx¿ / ck]lIft pTkfbgx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGwnfO{ tfls{s / ;}4flGts ¿kdf cWoog ul/G5, cyf{t\\ s:tf] nufgL / s:tf] k|lqmof x'Fbf s:tf pknlAwx¿ k|fKt x'g ;S5g\ eg]/ ;}4flGts ¿kdf ;Defjgfx¿sf] vf]hL ul/G5 eg] csf]{lt/ s:tf lsl;dsf jf:tljs k"jf{wf/x¿ pknAw x'Fbfx'Fb}{, s:tf lsl;dsf jf:tljs k|lqmof / lqmofsnfkx¿ ubf{ub{}sf] cj:yfdf s:tf lsl;dsf jf:tljs pTkfbg / pknlAwx¿ k|fKt x'g cfP t eGg] s'/f k|df0fdf cfwfl/t eP/ cyf{t\\ cg'ejdf cfwfl/t eP/ ;Defjgfx¿sf] ;fy{stfsf] k/LIf0f ul/G5 .
:6]sn] j0f{gfTds tflnsfsf] ;fy} lg0f{ofTds tflnsfsf] k|of]u u/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{ k|:tfj u/]sf 5g\ . pgn] k|:t't u/]sf] lg0f{ofTds tflnsf tn lbOPsf] 5M
88
:6]ssf cg';f/ sfo{qmdsf] :t/Lotfsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ b'O{ lsl;dsf k"j{–lgwf{l/t dfkb08x¿sf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5M Pp6f ;fk]If dfkb08 (relative standard) / csf]{ lg/k]If dfkb08 (absolute standard) . ;fk]If dfkb08 eGgfn] s'g} Pp6f sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu ldNbf]h'Nbf] csf]{ sfo{qmdnfO{ cfwf/ dflgG5 eg] pSt cfwf/ dflgPsf] sfo{qmdsf] cj:yfnfO{ ;fk]If dfkb08 elgG5 . To:t} s'g} Pp6f sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu ;f] sfo{qmdsf] pTs[i6 cfwf/ (standard of excellence) lgdf{0f ul/G5 jf kl/sNkgf ul/G5 eg] pSt kl/sNkgfsf] pTs[i6 cfwf/nfO{ lg/k]If dfkb08 (absolute standard) elgG5 . :6]ssf cg';f/ ;fk]If dfkb08;Fu t'ngf ug]{ / lg/k]If dfkb08;Fu klg t'ngf ug]{ sfo{ u/L sfo{qmdsf k"jf{wf/x¿, k|lqmofx¿ / pknlAwx¿sf] /fd|f];Fu d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 .
:6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sgsf k|lqmofx¿
sfo{qmdsf] k[i7e"ld cfjZostf / cf}lrTosf] j0f{g ug]{, cfzf ul/Psf k"jf{wf/x¿, k|lqmofx¿, / pknlAwx¿sf] ;"rL tof/ ug]{, jf:tljs k"jf{wf/x¿, k|lqmofx¿ / pknlAwx¿sf] cjnf]sg u/L /]s8{ ug]{, d"Nofª\sgsf dfkb08x¿ :ki6;Fu pNn]v ug]{ . k"jf{wf/x¿, k|lqmofx¿ / pknlAwx¿
d"Nofª\sgsf nflu t'ngfof]Uo csf]{ sfo{qmdsf cj:yfx¿, ck]Iffx¿ / lgdf{0f ul/Psf cfwf/x¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{ .
k"jf{wf/x¿, k|lqmofx¿ / pknlAwx¿sf] af/]df d"Nofª\sg u/]/ lg0f{o ug]{ / l/kf]6{ tof/ ug]{ .
:6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]nsf] dxTj / ;Ldfx¿
¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]nn] j0f{gfTds ;"rgfx¿nfO{ ldnfpgsf nflu Jojl:yt ljlw k|bfg u/]sf] 5 . j0f{gfTds ;"rgfx¿ / lg0f{ofTds ;"rgfx¿sf] cfGtl/s ;DaGw (intra-relationship) / cfk;L ;DaGw (inter-relationship) b]vfpg of] df]8]nn] hf]8 lbPsf] x'gfn] of] df]8]nsf] dxTj 5 . o; df]8]nn] lg/k]If / ;fk]If b'j} dfkb08x¿sf] k|of]u u/L d"Nofª\sg ug]{ k|:tfj u/]sf] 5 . of] df]8]nnfO{ z}lIfs sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu ljleGg ;Gbe{df ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . of] df]8]nn] k|:tfj u/]sf tflnsfx¿ ;/n ePsf]n] k|of]u ug{ Tolt sl7gfO{ x'+b}g . x'g t ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]ndf ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{sf] nflu ljlwx¿ ckof{Kt 5g\ / o; df]8]nn] lbPsf] tflnsfsf s]xL sf]7fx¿ c:ki6 5g\ eg]/ klg cfnf]rgfx¿ ePsf 5g\ . To:t} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgdf cfGtl/s åGåsf] cj:yfx¿ cfpg ;S5g\ eGg]tkm{ of] df]8]n ;r]t 5}g eg]/ cfnf]rgf ul/Psf] kfOG5.
Pp6f sfo{qmdsf]
j0f{gfTds ;"rgfx¿
csf]{ sfo{qmdsf]
j0f{gfTds ;"rgfx¿ k"jf{wf/x¿, k|s[ofx¿ / pknlAwx¿;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿
rf6{ $=$ :6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]nsf]
lg/k]If dfkb08
;Fu t'ngf
;fk]If dfkb08;Fu t'ngf
pTs[i6tfsf]
dfkb08x¿
lg0f{ofTds tflnsf
89
#=^= :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]n
/f]a6{ O= :6]sn] ;g\ !(&@, !(&%, !(&* / !(*) df /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg eGg] zAbfjnLnfO{ z}lIfs d"Nofª\sgsf] If]qdf nf]slk|o agfPsf 5g\ . :6]ssf cg';f/ /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] sfo{qmdsf rfxgfx¿ (intents) / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ (outcomes) df eGbf sfo{qmdsf lqmofsnfkx¿ (activities) / sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿ (processes) df a9L s]lGb|t ul/g] d"Nofª\sg xf] . of] d"Nofª\sg df]8]nn] sfo{qmdsf lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ / k|qm[ofx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] ;f/ dfGb5 eg] sfo{qmdsf rfxgf / sfo{qmdsf pTkfbgx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] ¿k dfGb5 . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg cf}krfl/s / :t/Lo ;~rf/df eGbf cgf}krfl/s / k|fs[lts ;~rf/df a9L e/ kb{5 . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg lglZrt ljlwzf:qLo jf j:t'lgi7 ;"rgfdf cfwfl/t geO{ sfo{qmdsf] jf:tljstfnfO{ lrq0f ug]{ s'/f;Fu a9L ;DalGwt 5 . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgdf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{qmdsf] ;f/e"t kIfnfO{ phfu/ ug{ sfo{qmdsf] af/]df cfnf]rgfTds ;dLIff ub{5g\ / jf:tljs 36gf / k|lqmofx¿nfO{ ;lrq k|:t't ub{5g\ .
/]:kf]lG;e ljlwsf] k|of]u ubf{ d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{qmdsf syfx¿ / sfo{qmdsf ljz]iftfx¿ ;dfj]z ub{5, ;]jfu|fxL / sd{rf/Lx¿sf] j0f{g ub{5, d'Vo d'2fx¿ / ;d:ofx¿ klxrfg ub{5 / sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ (accomplishments) k|:t't ub{5 . o; k|lqmofdf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{qmdsf If]qx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿ ;d]6]/ d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu of]hgf ub{5, sfo{qmdsf] cjnf]sg ug{sf] nflu cfjZos Joj:yf ldnfpF5, ljleGg egfOx¿ (narratives) / lrqx¿ (portrayals) tof/ ub{5 / ;fdu|Lx¿ (product displays) k|bz{g ub{5 . o; k|lqmofdf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ljleGg ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ klxrfg ug'{kb{5, ltgsf efjgfx¿ / k|fyldstfx¿nfO{ Wofg lbg'kb{5, / cWoogsf glthfx¿k|lt ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStn] cfˆgf ljrf/x¿ k|s6 ug]{ df}sf kfp+b5 . o; lsl;dsf] /]:kf]lG;e ljlw ckgfO{ cWoog ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf] k|lqmof / o;sf] u'0f:t/;DaGwL dxTjk"0f{ k|Zgx¿ ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿n] p7fpg ;Sb5g\ . tL k|Zgx¿sf] 5fgaLg ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ / pSt k|Zgx¿sf] cfwf/df d"Nofª\sg k|lqmof cufl8 a9fOPsf] x'g'k5{ . o;/L /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf rf;f]x¿nfO{ kof{Kt ¿kdf ;d]6\g] / ;Daf]wg ug]{ vfnsf] d"Nofª\sg xf] . To;}n] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgnfO{ g]kfnLdf :6]ssf] rf;f] ;d]6\g] d"Nofª\sg df]8]n eGg ;lsG5 .
:6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]n cyf{t\\ rf;f] ;d]6\g] d"Nofª\sg df]8]n Pp6f k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n xf] . k|fs[lts 9fFrfsf] af/]df o;eGbf klxn] rrf{ ul/;s]sf] 5 . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]n u'0ffTds cWoogdf cfwfl/t d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n xf] h'g ;ª\VofTds cWoogsf] ljk/Lt dfGotf /fVb5 . u'0ffTds cWoogsf] af/]df o;eGbf dfly klxnf] PsfOdf g} kof{Kt rrf{ eO;s]sf] 5 . u'0ffTds cWoogdf cyf{t\\ k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf j}wtfsf] k|;ª\u p7\g' Hofb} dxTjk"0f{ 5 h;sf] af/]df t];|f] PsfOdf kof{Kt pNn]v ePs} s'/f xf] . oxfF /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf] j}wtfsf] k|;ª\udf :6]ssf] ljrf/ s] 5 eg] d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] j:t'sf] af/]df ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿sf] ;dem (understading) df ePsf] j[l4sf] dfqf g} d"Nofª\sgsf] j}wtfsf] clGtd s;L xf] .
/]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Gbe{df d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] cjnf]sg ug]{ / k|ltlqmof JoSt ug]{ k|lqmof xf] (Evaluation is the process of observing and reacting). o;cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ aLrsf] ;~rf/sf] cj:yfdf ;'wf/ ug'{ xf], ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿sf rf;f] / d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug'{ xf] / d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] j:t'sf] af/]df ;dembf/L (understanding) sfod ug'{ xf] . o; lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sg ljlw ckgfpFbf ;xefuLx¿af6 pTk]|l/t eO{ d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{ ub{5g\ . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ sfo{qmdsf jf:tljstfx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿df s]lGb|t x'G5g\, ;xefuLsf rf;f]x¿ / d'2fx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5g\ / cGttM ltgsf egfOx¿, k|]/0ffx¿ / k|j[lQx¿af6 lgb]{lzt aGb5g\ .
s'g} klg z}lIfs d"Nofª\sg /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg aGb5 olb pSt d"Nofª\sgn] -s_ sfo{qmdsf of]hgf / rfxgfx¿eGbf sfo{qmdsf lqmofsnfkx¿ / k|lqmofx¿df k|ToIf ¿kdf a9L s]lGb|t agfpF5, -v_ ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf ;"rgf k|fKt ug]{ cfjZostfx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ub{5 / -u_ ljBdfg /x]sf ljleGg lsl;dsf d"No, dfGotf / b[li6sf]0fx¿sf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf ;kmntf / c;kmntfx¿nfO{ lrlqt u/L k|:t't ub{5 . o;/L /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf sd;]sd tLg j6f ljz]iftfx¿ x'G5g\M klxnf],
90
sfo{qmdsf lqmofsnfkx¿ / k|lqmofx¿df s]lGb|t, bf];|f], ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf rf;f]sf s'/fx¿sf] ;Daf]wg / t];|f], ax'njfbL b[li6sf]0fsf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg.
/]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg ;~rfng ug]{ k|lqmof
;DalGwt dflg;x¿;Fu s'/f ug]{ . s'/f ubf{ d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ j:t' / d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zosf] af/]df s'/f ug{ ;lsG5 .
sfo{qmdsf] If]q (scope) klxrfg ug]{ . o;sf nflu sfo{qmdsf] of]hgf, b:tfj]h, /]s8{ cflb cWoog ug]{ / s'/fsfgLsf] cfwf/df If]q lgwf] ug]{ .
sfo{qmdsf lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;ª\lIfKt kl/ro (overview) tof/ ug]{ . sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ / rf;f]sf s'/fx¿ vf]hL ug]{ . d"Nofª\sgn] ;Daf]wg ug'{kg]{ d'2fx¿ / ;d:ofx¿sf] af/]df cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ug]{ . k|To]s p2]Zo, d'2f, rf;f] / ;d:of ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfsf lsl;dx¿ klxrfg
ug]{ / d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf (design) ljrf/ ug]{ . d"Nofª\sgsf ljlw / tl/sfx¿ 5gf]6 ug]{ . cjnf]sgstf{x¿ / cWoogsf ;fwgx¿ 5gf]6 ug]{ . k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAwx¿ cjnf]sg u/]/ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug]{ . ljleGg zLif{s, pkzLif{sf lbP/ ;"rgfx¿ ;+ul7t ug]{ . :jfefljs tl/sfaf6 ;~rf/ ug{sf]
nflu lrqx¿ / pbfx/0fx¿ lbP/ 36gfqmdnfO{ lrlqt ug]{ / k|ToIf JolStut cg'ejx¿ ;dfj]z ug]{ .
ljleGg lsl;dsf j0f{gx¿nfO{ j}w agfpg], ltgnfO{ lglZrt u/L olsg ug]{ / ;fy;fy} cfjZostfcg';f/ tL ;"rgfx¿nfO{ v08g ug{ k|of; ug]{ .
;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf cfjZostfcg';f/ ;"rgfx¿ 5fGg] / ;"rgfx¿ lbgsf nflu pko'St kmd]{6x¿ ljsf; ug]{.
cfjZos k/]df, cf}krfl/s k|ltj]bgx¿ tof/ ug]{ .
/]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]nsf dxTj / ;Ldfx¿
/]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg ljlwsf] cf}lrTo / dxTjnfO{ :6]s (Stake, 1978) n] lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v u/]sf 5g\M
o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] kf7s / >f]tfx¿sf nflu sfo{qmdsf] af/]df a'‰g ;xof]u ub{5 . lsgeg] o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] tL dflg;x¿sf a'‰g] tl/sfx¿ / ;~rf/ ug]{ tl/sfx¿cg';f/ :jfefljs ¿kdf ;"rgfx¿ k|bfg u/]sf] x'G5 .
o:tf] d"Nofª\sgdf k|fKt x'g] cg'ej / cfGtl/s 1fg (tacit knowledge) n] dfgj ;dembf/L (human understanding) a9fpg ;xof]u u5{ / dfgj cg'ejsf] lj:tf/ u5{ .
o:tf] d"Nofª\sgsf] cg'ejn] :jfefljs ;fdfGoLs/0fx¿ ljsf; ug{ ;xof]u u5{ . j:t'x¿sf aLrsf ;dfgtf s]nfP/ / ;fGble{s / c;fGble{s d'2fx¿ 5'6\ofP/ :jfefljs ;fdfGoLs/0fx¿ ljsf; ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgn] dflg;x¿sf] ;f]Rg] tl/sfnfO{ km/flsnf] agfpg ;xof]u u5{ / z}lIfs sfo{qmdx¿nfO{ /fd|f];Fu a'‰g dbt ub{5 .
Pp6f j:t'sf] uxg cWoogaf6 k|fKt ePsf] cg'ejnfO{ ;Fufn]/ dflg;n] c¿ j:t'x¿sf] klg uxg cWoog ug{ ;Sb5g\ . o;/L o:tf] d"Nofª\sgaf6 dflg;sf] cg'ej / 1fg ylk+b} hfG5 .
/]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf dfly plNnlvt dxTj ePsfn] vf;u/L z}lIfs / ;fdflhs sfo{qmdx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ ;Gbe{df /]:kf]lG;e ljlwsf] k|of]u ug'{ a9L ;fGble{s dflgG5 . To:t} sfo{qmdsf] k|lqmof d"Nofª\sgsf nflu of] df]8]nsf] k|of]u ug'{ a9L pkof]uL x'G5 . sfo{qmdsf] lgdf{0ffTds d"Nofª\sgsf nflu /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . cj:yf cWoog (case study) ug{ / hftLo cWoog (ethnographic study) ug{ of] df]8]nsf] pkof]u ug{ ;lsG5 . To:f}u/L :yfgLo txdf s'g} sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu klg of] df]8]n pkof]uL x'g ;Sb5 . o;/L /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf ljleGg dxTj / k|of]ux¿ eP tfklg o; df]8]nsf ;Ldfx¿nfO{ lgDgadf]lhd pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
/]:kf]lG;e ljlw ckgfO{ d"Nofª\sg ubf{ hl6ntfx¿sf] ;fdgf ug{'kg]{ x'G5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sg lbzfljxLg / clgb]{lzt (non-directive) x'G5 .
91
o:tf] lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿sf] ¿kdf ;DalGwt ljifosf] ljz]if1, d"Nofª\sgdf bIf / ;+j]bgzLn JolStx¿ x'g' cfjZos kb{5 .
o:tf] d"Nofª\sgdf ;do a9L nfUg], vr{ a9L x'g] / emGem6 w]/} x'G5 . o:tf] cWoogaf6 k|fKt glthf / lgisif{nfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ufx|f] x'G5 . o:tf] d"Nofª\sgdf j:t'lgi7tfsf] cefj x'G5 eg]/ w]/} cfnf]rgf ul/Psf] kfOG5 cyf{t\\ o:tf]
d"Nofª\sgdf k"jf{u|x / kIfkftsf] k|efj kb{5 . JolStsf ljrf/ / d"No dfGotfn] ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf] glthf a9L k|efljt x'G5.
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary) dfOsn :qmfOe]g -!(^&_ sf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] ;a} lsl;dsf pknlAwx¿sf] ;ª\sng
ug]{ / tL pknlAwx¿nfO{ dxTjk"0f{ dflgPsf p2]Zox¿;Fu ;+of]hg ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . pgsf] ljrf/df 6fOn/ nufotn] k|:t't u/]sf] nIo ;fk]If d"Nofª\sg ;ª\s'lrt lsl;dsf] x'G5 . :qmfOe]gsf] ljrf/df u}/–nlIft pknlAwx¿ cyf{t\\ cgk]lIft pknlAwx¿ ;d]tsf] d"Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ x'gfn] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ nIo;fk]If d"Nofª\sgsf] t'ngfdf nIolg/k]If d"Nofª\sg a9L dxTjk"0f{ x'G5 .
dfNsf]e k|f]e; -!(^(_ sf] leGgtf d"Nofª\sg df]8]n k4lt Joj:yfkg l;4fGtdf cfwfl/t / p2]Zos]lGb|t 5 . k|f]e;sf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] Jojxf/x¿nfO{ dfkb08x¿;Fu t'ngf ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . pgsf cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgsf] sfo{ sfo{qmd ljsf; ug]{ / sfof{Gjog ug]{ k|lqmof ;Fu;Fu]} lg/Gt/ ug'{k5{ h;sf kfFr j6f cj:yfx¿ (stages) 5g\M of]hgf, :yfkgf, k|lqmof, pTkfbg / nfut . k|f]e;sf cg';f/ k|To]s cj:yfdf dfkb08x¿ (S) / Jojxf/x¿ (P) sf aLrdf leGgtf (D) klxrfg ul/;s]kl5 olb leGgtfx¿ /x]5g\ eg] Jojxf/df ;'wf/ ug]{ (MP= modify the performance) jf dfkb08df ;'wf/ ug]{ (MS= modify the standard), jf sfo{qmdsf] k'g;{+rfng ug]{ cyf{t\\ bf]xf]¥ofpg] (RP= recycle the program), cGoyf cfjZos k/]df sfo{qmd aGb ug]{ (TP= terminate the program) ;DaGwL lg0f{ox¿ ug'{kb{5 . olb leGgtfx¿ gePdf sfo{qmdnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lb+b} csf]{ cj:yfdf ;~rfng ug'{kb{5 .
8]lgon Pn= :6kmnlad -!(^(_ n] lg0f{ostf{ s]lGb|t cyf{t\\ Joj:yfkg s]lGb|t d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n k|:t't u/]sf 5g\ . pgsf] ljrf/df d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] j}slNks lg0f{ox¿ ug{sf nflu pkof]uL ;"rgfx¿nfO{ kl/eflift ug]{, ;ª\sng ug]{ / k|bfg ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . :6kmnladsf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu rf/ k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sgx¿ ug'{kb{5M ;Gbe{ (context) d"Nofª\sg (C), nufgL (input) d"Nofª\sg (I), k|lqmof (process) d"Nofª\sg (P), / pTkfbg (product) d"Nofª\sg (P). pgsf] df]8]nnfO{ 5f]6s/Ldf ;L=cfO{=kL=kL= df]8]n elgG5 .
lqmofsnfk
/f]j6{ O= :6]ssf] ljrf/df of]hgfx¿ / jf:tljstfx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGw s;/L cWoog ug{ ;lsG5<
:6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]ndf rfxgfx¿ / dfkb08x¿ aLrdf s:tf] leGgtf b]lvG5< pbfx/0f;lxt ;dLIff ug'{xf];\ .
/]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] s] xf]< of] df]8]n cg';f/ d"Nofª\sgnfO{ kl/eflift ug'{xf];\ .
/f]j6{ O= :6]ssf] ljrf/df ;d¿ktf–;Defjgf d"Nofª\sg / /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgdWo] s'g dxTjk"0f{ 5< ljj]rgf ug'{xf];\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf j}slNks df]8]nx¿ eGgfn] s] a'lemG5< sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿nfO{ tkfO{+ s;/L juL{s/0f ug{ rfxg'x'G5<
s'g} sIffdf cWoog/t ljBfyL{x¿sf] z}lIfs cfjZostfx¿ cWoog ug'{k¥of] eg] tkfO{+ s'g df]8]n pko'St dfGg' x'G5 / lsg< cfjZostf cWoogdf pSt df]8]nsf] tkfO{+ s;/L k|of]u ug'{x'G5< :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
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/f]j6{ O= :6]s -!(^&_ n] k|:t't u/]sf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]nnfO{ j}1flgs df]8]nsf] ¿kdf lnOG5 . o; df]8]n cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] j0f{g ug]{ / lg0f{o ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . ¿k df]8]n cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu ;j{k|yd sfo{qmdsf] cfjZostf, dxTj / cf}lrTosf] j0f{g ug]{, To;kl5 k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAw ;DaGwL rfxgfx¿ jf of]hgfx¿sf] j0f{g ug]{, To;kl5 cjnf]sg ul/Psf jf:tljs k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAwx¿sf] j0f{g ug]{, To;kl5 lg0f{osf nflu k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAwx¿;DaGwL dfkb08x¿ lglZrt ug]{ / cGtdf k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAwx¿sf] af/]df d"No lgwf{/0f ug]{, cfjZos lg0f{ox¿ ug]{ / l/kf]6{ tof/ ug]{ sfo{x¿ ug'{[k5{ . :6]ssf] ljrf/df of]hgfx¿ / jf:tljstfx¿sf] aLrdf ;DaGw cWoog ubf{ ;d¿ktf (congruence) nfO{ cfwf/ dfGg'kb{5 eg] k"jf{wf/, k|lqmof / pknlAwx¿ aLrsf] ;DaGw cWoog ubf{ ;Defjgf (contingency) nfO{ cfwf/ dfGg' kb{5 . ctM :6]ssf] of] df]8]nnfO{{ ;d¿ktf–;Defjgf df]8]n klg eGg] ul/G5 .
/f]j6{ O= :6]ssf] ljrf/df sfo{qmdsf of]hgfx¿ / pTkfbgx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] ¿k dflgG5 eg] sfo{qmdsf jf:tljs k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ sfo{qmdsf] ;f/e"t kIf dflgG5 . :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg df]8]nn] sfo{qmdsf] ¿k kIf cyf{t\\ of]hgf / pTkfbgx¿df eGbf sfo{qmdsf] ;f/e"t kIf cyf{t\\ sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ a9L dxTj lbG5 . of] df]8]n k|fs[lts 9fFrf / u'0ffTds cWoogdf cfwfl/t 5 . o;cg';f/ d"Nofª\sg eg]sf] :jfefljs jftfj/0fdf cgf}krfl/s ¿kdf dflg;x¿n] b}lgs hLjgdf ug]{ k|lqmof xf] cyf{t\\ cjnf]sg ug]{ / k|ltlqmof JoSt ug]{ k|lqmof g} d"Nofª\sg xf] . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo ;DalGwt dflg;x¿sf] aLrdf ;~rf/sf] cj:yfdf ;'wf/ ug'{, d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] j:t'sf] af/]df Pp6f ;ddmbf/L (understanding) ljsf; ug'{ / ;DalGwt dflg;sf rf;f] (concerns) / d'2fx¿ (issues) nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug'{ xf] . :6]ssf] cg';f/ /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf sd;]sd tLg j6f ljz]iftfx¿ x'G5g\M klxnf], sfo{qmdsf k|lqmofx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿df s]lGb|t, bf];|f], ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf rf;f]sf s'/fx¿sf] ;Daf]wg / t];|f], ax'njfbL b[li6sf]0fsf] cfwf/df sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg . /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ sfo{qmdsf jf:tljstfx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿df s]lGb|t x'G5g\, ;xefuLx¿sf rf;f]x¿ / d'2fx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5g\ / cGttM ltgsf egfOx¿, k]|/0ffx¿ / k|j[lQx¿af6 pTk|]l/t x'G5g\ . :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]nnfO{ g]kfnLdf :jfefljs efiffdf eGg'kbf{ pQ/bfoL d"Nofª\sg eGg'eGbf :6]ssf] rf;f] ;d]6\g] d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]n eGg' pko'St x'G5 .
dfly plNnlvt kfFr j6f d"Nofª\sgsf df]8]nx¿n] k|of]ufTds 9fFrfsf] cfwf/df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug'{kb{5 eGg] dfGotfsf] v08g ub}{ ljsNkx¿ lbPsf x'gfn] oL df]8]nx¿nfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf j}slNks df]8]nx¿ dflgG5 / oL df]8]nx¿n] /fkm 8An'= 6fOn/sf] d"Nofª\sgsf] df]8]neGbf km/flsnf] 9ª\un] d"Nofª\sgnfO{ kl/eflift u/]sf 5g\ . oL df]8]nx¿dWo] :qmfOe]gsf] nIo lg/k]If d"Nofª\sg / :6]ssf] /]:kf]lG;e d"Nofª\sg k|fs[lts 9fFrfdf cfwfl/t df]8]nx¿ x'g\ eg] :6kmnladsf] ;L=cfO=kL=kL= df]8]n, k|f]e;sf] leGgtf d"Nofª\sg df]8]n / :6]ssf] ¿k d"Nofª\sg df]8]n j}1flgs 9fFrfdf cfefl/t d"Nofª\sgx¿ x'g\ .
%_ cEof; (Exercise)
Subjective questions: Short answer type
1. What are the differences between goal based evaluation and goal free evaluation? Which evaluation model will you prefer? Justify your answers.
2. Illustrate the first stage of evaluation of Provus's model. What are the standard and performance of this stage? What types of decisions are made from this stage of evaluation? Explain.
3. Explain key concepts, limitations and implications of Provus's model of evaluation. 4. How do you evaluate educational objectives of a curriculum based on the Provus's
discrepancy approach to evaluation? 5. Describe one of the models of evaluation presented by Robert E. Stake. 6. Naturalistic and participant oriented approaches in evaluation are the powerful tools.
Elaborate this statement. 7. Explain the rationale and origins of naturalistic evaluation models. 8. Why is responsive evaluation important in program evaluation?
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9. Mention the criteria for judging naturalistic evaluation and point out the importance and implications of this type of evaluation.
Subjective questions: Long answer type
10. Explain in brief CIPP model of evaluation. 11. Compare and contrast between congruence-contingency model and responsive
evaluation model developed by Stake. 12. Describe the discrepancy model in terms of its meaning, emphasis, proposed
constructs, and implications for evaluation. 13. Derive limitations and implications of various evaluation approaches - objectives,
management, naturalistic and expertise-oriented approaches.
Objective questions 1. Evaluation of secondary effects included in
a. goal based evaluation b. goal free evaluation c. intrinsic evaluation d. component evaluation
2. Pay-off evaluation refers to a. hybrid evaluation b. intrinsic evaluation c. extrinsic evaluation d. unobtrusive evaluation
3. Goal free evaluation propounded by Scriven is a. the replacement for goal based evaluation b. the supplement to goal based evaluation c. synonymous with hybrid evaluation d. synonymous with intrinsic evaluation
4. Goal free evaluation is the evaluation that is based on a. quality of goals b. actual outcomes c. intended outcomes d. program outputs
5. In Stufflebeam's evaluation model, input evaluation is considered for a. planning decisions b. setting objectives c. implementing decisions d. designing program procedures
6. Which is not the major step in evaluation process? a. delineating b. obtaining c. planning d. providing
7. To Stufflebeam, process evaluation is the evaluation of a. actual ends of the program b. actual means of the program c. intended ends of the program d. intended means of the program
8. Who stated the evaluation studies are closely related to management procedures and decision-making? a. Stufflebeam b. Alkin c. Provus d. Scriven
9. Neo-mobilistic setting is characterized by a. utopian activity b. innovative activity c. developmental activity d. proactive activity
10. What is the aim of neomobilistic decision a. maintaining balance b. improvement of program c. innovation d. complete change
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11. Metamorphic decision-making is for a. complete change in a program b. continuous improvement of a program c. to solve significant problems of the program d. maintenance of the on-going program
12. Metamorphic decision making is based on a. innovative activity b. restorative activity c. developmental activity d. utopian activity
13. Credibility, scope, relevance and timeliness are categorized as a. scientific criteria b. practical criteria c. objective criteria d. subjective criteria
14. Robert E. Stake's congruence-contingency model is considered as a. scientific model b. humanistic model c. naturalistic model d. anti-positivistic model
15. Who was the first man to propose objective-oriented evaluation process? a. Malcolm Provus b. Ralph Tyler c. Marvin Alkin d. Robert Stake
16. What of the followings is known as means-ends model? a. objectives-oriented model b. management-orieneted model c. accreditation model d. naturalistic model
17. For N. B. Biswas (2000), scientific model based on experimental design to course evaluation is considered as a. traditional model b. R and D model c. professional model d. expertise-oriented model
18. Which model needs experimental and control groups to evaluate a course of study? a. objectives-oriented model b. decision-making model c. traditional model d. professional model Answer key: Answer key of the objective questions as given in exercise four of the fourth chapter is given below.
1. b 2. c 3. b 4. b 5. d 6. c 7. b 8. a 9. b 10. c
11. a 12. d 13. b 14. a 15. b 16. a 17. a 18. c
6. Suggested reading materials
Alkin, M. C. (1995). Curriculum evaluation models. In T . Husen, and T. Postlethwaite, (eds.) (1995). The international encyclopedia of education (2nd ed.), pp. 1279-1283. UK: Pergamon.
Biswas, N. B. (2000). Curriculum studies: A model for Saarc countries. Delhi, India: Indian Publishers Distributors.
Ornstein, A. C. and Hunkins, F. (1993). Curriculum foundations, principles and theories (2nd
ed.). USA: Allyn and Bacon.
Worthen, B. R. and Sanders, J. R. (1987) . Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines. USA: Longman.
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PsfO kfFr
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf (Planning Programme Evaluation)
!_ kl/ro (Introduction)
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf eGgfn] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu ul/g] cfjZos tof/LnfO{ hgfpF5 . o; PsfOcGtu{t sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f k|lqmof / sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgf n]vg k|lqmof ;dfj]z ul/Psf] 5 . sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f k|lqmofdf s'g} z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu cfjZos kg]{ tof/Lsf k|lqmofx¿nfO{ ;}¢flGts ¿kn] j0f{g ul/Psf] 5 eg] k|:tfjgf n]vgcGtu{t cWoogsf] k|:tfjgfdf ;d]6\g'kg]{ d"ne"t kIfx¿nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt :ki6 ul/Psf] 5 . o; PsfOsf] d"n p2]Zo s'g} z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu cfjZos of]hgfx¿ agfpg ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;Ifd agfpg' xf] .
@_ ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ / kf7\oj:t'x¿ (Specific objectives and contents)
ljlzi6 p2]Zox¿ kf7\oj:t'x¿
Describe the process of planning programme evaluation
Prepare a proposal of an evaluation study for an educational project, educational programme or an educational institution
5.1 Process of the planning
Choosing the goals of evaluation
Setting the boundaries of evaluation
Specification of indicators of programme outcomes
Identification of approaches measuring the indicators
Establishing rapport with the concerned people
Addressing political and contextual issues
Maintaining professional and ethical standards
5.2 Proposal writing
Identifying the problem
Writing objectives and evaluation questions
Writing rationale and limitations
Conceptualizing the study
Developing tool matrix
Preparing a proposal of an evaluation study
#_ k|:t'tLs/0f (Presentation) #=!= of]hgf lgdf{0fsf k|lqmofx¿
sfo{qmdsf] Joj:yfkg k|lqmofdf sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ ug{'k5{ . To;}n] sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd Joj:yfkgs} Pp6f cleGg cª\u xf] . ctM sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Joj:yfkg ug{] sfo{df sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿sf] dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf /x]sf] x'G5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu slxn] d"Nofª\sg ug]{, sf]af6 d"Nofª\sg u/fpg], d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf ;t{x¿ / cj:yfx¿ (terms and conditions) s] /fVg], d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos ah]6 s;/L h'6fpg] / pknAw ah]6nfO{ d"Nofª\sg lqmofsnfkx¿sf
96
nflu s;/L kl/rfng ug]{, d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt ;'emfjx¿ / ;"rgfx¿sf] s;/L, s:fn], slxn] / sxfF k|of]u ug]{ eGg] s'/fx¿ lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd Joj:yfksx¿sf] x'G5 . ;fy} d"Nofª\sgstf{nfO{ s;/L ;xof]u ug]{ / d"Nofª\sgstf{af6 s;/L ;xof]u lng] eGg] s'/fx¿sf] lgw{f/0f ug]{ sfo{ d"ntM sfo{qmd Joj:yfksx¿sf] x'G5 h'g sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f k|lqmofsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ cfofd xf] .
x'g t sltko sfo{qmdsf of]hgfsf/x¿, Joj:yfksx¿, ;~rfnsx¿ / sfo{/t sd{rf/Lx¿n] sfo{qmdsf] ;~rfng ug]{ / sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{ bf]xf]/f] e"ldsf lgjf{x ul//x]sf x'g ;Sb5g\ . vf;u/L lgoldt ¿kdf, lg/Gt/ ¿kdf / cgf}krfl/s ¿kdf ul/g] lgdf{0ffTds lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sgx¿ cfGtl/s ¿kdf x'g ;Sb5g\ . o; lsl;dsf d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ;~rfng ug{sf] nflu s'g} s7f]/ k|s[ltsf] d"Nofª\sg of]hgf h?/t kb}{g . t/ cf}krfl/s ¿kdf / lg0f{ofTds k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu of]hgf / tof/Lx¿ kof{Kt dfqfdf ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Joj:yfkg k|lqmofdf d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf agfpg], d"Nofª\sg lqmofsnfkx¿ ug]{ / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug]{ u/L tLg j6f k|lqmofx¿ ;dfj]z x'G5g\ . d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f k|lqmofdf / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug]{ k|lqmofdf sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿ / sfo{qmdsf bftfx¿ (donors) sf] ;xof]u lnP/ cyf{t\\ ;+o'St ¿kdf d'Nof+sgstf{n] sfo{ ug'{kb{5 eg] d"Nofª\sg lqmofsnfkx¿sf] ;~rfng k|lqmofdf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{qmddf sfo{/t sd{rf/Lx¿sf] / nlIft ;d"xsf ;b:ox¿sf] ;xof]u lnP/ d"Nofª\sg ug]{ sfo{ ;DkGg ug{'kb{5 . d"Nofª\sgsf lqmofsnfkx¿nfO{ Jojl:yt ¿kdf ;DkGg ug{sf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f u/]/ tof/L ug{'k5{ . o;} ;Gbe{df oxfF sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf of]hgfx¿ lgdf{0f ubf{ d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ug{'kg]{ k|lqmofx¿sf] ;ª\If]kdf j0f{g ul/Psf] 5.
#=!=!= d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgwf{/0f
sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgwf{/0f ug{ cfjZos x'G5 . d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo :ki6 ePkl5 dfq d"Nofª\sg sfo{nfO{ cufl8 a9fpg ;lsG5 . oxfF d"Nofª\sgsf d'Vo p2]Zox¿nfO{ g} d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo elgPsf] xf] . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo :ki6 ug{sf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿nfO{ ls6fg u/L pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ pNn]v u/]/ klg d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo :ki6 ug{ ;lsG5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ to u/]/ d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf kQf nufpg' eGg] syg d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo x'g ;Sb5 cyjf sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tf s:tf] 5 eGg] k|Zg d"Nofª\sgsf] k|Zg x'g ;Sb5 . d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgwf{/0f ug{' cl3 lgDg s'/fx¿df Wofg lbg'kb{5 .
h'g sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{'kg{] xf], ;f] sfo{qmdnfO{ /fd|f];Fu a'e]msf] x'g'k5{ . sfo{qmdsf 3f]lift p2]Zox¿, n's]sf p2]Zox¿ / k|f/lDes / df}lns k|sf/sf p2]Zox¿ klxrfg ug{'k5{ . To:t} sfo{qmdsf nlIft ;d"xsf] af/]df hfgsf/L k|fKt x'g' cfjZos 5 .
d"Nofª\sg ug{' kgf{sf] sf/0f :ki6 x'g'k5{ . sfo{qmd sfof{Gjog ug{ sl7gfO k/]/, pknlAw sdhf]/ eP/, vr{ a9L eP/ jf u'gf;fx¿ w]/} eP/ s]s] sf/0fn] ubf{ d"Nofª\sg ug{' k/]sf] xf] ;f] s'/fsf] lgwf] ug{' cfjZos x'G5 h;n] ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgwf{/0f ug{ ;xh x'G5 .
s;sf] cfjZostf k"/f ug{sf] nflu d"Nofª\sg ug{' k/]sf] xf], d"Nofª\sg k|ltj]bg s;nfO{ lbOg] xf] / d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ;DkGg ePkl5 s;nfO{ kmfObf k'U5 ;f] s'/fsf] lgwf] ug{' cfjZos x'G5 .
sfo{qmdsf p2]Zox¿ dWo] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu dxTjk"0f{ / ;fGble{s p2]Zox¿ 5gf]6 ug'{k5{ . pbfx/0fsf] nflu lg/If/ JolStx¿nfO{ ;fIf/ agfpg] ;fIf/tf sfo{qmdsf] p2]Zo x'g ;Sb5 eg] d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo ;fIf/x¿sf] k|ltzt kQf nufpg' x'g ;Sb5 . To:t} sfo{qmdsf nflu ;fGble{s / dxTjk"0f{ x'g] vfnsf d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ 5gf]6 ug{ ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu ;fIf/tf sfo{qmdsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ kQf nufP/ ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsG5 eg] ;fIf/tf sfo{qmdsf sdLsdhf]/Lx¿ kQf nufpg' d"Nofª\sgsf] p2]Zo x'g ;S5 h'g sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] nflu ;xof]uL x'G5 .
#=!=@ d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Ldfª\sg
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu cWoogsf ;Ldf/]vfx¿ lgwf{/0f ug{ cfjZos x'G5 h;n] ubf{ tf]lsPsf] ;dodf, tf]lsPsf] ah]6sf] kl/lwleq /x]/ pknAw hgzlSt dfkm{t\ d"Nofª\sg cWoog
97
;kmntfk"j{s ;DkGg ug{sf] nflu af6f] lglZrt x'G5 . o;af6 c;Lldt / c;fGble{s kIfx¿ / sl7gfOx¿af6 cWoognfO{ :jtGq /fVg ;lsG5 . d"Nofª\sgnfO{ ;Ldfª\sg u/]/ cWoogsf ;Defljt sdLsdhf]/Lx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsG5 h;n] ubf{ d"Nofª\sgnfO{ ;Defljt cfnf]rgfx¿af6 hf]ufpg ;xof]u ldNb5 . d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Ldfª\sg ug{sf] nflu lgDg sfo{x¿ ug{ ;lsG5M
d"Nofª\sg ug{'kg]{ j:t' jf kIfnfO{ ;Lldt ug{ ;lsG5 . d"Nofª\sg Ufl/g] ;donfO{ ;Lldt ug{ ;lsG5 . d"Nofª\sg ul/g] tl/sf cyf{t\ ljlwsf sf/0f pTkGg x'g] kl/l:yltx¿nfO{ ;Lldt ug{ ;lsG5 .
pbfx/0fsf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf cfwf/x¿ lglZrt u/L d"Nofª\sgsf] ljlw, 9fFrf / k4ltnfO{ lglZrt ug{ ;lsG5 .
d"Nofª\sg ug]{ JolStsf sf/0f pTkGg x'g] kl/l:yltx¿nfO{ ;Lldt ug{ ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ;Demf}tf u/L s/f/gfdf agfP/ d"Nofª\sgnfO{ lglZrt lbZffdf Nf}hfg ;lsG5 .
#=!=# sfo{qmdsf pknlAwsf ;"rsx¿
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf nflu sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿sf] klxrfg ug{'kg]{ x'G5 . sltko pknlAwx¿ cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf x'G5g\ eg] sltko pknlAwx¿ ;/;tL{ cWoog ug{ sl7g kg]{ vfnsf cyf{t\\ hl6n lsl;dsf klg x'Gf ;S5g\ . sfo{qmdsf pknlAwx¿ hgfpg] Jojxf/x¿ cyf{t\ ;"rgfx¿ yfxf kfpgsf nflu cjnf]sg ug{ ;lsg], /]s8{ ug{ ;lsg] / u0fgf ug{ ;lsg] lglZrt ;"rsx¿sf] klxrfg ug{' cfjZos x'G5 . klxrfg ul/Psf ;"rsx¿;Fu ;DalGwt / d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ ;d]6\g] u/L d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf agfpg' kb{5 . o:tf] of]hgfdf ;j{k|yd sfo{qmdsf pknlAwsf ;"rsx¿;Fu ;DalGwt d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ lglZrt ug{] sfo{ ug{'k5{ eg] To;kl5 ;"rgf k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] ;|f]tx¿ klg olsg ug{'kb{5 . o:tf ;"rgfsf ;|f]tx¿ Ps jf PseGbf a9L x'g ;Sb5g\ . ;"rgfsf ;|f]tx¿ k|fylds ;|f]tx¿ jf dfWolds ;|f]tx¿ jf b'j} x'g ;Sb5g\ .
oxfF sfo{qmdsf pknlAwsf ;"rsx¿ eGgfn] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos kg]{ vfnsf / ;ª\sng ug{ ;lsg] vfnsf ;"rgfx¿nfO{ elgPsf] xf] . sfo{qmdsf] nufgL cWoog ubf{ nufgLsf ;"rsx¿sf] klxrfg ug'{kb{5 eg] pTkfbg cWoog ubf{ pknlAwsf ;'rsx¿ klxrfg ug{'kb{5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} z}lIfs ;+:yfdf nufgLsf] cj:Yff kQf nufpgsf] nflu nufgLsf ;"rsx¿sf] ¿kdf ah]6sf] l:ylt, lzIfs / sd{rf/Lsf] ;ª\Vof, sIffsf]7fsf] ;ª\Vof, sIffsf]7fsf] cfsf/, v]nd}bfgsf] If]qkmn cflb x'g ;S5g\. To:t} k|lqmof cWoogsf nflu ;"rsx¿sf] ¿kdf lzIfssf] xflh/L, ljBfyL{sf] xflh/L, ljBfno v'n]sf] lbg / k9fO ePsf] lbg, sf];{ ;lsPsf / g;lsPsf ljifox¿ cflb x'g ;S5g\ . To:t} pTkfbg cWoogsf nflu ;"rsx¿sf] ¿kdf ljBfyL{sf] pknlAw:t/, k|ltljBfyL{ k|ltjif{ nfut vr{, ljBfyL]{sf] hLjgdf cfPsf ;'wf/x¿ cyjf ljBfyL{sf] sfo{ If]qdf cfPsf ;'wf/x¿ / ljBfnosf] ;+:yfut k|ultsf] cj:yfnfO{ lng ;lsG5 . To:t} sfo{qmdsf pknlAwsf ;"rsx¿sf] ¿kdf ljBfyL{sf Jojxf/x¿, lzIfssf Jojxf/x¿, k|wfgfWofkssf Jojxf/x¿, cleefjssf Jojxf/x¿ / Joj:yfkg ;ldltsf Jojxf/x¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . s'g} z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] pknlAw cWoog ubf{ ;fGble{s x'g] s]xL ;"rsx¿sf] af/]df tn pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
cf};t pknlAw :t/M s'g} sIffdf s'g} ljifosf] k/LIffdf k/LIffYfL{x¿n] k|fKt u/]sf] cª\ssf] hDdf of]ukmnnfO{ k/LIffyL{x¿sf] ;ª\Vofn] efu u/L cfPsf] cª\snfO{ cf};t k|fKtfª\s elGfG5 . o:tf] cf};t k|fKtfª\snfO{ k|ltztdf kl/jt{g u/L cf};t k|fKtfª\s k|ltzt kQf nufpg ;lsG5 h;nfO{ cf};t pknlAw :t/ (average achievement level) eGg ;lsG5 .
pQL0f{ b/M s'g} sIffdf s'g} ;fndf eGff{ ePsf hDdf ljBfYfL{x¿dWo] ;f] sIff pQL0f{ u/]sf ljBfyL{x¿sf] k|ltztnfO{ pQL0f{ b/ (promotion rate) jf pQL0f{ k|ltzt elgG5 .
bf]xf]¥ofpg] b/M s'g} sIffdf egf{ ePsf hDdf ljBfyL{dWo] csf]{ jif{df pxL sIff bf]xf]¥ofP/ egf{ x'g cfpg] ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ bf]xf]¥ofpg] b/ (repetition rate) elgG5 .
5f]8\g] b/M s'g} sIffdf egf{ ePsf hDdf ljBfyL{x¿dWo] ToxL sIffaf6 ljBfno 5f]8\g] ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ 5f]8\g] b/ (dropout rate) elgG5 . 5f]8\g]x¿sf] ;ª\Vof u0fgf ubf{ sIff 5f]8\g] ljleGg lsl;dsf ljBfYfL{x¿ h:tf] egf{ eO{ k/LIff glbg], k/LIff lbO{ pQL0f{ geP/ sIff bf]xf]¥ofpg gcfO{ 5f]8\g], pQL0f{ eP/ klg dflyNnf] sIffdf egf{ x'g ghfg] ljBfyL{x¿nfO{ ;d]6\g'
98
kb{5 t/ Pp6f ljBfnoaf6 csf]{ ljBfnodf egf{ x'g uPsfx¿nfO{ 5f]8\g]x¿sf] ;ª\Vofdf u0fgf ug{ ldNb}g . oxfF 5f]8\g]x¿sf] ;ª\Vof Ö -cl3Nnf] jif{ sIff …sÚdf egf{ ePsf ljBfYfL{ ;ª\Vof_ – -kl5Nnf] jif{ dflyNnf] sIff …vÚdf egf{ ePsf ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof ± kl5Nnf] jif{ pxL sIff …sÚdf bf]xf¥ofpg] ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof_ o;/L 5f]8\g] b/ Ö 5f]8\g]x¿sf] hDdf ;ª\VofnfO{ eGff{ ePsf ;DalGwt ljBfyL{x¿sf] hDdf ;ª\Vofn] efu u/L cfpg] k|ltzt .
l6sfp b/M sIff Psdf eGff{ ePsf hDdf ljBfyL{x¿dWo] ljleGg jif{x¿ nufP/ csf]{ sIffdf k'Ug] hDdf ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ l6sfp b/ (survival rate) elgG5 . pbfx0fsf nflu sIff Psdf !,))) ljBfYfL{x¿ egf{ ePsfdWo] !# jif{;Dd cWoog u/]/ kfFr sIffdf k'Uf]sf ljBfyL{x¿sf] :f+Vof dfgf}+ ^#& /x]5 eg] k|fylds txsf] l6sfp b/ ^#=& k|ltzt /x]5 .
tx k"/f ug]{ b/M s'g} txsf] klxnf] sIffdf egf{ ePsf hDdf ljBfyL{x¿dWo] jiff}{;Dd cWoog u/L ;f] txsf] dflyNNff] sIff pQL0f{ u/]sf ljBfyL{x¿sf] k|ltztnfO{ tx k"/f ug]{ b/ (cycle completion rate) elGfG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu sIff Psdf eGff{ ePsf !,))) ljBfyL{x¿dWo] egf{ ePsf] !# jif{sf] cjlwdf sIff kfFr pQL0f{ ug]{ hDdf ljBfyL{x¿sf] ;ª\Vof dfgf}+ %$^ /x]5 eg] k|fylds tx k"/f ug]{ b/ %$=^ k|ltzt /x]sf] dflgG5 .
v'b k|j]z b/M k|fylds txsf] klxnf] sIffdf egf{ x'g cflwsfl/s ¿kdf 7Ls pd]/ ;d"x dflgPsf s]6fs]6Lx¿sf] hg;ª\VofdWo] pSt ;fndf pSt sIffdf egf{ ePsf 7Ls pd]/ ;d"xsf ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ v'b k|j]z b/ (net intake rate/NIR) elgG5 .
;xh k|j]z b/M k|fylds txsf] klxnf] sIffdf egf{ x'g cflwsfl/s ¿kdf 7Ls pd]/ ;d"x dflgPsf s]6fs]6Lx¿sf] hg;ª\Vofsf] t'ngfdf pSt ;fndf pSt sIffdf egf{ ePsf h'g;'s} pd]/ ;d"xsf hDdf ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ s'n jf ;xh k|j]z b/ (gross intake rate/GIR) elgG5 .
v'b egf{ b/M s'g} vf; txsf] lzIffsf nflu cflwsfl/s ¿kdf 7Ls pd]/ ;d"x dflgPsf s'g} ;d'bfodf /x]sf s]6fs]6Lx¿sf] hDdf hg;ª\Vof dWo] pSt txdf egf{ ePsf 7Ls pd]/ ;d"xsf ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ v'b egf{ b/ (net enrolment rate/NER) elgG5 . pbfx/0fsf nflu xfd|f] b]zsf] k|fylds txsf] v'b egf{ b/sf] u0fgf ubf{ %–( jif{ pd]/ ;d"xsf k|fylds txdf egf{ ePsf ljBfyL{ ;ª\VofnfO{ xfd|f] b]zsf] %–( jif{ pd]/ ;d"xsf hDdf afnaflnsfx¿sf] hg;ª\Vofn] efu u/L cfPsf] k|ltztnfO{ k|fylds txsf] v'b egf{ b/ elGfG5 .
;xh egf{ b/M s'g} vf; txsf] lzIffsf nflu cflwsfl/s ¿kdf 7Ls pd]/ ;d"x dflgPsf s'g} ;d'bfodf /x]sf s]6fs]6Lx¿sf] hDdf hg;ª\Vofsf] t'ngfdf pSt txdf h'g;'s} pd]/ ;d"xsf eP tfklg egf{ ePsf ljBfyL{sf] k|ltztnfO{ s'n jf ;xh egf{ b/ (gross enrolment rate/ GER) cyjf ;lhn} b]lvg] egf{ b/ elgG5 .
bIftfsf] ;"rsM s'g} txsf] lzIff k"/f u/]sf ljBfyL{sf] ;Gbe{df tL ljBfyL{x¿sf] nflu pSt tx k"/f ug{ cfjZos kg]{ Pp6f cfbz{ ljBfyL{–jif{x¿sf] ;ª\VofnfO{ pSt tx k"/f ug{sf nflu jf:tljs ¿kdf tL ljBfyL{nfO{ nfUg uPsf] ljBfyL{–jif{x¿sf] ;ª\Vofn] efu ubf{ cfpg] ;"rsnfO{ z}lIfs k|0ffnLsf] cfGtl/s bIftfsf] Pp6f dxTjk"0f{ ;"rs dflgG5 h;nfO{ 5f]6s/Ldf bIftfsf] ;"rs (coefficient of efficiency) eGg ;lsG5 . ;/n efiffdf eGg'kbf{ Ps hgf JolStn] b'O{ jif{sf] sf];{ rf/ jif{ nufP/ pQL0f{ u5{ eg] pSt JolStsf] bIftfsf] ;"rs Ö @÷$
!)) Ö %) x'g hfG5 . o;sf] cy{ k"/f bIftf x'g'kg]{df bIftfsf] :t/ cfwf dfq /x]sf] blvG5 . o;/L g} s'g} txsf], s'g} sIffsf] jf s'g} ljBfnosf] bIftfsf] ;"rs u0fgf ug{ ;lsG5.
#=!=$= ;"rssf dfkg ljlwx¿
d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ubf{ cfjZjs kg]{ vfnsf ;"rgfx¿ lglZrt ul/;s]kl5 / tL ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] ;|f]tx¿ olsg ul/;s]kl5 ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{] k|lqmof lgwf{/0f ug{'kb{5 . d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos kg{] ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng ug]{ k|lqmofnfO{ g} oxfF ;"rssf dfkg ljlwx¿ elgPsf] xf] . ;"rssf dfkg ljlwx¿ lgwf{/0f ubf{ tLg j6f sfo{x¿ ug{'k5{ . klxnf] gd'gf 5gf]6, bf];|f] ;fwgx¿sf] lgdf{0f / t];|f] ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{] sfo{ .
99
gd'gf 5gf]6 ubf{ slt hg;ª\VofdWo]af6 gd'gf 5gf]6 ug{ vf]lhPsf] xf] ;f] pNn]v ug'{kb{5, . ;fy} s'g ljlwaf6 gd'gf 5gf]6 ug{ vf]lhPsf] / slt j6f jf slt hgfnfO{ gd'gf cGtu{t ;d]l6g] x'g\ ;f] s'/f pNn]v ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . To:t} ;fwgx¿sf] lgdf{0f k|lqmof / ltgsf] j}wtf :yflot ug{] k|lqmof pNn]v u/L d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf jgfpg'k5{ . d"Nofª\sgsf ;fwgx¿sf] of]hgf agfpFbf s'g gd'gfsf nflu s'g ;fwg k|of]u ul/g] xf], ;fwgsf] p2]Zo s] xf] / ;fwgsf] ¿k/]vf s:tf] x'g] xf], ;f] s'/fnfO{ :ki6 ug{'kb{5 . To:t} ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] k|lqmofdf cWoogstf{ cfk}mF cWoog If]qdf uP/ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ug{] jf c? JolStx¿dfk{mt\ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ul/g] xf], ;f] s'/f lgwf] ug{'k5{ . cWoog If]qdf uPkl5 gd'gf 5gf]6 sfo{ s;/L ul/G5, ;fwgx¿sf] k|of]u s;/L ul/G5, slt ;do nufP/ ;"rgf ;ª\sng ul/G5, s;/L ;"rgfx¿sf] /]s8{ ul/G5 cflb s'/fx¿sf] lj:t[t of]hgf / tof/L cfjZos kb{5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ ;ª\sng ug{] sfo{sf] of]hgf agfpg' kb{5 .
#=!=%= ;'dw'/ ;DaGwsf] :yfkgf
d"Nofª\sg sfo{nfO{ ;kmntfk"j{s ;DkGg ug{sf] nflu ;DalGwt ;a} JolStx¿;Fu ;'dw'/ ;DaGw :yfkgf x'g' cfjZos 5 . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf agfpFbf ;DalGwt ;a} JolStx¿;Fu cfjZos ;xof]u lng] / lbg] jftfj/0f agfpgsf nflu kof{KTf tof/L ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . vf;u/L ;'dw'/ ;DaGwsf] :yfkgf ug{sf nflu sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ b'j} ldn]/ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 .
;DalGwt ;a} JolStx¿;Fu ;'dw'/ ;DaGwsf] :yfkgf ug{sf nflu sd;]sd b'O{ j6f sfo{x¿ ug{'kg]{ x'G5 . klxnf], ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] klxrfg ul/Psf] x'g'k5{ . bf];|f], ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿sf] ;xeflutf ;'lglZrt ug'{k5{ . ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ eGgfn] sfo{qmdsf ;+:yfks JolStx¿, of]hgfsf/x¿, gLlt lgdf{tfx¿, sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿, sfo{qmdsf sd{rf/Lx¿, sfo{qmddf ;xefuLx¿, sfo{qmdaf6 ;]jf k|fKt ug]{ JolStx¿, sfo{qmdsf nflu ah]6 pknAw u/fpg] bftfx¿ / s/bftfx¿, / d"Nofª\sgsf k|ltj]bgx¿ k|fKt ug{] kf7sx¿ jf >f]tfx¿ ;d]tnfO{ hgfpF5 . o:tf ;a} ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿sf] plrt sb/ u/L dfGotf lbg'k5{ . ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] aLrdf /fd|f];Fu ;'dw'/ ;DaGw :yfkgf ug{sf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ubf{, d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ubf{, d"Nofª\sgsf lqmofsnfkx¿ ubf{ / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ubf{ rf/ j6} r/0fx¿df ;a} ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStsf k|ltlglwx¿;Fu ;xsfo{sf] cfjZostf kb{5 h;n] ubf{ ;xof]usf] cfbfgk|bfg ;xh x'G5 .
;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{sf] aLrdf :f'dw'/ ;DaGw :yfkgf eof] eg] ljleGg k|sf/sf kmfObfx¿ x'G5g\ . h:t}M Pscfk;df ;~rf/ /fd|f] x'G5 / Pscfk;sf c:ki6tfx¿ sd x'G5g\, ;xof]usf] cfbfgk|bfg a9L x'G5, d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf /fd|f] agfpg ;lsG5, ;d:ofx¿ ;dfwfg ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5, sfo{qmdsf] ljsf; ug{ ;xof]u k'Ub5 / d"Nofª\sgsf] z'4tf a9fpg / d"Nofª\sgsf] ljZj;gLotf a9fpg ;lsG5 . To;}n] d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ubf{ ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿;Fu ;'dw'/ ;DaGw :yfkgf ug{sf] nflu cfjZos tof/Lx¿ ug{'kb{5 .
#=!=^ /fhg}lts / kl/l:ylthGo d'2fx¿
oxfF d'2f eGgfn] s'g} syg (statement), k|:tfj (proposition) jf d'Vo a'Fbf (focus) nfO{ hgfpF5 h;df ljleGg lsl;dsf b[li6sf]0fx¿ k|s6 x'g ;Sb5g\ . o;df ts{;ª\ut ¿kdf JolStx¿ c;xdt x'g ;Sb5g\ jf s'g} ljjfbsf aF'bf ;dfj]z x'g ;Sb5g\ . o;/L d'2f eGgfn] jfbljjfb ug{ ;lsg] s'g} k|:tfj (proposition) nfO{ hgpF5 h;df b'O{ jf b'O{eGbf a9L kIfx¿sf] aLr leGg b[li6sf]0fx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . ;/f]sf/jfnf ;d"xx¿sf] aLrdf cyjf pk;d"xx¿sf] aLrdf c;xdltx¿ /x]sf k|:tfjx¿ d'2fsf] ¿kdf pkl:yt x'g ;Sb5g\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ubf{ /fhg}lts / kl/l:ylthGo d'2fx¿ ;Daf]wg ug]{ tof/L ug{' cfjZos x'G5 . d'2fx¿ ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu ;j{k|yd sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] cjlwdf / d"Nofª\sg ;~rfngsf] cjlwdf p7]sf / p7fOPsf dxTjk"0f{ d'2fx¿sf] klxrfg ug{'kb{5 . bf];|f], To:tf d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu ;r]tfk"j{s pko'St ;dodf pko'St k|lqmof ckgfpg cfjZos x'G5 .
d'2fx¿ klxrfg ug{sf nflu Pscfk;df d]n gvfg] k|ltlqmofx¿ klxrfg ug]{, To:tf egfO /fVg] JolStx¿ klxrfg ug]{, leGgleGg vfnsf d"Nox¿, dfkb08x¿ jf cfwf/x¿ klxrfg ug]{ /
100
kl/l:ylthGo tTjx¿sf] ljin]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 . /fhg}lts kl/l:ylt, ;fdflhs kl/l:ylt, ;f+:s[lts kl/l:ylt, wfld{s kl/l:ylt, cfly{s kl/l:ylt, z}lIfs kl/l:ylt / kof{j/0fLo kl/l:yltx¿sf] ljZn]if0f u/]/ s'g d'2f s'g cj:yfdf a9L dxTjk"0f{ ¿kdf k|s6 x'g ;Sb5 ;f]sf] k"jff{g'dfg ug'[{kg]{ x'G5 . o;/L d"Nofª\sgsf] l;nl;nfdf ;Daf]wg ug{ cfjZos kg]{ vfnsf dxTjk"0f{ d'2fx¿ klxrfg kg{ ;lsG5 .
/fhg}lts / kl/l:ylthGo d'2fx¿ klxrfg ul/;s]kl5 cfjZostfcg';f/ tL d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ub}{ hfg'kb{5 . d'2fx¿nfO{ ;dfwfg ug{ cyf{t\\ lgd"{n ug{ ;}¢flGts / Jofjxfl/s b'j} b[li6n] ;Dej gx'g ;Sb5 lsgeg] d'2fnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug'{ eGgfn] ;d:ofsf] ;dfwfg u/] h:tf] s'/f xf]Og . d'2f k|jn ¿kdf k|s6 x'g'sf Jofjxfl/s cfwf/x¿ / sf/0fx¿ x'g ;Sb5g\ . To:tf cfwf/x¿ / sf/0fx¿ s]nfP/ d'2fx¿ ;Daf]wg ug]{ of]hgf d"Nofª\sgstf{n] agfpg' kb{5 . o;sf nflu d"Nofª\sgstf{ ;+j]bgzLn, bIf, t6:y, k|lta¢, rnfv, ljZjf; cfh{g ug{;Sg] / g]t[Tj lbg;Sg] vfnsf] b]lvg'kb{5 . d'2fx¿ ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu lgDgadf]lhdsf s]xL pkfox¿ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5M
;xefuLx¿nfO{ / ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿nfO{ ;Defljt d'2fx¿sf] af/]df clu|d ¿kdf cyf{t\\ ;dod} hfgsf/L u/fP/ d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsG5 .
;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿;Fu clu|d ¿kdf ;xdlt jf ;Demf}tf ul/sg d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{] k|of; ug{ ;lsG5 .
:yfgLo txdf :yfgLo JolStx¿;Fu ;'dw'/ ;DaGw sfod u/]/ jf ;xsfo{ u/]/ d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;xh x'g ;Sb5 .
pRr txdf jf gLlt lgdf{tfx¿;Fu ;xof]u / ;xsfo{ u/]/ d'2fx¿nfO{ ;d]6\g / ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsG5 .
lgod sfg'gsf] kl/lwleq /x]/ d'2fx¿df 5nkmn ug]{ / ;Daf]wg ug]{ sfo{ ug{'kb{5 . d"Nofª\sgstf{n] d"Nofª\sgsf k|fljlws dfkb08x¿, cfwf/x¿ / ;Gbe{nfO{ k|of]u u/]/ d'2fx¿nfO{
;Daf]wg ug{ ;Sb5g\ . d"Nofª\sgstf{n] dfgjLo ;+j]bgf, g}ltstf / k/Dk/fnfO{ cfwf/ dfgL d'2fx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{
;Sb5g\ .
sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug]{ l;nl;nfdf cyjf sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{] l;nl;nfdf s}og d'2fx¿ pkl:yt ePsf x'G5g\ cyjf eljiodf pkl:yt x'g;Sg] ;Defjgf /xG5g\ . To:tf d'2fx¿nfO{ g;d]l6sg / ;Daf]wg gul/sg d"Nofª\sg sfo{ cufl8 a9fpg ;ls+b}g cyjf To;f] ug{' pko'St x'Fb}g . ctM To:tf vfnsf dxTjk"0f{ k|To]s d'2fnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu 5'§f5'§} lsl;dsf of]hgf, tof/L / jftfj/0f ldnfpg'kg]{ x'G5 . pbfx/0sf] nflu xfd|f] b]zsf] ;Gbe{df lzIff DfGqfnon] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] ljBfnosf] Joj:yfkg x:tfGt/0f sfo{qmddf h]h:tf d'2fx¿ pkl:yt eP ltgsf] ;Daf]wg gul/sg pSt sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;ls+b}g . dfgf}+ ;/sf/n] ljBfno ;~rfngsf] nflu kof{Kt ah]6 pknAw u/fpFb}g, lzIfsx¿sf] lhDdf ;/sf/n] lnb}g, / ljBfno Joj:yfkg ;ldltdfly cljZjf; ug{'kg]{ sf/0fx¿ 5g\ h:tf ljleGg ts{x¿sf] cfwf/df ljBfno x:tfGt/0f sfo{qmdsf] lj/f]w ePsf] xf] eg] pSt k|To]s cfwf/e"t ts{nfO{ ;Daf]wg gul/sg ljBfno x:tfGt/0f sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;ls+b}g . ctM sfo{qmd ;~rfngsf] l;nl;nfdf p7]sf k|To]s d'2f klxrfg u/L tL d'2fnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{] of]hgf agfO{ sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgnfO{ cufl8 a9fpg' kb{5 .
To:t} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ;~rfng ug]{ l;nl;ndf klg s]xL d'2fx¿ p7\g ;Sb5g\ . pbfx/0fsf] nflu d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿sf] aLrdf /fo aflemPdf jf ;j{;Ddt gePdf cyf{t\\ km/s dt ePdf ltgsf] s;/L Joj:yfkg ug]{ ;f] s'/fsf] tof/L cfjZos kb{5 . To:t} d"Nofª\sgstf{ cfGtl/s JolSt x'g'kb{5 jf :yfgLo JolSt x'g'k5{ egL d"Nofª\sg sfo{df cj/f]w l;h{gf ePdf To;nfO{ Joj:yfkg ug]{ tof/L / of]hgfsf;fy sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ;'? ug{' kb{5 .
#=!=& k];fut / g}lts dfkb08x¿
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ubf{ h'g;'s} cj:yfdf klg d"Nofª\sgsf k];fut dfkb08x¿ / g}lts dfkb08x¿ sfod ug]{ s'/fdf d"Nofª\sgstf{ k|lta¢ / ljZj:t x'g'kb{5 Psflt/ eg] csf]{lt/ ;/f]sf/jfnf JolStx¿nfO{ pgn] pSt s'/fdf cfZj:t ug{ ;Sg'kb{5 .
101
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] k|lqmofdf c;n d"Nofª\sgsf ljz]iftfx¿ b]lvg'kb{5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu d"Nofª\sgsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f :ki6 x'g'kb{5 . c;n d"Nofª\sgsf ljz]iftfx¿sf] af/]df / dfkb08x¿sf] af/]df PsfO b'O{df d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIffcGtu{t kof{Kt rrf{ eO;s]sf] 5 . o;/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf agfpFbf d"Nofª\sgsf rf/ k|sf/sf dfkb08x¿ sfod ug]{ s'/fdf Wofg lbg'kb{ 5 .h:t} pkof]lutfsf dfkb08x¿cg'¿k d"Nofª\sg sfo{nfO{ pkof]uL agfpg] of]hgf agfpg' kb{5 . ;DefJotfsf] dfkb08 cg'¿k d"Nofª\sgnfO{ sd vlr{nf], Jofjxfl/s / ;xh agfpg] of]hgf agfpg' kb{5 . Gf}ltstfsf] dfkb08cg'¿k d"Nofª\sgnfO{ ;}¢flGts ¿kdf, gLltut ¿kdf, sfg'gL ¿kdf pko'St agfpg] of]hgf ug{' kb{5 . To:t} z'¢tfsf] dfkb08cg'¿k d"Nofª\sgnfO{ j}1flgs, j}w / ljZj;gLo agfpg] of]hgf ug{'kb{5 .
k];fut / g}lts dfkb08x¿ sfod ug{sf] nflu d"Nofª\sg sfo{sf] l;nl;nfdf pkl:yt x'g;Sg] ;Defljt d'2fx¿sf] af/]df ;j{k|yd d"Nofª\sgstf{ kl/lrt x'g' cfjZos 5 . o:tf d'2fx¿ b'O{ lsl;dsf x'g ;Sb5g\ . klxnf], k|fljlws lsl;dsf d'2fx¿ / bf];|f] g}lts lsl;dsf d'2fx¿ . k|fljlws lsl;dsf d'2fx¿nfO{ k];fut dfkb08x¿af6 ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsG5 eg] g}lts d'2fx¿nfO{ g}ltstfsf dfkb08x¿ sfod u/]/ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsG5 .
k];fut dfkb08x¿ sfod ug{sf nflu lgWff{l/t ;do;Ldf cg';/0f ug]{, t6:y / j:t'lgi7 x'g], ljjfbf:kb ljifo / d'2fdf k|j]z gug]{, sfg'gL dfkb08x¿ k"/f ug]{ cflb sfo{x¿ ug{ ;lsG5 eg] g}lts dfkb08x¿ sfod ug{sf nflu kIfkft / k"jf{u|x g/fVg], cjfl~5t / cgk]lIft bafasf ;fd' gem'Sg] / lg8/ eP/ cl8g], dfgjLo ;+j]bgf ljrf/ ug]{, gsf/fTds c;/x¿nfO{ Wofg lbg], ;j{;fwf/0fsf] ;"rgfsf] xsnfO{ / ltgsf lxtx¿nfO{ k|aw{g ug]{, km/s dtsf] ljrf/nfO{ ;dfj]z ug]{, pkl:yt ePsf d'2fx¿, kl/l:yltx¿ / ;Gbe{x¿sf] kof{Kt j0f{g ug]{ cflb sfo{x¿ ug{ ;lsG5 .
#=@ k|:tfjgf n]vg
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0fsf k|lqmofx¿sf] af/]df o;} PsfOsf] cl3Nnf] v08df ;}¢flGts ¿kdf rrf{ eO;s]sf] 5 . o; v08df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgf n]vg;DaGwL k|d'v sfo{x¿nfO{ pbfx/0f;lxt ;ª\If]kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . ;j{k|yd, sfo{qmd d"Noff+sg ug{'kg]{ cfjZos If]qx¿ klxNofpg' cfjZos 5 . k|:tfjgf n]vgsf] ;Gbe{df s'g sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg ug{' cfjZos 5 eGg] s'/f lgwf{/0f ug{' klxnf] k|Zg xf] . To;}n] g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{ cfjZos kg{;Sg] s]xL Jofjxfl/s pbfx/0ftkm{ ljrf/ u/f}+ .
kf7\oqmd, kf7\ok':ts, lzIfs lgb]{lzsf / z}lIfs ;fdu|Lx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] d"Nofª\sgM o;df s'g} Ps ljBfno, sn]h jf ljZjljBfno x'g ;Sb5 . ljBfno
:t/sf] s'g} z}lIfs ultljlwsf] d"Nofª\sg klg x'g ;Sb5 . /fli6«o :t/sf z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sgM o;df s'g} Zf}lIfs k|0ffnLsf] d"Nofª\sg h:t} ljBfno
lzIff k|0ffnL cyjf k|fylds lzIff sfo{qmdsf] d"Nofª\sg, ;fIf/tf sfo{qmd, 5fqj[lQ ljt/0f sfo{qmd, ljBfno x:tfGt/0f sfo{qmd cflbsf] d"Nofª\sg x'g ;Sb5 .
;/sf/L tyf u}/;/sf/L :t/df :f~rflnt z}lIfs cfof]hgfx¿sf] d"Nofª\sg .
dfly plNnlvt ljleGg If]qx¿df sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{ ;lsG5 . o;sf nflu s'g} ljifodf cWoog ug{'kgf{sf] sf/0f klxrfg u/L pko'St zLif{s 5gf]6 ug{'kb{5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu s'g} ljBfnodf ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/ Hofb} Go"g /x]5 eg] s] sf/0fn] ubf{ pQL0f{ b/ sd ePsf] xf]nf / s] u/]/ pQL0f{ b/df ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] vfnsf lh1f;fx¿ ;xh / :jfefljs ¿kdf pTkGg x'g ;Sb5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf P;=Pn=;L=df pSt ljBfnosf ljBfyL{x¿sf] pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{s 5gf]6 u/L cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 h;af6 pSt ljBfnosf] d"Nofª\sg ug{ / pSt ljBfnodf ;'wf/x¿ ug{ ;xof]u k'Ub5 .
#=@=! cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ / cWoogsf k|Zgx¿ n]vg
s'g} d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf ;d:ofsf] 5gf]6 ul/;s]kl5 pSt zLi{fscGtu{t cWoogsf dxTjk"0f{ p2]Zox¿ lgwf{/0f ul/G5 h;n] cWoognfO{ lgb{]lzt ub{5g\ . o:tf p2]Zox¿ Ps jf PseGbf a9L x'g
102
;Sb5g\ . d'Vo p2]Zosf] ¿kdf cWoogsf] Pp6f dfq p2]Zo lglZrt ug{ ;lsG5 h;nfO k"/f ug{sf nflu ljleGg ;xfos p2]Zox¿ agfpg ;lsG5 jf ljleGg d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 . oxfF a'‰g'kg{] s'/f s] xf] eg] d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ lglZrt u/]kl5 d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ lgdf{0f gu/] klg x'G5 jf d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ lglZrt u/]kl5 d"Nofª\sgsf p2]Zox¿ gn]Vg klg ;lsG5 . dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfnosf] ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf lgDg p2]Zox¿ jf lgDglnlvt d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ ;d]6\g ;lsG5M
cWoogsf p2]Zox¿
s_ ljut kfFr jif{sf] P;=Pn=;L=sf] k/LIffdf ljBfnosf] ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/sf] k|j[lQ kQf nufpg',
v_ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ ljZn]if0f ug{',
u_ pQL0f{ b/df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ljBfnon] ug{'kg]{ lqmofsnfkx¿ kQf nufpg' .
cWoogsf k|Zgx¿
s_ P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ k|ltztsf] k|j[lQ (trend) s:tf] 5< lNfª\uut, hfltut / ljifout ¿kdf k|j[lQ s:tf] 5<
v_ P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{x¿sf] cf};t pknlAw :t/ s:tf] 5<
u_ ljBfno :t/sf] k/LIffdf ljBfyL{sf] cf};t pknlAw :t/ s:tf] 5<
3_ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿sf] af/]df lzIfs, ljBfyL{ / cleefjssf k|ltlqmofx¿ s] s:tf 5g\<
ª_ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'df ljBfno;Fu ;DalGwt s]s] sf/0fx¿ 5g\< s'g–s'g sf/0fx¿nfO{ d'Vo dfGg ;lsG5<
r_ pQL0f{ b/df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ljBfnon] s] s:tf k|of;x¿ ul//x]sf] 5< s] s:tf of]hgfx¿ agfPsf] 5<
5_ pQL0f{ b/df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ljBfnoleq k|zf;gn], Joj:yfkg ;ldltn], lzIfsn] / ljBfyL{n] ug{'kg]{ lqmofsnfkx¿ s] s] x'g\< tL lqmofsnfkx¿ s;/L ug{ u/fpg ;lsG5<
dfly plNnlvt pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=:fL=sf] pQL0f{ b/sf] k|j[lQ kQf nufpg] klxnf] p2]Zosf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿ dWo] qmdzM s, v, / u nfO{ ;DalGwt dfGg ;lsG5 . To:t} pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ ljZn]if0f ug]{ p2]Zosf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿dWo] qmdzM 3 / ª nfO{ ;DalGwt dfGg ;lsG5 . To:t} pQL0f{ b/df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ljBfnon] ug{'kg]{ lqmofsnfkx¿ kQf nufpgsf nflu d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿dWo] qmdzM r / 5 nfO{ ;DalGwt dfGg ;lsG5 . o;/L P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogdf p2]Zox¿n] zLif{snfO{ tLg j6f cjojx¿df 6'qmf u/]sf] 5 eg] d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿n] pSt zLif{snfO{ ;ft j6f cjojx¿df 6'qmf u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o:tf] cj:yfdf cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ / cWoogsf k|Zgx¿ b'j} ;dfj]z u/L pNn]v ug'{ pko'St x'G5 .
#=@=@ cWoogsf] cf}lrTo / ;Ldfx¿
oxfF cWoogsf] cf}lrTo (rationale) eGgfn] cWoogsf] dxTjnfO{ elgPsf] xf] . d"Nofª\sg cWoog ;}¢flGts ¿kdf slt dxTjk"0f{ 5 / Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf slt dxTjk"0f{ 5 ;f] s'/fnfO{ cWoogsf] cf}lrTodf :ki6 ul/G5 . cWoogsf] cf}lrTon] d"Nofª\sgsf] glthf s;sf nflu pkof]uL, kmfObfhgs / dxTjk"0f{ 5 ;f] s'/f ;d]6\5 . o;/L cWoogsf] cf}lrTon] o;sf] ;fy{stfnfO{ k'li6 ub{5 . dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{sf] pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogsf] lgDg lnlvt dxTj x'g ;Sb5 .
s_ of] cWoogn] ;DalGwt ljBfnosf k|wfgfWofks / lzIfsx¿nfO{ P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{sf] pQL0f{ b/ a9fpgsf nflu xf};nf k|bfg ug]{5 . ljBfnodf eO/x]sf lqmofsnfkx¿k|lt / ltgsf c;/x¿sf af/]df hfu?s / ;r]t AfGg ;xof]u ug]{5 .
103
v_ of] cWoogn] ;DalGwt ljBfyL{ / cleefjsx¿nfO{ ljBfyL{sf] pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf ljBfno;Fu ;DalGwt sf/0fx¿ a'em\g ;xof]u ug]{ 5 .
u_ of] cWoogn] gLlt lgdf{tfx¿nfO{ ljBfno;Fu ;DalGwt z}lIfs gLlt / lgodx¿ k'g/fjnf]sg / kl/dfh{g ug{'kg]{ If]qx¿ klxNofpg dbt ug]{5 .
oxfF cWoogsf] cf}lrTon] cWoogsf] dxTjnfO{ bzf{pF5 eg] cWoogsf] ;Ldfn] cWoogdf /xg uPsf q'l6x¿ / sdLsdhf]/Lx¿nfO{ ;d]6\5 . oxfF cWoogsf ;Ldfx¿ eGgfn] cWoogsf ;Ldf/]vfx¿ (boundaries), ;Ldfx¿ (limitations) / kl/;Ldfx¿ (delimintations) ;d]tnfO{ a'em\g ;lsG5 . cWoogsf] :fLdfn] cWoogsf] bfo/fnfO{ :ki6 ub{5 h;n] cWoogn] ;d]6]sf / g;d]6]sf kIfx¿sf] aLrdf ;Ldf/]vf lgwf{/0f ub{5 . o;/L cWoogsf] ;Ldfn] cWoognfO{ lglZrt If]qdf ;Lldt ug{ / s]lGb|t ug{ ;xof]u ub{5 . cWoogstf{sf] sfa" / lgoGq0feGbf aflx/sf] kl/l:ylt l;h{gf eO{ cWoogdf /xg uPsf q'l6x¿ ;d]6\gsf nflu cWoogsf ;Ldfx¿cGtu{t pNn]v u/]sf] kfOG5 eg] cWoogstf{n] cfkm\gf] ;'ljwf cg';f/ cWoog sfo{nfO{ ;Lldt ub{5 eg] To;nfO{ cWoogsf kl/;Ldfx¿ cGtu{t pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 . oxfF cWoogsf ;Ldf/]vfx¿, ;Ldfx¿ / kl/;Ldfx¿sf] aLrdf leGgtf vf]lhPsf] 5}g . o:f ;Gbe{df dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{sf] pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogdf lgDg lnlvt ;Ldfx¿ lgWff{/0f ug{ ;lsG5 .
s_ o; cWoognfO{ ;fd'bflos ljBfnodf dfq ;Lldt ul/g] 5 .
v_ P;=Pn=;L= pQL0f{ b/sf] k|j[lQ cWoogsf] nflu lj=;+= @)^$ b]lv @)^* ;fn:fDdsf] kfFr jif{sf] cjlwdf ;~rflnt k/LIffsf] glthfx¿df dfq cWoognfO{ s]lGb|t ul/g]5 .
u_ o; cWoogdf P;=Pn=;L= pQL0f{ b/sf] k|j[lQ cWoogsf nflu lgoldt k/LIffsf lgoldt k/LIffyL{x¿nfO{ dfq ;d]l6g] 5 t/ df}sf k/LIffsf] glthf / PShfD6]8 k/LIffyL{sf] glthfnfO{ cWoog ul/g] 5}g .
#=@=# cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f
cWoogsf] zLif{s, cWoogsf p2]Zox¿, cWoogsf k|Zgx¿ / cWoogsf ;Ldfx¿ lgwf{/0f ul/;s]kl5 cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ug{sf nflu cfwf/ k|fKt x'G5 . csf]{ zAbdf cWoogsf] cjwf/0ffn] zLif{s, p2]Zox¿, k|Zgx¿, ;Ldfx¿, cWoogsf ljlwx¿ / ;fwgx¿sf] aLrdf lgs6td\ ;DaGw sfod ug{ dbt ub{5 . cWoogsf ljifoj:t'x¿, ltgsf cjojx¿m, ltgLx¿ aLrsf] Pscfk;sf ;DaGwx¿ / tL ;DaGwx¿nfO{ PsLs[t u/L k"0f{tf lbg] p2]Zon] cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ul/G5 . cWoogsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ d"t{ ¿k lbgsf] nflu cjwf/0ffTds ¿k/]vf (conceptual framework) lgdf{0f ug]{ rng 5 . dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L=df Go"g ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogdf cjwf/0ffTds ¿k/]vfnfO{ lgDgadf]lhd rf6{df b]vfpg ;lsG5M
104
lrq %=! P;=Pn=;L=df Go"g pQL0f{ b/ x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ ;DaGwL ul/g] cWoogsf] cjwf/0ffTds ¿k/]vf
#=@=$ cWoogsf ;fwg? lgdf{0fsf nflu vfsf
;fwgx¿ lgdf{0fsf nflu vfsf (tool matrix) lgdf{0f u/]/ cWoogsf e/kbf{ ;fwgx¿ ljsf; ug{ ;lsG5 . cWoogsf ;fwgx¿nfO{ p2]Zod"ns agfpgsf nflu o:tf] vfsf cfjZos kb{5 . o:tf] vfsfn] cWoogsf ;a} p2]Zox¿, ;a} ;fwgx¿ / tL ;fwgdf ;d]l6g'kg]{ dxTjk"0f{ ljifoj:t'x¿nfO{ Ps emnsdf / ;s];Dd ;ª\lIfKt ¿kdf Ps} k]hdf ;d]6\g] k|of; ub{5 h;n] ubf{ cWoogsf ;fwgx¿sf] d:of}bf lgdf{0f ug{ ;lhnf] x'G5 . ;fwgx¿ lgdf{0fsf] vfsf ljsf; ug{sf nflu cfwf/sf] ¿kdf cfjZostfcg';f/ cWoogsf p2]Zox¿ cyjf cWoogsf k|Zgx¿nfO{ k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5 . dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogsf nflu ;fwg lgdf{0fsf] vfsf lgDgadf]lhdsf] x'g ;Sb5M
tflnsf %=@M P;=Pn=;L=df pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ cWoogsf nflu ;fwgx¿ lgdf{0fsf] vfsf
cWoogsf p2]Zox¿
b:tfj]hsf] cWoog lzIfssf nflu k|ZgfjnL
ljBfyL{;Fu nlIft ;d"x 5nkmn
k|wfgfWofks;Fu cGtjf{tf{
Joj:yfkg ;ldlt;Fu nlIft ;d"x 5nkmn
cleefasx¿;Fu cGtjf{tf{
s_ ljut kfFr jif{sf] P;=Pn=;L= k/LIffdf ljBfnosf] ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/sf] k|j[lQ kQf nufpg'
@)^$, @)^%, @)^^, @)^& / @)^* df lgoldt k/LIffyL{sf] :f+Vof, tLdWo] pQL0f{ ;ª\Vof, ljifout pQL0f{ :f+Vof
====================== ==========================
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v_ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ ljZn]if0f
P;=Pn=;L=df ljifout pknlAw :t/, sIff !) sf] cfGtl/s k/LIffdf pknlAw :t/
lzIfssf] ljifout bIftf -!–!)_, ljBfyL{sf] ljifout ;lqmotf -!–!)_, ljBfnosf] z}lIfs
lzIfssf] ljifout bIftf -!–!)_, ljBfyL{sf] ljifout ;lqmotf -!–!)_,
lzIfs, ljBfyL{ / ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f ;DaGwL sf/0fx¿
lzIfs, ljBfyL{ / ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f ;DaGwL sf/0fx¿
lzIfs, ljBfyL{ / ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f ;DaGwL
ljBfno ;DaGwL sf/0fx¿
cf};t pknlAw :t/M sIff !) sf] cfGtl/s k/LIffdf / P;Pn;Ldf
ljBfnon] u/]sf k|of;x¿
pQL0f{ b/sf] cj:yf -@)^$– @)^*_
ljBfnon] ug{'kg]{ lqmofsnfkx¿
;'wf/ ug]{ t/Lsfx¿
105
ug{' jftfj/0f ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f
;d:ofx¿
u_ pQL0f{ b/df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu ljBfnon] ug{'kg]{ lqmofsnfkx¿ kQf nufpg' .
ljBfnosf of]hgfx¿ / lqmofsnfkx¿ pNn]v ePsf b:tfj]hx¿
lzIfssf] ljifout bIftf -!–!)_, ljBfyL{sf] ljifout ;lqmotf -!–!)_, ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f
lzIfssf] ljifout bIftf -!–!)_, ljBfyL{sf] ljifout ;lqmotf -!–!)_, ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0f
lzIfs Joj:yfkg, ljBfyL{ Joj:yfkg, / ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0fdf ;'wf/ ug]{ tl/sfx¿
lzIfs Joj:yfkg, ljBfyL{ Joj:yfkg, / ljBfnosf] z}lIfs jftfj/0fdf ;'wf/ ug]{ tl/sfx¿
lzIfs, ljBfyL{ / ljBfnoaf6 cleefassf ck]Iffx¿
#=@=% k|:tfjgf lgdf{0f
k|:tfjgf (proposal) eGgfn] cWoog sfo{sf] nflu lgdf{0f ul/g] lnlvt of]hgfnfO{ hgfpF5 . d"Nofª\sg sfo{ ;'? ug{'eGbf cufl8 cWoogsf] k|:tfjgf tof/ ul/G5 h;df d"ntM cWoogsf] kl/ro, cWoogsf] 9fFrf, cWoogsf] gd'gf / ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ;fwg / tl/sfx¿ pNn]v x'g'kb{5 . o:tf] k|:tfjgfdf cWoog sfo{sf nflu cfjZos cg'dflgt ah]6 / ;dotflnsf ;dfj]z x'g'kb{5 . dfly plNnlvt s'/fx¿sf cltl/St cWoog sfo{df ;+nUg x'g] cWoogstf{x¿sf] ;]jf;'ljwfx¿, sfo{sf] afF8kmfF8 / ltgsf of]Uotf / cg'ejx¿ ;dfj]z u/L k|:tfjgf tof/ ul/G5g\ .
oxfF a'em\g'kg]{ s'/f s] 5 eg] cWoogsf] k|:tfjgf eGgfn] cWoogsf] tof/Lsf] b:tfj]h xf] eg] cWoogsf] k|ltj]bg eGgfn] cWoog sfo{ ;DkGg ePkl5 cWoogsf] kl/ro, cWoogsf] 9fFrf, cWoogsf ljlwx¿, :f"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f / JofVof / cWoogsf glthfx¿, lgisif{x¿ / ;'emfjx¿ ;d]6L k|:t't ul/g] b:tfj]h xf] . cWoogsf] k|:tfjgfdf ;"rgfsf] ljZn]if0f / JofVof ug]{ sfo{ / cWoogsf] glthfx¿, lgisif{x¿ / ;'emfjx¿ tof/ ug]{ sfo{ ul/+b}g . o;/L cWoogsf] kl/ro, cWoogsf] 9fFrf / cWoogsf ljlwx¿sf af/]df cWoogsf] k|:tfjgfdf / k|ltj]bg b'j}df Ps¿ktf jf ;dfgtf sfod x'g ;Sb5 . km/s s'/f rflxF s] xf] eg] cWoogsf] k|:tfjgfdf ;fdfGo eljiot\ sfnsf] k|of]u ul/G5 hals k|ltj]bgdf k|foM ;fdfGo e"t sfnsf] k|of]u ul/G5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf] Kf|:tfjgfsf] vfsf (format) ljleGg k|sf/sf] x'g ;Sb5 . ;a} k|sf/sf d"Nofª\sgsf] nflu k|:tfjgfsf] kmd]{6 Ps} k|sf/sf] x'g'k5{ eGg ;ls+b}g . h]xf];\ cg';Gwfg / d"Nofª\sg cWoogx¿df Ps} k|sf/sf] k|:tfjgfsf] kmd]{6 x'g ;Sb5 . o;} ;Gbe{df cg';Gwfg sfo{df h:t} u/L d"Nofª\sgsf] Kf|:tfjgfsf] vfsf lgDgadf]lhdsf] k|of]u ug{ ;lsG5M
cWofo PsM cWoogsf] kl/ro
!=! cWoogsf] k[i7e"ld
!=@ ;d:ofsf] syg
!=# cWoogsf p2]Zox¿
!=$ cWoogsf] dxTj
!=% cWoogsf ;Ldfx¿
!=^ Kf|of]u ePsf zAbfjnLsf kl/efiffx¿
cWofo b'O{M ;DalGwt ;flxTosf] ;dLIff
@=! :f}¢flGts ;flxTo
@=@ ljifout ;flxTo
106
@=# cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff
cWofo tLgM cWoogsf] ljlw
#=! cWoogsf] 9fFrf
#=@ cWoogsf] gd'gf
#=# cWoogsf ;fwgx¿
#=$ ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf k|lqmofx¿
#=% ;"rgf ljZn]if0fsf k|lqmofx¿
#=^ cWoogsf] ;do tflnsf
#=& ah]6 cg'dfg
;Gbe{;fdUf|Lx¿
cg';"rLx¿
d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgfsf] kmd]{6 d"Nofª\sg ug{ nufpg] ;+:yf jf lgsfon] cfkm\gf] cfjZostfcg';f/ tof/ u/]sf x'g ;Sb5g\ . o:tf] cj:yfdf pSt ;+:yfn] lbPsf] kmd]{6 cg';f/ g} d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgf tof/ ug{'kb{5 . k|foh;f] ;+:yfn] d"Nofª\sg sfo{ u/fpgsf nflu dfly pNnlvt a'Fbfx¿sf cltl/St cWoogstf{sf] afof]8f6f;d]t dfu ub{5g\ .
h'g;'s} lsl;dsf] d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgfdf cWoogsf] kl/ro efu cfjZos kb{5 . o;cGtu{t cWoogsf] k[i7e"lddf cWoogsf] ljifout k[i7e"ld / :yfg ljz]ifsf] k[i7e"ld ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsG5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L=df ljBfyL{ pQL0f{ b/ Go"g x'g'sf sf/0fx¿ zLif{sdf ul/g] cWoogdf ljBfno lzIffsf] k[i7e"ld, P;=Pn=;L= k/LIffsf] k[i7e"ld / cWoog ul/g] :yfgsf] k[i7e"ld ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsG5 . To:t} ;d:ofsf] sygdf cWoogsf] zLif{s, cWoog ug{'kgf{sf] sf/0f, / d"Nofª\sgsf dxTjk"0f{ k|Zgx¿ ;dfj]z x'g ;Sb5g\ . To;}u/L cWoogsf] p2]ZocGtu{t cWoogsf] d'Vo p2]Zo / ;xfos p2]Zox¿ ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsG5 . cfjZostfcg';f/ cWoogsf] p2]Zo cGtu{t cWoogsf k|Zgx¿ klg ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsG5 lsgeg] d"Nofª\sgsf k|Zgx¿sf] pQ/ k|fKt ug'{ g} cWoogsf] p2]Zo x'\\G5 . To;}u/Lk|of]u EfPsf dxTjk"0f{ zAbfjnLsf] kl/efiff klg kl/ro efucGtu{t /fVg ;lsG5 . dflysf] pbfx/0fdf P;=Pn=;L= k/LIff, pQL0f{ b/, pknlAw :t/, pQL0ff{ª\s, lgoldt k/LIfffyL{, cfGtl/s k|fKtfª\s h:tf zAbfjnLsf] kl/efiff ;dfj]z ug{ ;lsG5 . csf]{ zAbdf cWoogsf] zLif{s, p2]Zo, cWoogsf k|Zgx¿ cflbdf k|o'St hl6n jf k|fljlws zAbfjnLsf kl/efiffx¿ cWoogsf] kl/rocGtu{t ;dfj]z ug{ cfjZos kb{5g\ .
;DalGwt ;flxTosf] ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{n] cWoogstf{nfO{ ;DalGwt ljifodf klxn] eO;s]sf cWoogx¿sf] af/]df hfgsf/L k|fKt x'G5 / cfkm\gf] cWoogsf] nflu cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ug{ ;xof]u k'U5 . :f}¢flGts ;flxTocGtu{t dflysf] pbfx/0fdf cWoogstf{n] pQL0ff{ª\s;DaGwL / P;=Pn=;L= h:tf] afXo k/LIffsf] dxTj / o;sf b'a{n kIfx¿;DaGwL ;}¢flGts cfwf/ k|:t't ug{ ;Sb5g\ . To:t} k|Zgkq lgdf{0f, k/LIff ;~rfng, cª\sg k|lqmofaf/] ;}¢flGts ljj]rgf ug{ ;Sb5g\ . ljifout ;flxTo cGtu{t ;DalGwt ljifodf klxn] ul/Psf cWoogx¿ / ;/sf/n] P;=Pn=;L= k/LIffdf ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu u/]sf k|of;x¿ cflb ;d]6\g ;Sb5g\ . cGtdf ;Dalwt ;flxTosf] ;dLIff u/]/ cWoogstf{n] cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ubf{ cfkm\gf] b[li6sf]0f k|:t't ug{ ;Sb5g\ .
To;}u/L cWoogsf] ljlwx¿cGtu{t cWoogsf] 9fFrf pNn]v ul/G5 h;df k|of]ufTds 9fFrf, ;j{]If0f 9fFrf, jf :jefljs÷k|fs[lts÷u'0ffTds 9fFrfdWo] pko'St 9fFrf 5gf]6 u/L pSt 9fFrfsf] af/]df j0f{g ul/G5 / pSt 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ug]{ tl/sf k|:t't ul/G5 . cWoogsf] gd'gfcGtu{t dflysf] pbfx/0fdf 5gf]6 ul/g] ljBfnosf] ;ª\Vof, 5gf]6 ul/g] k|wfgfWofks / lzIfssf] ;ª\Vof, 5gf]6 ul/g] ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof, cleefjsx¿sf] ;ª\Vof, Joj:yfkg ;ldltsf ;b:ox¿sf] ;ª\Vof / tL k|To]ssf] 5gf]6 ljlwx¿ pNn]v ul/G5 . 5gf]6sf] ljlw EfGgfn] lr7\7f k¢lt, p2]Zod"ns ljlw jf ;'ljwfhgs ljlw cflb
107
x'g ;Sb5g\ . To:t} cWoogsf ;fwgx¿cGtu{t ;fwgsf lsl;dx¿, ;fwgsf] p2]Zo, k|To]s ;fwg lgdf{0f k|lqmof / tL ;fwgnfO{ j}wtf agfpg] k|lqmofx¿ pNn]v x'G5g\ . To;}u/L ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|lqmof / ;"rgf ljZn]if0f k|lqmofsf] pNn]v ul/G5 . cGtdf ;do tflnsf / ah]6 cg'dfg u/L k|:tfjgf tof/ ul/G5 . k|:tfjgfsf] ljifoj:t' (text) leq pb\w[t ul/Psf ;fdu|Lx¿ ;d]6]/ ;Gbe{;fdu|L ;"rL tof/ ul/G5 h;nfO{ cd]l/sg ;fOsf]nf]lhsn P;f]l;P;g (APA) cg'¿ksf] kmd]{6df pNn]v ug{] rng 5 . To:f}u/L cg';"rLx¿df cWoogstf{sf] afof]8f6f, cWoog If]qsf] ljj/0f cflb ;d]6\g ;lsG5 .
$_ ;f/f+z (Summary) sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Joj:yfkg ubf{ d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf agfpg], d"Nofª\sg lqmofsnfkx¿
ug]{ / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ug]{ u/L tLg j6f k|lqmofx¿ k"/f ul/G5 . d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf agfpFbf / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dLIff ubf{ sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿, bftfx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ ldn]/ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 eg] d"Nofª\sg lqmofsnfkx¿ ;~rfng ubf{ sfo{qmddf sfo{/t sd{rf/Lx¿ / nlIft ;d"xx¿;Fu ldn]/ d"Nofª\sgstf{n] sfo{ ub{5g\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] Joj:yfkg ug]{ sfo{df sfo{qmd Joj:yfksx¿sf] dxTjk"0f{ e"ldsf /xG5 . h:t}M slxn] d"Nofª\sg ug]{, sf]af6 d"Nofª\sg u/fpg], s'g s'/fsf] d"Nofª\sg ug]{, d"Nofª\sgsf ;t{x¿ / cj:yfx¿ s;/L lgwf{/0f ug]{, d"Nofª\sgsf nflu ah]6 s;/L h'6fpg] / s;/L ;b'kof]u ug]{, d"Nofª\sgaf6 k|fKt ;'emfjx¿ s;/L s;n], slxn] / sxfF k|of]u ug]{ eGg] s'/fx¿sf] lgwf] ug]{ sfo{ sfo{qmd Joj:yfksx¿sf] x'G5 . o;sf ;fy} d"Nofª\sgstf{nfO{ ;xof]u ug]{ / pgLaf6 ;xof]u lng]
lqmofsnfk
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf ubf{ sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿sf] / d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿sf] e"ldsfx¿ s:tf] x'g' cfjZos 5< pbfx/0f ;lxt j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo s;/L lgwf{/0f ul/G5< sfo{qmdsf] nIo / d"Nofª\sgsf] nIosf] aLrsf] ;DaGw :ki6 ub}{ pbfx/0f ;lxt n]Vg'xf];\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Ldfª\sg ug'{ / gug'{n] s] km/s k5{< d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf] ;Ldfª\sg ug]{ t/Lsfx¿ j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ sfo{qmd ;DaGwL ;"rsx¿ lsg lgwf{/0f ug'{ cfjZos 5< s'g} sfo{qmdsf pknlAwsf ;"rsx¿ s;/L lgwf{/0f ug{ ;lsG5< s'g} pko'St pbfx/0f lbP/ n]Vg'xf];\ .
u'0ffTds ljlw / ;+VofTds ljlwaf6 sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ;'dw'/ ;DaGw sfod ug]{ t/Lsfx¿ s]s:tf x'g ;Sb5g\< :ki6 ug'{xf];\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ubf{ s] s:tf /fhg}lts d'2fx¿ pkl:yt x'g ;S5g\< tL d'2fx¿sf] s;/L ;Daf]wg ug{ ;lsG5< s'g} pko'St pbfx/0f ;lxt j0f{g ug'{xf];\ .
sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg k|s[ofdf d"Nofª\sgstf{nfO{ kg{;Sg] g}lts cK7\of/fx¿ s] s] xf]nfg\< Pp6f s'zn d"Nofª\sgstf{n] g}lts dfkb08x¿ sfod ug{ s] s:tf k|of;x¿ ug{ ;Sb5g\< pNn]v ug'{xf];\ .
s'g} sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sg ug{sf] nflu cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff :ki6 ug'{kgf{sf] sf/0fx¿ pNn]v ug'{xf];\. tkfO{+ d"Nofª\sg cWoogsf] cjwf/0ff s;/L :ki6 ug{ rfxfg'x'G5< pbfx/0f lbP/ n]Vg'xf];\.
s'g} sfo{qmdsf] u'0ffTds / ;+VofTds t/Lsfaf6 d"Nofª\sg ug'{k¥of] eg] s] s:tf ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf ;fwgx¿ pko'St x'g ;Sb5g\< tL ;fwgx¿sf] tkfO{+ s;/L lgdf{0f ug{ rfxfg' x'G5< pbfx/0f lbP/ n]Vg'xf];\ .
s'g} Pp6f ljBfnosf] nufgLsf] cj:yf d"Nofª\sg ug'{ k¥of] eg] tkfO{+ s'g–s'g kIfx¿nfO{ ;d]6]/ d"Nofª\sg ug{ rfxfg'x'G5< nufgL d"Nofª\sg ug{sf nflu cfjZos ;rgfx¿ k|fKt xg ;Sg] ;rsx¿ lgwf{/0f ug{xf]; .
108
jftfj/0f ldnfpg] sfo{ klg d"ntM sfo{qmd Joj:yfdsx¿sf] x'G5 . ctM d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ubf{ sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ ldn]/ sfo{ ug'{ clt cfjZos 5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf] nIo lgwf{/0f ug]{ / d"Nofª\sgsf] ;Ldfª\sg ug]{ sfo{df Joj:yfksx¿ / d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ ldn]/ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 eg] d"Nofª\sgsf nflu cfjZos ;"rgfx¿ k|fKt ug{ sfo{qmd;DaGwL ;"rsx¿ lglZrt ug]{ / tL ;"rsx¿ dfkg ug]{ ljlwx¿ lgwf{/0f ug]{ sfo{ d"ntM d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ug'{kb{5 . To:t} ;'dw'/ ;DaGwsf] :yfkgf ug{sf nflu / /fhg}lts / kl/l:ylthGo d'2fx¿ ;Daf]wg ug{sf nflu d"Nofª\sgstf{ / Joj:yfksx¿ ;a}hgf ldn]/ sfo{ ug'{kb{5 eg] d"Nofª\sg cWoogdf k];fut / g}lts dfkb08x¿ sfod ug]{ s'/fdf d"Nofª\sgstf{x¿ cl8u x'g ;Sg'kb{5 .
d"Nofª\sgsf] of]hgfnfO{ ;fy{s ¿k lbg lnlvt k|:tfjgf (proposal) tof/ ul/G5, h'g sfo{ d"ntM d"Nofª\sgstf{n] ug'{kb{5 eg] d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgf cfJxfg ug]{, k|fKt ePsf k|:tfjgfx¿sf] cWoog u/L :jLs[t ug]{, c:jLs[t ug]{ jf kl/dfh{g ug{ nufpg] sfo{ sfo{qmdsf Joj:yfksx¿n] ug]{ ub{5g\ . h]xf];\, sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] cfjZostfcg';f/ pko'St kmd]{6 5gf]6 u/L sfo{qmd d"Nofª\sgsf] k|:tfjgfx¿ tof/ ug{' kb{5 .
%_ cEof; (Exercise)
Subjective questions: Short answer type 1. Describe the process of formulating goals and setting the boundaries of an
evaluation study with suitable examples. 2. How do you identify appropriate approaches of data collection for an evaluation
study? 3. Suggest various ways to identify and address political and contextual issues while
conducting a program evaluation. 4. What do you mean by conceptualization of program evaluation? Describe with an
example. 5. Explain key indicators for the product evaluation of the M. Ed. program of
Tribhuban University. How many ways do you suggest to evaluate an M. Ed. Program based on its products?
6. Select a topic for program evaluation appropriate for the primary education in Nepal. How do you specify indicators of program outcomes for this evaluation study?
7. Suppose you have to evaluate an educational institution. Propose a topic for your study and write objectives of the study. Develop a conceptual framework for the evaluation study of the educational institution you have selected.
8. Suppose you have to assess impacts of a teacher-training program conducted in a resource center at local level. Propose a topic for the study and write evaluation questions for the study. Which design and methodology do you use to study the impacts of the program? And why?
9. Prepare a study framework appropriate for an evaluation of a teacher training program. Explain the concepts you propose for the evaluation study.
10. Select a topic for the evaluation of an educational program appropriate for the Department of Education under the Ministry of Education. How do you set the boundaries of this evaluation study as a planner of a program of the department?
11. Prepare an evaluation framework for judging the effectiveness of school welcome program which has been conducted for increasing the access of children from disadvantaged group in basic education.
12. Discuss the major points to be considered in a proposal for evaluating an educational program with suitable examples.
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Subjective questions: Long answer type
13. Explain the roles of managers and evaluators for planning and conducting the evaluation of an educational program. How do you relate and differentiate their roles? Explain with suitable examples
14. Explain the procedures of planning of an evaluation study. 15. Give a detailed outline of the proposal for evaluation study of an educational
program. Describe with an example. 16. Develop an evaluation proposal for the study of impacts of school enrolment
program.
Objective questions 1. Which of the followings is not the indicator of internal efficiency of primary
education program? a. promotion rate b. gross enrolment rate c. survival rate d. average achievement
2. Which is objective method of data collection? a. interview b. document study c. questionnaire d. observation
3. Which is non-reactive method of data collection? a. observation b. interview c. questionnaire d. document study
4. Which type of questions should be avoided while interviewing? a. opening type questions b. closed type questions c. probing questions d. leading questions
5. Which method is more time consuming in the field for data collection? a. observation b. interview c. questionnaire d. FGD
6. Data from secondary source are collected through a. listening to people b. document c. observation d. interview
7. Which methods rely on secondary data? a. interview b. record analysis c. PRA d. unobtrusive measure Answer key: Answer key of the objective questions as given in exercise five of the fifth chapter is given below.
1. b 2. c 3. d 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. b
6. Suggested reading materials Worthen, B. R. and Sanders, J. R. (1987) . Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches
and practical guidelines. USA: Longman.
Worthen, B. R. and Sanders, J. R. (1973). Educational evaluation: Theory and practice. Belmont, C. A.: Wadsworth.
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Appendix I Curriculum
Course Title: Programme Evaluation Nature of course: Theoretical Course No. Ed. CE. 512 Credit Hours: 3 cr. hrs. Level: M. Ed. Teaching Hours: 45 hours Semester: First 1. Course Description
This course is designed for those students who intend to specialize Curriculum and Evaluation in Master's Degree. The course deals with main concepts, aspects, designs, models and planning of program evaluation. Hence, the course aims to enable students in planning and preparing an evaluation study of an educational programme, a curriculum, or an educational project.
2. General Objectives The general objectives of this course are as follows:
To acquaint the students with concepts of programme evaluation. To familiarize the students with major aspects of programme evaluation in
education. To provide the students with a deeper understanding of various evaluation
designs for an evaluation study. To familiarize the students with various evaluation models. To make students able to prepare a plan of evaluation study of
educational projects and educational programme. 3. Specific Objectives and Contents
Specific Objectives Contents Explain the key concepts in
programme evaluation Describe the purposes of
programme evaluation Describe various types of
programme evaluation, i.e., summative and formative; and internal and external evaluations
Differentiate between evaluation and research
Explain diverse conception of programme evaluation
Unit I: Introduction to programme evaluation (9 hrs) 1.1 Key concepts 1.2 Purposes 1.3 Types
1.3.1 Formative vs summative evaluation
1.3.2 Internal vs external evaluation 1.4 Comparison between evaluation and
research 1.5 Diverse conceptions of evaluation
1.5.1 Philosophical differences: Objectivism and subjectivism
1.5.2 Methodological differences: Quantitative and qualitative methods
1.5.3 Epistemological differences: Evaluation theories
2
Describe various aspects of
programme evaluation Develop guidelines for meta-
evaluation
Unit II: Aspects of programme evaluation (9 hrs)
2.1 Needs assessment 2.2 Input evaluation 2.3 Process evaluation 2.4 Product evaluation 2.5 Economic evaluation 2.6 Meta-evaluation
Describe various evaluation designs
Explain validity of evaluation designs from quantitative and qualitative perspectives
Explain uses of the evaluation designs for educational programmes
Unit III: Evaluation designs (9 hrs)3.1 Evaluation designs and their uses
Experimental designs Survey designs Naturalistic designs
3.2 Validity of evaluation designs
Explain key concepts, processes, strengths and limitations of different evaluation models
Relate and differentiate among various evaluation models
Derive implications of the evaluation models
Unit IV: Models of programme evaluation (9)
4.1 Scriven’s goal free evaluation model 4.2 Provus model 4.3 Stufflebeam’s CIPP model 4.4 Stake’s countenance model 4.5 Stake’s responsive evaluation model 4.6 Relationship and differences among
various evaluation models 4.7 Implications of evaluation models
Describe the process of
planning programme evaluation
Prepare a proposal of an evaluation study for an educational project, educational programme or an educational institution
Unit V: Planning programme
evaluation (9) 5.1 Process of the planning
Choosing the goals of evaluation Setting the boundaries of
evaluation Specification of indicators of
programme outcomes Identification of approaches
measuring the indicators Establishing rapport with the
concerned people Addressing political and
contextual issues Maintaining professional and
3
ethical standards 5.2 Proposal writing
Identifying the problem Writing objectives and evaluation
questions Writing rationale and limitations Conceptualizing the study Developing tool matrix Preparing a proposal of an
evaluation study
Note: The figures in the parentheses indicate the approximate teaching hours for the respective units 4. Instructional Techniques The instructional techniques for this course are divided into two groups. First group consists of general instructional techniques applicable to most of the units. The second group consists of specific instructional techniques applicable to specific units.
4.1 General Instructional Techniques Providing the reading materials to the students to familiarize the units. Lecture, question-answer, discussion, brainstorming, and buzz session. 4.2 Specific Instructional Techniques Unit II
Individual Assignment on different aspects of programme evaluation Unit IV
Group assignment to prepare group report on models of programme evaluation.
Presentation and group discussion in the classroom 6. Recommended Books and References
Recommended Books Alikn, M.C. & Christie, C. A. (2004). An evaluation theory tree. In Marvin .C. Alkin
(ed.), Evaluation roots: Tracing theorists’ views and influences. (For units I and IV)
Mc David, J.C. & Hawthorn, L.R.L. (2006). Program evaluation and performance
measurement: An introduction to practice. New Delhi: Sage. (For units I to III)
Michael, W.B. & Benson, J (1995). Evolution of evaluation design. In T. Husen, and T. Postlethwaite, (eds.) The international encyclopedia of education. 2nd ed. (For unit III)
4
Worthen, B.R. & Sanders, J.R. (1987). Educational evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines. USA: Longman. (For units I, II, IV and V )
References
Best, J.W. & Kahn, J.V. (2001). Research in education. 7th ed. New Delhi: Prentice Hall.
Guba, E.G. & Lincoln, Y.S. (1981). Effective evaluation: Improving the usefulness
of evaluation results through responsive and naturalistic approaches. Washington : Jossey- Bass.
Lewy, A. (ed.) (1977). Handbook of curriculum evaluation. Paris: II EP/UNESCO. Ornstein, A.C. and Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum foundations, principles and
theories. 2nd ed.. Boston : Allyn and Bacon. Patton. M.Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation research methods. 2nd ed. New Delhi
: Sage. Popham, W.J. (1975). Educational evaluation. New Jersey : Prentice Hall. Posavac, E.J. & Carey, R.G. (1989). Program evaluation: Methods and case
studies. USA: Parkside Associates. Rossi, P.H. & Freeman, H.E. (1989). Evaluation: A systematic approach. 4th ed.
New Delhi : Sage. Worthen, B.R. & Sanders, J.R. (1973). Educational evaluation: Theory and
practice. Belmont, C.A.: Wadsworth.