paper- vi asian elephant in eastern -nepal

Yadav The Journal of Forestry, March 2005 (Vol. XII No. 3 Pp 68-81)

2

PAPER - VI

" Asian wild elephant ( Elephas maximus) in eastern Nepal"

Babu Ram Yadav


3

Asian Wild Elephants ( Elephas maximus) in Eastern Nepal

Babu Ram Yadav “ Gopali” 2

Abstract

Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Saptari & Udayapur districts of Nepal and Darjeeling India

were selected for the study of the migration of wild elephants in the study areas. The

number of the small and big herds varied 12-13 and 50-74 respectively. The big herds

raid crops in Bahundangi Village Development Committee and Darjeeling district of

India, whereas the small herd raids crops from Jhapa to Udayapur districts. Since the

last 15 years Asian wild elephants have demolished more than 277 houses and killed

more than 66 people in eastern Nepal. Farmers have also killed more than 23 elephants

in above districts in order to protect their crops and property. Trans-boundary

cooperation meetings between Nepal and India should continunue. In addition, creation

of new protected areas, and expansion of the existing Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve to

Trijuga forest will be necessary. An action research project on wild elephant

conservation should be implemented by attracting the international and national

conservation partners.

2 , Conservation Officer , Deparment of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation , Kathmandu , Nepal


2

Background

Evolution of wild elephants

The Asian wild elephant (Elephas maximus) is

believed to have originated in Africa. The

skeletal remains of Moeritherium of the late

Eocene elephant (ca, 45 million years ago) were

found in the Fayum area in Africa. It was

presumed to be a small squatty and partly

amphibious animal, which disported itself

abundantly over the Nile delta during early

Oligocene (ca, 35 million years ago). This is the

oldest and most primitive wild elephant that

grew up to the height of only two feet and

possessed neither tusk nor trunk, but it had a soft

snout resembling the appearance of a Tapir

rather than that of the present day elephant.

Climax of evolution of wild elephants occurred

during the Pleistocene into eleven forms,

namely, Mastodon, Stegolophodon, Stegodon,

Mammuthus, Loxodonta, Elephas, Anancus,

Stegomastodon, Notiomastodon, Cuverionius

and Dintheriumy ( Sandarson 1963 in Ali 1990).

They extended the range to every continent of

the world except Australia, Antarctica and its

associated Islands. However only one family

Elephantidae of the order Proboscidea was able

to survive on land in due course of time. This

family is comprised of two genera- the

Loxodonta and Elephas, each with only one

species.

The species Loxodonta africana thrives in Africa

and Elephas maximus inhabits Asia. They are

generally referred to as African and Asian

elephants respectively. African bull elephants are

known to grow up to 366 cm in height and cow

elephants to 308 cm, while the Asian bulls

seldom grow, with a few exceptions, up to 305

cm and the average height being 275 cm only.

The height of an elephant is estimated by

measuring the circumference of the print of its

forefoot. In general, twice the circumference of

footprints gives an approximate height of the

elephant at the shoulder. Ear flaps of the Asian

elephant measure as big as 61 cm while that of

the African elephant is much bigger, measuring

183 cm across.

Population status and distribution

The estimated population of wild elephants in

Asia range between 41,430 and 52,250 over the

areas of their range countries of about

17,465,910 km2, and the elephant habitat is

486,800 km2 (Sukumar 2003). Table 1 shows

different population estimates.

Table 1: Estimated number of Asian elephants and their distribution

Name of

regions

Minimum

number

Maximum country

Indian Sub-

continents

26,390

109

250

150

2500

30,770

130

500

250

4000

India

Nepal

Bhutan

Bangladeh

Sri Lanka

Total 29,399 35,650

Indo-China + 500 1000 Laos,


3

China 250

70

200

500

150

250

Cambodia,

Vietnam,

China

Total 1030 1900

Indo-Malayan 4000

2500

2100

2400

5000

3200

3100

3400

Myanmar

Thailand

Malaysia

Indonesia

Total 11000 14700

Grand total 41429 52,250

Sources: Sukumar (2003). The Living Elephants Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour and Conservation

The population of wild elephants in Nepal is

estimated to be within the range of 117 to 145

animals, inhabiting in the forest area of about

5,000-6,000 km2. Out of this total area 4416 km

2

is under protected area (DNPWC 2004). The

recent sub-populations 12-13 elephants in the

Eastern Terai , two of them have been

electrocuted and one died of natural death (

Yadav 2002 , DNPWC 2004 ). The elephants

population is 25-30 in the Central Terai (Smith

& Mishra 1992), 60-70 in the Mid-Western Terai

(Bardiya National Park 2003 , Pradhan 2004 )

and 20-22 in Far-Western Terai (Petra 1999 , R

SWR 2004 ) Nepal. The wild elephant has been

listed in endangered species by Nepal's National

Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973

(HMG/N, 1973). It is also listed by IUCN in

CITES Appendix I.

Habitat destruction of wild elephants

The decline of elephants in Nepal did not occur

until the twentieth century. Shooting of elephants

for sports was never very common in Nepal

because of its symbolic status as the Hindu god

Ganesh (Smith and Mishra 1992). In the 1920s

the Charkose Jharee, a continuous belt of forest

was famous for its abundant wildlife. It stretched

the entire length of Nepal along the southern side

of the Siwalik or the Churia Range. At that time

elephants inhabited all the district of the Terai

plains and the Siwalik valleys called the Doon

valleys (B. B. Shah, Pers comm.). By the end of

World War II, The Charkose Jharee was

fragmented for settlement . Consequently the

number of elephants begun to decline. The

habitat of wild elephant has been destroyed

repeatedly by developmental and socio-political

activities in the Terai plains and the Doon

valleys of Nepal.

Conservation endeavors in Nepal

Loss of habitat and illegal hunting of wildlife all

over the country in the past, forced the

Government in restoring to the conservation of

wildlife and their habitat in Nepal. His Majesty

Government of Nepal (HMG/N) drafted a

National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act in

1972, which was promulgated in 1973 ( HMG/N

1973). Nepal has declared so far16 Protected

Areas (PAs) which cover a total area of 28,287.5

km2 (19.2195 %) out of the total land areas

(147,181 Km2 ) . These PAs are established in

different ecological regions of the country as

shown in Figure 1.


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Objectives

In the perspective of the above background

this paper aims to analyses the situation in

order to fulfill the following objectives

a. Identify the movement and hot

spots (frequent visit of elephants)

of Asian wild elephants in the

eastern Nepal.

b. Assess the corridors of wild

elephants in the Eastern Terai

especially along the Jhapa –

Udayapur in the study area

c. Find out the nature and extent of

conflicts between man and wild

elephants in Eastern Terai of Nepal.

d. Last but not least , the author

wished to recommend a few

important , management

intervention in order to minimize

people –elephant conflict in the

Eastern Nepal

Study areas

Nepal is a small county (147181 sq km) between

longitude 800 04’ – 880 12’ E and latitude 270

00’ – 300 30’ N. The study area lies between

the latitude 260,18`45” to 26

0 49`17”N, and

longitude between 860 4`17” to 88 0 14` 46” East

in the Eastern Development Regions


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Table3: Estimated small resident herd

District Min Max Average

Jhapa 5 15 10

Morang 9 13 11

Sunsari 9 13 11

Sapatari 7 10 9

Udayapur 12 15 14

Mean 8 13 11

Source: Field work

Figure 1: Map showing the five population groups of elephant in Nepal: a) Eastern; with two

populations of 12-13 small herd and 50-75 the big herds. Other three populations are concentrated in

rest of the Terai regions in and around protected areas of Nepal

Methods of study

Direct observation & Interaction:

Comprehensive visits of the research sites were

made in August 2000 to January 2001 for direct

observation. In those visits interaction meetings

were also held with the local people besides

contacting the concerned institutions in order to

collect information regarding migration and hot

spots of elephant’s. By going through the entire

ward, enclaves and VDC we also identified hot

spots of wild elephants. Observation of elephant

footprints and droppings of elephant’s together

with the damage of life and property due to the

elephant damage were recorded in the field.

Estimation of elephant’s numbers: Household

survey and interviews of officials of the

concerned institutions were carried out in order

to estimate the number of elephants from Jhapa

to Udayapur districts in Eastern Nepal.

Literature was reviewed to find out the previous

records or the status of elephants. Forest officials

of Darjeeling district were also consulted in

order to find out the number of big herds, which

roam seasonally across the Nepal India border.

Major findings and discussion

Population and distribution of

elephants in eastern Nepal

On the basis of fieldwork two separate, one big

and the other small herds were identified in the

eastern Nepal. The big herd was estimated at 50-

74 wild elephants ( including 15 tuskers and 7

calves) which visited to the Bahundangi VDC


6

and across the Nepal -India border. The small

herd travels from Jhapa to Udayapur district.

The Government of Nepal had also culled 5

elephants in 1977 (Smith and Mishra 1992). The

exact population size of wild elephants is

difficult to determine in short period of research.

However some estimates have been made in

different ways: Table 3 explains the estimated

number of the small herd, of wild elephants (

11-13) in Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Sapatari and

Udayapur districts in the eastern Terai of Nepal.

This herd sometimes splits into different smaller

groups.

Migratory big herd Indian forests authorities

have counted elephant herd size of 50-74 across

the border in Darjeeling district. The resident

elephants in Mahandanda Wildlife Sanctuary ,

West Bengal India were 30-35 animals and the

total population of elephants in North Bengal

was 292 ( Census 2000). It is considered that

the big herd that comes to Nepal is part of these

populations. Big herds visit Nepal during the

crop season and return back to India . Although

The entry point of big herds of elephants in

ward 8 of Bahundangi VDC is contiguous to the

Kolabari forest of Darjeeling district India

compare to other wards. The entry point of ward

1 of the VDC is far from the forest however the

herds come and damage the crops frequently,

because of strict duty by crop guarding groups in

ward 8 and 2 . Lack of sufficient means

resources and skills, farmers of Bahundangi

VDC cannot deter the crop raiders properly.

Hot spots and migration of big and

small herds

The hot spots were categorized and discussed

into two sections, one in Darjeeling district and

the other in the eastern part of Nepal. This was

done in order to differentiate the hot spots

(affected areas and presence) and migration of

the two herds. The big herd comes up to

Bahundangi VDC to raid crops in peak crop

season in monsoon.

Table 2: Hot spots (affected areas and presence) of the big herd in Darjeeling district and Bahundangi

VDC

State Districts Wildlife sanctuary and Forest offices Settlements Remark

West

Bengal.

India

Darjeeling.

Panighata range. Bagdugra range. Tukrejhar

range. Bahunpokari range. Mahananda

Wildlife Sanctuary

Kolabari.

Lohagadh.

Tarabari.

Kilaramjote

Big herd

Nepal Jhapa Bahundangi VDC Wards 1,2,8 & 9 Do

Sources: Field work

This big herd visits the cultivated areas of

Tarabari Panchayat. Kilaramjote and Lohagadh

in Darjeeling district (Table 2). The herd comes

from Jalpaigodi Tista River to Mahananda

Wildlife Sanctuary and then they enters into

Kurseong Forest Division areas in India. Hot


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spots of the big herd are confined to the

Mahandanda Wildlife Sanctuary (11 miles east

from Mechi River , the Nepal India border ) and

Kurseong Forest Division in Darjeeling district

Similarly the Table 4 explains the affected areas

due to small herds' of wild elephant's movement

(hot spots) in six districts of Eastern Nepal. The

elephants visit and create problems of crops

damage and destruction of physical

infrastructure 63 VDC of six districts in Eastern

Nepal.

Table 4: Hot spots (affected areas and presence)

of small herd of Asian wild elephant in Eastern

Nepal

DISTRICTS VDCS/ MUNICIPALITY ENCLAVES/SETTLEMENTS WARDS REMARK

JHAPA BAHUNDANGI, SHANTINAGAR

KHUDANABARI,

ARJUNDHARA, SURUNGA,

SATASIDHAM UPPER BELT,

BUDHBARE,

TOPGACHHI , DAMAK

MUNICIPAL

KERKHA ,

REFUGEE CAMPS,

HAMSEDUMSE,

7, 8

MORANG MADHUBALA , UNLABARI ,

JANTE , LETANG , KERABARI,

SHUNDARPUR , BELBARI ,

SOME PART OF MIRGAULIYA

AND PATHARI ,

MANGALBARE , DUMARE ,

NAXALBADI , LALBHITI

BELBARI , 1,

2 ,4

SMALL

HERD

SUNSARI INTAHARI MUNICIPAL,

HASPOSA, PANCHKANYA,

BAKLAURY, BHARAUL,

MAHENDRANGAR,

PRAKASHPUR, CHKRAHATI,,

RAMDHUN , MADHUBAN ,

KUSHAHA ,

TARHARA, SHANTIJHODA,

HARIPUR, WATER SUPPLY

TANKS

INTAHARI: 2,

3, PANCH-

KANYA: 2, 3

DO

SAPATARI PHATEPUR, PURABPIPRA,

KAMALPUR, AODARAHA,

KANCHANPUR, JAGATPUR

PATHAI , DO

UDAYAPUR TAPESHOWARI, RAMPUR,

HADIYA, JOGIDAH, TRIJUGA

MUNICIPALITY, BELTAR

SHRIPUR, MOTIYAHI,

SONAM,

DO

ILLAM CHULACHULI 2, 3 , 4 DO

Sources: Local farmers. Local Institutions and

fieldwork.


8

Evidence of residence (Small herd of

wild elephant )

There is strong evidence that the small herd of 8-

13 animals (Table 3) is resident in eastern Nepal.

The local farmers near the Atharnale forest area

of Bharawal , Sunsari district said that some 2-3

elephants live year around there. They have

observed the elephants in the forest of Sunsari

district even after the peak crop seasons. Utam

Lal Bhujel of Bhrawal VDC in Sunsari district

has lived for 40 years in that place and he collect

firewood and grass for his cattle from

Atharenala adjoining forest. He believed that 2-3

elephants roam in the Atharenale forest year

around. A calf was born in this forest and grew

up in the same forest. The wild elephant raided

the wheat crop at Dumre settlement of Morang

district in the months of April and May (pers

comm. Bharat Bhandari 2001). During 2 years

he observed elephants in Dumarejhar forest of

Morang district year around during his

patrolling. Later in the paddy season elephants at

the same place had also damaged the paddy.

Since last two years the wild elephants have

stayed in this forest and it is common for a group

of two to five elephants to enter the villages in

search of food at night. The herd some time

remains in the same place for a long period

Earlier the elephants of eastern Nepal migrate to

India but now due to their change in behaviour

and continued presence in this areas have caused

some problem” (Himalaya Times 2002 May 15).

The above statement also gives evidence of

resident elephants in Sunsari district. The

elephant with calf was visiting Sunsari district in

May. The crop damage also occurred in June

and July. These evidences reveal the fact that a

small herd of wild elephants is residing in

eastern Nepal, as opposed to the previous belief

of no residence. Besides this the small herds of

wild elephant raid the crop every seasons (pers

comm. Ranger: Binod Regmi , forest guards Dili

Ram, & Nima Tamang of Morang district) .

Similarly Ram Bahadur Limbu of Chulachuli

VDC of Illam district , Tank Bahadur Bist ,

Aswarya Tamang, and Rajan Karki of Morang

district said that the small herds residing year

around in their adjoining forest. Chkra Palung

(Limbu) , Sundarpur, of Morang district , VDC

chairman of Shantinagar Jhapa district and

Bhawani Prasad Andangbe of Arjundhara VDC

had also said the elephants stay year around in

their adjoining forest .

Human casualties and injuries

Elephants have killed more than 63 persons in

Eastern Development Regions of Nepal so far.

The records of killed persons were found during

direct visit and an interaction with the sufferers.

Out of the total 26 persons in Jhapa , 12 in

Morang, 15 in Sunsari, 4 in Saptari and 13 in

Udayapur district were killed during one and half

decade (Table 4 and Figure 2 ). In addition 3

people were killed in Jhapa 24 June, 2002. In

March 2002 elephants killed a man in Jhapa

district (Blast Times National daily March

2002). The table explains that the most casualties

occur in Jhapa and Sunsari districts (highest)

whereas lowest in Sapatari district


9

Figure 2 : Persons Killed in Eastern Nepal

26

815

412

66

16

010

20304050

6070

Jhap

a

Mo

ran

g

Su

nsa

ri

Sap

ata

ri

Ud

ay

ap

ur

To

tal

Darj

eeli

ng

dis

tric

t ,

Ind

ia

Districts

nu

mb

er

of

pers

on

kil

led

Additionally 3 persons in Bahundangi VDC and

10 in Darjeeling district ,India were killed and

more than 18 houses were demolished in

Bahundangi. (Nepalnews.com June 24 2002.

Kantipur 2002. 28 June.)

Table 5 lists the records of pattern of killings obtained from the field observations in eastern Nepal. Men

Table 5: Patterns of human killing by elephants

Person killed Number Percentage

Men 37 56.2

Women 22 33.3

Children 7 10.6

Total 66 100

Source: Fieldwork.

Table 4 Number of people killed in Eastern Nepal

Districts Persons Killed Period killed Killed/since 1986

Jhapa 26 1986-2002 1.6

Morang 8 1988-2001 0.6

Sunsari 15 1990-1999 1.7

Sapatari 4 1989-2001 0.3

Udayapur 12 1986-1999 0.9

Total 66

Darjeeling district

, India

16 2001 & 2002 16

Source : Field work.


10

are killed more in comparison to women and

children because men have to go out side for

works. In addition, they also go to guard their

crops during night.

Which elephants responsible?

The result in the Table 6 shows that adult bulls

are mainly responsible for killing of people and

destroying properties. Male elephants killed 46

out of 66 people. Female elephants and elephants

in herd killed 13 and 7 persons respectively in

Nepal.Out of 66 cases of killing 69.7 percent

was due to an adult bull. This shows that bulls

are far more prone to be aggressive culminating

in human killing. It is certainly true that only

some bulls are habitual killers (Sukumar 1991).

In the study areas there was one identified, as

“rouges” whose one leg is crooked who killed

many people. For instance this animal killed two

persons in Jhapa district during December 2001

and March 2002.

It is often difficult to determine the sex of the

elephants responsible because this knowledge

may have been restricted to the victim.

Sometimes the sex may be indicated by

circumstantial evidence: for example an

extremely large footprint invariably points to

adult male tuskers and footprints of various sizes

to the involvement of a herd though not

necessarily a female elephant (Sukumar1989).

Table 6: Elephants responsible to kill human

Elephants responsible Number of persons killed Percent

Adult Bull 46 69.7

Female 13 19.7

Herd 7 10.6

Total 66 100

Source: Field work


11

Management Recommendations

Implementing an effective management program

in affected areas could help to reduce the conflict

between elephants and people in eastern Nepal.

The problems of elephants in eastern Nepal

cannot be eliminated; however, it can be

controlled by management interventions.

Sector I: Jhapa to Udayapur district

The Sector I cover and discuss the affected areas

by elephants of Jhapa , Illam, , Morang, Sunsari,

and the affected areas of Udayapur district.

HMG Nepal should provide the following

means and resources to Jhapa. Morang. Sunsari

and Udayapur forest offices and Koshi Tappu

Wildlife Reserve to control the elephants.

Vehicles with special siren. (Four

wheel drive)

Search lights (special type)

Shotgun including bullets for chasing

the elephants

Field gears, such as tent, sleeping bags

and utensils for elephant squad

At least 10 elephants of Koshi Tappu

Wildlife Reserve should be alerted to

chase the wild elephants

Sector II: Responsible Institutions

Conservation awareness program

among local farmers

The population density of wild animals in

eastern Nepal is very low. The number of

elephants is not more than 117- 145 in the whole

country. That is why the government of Nepal

should allocate budget for conservation

awareness programs in all affected districts. The

people eastern Nepal should know the

importance of wildlife and its values.

Forests Corridors Management in

Eastern Nepal

The forest corridor from Jhapa to Udayapur

district is broken in some places. The forest

cover decreases by 14.4 km2 each year so the

government should protect it for the conservation

of wild elephants and other fauna. A research

program on corridors connectivity should be

carried out in each affected district in eastern

Nepal.


12

Translocation of rogues /culling

One bull rogue was found which roams alone

most of the times. This rogue has killed many

people in above five districts. Government of

Nepal either should translocation this rogue into

the protected areas or culls it.

Relocation of people from the forest

elephants and people are affected equally

because some enclaves are residing inside the

forest areas. These people also have seriously

affected the corridors/ connectivity of wild

animals. HMG Nepal should investigate and

relocate the forest encroachers otherwise the

problem will increase year after year.

Inter-disciplinary cooperation

The Department of Forest and the Department of

National Parks and Wildlife Conservation should

have better coordination at central level as well

as at the field level. At least 2 times in a year

DNPWC and DOF should be organized

coordination meeting on elephants –people

conflicts in eastern Nepal.

Transboundary cooperation between

India and Nepal

Human elephant conflicts in east Nepal are not

only the problems of Nepal but also the problems

of West Bengal India. Trans-boundary meetings

have been held 2 -3 times between Nepal and

India. Nepal and Indian governments should take

these problems seriously.

Local level Trans-boundary meeting

The DFO of Jhapa district, the DFO of Kurseong

Divisional Forest Office, DFO of Darjeeling

Wildlife Division1 and ADFO of Mahananda

Wildlife Sanctuary, India need good cooperation

at the local level. At least 2 times a year

coordination meeting should be held to resolve

the problems of elephants at local level.

Establishment of Protected Areas (PA)

in eastern Nepal

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve is the only

protected area (PA) that has been established in

eastern Terai. It is the smallest PA in the Terai .

So there is a need to create another PA in the

eastern regions. Some part of Jhapa, Illam and

Morang district can be taken to establish a PA

that will provide habitat for wild elephants and

other wildlife in the eastern Nepal.

Elephants –people interface Project

A research program on elephants –people

interface should be implemented in eastern

Nepal. More than 63 people and 20-23 elephants

have been killed so far and the number of

killings might be even more than these figures.

That is why the government of Nepal should be

resolved this problem to conserve the small wild

elephant population in Nepal. HMG Nepal

should be prepared elephant action research plan

to conserve the endangered elephants and resolve

the elephant -people conflicts attracting

NGO/INGO.


13

Extension of Koshi Tappu Wildlife

Reserve

Kkoshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR) is a

very small and it cannot support the wild

elephants in east Nepal so the area of KTWR

should be extended. About 500 km2 forest areas

of Sapatari and 500 km2 forest areas of

Udayapur district can be added to the KTWR .

The Trijuga watershed was previously

recommended as wildlife reserve due to its good

wildlife habitat quality (Wegge 1976).

Conclusion

Sixty-three VDC (a. 150,000 people) of five

districts are affected by these two herds of

elephants. On the other hand the people of 63

VDCs have affected the two herds of Asian Wild

Elephants. The recent database shows the wild

elephants have killed 82 to 92 people since 1986

in eastern Nepal. Similarly 23-25 elephants have

been killed to date by electrocution, poisoning

and by muzzle-loaded guns in eastern Nepal .

Responsible institutions, His Majesty’s

Government of Nepal, the Government of West

Bengal India, Department of Forest and

Department of National Parks and Wildlife

Conservation, should be taken the accountability

to resolve human -elephants conflicts in Eastern

Nepal. However it needed the assistance of

INGOs and NGOs, such as KMTNC Nepal,

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, International

Elephants funds USA, IUCN and other

conservation partners.

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the

authority of His Majesty Government of Nepal

the Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation and

the Agricultural University of Norway (AUN)

who gave me opportunity to accomplish the

research on the “Asian Elephants People –

Interface in Eastern Nepal”. I would like to

thanks the people of the study areas for

providing information during the research work.

My sincere thanks go to the Mr Rabi Bahadur

Bista the former secretary of MOFSC and Dr.

Tirtha Man Maskey Director General of

DNPWC , selecting me for Master of Science

in Natural Resource Management for the AUN .

I acknowledge to Mr Shyam Bajimaya the Chief

Ecologist of DNPWC who supervise this

research at field level and guided me in many

ways. Last but not least I would like to my

sincere thanks to Professor Per Wegge who

supervise this thesis at NLH AUN.


14

Reference

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November 10, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Smith J. D. and Mishra H. R. (1992). Status and distribution of Asian elephants

in Central Nepal; Oryx, 26 (1 ) : 34-38

Sukumar, R. (2003). The Living Elephants Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior, and Conservation

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Sukumar , R (1989) . The Asian Elephant: Ecology and management, Cambridge University press,

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linking. WWF Nepal Program, Report series # 39. 18 PP.

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Yadav B.R (2002). Asian Wild Elephant ( Elephas maximus ) - People Interface in East Nepal . A master

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