organisational behavior

PART FIVE

C H A P T E R F O U R T E E N

Foundations of Behavior 14

Lecture OutlineIntroductionWhy Look at Individual Behavior?

Focus of Organizational Behavior

Goals of Organizational Behavior

AttitudesJob SatisfactionJob Involvement and Organizational Commitment

Attitudes and ConsistencyCognitive Dissonance TheoryAttitude SurveysImplications for Managers

PersonalityMBTIThe Big-Five Model Additional Personality InsightsPersonality Types in Different Cultures

Emotions and Emotional Intelligence

Implications for ManagersPerception

Factors That Influence Perception

Attribution TheoryShortcuts Frequently Used in Judging Others

Implications for ManagersLearning

Operant ConditioningSocial Learning Shaping: A Managerial ToolImplications for Managers

In their study of ChapterFourteen, your students will havean opportunity to learnfundamental information aboutindividual and group behavior inthe workplace. This chapterexplores key topics related tothe behavior of individuals atwork including attitudes,personality, perception,learning, and motivation.Students will look at dynamics ofgroup behavior that encompassnorms, roles, team building,leadership, and conflictresolution. In exploring thesedimensions of organizationalbehavior, the text lays thefoundation for understanding howand why people behave the way theydo within the organization’senvironment.

In “A Manager’s Dilemma,”students read of challenges facedby Naguib Sawiris, chairman andCEO of Orascom Telecom Holding, atelecommunications company

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headquartered in Cairo. Choosingto operate in “difficult andprimitive target areas” such asAlgeria, Tunisia, Pakistan,Bangladesh, and Iraq, the companystrives to develop employees ineach of its locations in order toprovide the best service possibleto its more than 25 millionusers. Naguib Sawiris, as well asmanagers of organizations in lessvolatile circumstances, mustunderstand the myriad aspects ofhuman behavior within theirorganizations in order to providethe most efficient and effectiveservices and products to theircustomers. As students putthemselves in Naguib Sawiris’sposition, they are asked, “Howcan he make sure that his companyhires employees with [thenecessary] attitudes andpersonality?”

A variety of PowerPoint slides, including both originaltext art and newly created images, are available for youruse in enhancing the presentation of Chapter Fourteenmaterials to your students.

ANNOTATED OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTIONThis chapter examines numerous factors that influenceemployee behavior and their implications formanagers.

Ø NOTES Materials I Plan toUse:

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2. WHY LOOK AT INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR?Behavior is how people act. Organizational behavioris the study of how people act at work. The visibleorganization can be described as the tip of aniceberg; many of the important issues involved inunderstanding OB are not easily observed. (SeeExhibit 14-1 and PowerPoint slide 14-7.)


Q & A 14.1 Even if managers can control behavior, is it ethical forthem to do so?

A. Focus of Organizational BehaviorOrganizational behavior focuses on two majorareas:1. Individual behavior2. Group behavior


B. The goals of OB are to explain, predict, andinfluence behavior.


3. ATTITUDES

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Attitudes are defined as evaluative statements—favorable or unfavorable— concerning objects, people,or events.


Q & A 14.2 Can managers control employee behavior?

A. Attitudes have three components: cognitive,affective, and behavioral.1. The cognitive component of an attitude is

the part of an attitude that is made up ofthe beliefs, opinions, knowledge, orinformation held by a person.

2. The affective component of an attitude isthat part of an attitude that is theemotional, or feeling, part.

3. The behavioral component of an attitude isthat part of an attitude that refers to anintention to behave in a certain way.


Q & A 14.3 Why should managers care about employees’ attitudes?

B. Managers are particularly interested in the job-related attitudes of employees. Job-relatedattitudes include job satisfaction, jobinvolvement, organizational commitment, andorganizational citizenship behavior. 1. Job satisfaction is an employee’s general

attitude toward his or her job.

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Q & A 14.4 Does job satisfaction vary predominantly by characteristicsin a job?

Passport Passport Part 5 Scenario 2 Have students complete Passport Part 5 Scenario 2

dealing with attitudes.

Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Job Satisfaction

Have students complete SAL #I.B.3 “How Satisfied Am I withMy Job?” Students should consider the following:

n What did you find out about yourself in doing thisexercise? Did anything surprise you about yourassessment?

n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand how people feel about their jobs?

n Do you think this information will help you as amanager? How?

2. Job involvement is the degree to which anemployee identifies with his or her job,actively participates in it, and considershis or her job performance important tohis or her self-worth.


Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Job Involvement

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Have students complete SAL #I.B.2 “How Involved Am I in MyJob?” Students should consider the following:


n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand how people relate to their jobs?


3. Organizational commitment is an employee’sorientation toward the organization interms of his or her loyalty to,identification with, and involvement inthe organization.


Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Commitment

Have students complete SAL #III.B.2 “How Committed Am I toMy Organization?” Students should consider the following:n What did you learn about yourself in doing this

exercise? Did anything surprise you about yourassessment?

n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand how people relate to their jobs?

n How do you think this information could help you as amanager?

4. A fourth job-related concept isorganizational citizenship behavior, which

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is the discretionary behavior that is notpart of an employee’s formal jobrequirements, but promotes the effectivefunctioning of the organization.


C. Attitudes and ConsistencyResearch has generally shown that people seekconsistency among their attitudes and betweentheir attitudes and their behavior.


D. Does the consistency principle mean that we canpredict an individual’s behavior if we know hisor her attitude on a subject? The answerdepends.


1. Cognitive dissonance refers to anyinconsistency that an individual mightperceive between attitudes or betweenbehavior and attitudes.

2. This dissonance or inconsistency leads toan uncomfortable state for the individual,who will try to reduce the inconsistency.

3. The desire to reduce dissonance isdetermined by (a) the importance of the

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factors creating the dissonance, (b) thedegree of influence the individualbelieves he/she has over those factors,and (c) the rewards that may be involvedin dissonance.

4. Individuals reduce dissonance either bychanging the behavior, concluding that thedissonant behavior is not so importantafter all, or by changing the attitude.


E. Attitude surveys are surveys that ask employeeshow they feel about their jobs, work groups,supervisors, or the organization. Exhibit 14-2provides a sample of an attitude survey. (Seealso PowerPoint slide 14-22.)


Q & A 14.5 What’s the relationship between an employee’s jobsatisfaction and his or her work behavior?

Q & A 14.6 What is cognitive dissonance theory?

F. The Satisfaction-Productivity ControversyA controversy exists concerning the relationshipbetween satisfaction and productivity. Are happyworkers productive workers? 1. Following the Hawthorne Studies, many

managers believed that if they kept their

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employees happy, the employees would beproductive.

2. A review of the research on workerproductivity indicates that ifsatisfaction does have a positive effect onproductivity, that effect is fairly small.

3. Rather, managers should focus on factorsthat are conducive to a high degree ofemployee satisfaction. Such factorsinclude mentally challenging work,equitable rewards, supportive workingconditions, and supportive colleagues.


G. The implication for managers from understandingattitudes is that there is relatively strongevidence that committed and satisfied employeeshave lower rates of turnover and absenteeism.Also, the belief that making employees happywill make them productive needs to bereexamined.


Q & A 14.7 What are the implications of cognitive dissonance theoryfor managers?

4. PERSONALITYPersonality is defined is the unique combination ofemotional, thought, and behavioral patterns thataffect how a person reacts and interacts with others.

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Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Personality

Have students complete SAL #I.A.1 “What’s My BasicPersonality?” Students should consider the following:

n What did you discover about yourself in doing thisexercise? Did anything surprise you about yourassessment?

n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand other people?


Q & A 14.8 How can a manager use personality theories to improveemployee job performance?

A. Two models for classifying personality traitsare widely used: the MBTI® and the Big FiveModel.1. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI®) is

a general personality assessment (seePowerPoint slide 14-25).

Self-Assessment Library Exercises in JungianPersonality

Have students complete SAL #I.A.2 “What’s My Jungian 16-Type Personality?” Students should consider the following:


n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand other people?


a. The MBTI® measures four dimensions:1) Social interaction: extrovert

(E) or introvert (I)209

2) Preference for gathering data:sensing (S) or intuitive (N)

3) Preference for decision making:feeling (F) or thinking (T)

4) Style of making decisions:perceptive (P) or judgmental (J)

b. Combining these preferences providesdescriptions about 16 differentpersonality types.

c. Examples of MBTI® personality typesare shown in Exhibit 14-3 andPowerPoint slide 14-27.

2. The Big Five Model. The Big-Five Model isa five-factor model of personality (seePowerPoint slide 14-28).a. Research has shown that important

relationships exist between thesepersonality dimensions and jobperformance.

b. The personality traits in the Big-Five Model are listed below:1) Extraversion2) Agreeableness3) Conscientiousness4) Emotional Stability5) Openness to Experience


B. Additional Personality Insights. Personalityresearchers have identified five additionalpersonality traits that have proved to be themost powerful in explaining individual behaviorin organizations: locus of control,Machiavellianism, self-esteem, self-monitoring,and risk-taking.

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1. Locus of control is the degree to whichpeople believe they control their own fate.Locus of control can be either external orinternal.


Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Type-APersonality

Have students complete SAL #I.A.3 “Am I a Type-A?”Students should consider the following:

n What did you learn about yourself in doing thisexercise? Did anything surprise you about yourassessment?

n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand the behavior of others?


2. Machiavellianism is the degree to whichpeople are pragmatic, maintain emotionaldistance, and believe that ends justifymeans.

3. Self-esteem is an individual’s degree oflike or dislike for himself or herself.

4. Self-monitoring is an individual’s abilityto adjust his or her behavior to externalsituational factors.


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Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Impression Management

Have students complete SAL #I.C.4 “How Well Do I ManageImpressions?” Students should consider the following:


n How can you use this information in helping you bemore effective?


5. Risk-taking refers to an individual’swillingness to take risks.


Self-Assessment Library Exercises in Creativity

Have students complete SAL #I.A.5 “How Creative Am I?”Students should consider the following:

n What did you learn about yourself in doing thisexercise? Did anything surprise you about yourassessment?

n How can you use this information in helping youunderstand the risk behavior of people?


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C. Personality Types in Different Cultures. Dothese personality types transfer acrosscultures? Although no common personality typesare found in a given national culture acountry’s culture can influence dominantpersonality characteristics of its people. Thisis particularly true for the personality trait,locus of control.


? Focus on Leadership Know Thyself

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In this course, your students are learning about qualities andskills necessary for successful leadership in a businessorganization. In Chapter Fourteen, they will read about the vitalcomponent of emotional intelligence and its role in their owndevelopment as effective leaders. To engage students inconsidering aspects of their present EI, ask them to access thefollowing Web site outside of class and take the EmotionalIntelligence Quiz 1:

http://ei.haygroup.com/resources/default_ieitest.htm

When students submit their responses online, they will be given anEI score for the quiz. Have each student read carefully the“Basics of Emotional Intelligence” below his/her score and theinformation explaining the possible answer choices for each quizquestion.

Following this assignment, lead a class discussion of EI,encouraging students to describe what they learned about EI intaking the quiz and how well they think their quiz score reflectstheir own EI. (Emphasize to students that no individual score willbe revealed or discussed in this activity.) Encourage yourstudents to explore the subject of EI in readings in the libraryand on the Internet to further develop their emotionalintelligence in preparation for a more successful professionaland personal life.

1 Emotional Intelligence Services (HayGroup). When it comes to emotional intelligence, how savvy are you? (1999-2005). Retrieved November 4, 2006, from http://ei.haygroup.com/resources/ default_ieitest.htm

D. Emotions and Emotional Intelligence. The benefitof a manager’s understanding personalitydifferences is clearly seen in the area ofemployee selection. Just as individualpersonalities differ, so too do jobs. Effortshave been made to match the proper personalitieswith the proper jobs.1. John Holland has developed the best-

documented personality-job fit theory (seeExhibit 14-4).

2. The key points of his model: Intrinsicdifferences in personality probably doexist among individuals; there aredifferent types of jobs; and people who

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work in job environments congruent withtheir personality types should be moresatisfied.

3. Emotional intelligence (EI) is the abilityto notice and to manage emotional cues andinformation.

4. Emotional intelligence is composed of fivedimensions:a. Self-awarenessb. Self-managementc. Self-motivationd. Empathye. Social skills

5. Research has shown that emotionalintelligence is positively related to jobperformance at all organizational levels.


5. PERCEPTIONPerception is the process of organizing andinterpreting sensory impressions in order to givemeaning to the environment.


Q & A 14.9 If everyone perceives things differently, how can a managerever decide the best way to manage?

A. What factors influence perception? (ShowPowerPoint slide 14-27 to your students at thispoint and ask for their reactions). A number offactors operate to shape and sometimes distortperception:1. The perceiver

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2. The target (See Exhibit 14-5 andPowerPoint slide 14-39)

3. The situation


B. Attribution theory is a theory that explains howwe judge people differently depending on themeaning we attribute to a given behavior. Thedetermination of the cause of the behaviordepends on three factors: distinctiveness,consensus, and consistency.1. Distinctiveness refers to whether an

individual displays different behavior indifferent situations.

2. Consensus refers to whether an individualwho is faced with a similar situationresponds in the same way with the samebehavior.

3. Consistency refers to the congruency in aperson’s actions, that is, whether theperson engages in the behaviors regularlyand consistently.


Q & A 14.10 Do managers really use attribution theory? If so, how?

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4. Exhibit 14-6 and PowerPoint slide 14-41summarize the key elements of attributiontheory.

5. One of the most interesting findings ofattribution theory is that there areerrors or biases that distortattributions.a. The fundamental attribution error

refers to the tendency tounderestimate the influence ofexternal factors and overestimate theinfluence of internal factors whenmaking judgments about the behaviorof others.


Q & A 14.11 What predictions can we make based on the fundamentalattribution error?

b. Self-serving bias is the tendency forindividuals to attribute their ownsuccesses to internal factors whileputting the blame for failures onexternal factors.


C. There are four frequently used shortcuts we usein judging others.1. Selectivity refers to the process by which

people assimilate certain bits and pieces

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of what they observe, depending on theirinterests, background, and attitudes.

2. Assumed similarity is the belief thatothers are like oneself.

3. Stereotyping refers to judging a person onthe basis of one’s perception of a groupto which he or she belongs.

4. Halo effect refers to a general impressionof an individual based on a singlecharacteristic.


D. The implication for managers regardingperception and its impact on employee behavioris that they need to recognize that theiremployees react to perceptions, not reality.


6. LEARNINGLearning is any relatively permanent change inbehavior that occurs as a result of experience.A. Operant conditioning is a type of learning in

which desired voluntary behavior leads to areward or prevents a punishment.1. B. F. Skinner is the psychologist most

often associated with operant conditioningtheory.

2. Operant conditioning theory proposes thatbehavior is determined from without (thatis, learned) rather than from within(reflexive, or unlearned).

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3. Skinner argued that creating pleasing anddesirable consequences to follow somespecific behavior would increase thefrequency of that behavior.

4. People will most likely engage in desiredbehaviors if they receive positivereinforcement for doing so.


Q & A 14.12 What’s the difference between negative reinforcement andpunishment?

? Managing Your Career Learning to Get Along withDifficult People

No matter their current or future position in an organization, yourstudents will discover that skills in getting along with difficultpeople are essential to success in the business world. Suggest thateach student take time during the next week to visit a localbookstore and browse in the “Business Books” section. Ask them tomake a list of several books they locate that address this issue.You may want to ask them to explore books on this subject in thelibrary and on the Internet as well. How many books dealing with thesubject of getting along with difficult people did they locate onthe shelves of the bookstore? Does this number indicate theattention generated by this subject?

Ask students to share the title and make comments about the mosthelpful book they examined about getting along with difficultpeople, especially in the workplace.

B. Social learning is a learning theory that sayspeople learn through observation and directexperience. Four processes determine the amountof influence that these models will have on anindividual: attentional processes, retentionprocesses, motor reproduction processes, andreinforcement processes.

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Practical Interactive Skills Modules PRISM #7 Have students visit the Web and consider

PRISM #7 that deals with mentoring.

1. Attentional processes. People learn from a modelonly when they recognize and pay attentionto its critical features.

2. Retention processes. A model’s influencedepends upon how well an individualremembers the model’s action.

3. Motor reproduction processes. After a person hasobserved a new behavior by watching amodel, he/she must demonstrate an abilityto do the modeled activities.

4. Reinforcement processes. Individuals will bemotivated to exhibit modeled behavior ifpositive rewards are provided.


C. Shaping: A Managerial Tool In shaping, a managersystematically reinforces each successive stepthat moves an individual closer to a desiredresponse. Behavior can be shaped in four ways:1. Positive reinforcement is reinforcing a desired

behavior by providing something pleasantafter that behavior.

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2. Negative reinforcement is reinforcing a desiredbehavior with the termination orwithdrawal of something unpleasant.

3. Punishment penalizes undesirable behavior.4. Extinction involves eliminating any

reinforcement that is maintaining abehavior.


? Thinking Critically About Ethics

Shaping Behavior

This critical thinking exercise asks students to consider amanagerial technique and its ethical implications. In thisexercise, students are asked to think about shaping behavior andwhether or not shaping can be considered manipulation.

This exercise can be used as the basis for a classroom debate,with half the class taking each side of the issue, i.e., “Shapingis manipulation” or “Shaping does not constitute manipulation.”

Be sure to point out to students that each of us shapes thebehavior of people around us every day of our lives—knowingly andunknowingly. In this respect, all of us are leaders, as studentswill discover in their study of Chapter Sixteen.

D. From learning theory, managers should recognizethat employees will learn while doing a job. Akey question: Will managers manage employees’learning through the rewards the managersallocate and the examples they set, or willmanagers allow learning to occur haphazardly?


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Answers to Thinking About Management Issues

1. How, if at all, does the importance of knowledge of OB differ based on amanager’s level in the organization? Be specific.Knowledge of OB is important for all managers sinceexecutives at all levels of the organization dealwith people. Low-level managers are likely tosupervise employees directly, so they need knowledgeof attitudes, perception, and learning. If they haveresponsibilities pertaining to the hiring ofemployees, they need to have knowledge aboutpersonality. Middle-level managers are likely to needknowledge of attitudes and personality, as theysupervise lower-level managers. Upper-level managersneed knowledge of attitudes as they deal withorganizational design decisions and human resourcemanagement issues.

2. “A growing number of companies are now convinced that people’s abilityto understand and to manage their emotions improves theirperformance, their collaboration with peers, and their interaction withcustomers.” What are the implications of this statement for managers?If the manager’s company agrees with this statement,the manager must consider emotional intelligence (EI)as a necessary factor in employee selection, as wellas in employee training and development issues.

3. What behavioral predictions might you make if you knew that anemployee had (a) an external locus of control? (b) a low Mach score? (c)low self-esteem? (d) high self-monitoring tendencies?Employees with an external locus of control might beless satisfied with their jobs, more alienated fromthe work setting, and less involved in their work.Employees with a low Mach score would be overlyidealistic, emotional, and concerned about fair andequitable treatment. Employees with low self-esteemwould be more susceptible to external influence.Employees with high self-monitoring tendencies would

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tend to be more adaptable in adjusting their behaviorto the demands of different situations.

4. “Managers should never use discipline with a problem employee.” Do youagree or disagree? Discuss.Discipline that is rooted in behavior theories can bequite positive and can be used as a means to promoteacceptable and desired behavior. When disciplining anemployee, however, managers should be governed bytheir knowledge of the implications of attitudes,perceptions, learning, and personality.

5. A Gallup Organization survey shows that most workers rate having acaring boss even higher than they value money or fringe benefits. Howshould managers interpret this information? What are the implications?First, ask your students if they agree or disagreewith this survey finding. Their answers should beinteresting and enlightening to their classmates. Ifthey do agree with the statement—which they mostlikely will—the implications for managers wouldinclude training managers to be kind and respectful,while communicating to their employees that theyexpect the best performance from each employee. Thediscussion could include a review and considerationof the findings of the Hawthorne Studies.

6. Does a job’s prestige (as assessed by others outside of the organization)increase an employee’s job satisfaction? Research data are beginning toshow, “Yes, it does.” What do you think? What are the implications fororganizations?Before your students begin to answer this question,ask them to think of an employment position or avolunteer position they have held. Did the prestige(or lack of prestige) associated with their positionhave any impact on their satisfaction with theposition? If so, ask students to describe thisimpact. If not, ask them to describe other aspectsof the position that contributed to theirsatisfaction (or lack of satisfaction) with the jobor volunteer position. Then, have students answerQuestion 6 in light of their experience.

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7. Suppose that you’re responsible for managing a group whose membersare much younger than you are. What challenges might you face andhow will you address those challenges? Be sure that your students consider the likelihoodthat they will likely find themselves in thissituation early in their management career. Have anyof the students already experienced this type ofemployment situation? If so, ask them to share withthe class some ways in which they managed thechallenges posed by leading a group whose members aremuch younger.

You may want to mention that a number of books havebeen published to help a first-time manager dealsuccessfully with such challenges. One of thesebooks that may prove helpful to your students is theFirst-Time Manager (5th ed.) by Loren B. Belker and GaryS. Topchik. The fifth edition was published by theAmerican Management Association in 2005.

WORKING TOGETHER—Team-Based Exercise

Student groups of three to four are asked to debate thestatement: “When we use shortcuts to judge others, are theconsequences always negative?”

The debate between student groups could be enhanced byfirst assigning different groups to support or negate thestatement concerning specific shortcuts such as:stereotyping, halo effect, selectivity, assumed similarity(“like me”). These four shortcuts would require eightstudent groups for debate. Students may want to describesome of the incidents or examples their groups generate.

Answers to Case Application Questions

Washington Mutual, Inc.

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1. What type of personality characteristics would best fit into WaMu’scustomer-service and innovative culture?The following personality characteristics would beconsistent with WaMu’s customer-service andinnovative culture. Have students consider othercharacteristics as well, and have them defend theirselections.

n Extrovertn Intuitiven Thinkingn Perceptiven Conscientiousn Open to new experiencesn Self-motivatedn Self-awaren High self-esteemn Risk-taking

2. Design an employee attitude survey that WaMu’s managers might use. Ifyou want, check out information on the company’s Web site(www.wamu.com).Students will have a variety of items for thisquestion. You should be sure to emphasize the legalrequirements concerning types of questions thatemployers ask their employees. Students should alsobe able to explain what their questions are designedto measure. You may want to ask students how theywould determine both the validity and the reliabilityof their survey items.

3. WaMu was named by Fortune magazine in 2006 as one of the 100 BestCompanies to Work For. What predictions, if any, could you make aboutjob satisfaction at WaMu? How might job satisfaction affect workoutcomes at WaMu?Students will undoubtedly argue that job satisfactionmust be very high at WaMu. They may argue causalityregarding the job satisfaction–performance link. Youmay want to caution students about reaching thisconclusion too quickly. You may ask them whether anunhappy worker could be productive in the WaMuenvironment, and if so, why. You may also ask

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students to consider indicators such as turnover indealing with this question.

4. The company’s core values include fair, caring, human, dynamic, anddriven. How does the company exhibit these values?The company is careful to reinforce its culturethrough its selection process. WaMu espouses andenacts the value it places on the well-being of allemployees in the company. The organization promotesattitudes and policies that promote dignity andrespect in the treatment with all employees. Thecompany has created a work environment in whicheveryone has the opportunity to thrive, innovate, andsucceed.

ADDITIONAL CHAPTER INFORMATION

You may want to have your students research the age-oldquestion of the role of nature versus environment(nurture) in determining personality. Some of thisresearch is currently exploring which aspects ofpersonality may have a genetic component by asking thequestion: Does DNA shape behavior? Some aspects ofpersonality that may have a genetic component includerisk-taking, impulsiveness, openness, conservatism, andhostility. Another area your students may wish to addressis the subject of loyalty to one’s organization. You mightask students to consider how relevant organizationalcommitment is today, considering that individuals changejobs and careers more often than in the past.

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organisational behavior

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