norm-referenced test, criterion-referenced test and self

Norm-Referenced Test, Criterion-Referenced Test and Self-Referenced Test

Frameworks

Dr. R.MUTHAIYAN *,

M.Sc(Maths).,M.Sc(Psy).,M.Ed.,M.phil(Maths).,M.Phil(Edn).,MBA(HR).,PGDCA.,Ph.D.,

Assistant Professor and Research Supervisor,

Department of Education and Management,

Tamil University,Thanjavur-10

B.ANANTHI**,

Ph.D., Research Scholar,

Department of Education and Management,

Tamil University,Thanjavur-10

ABSTRACT

In norm referenced measurement an examinee’s performance is interpreted in terms of

the relative position held in some known group where as criterion referenced measurement an

examinee’s performance is interpreted in terms of mastery of the content in a specified domain

of instructionally relevant tasks. And then, Self-reference occurs in natural or formal languages,

when a sentence, idea or formula refers to itself. The reference may be expressed directly,

through some intermediate sentence or formula or by means of some encoding. For these three

types of measurement and interpretation to be meaningful and useful, evaluation instruments

have to be specifically designed for the type of interpretation to be made. Hence those three

differs from its unique characteristics of measuring instrument like planning the test, and etc.

Key Words: Measurement, Evaluation, Assessment, Learner, Score, Improvement.

INTRODUCTION

In education, evaluation is the process of using the measurements gathered in the assessments.

Teachers use this information to judge the relationship between what was intended by the instruction and

what was learned. They evaluate the information gathered to determine what students know and

understand, how far they have progressed and how fast and how their scores and progress compare to

those of other students9.

Journal of Information and Computational Science

Volume 10 Issue 5 - 2020

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Though the terms assessment and evaluation are often used interchangeably (Cooper, 1999)5,

many writers differentiate between them. Assessment is defined as gathering information or evidence, and

evaluation is the use of that information or evidence to make judgments (Snowman, McCown, and

Biehler, 2012)10. Measurement involves assigning numbers or scores to an "attribute or characteristic of a

person in such a way that the numbers describe the degree to which the person possesses the attribute"

(Nitco and Brookhart, 2011, p. 507)1. Assigning grade equivalents to scores on a standardized

achievement test is an example of measurement

Most countries are conferring a strategic role to evaluation and assessment as indispensable tools

for improvement, accountability, educational planning and policy development and are expanding their

use. This expansion results from increased demands for effectiveness, equity and quality in education to

meet economic and social needs. The greater importance of evaluation and assessment has involved the

creation of dedicated agencies which assume a central role in the governance of the evaluation and

assessment framework.

NORM-REFERENCED TEST

It is a preliminary test for comparing achievement of an examinee to a large group of examinees

at the same grade. The representative group is known as Norm group. Norm referenced test is a test

design to provide a measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of an individual‘s relative

standing in some known group. Norm group may be made up of examinees at the local level, district

level, state level or national level. Since the development of norm-referenced tests is expensive and time

consuming. Bormuth (1970) 3writes that Norms is to measure the growth in a student‘s attainment and to

compare his level of attainment with the levels reached by other students and norm group.

Norm-referenced refers to standardized tests that are designed to compare and rank test takers in relation

to one another. Norm-referenced tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a

hypothetical average student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance results of

a statistically selected group of test takers, typically of the same age or grade level, who have already

taken the exam.8

Norm-referenced scores are generally reported as a percentage or percentile ranking. For

example, a student who scores in the seventieth percentile performed as well or better than seventy

percent of other test takers of the same age or grade level, and thirty percent of students performed better

(as determined by Norming-group scores).

Norm-referenced tests often use a multiple-choice format, though some include open ended,

short-answer questions. They are usually based on some form of national standards, not locally

determined standards or curricula. IQ tests are among the most well-known norm referenced tests, as are



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developmental-screening tests, which are used to identify learning disabilities in young children or

determine eligibility for special-education services.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORM-REFERENCED TEST

The characteristics of the norm reference test are as follows:

1. Defining

They measure the performance of a student in comparison to all students. But it does not define the

meaning of all. Thus, they measure the success of an educational restructuring against fixed aims.

2. Preset results

It means that the norms were traditionally set. And the score level is set at 50 percent. But, this goal is

really high to achieve if we talk about all the students.

3. Quality of Grades

The norms for grading are set by teachers according to them. But they have to judge the performance of

students. Also, the level of knowledge of both is different.

4. Changing Difficulty level

The difficulty level of scores changes from year to year. Also, the passing rates of students vary from

class to class. Likewise, 4th grade has different difficulty level and 10th grade has a different difficulty

level.

5. Fear of Failure

In norm reference test the students have fear of failure. Besides, it compares their performance with other

students.

6. Be competitive

Give students a chance to improve their performance. Also, students can know how much they have to

prepare to compete with others.

7. Being self-confident

It means that students should take their performance confidently. Also, they should work hard to improve

their performance.

USED OF NORM-REFERENCED TESTS

determine a young child‘s readiness for preschool or kindergarten. These tests may be

designed to measure oral-language ability, visual-motor skills, and cognitive and social

development. To evaluate basic reading, writing and math skills. Test results may be used for a

wide variety of purposes, such as measuring academic progress, making course assignments,



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determining readiness for grade promotion, or identifying the need for additional academic

support.

To identify specific learning disabilities, such as autism, dyslexia, or nonverbal learning

disability, or to determine eligibility for special-education services.

To make program-eligibility or college-admissions decisions (in these cases, norm referenced

scores are generally evaluated alongside other information about a student). Scores on SAT or

ACT exams are a common example.

Although testing experts and test developers warn that major educational decisions should not be

made on the basis of a single test score, norm-referenced scores are often misused in schools

when making critical educational decisions, such as grade promotion or retention, which can have

potentially harmful consequences for some students and student groups.

Norm-referenced tests encourage teachers to view students in terms of a bell curve, which can

lead them to lower academic expectations for certain groups of students, particularly special-

needs students, English-language learners, or minority groups. And when academic expectations

are consistently lowered year after year, students in these groups may never catch up to their

peers, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. For a related discussion, see high expectations.

Multiple-choice tests- the dominant norm-referenced format are better suited to measuring

remembered facts than more complex forms of thinking. Consequently, norm-referenced tests

promote rote learning and memorization in schools over more sophisticated cognitive skills, such

as writing, critical reading, analytical thinking, problem solving, or creativity.

Over reliance on norm-referenced test results can lead to inadvertent discrimination against

minority groups and low-income student populations, both of which tend to face more

educational obstacles that non-minority students from higher-income households. For example,

many educators have argued that the overuse of norm-referenced testing has resulted in a

significant over representation of minority students in special-education programs. On the other

hand, using norm-referenced scores to determine placement in gifted and talented programs, or

other “enriched” learning opportunities, leads to the underrepresentation of minority and lower-

income students in these programs. Similarly, students from higher-income households may have

an unfair advantage in the college-admissions process because they can afford expensive test-

preparation services.

An overreliance on norm-referenced test scores undervalues important achievements, skills, and

abilities in favor of the more narrow set of skills measured by the tests.



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https://www.edglossary.org/english-language-learner/

https://www.edglossary.org/high-expectations/

PROPONENTS OF NORM-REFERENCED TESTS

Norm-referenced tests can provide valuable information about student learning

The quality of norm-referenced tests are developed by testing experts, piloted and revised before

they are used with students and they are dependable and stable for what they are designed to

measure.

Norm-referenced tests can help differentiate students and identify those who may have specific

educational needs or deficits that require specialized assistance or learning environments.

The tests are an objective evaluation method that can decrease bias or favoritism when making

educational decisions. If there are limited places in a gifted and talented program, for example,

one transparent way to make the decision is to give every student the same test and allow the

highest-scoring students to gain entry.

MERITS OF NORM- REFERENCED TEST

To make differential predictions in aptitude testing.

To get a reliable rank ordering of the pupils with respect to the achievement

To identify the pupils who have mastered the essentials of the course more than others.

To select the best of the applicants for a particular programme.

To find out how effective a programme is in comparison to other possible programmes.

DEMERITS OF NORM -REFERENCED TEST

Test items answered by the students are not included in these test items because of their

inadequate contribution to response variance.

There is lack of congruence between what the test measures and what is stressed in a local

curriculum.

This promotes unhealthy competition and injurious to self-concepts of low scoring students.

Norm-referenced measurement is the traditional class based assignment. The measurement act relates

to some norm, group or a typical performance. It is an attempt to interpret the test results in terms of

performance of a certain group of students. So, this group is a norm group test scores. Thus norm-

referenced test typically attempts to measure more general category of competencies.



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CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST - DEFINITIONS

In a criterion referenced measurement framework, the student’s performance is described in terms

of his mastery of the content in a well defined content domain or his achievement with respect to an

explicit instructional objective by comparing his test score to some preset standard or criterion for

success.(Martuza 1977).

Criterion referenced interpretation enables one “to describe what an individual can do, without

reference to performance of others” (Gronlund, 1977, p.18). In criterion referenced measurement a

student’s performance is interpreted by comparing it to some specified behavioral criterion of proficiency.

Eg: Student A got 70% of items in a test on addition of numbers.

Student A has understood 80% of the basic concepts in an unit.

Student A can type 40 words per minute with error.

To polarize the distinction between norm referenced measurement and criterion referenced measurement,

it can be said that the focus of a norm referenced measurement, score is on, how many of a criterion

referenced measurement score is on, what is it that student A can do.(Mehrens, 1973)6

CRITERION-REFERENCED TEST

Criterion-referenced tests and assessments are designed to measure student performance against a

fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards - i.e., concise, written descriptions of what

students are expected to know and be able to do at a specific stage of their education. In elementary and

secondary education, criterion-referenced tests are used to evaluate whether students have learned a

specific body of knowledge or acquired a specific skill set.

If students perform at or above the established expectations - for example, by answering a certain

percentage of questions correctly, they will pass the test, meet the expected standards, or be deemed

proficient. On a criterion-referenced test, every student taking the exam could theoretically fail if they

don‘t meet the expected standard; alternatively, every student could earn the highest possible score. On

criterion-referenced tests, it is not only possible, but desirable, for every student to pass the test or earn a

perfect score. Criterion-referenced tests have been compared to driver’s license exams, which require

would-be drivers to achieve a minimum passing score to earn a license8.

Criterion-referenced tests may include multiple-choice questions, true-false questions, open-

ended questions (e.g., questions that ask students to write a short response or an essay), or a combination

of question types. Individual teachers may design the tests for use in a specific course, or they may be

created by teams of experts for large companies that have contracts with state departments of education.

Criterion-referenced tests may be high-stakes tests - i.e., tests that are used to make important decisions

about students, educators, schools, or districts - or they may be low-stakes tests‖ used to measure the



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academic achievement of individual students, identify learning problems, or inform instructional

adjustments.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CRITERION REFERENCED TEST

1. Authority

It actually assesses whether they measure what it claims or not. An individual item matches with its goal.

Also, if the situations and performance specified in the aim signify in the item or not.

2. Consistency

It means that if it always measures what it states. Also, consistency means if they have a high degree of

confidence in the scores or not. Any random error in the tool can make it unreliable.

3. Practicality

Not all assessment is reliable because of cost and time. It is not always possible to design reliable and

accurate tests. Also, the decision should considerably relate to important factors.

4. Subject Mastery

This help in the pathway the performance of students within the course of study. Also, test items can be

made to match precise purposes. Criterion reference test also judges how well the student knows and

understand the topic.

5. Managed Locally

Generally, these developed at the classroom level. Also, the teacher can easily check if the standards are

met or not. Besides, they also identify shortages. Results of tests are quickly obtained to give students

helpful feedback on performance.

USED OF CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS

i. To determine whether students have learned expected knowledge and skills. If the criterion-

referenced tests are used to make decisions about grade promotion or diploma eligibility, they

would be considered high-stakes tests.

ii. To determine if students have learning gaps or academic deficits that need to be addressed.

iii. To evaluate the effectiveness of a course, academic program, or learning experience by using

pre-tests and post-tests to measure learning progress over the duration of the instructional

period.

iv. To evaluate the effectiveness of teachers by factoring test results into job-performance

evaluations



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v. To measure progress toward the goals and objectives described in an individualized

education plan‖ for students with disabilities.

vi. To determine if a student or teacher is qualified to receive a license or certificate.

vii. To measure the academic achievement of students in a given state, usually for the purposes of

comparing academic performance among schools and districts.

PROPONENTS OF CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING

The tests can use to improve teaching and school performance.

The tests are evaluating achievement against a common and consistently applied set of criteria.

The tests apply the same learning standards to all students, which can hold underprivileged or

disadvantaged students to the same high expectations as other students.

The tests can be constructed with open-ended questions and tasks that require students to use

higher-level cognitive skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, reasoning, analysis, or

interpretation.

SELF-REFERENCED TEST

SRSI formula for ‘Self referenced Test’ was developed by Dr. R.Muthaiyan (2006)7 for his

doctoral research study. Self referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s optimum capabilities

based on his/her own self reflection.(R.Muthaiyan, 2006)7

Self-referenced occurs in natural or formal languages, when a sentence, idea or formula refers to

itself. The reference may be expressed directly, through some intermediate sentence or formula or by

means of some encoding. In Philosophy, it also refers to the ability of a subject to speak of or refer to

itself: to have the kind of thought expressed by the first person nominative singular pronoun, the word-1

in English10.

Self-referenced is studied and has applications in mathematics, Philosophy, Computer

Programming and Linguistics. Self-referential statements are sometimes Paradoxical. In Computer

Science, self-reference occurs in reflection, where a program can read or modify its own instructions like

any other data. Numerous programming languages support reflection to some extent with varying degrees

of expressiveness. Additionally, self-reference is seen in recursion (related to the mathematical recurrence

relation), where a code structure refers back to itself during computation2.

SRT AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN EDUCATION

The goal of education is to enable the individual to acquire optimum knowledge, skills, habits,

attitudes and values. To achieve these goals we need to identify the most essential competencies, attitudes



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and values. Learning is not a collection of information and memorizing it. It is an outcome of experience

in real life situations supported and strengthened by related classroom work. In this regard maximum

opportunities should be given to the students. SRT provides the maximum opportunities11.

NEED FOR USING SRT IN QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

One of the most commonly used measures of quality is the student’s test score. SRT provides the

kind of test score information needed to make individual decisions arising in objective based instructional

programmes. The more traditional Norm Referenced Test and Criterion Referenced Test are considered

less than ideal for providing the desired kind of test score information for self improvement7.

ITEM ANALYSIS OF SRT

The item analysis procedure of SRT is as follows:

i) Taking into account of difficulty index in the case of NRT.

ii) Taking into account of ‘s’ index in the case of CRT.

ACCORDING TO DR.R.MUTHAIYAN PROCEDURE FOR SELF REFERENCED TESTING

Test is developed based on NRT and CRT. A single test is administered to a set of students. Each

student score is noted (s) as “Preliminary Score”. The score is shown to each student. The student is

informed that one more chance is given to him/her for improvement. They are informed to point the

maximum possible attainment score that he/she could make in that chance. The expected score of the

student is marked as ‘ES’ and called “Self Referenced expected score” after treatment the students are

asked to write the test. The test is once again scored. The obtained new score is S2 and called “Actual

performance score”. Using these scores ‘SRSI’ value for each individual student’s is calculated. If the

individual wants to improve still further a second and third chance are also given.

In this way the optimum capabilities of each individual student is ascertained7.

DERIVATION OF THE FORMULA FORAVERAGE TOTAL SRSI IN PERCENTAGE

The formula to calculate SRSI (DR.R.MUTHAIYAN, 2006)

= Actual Performance score

Self−Referenced Expexted Score

= S2

ES

This can be converted into percentage so, SRSI in percentage



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= S2

ES x 100

Total SRSI = ∑S2

ES

ni=1

Total SRSI in percentage = ∑S2

ESx100n

i=1

COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL NRT, CRT AND LATEST SRT

S. No Test Characteristics NRT CRT SRT

1 Purpose of the test To measure students

achievement and

compare with the levels

reached by other

student’s, helps to

describe pupil

performance in terms

of the relative position

held in some known

group.

To measure student’s

achievement and to

compare each

individual's

performance helps to

describe pupil's

performance in terms

of a specified domain

of instructionally

relevant tasks.

To measure

student’s

achievement and to

compare each

individual's

optimum

capabilities of the

performance to his

own self –

reflection.

2 Planning the test The test is typically

planned on the basis of

general descriptions of

subject matter topics

and process skills.

The test is typically

planned in terms of

specific behavior rally

stated objectives, each

providing the basis for

one or several related

test items.

The test is typically

planned terms of

specific

behaviorally stated

objectives and

general descriptions

of subject matter,

each providing the

basis for several

related test items.

3 Test Characteristic

Preparing the Test

items

Test Items are

constructed to produce

maximum variability in

performance across

students.

Test items are

constructed to represent

the domain of the

objective and to

measure proficiency for

a specified Task.

Test Items are

constructed to

represent the

domain of the

objective and to

measure an

individual's

optimum

capabilities based

on his / her own

self reflection.

4 Type of Test Items All types are used All types are used All types are used.

5 Criterion for No criterion for Objectives for criterion Objectives for



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Mastery mastery is customarily

specified.

referenced test items

designate a criterion for

mastery or it sometimes

can be inferred.

SRTs Items

designate a

criterion

ascertained by the

Individual student

taking Into his / her

optimum

capabilities based

on his / her own

self - reflection.

6 Criterion for

Mastery

Percentiles or standard

scores are employed

Employ percent correct

scores

Employ percent

correct Score.

7 Level of difficulty

of Items

Test items are of

medium difficulty

level, About thirty to

seventy percent of the

pupils answer correctly.

Difficulty index from

about 0-3 to 0-7 item

difficulty localized

around 50 %

Difficulty of the items

depends on the nature

of the specific learning

tasks to be measured.

Hence, vary widely in

difficulty but regularly

of the mastery type,

i.e., most of the

instruction has been

effective.

Difficulty of the

items depends on

the optimum

learning based on

self reflection,

hence the tests vary

widely based on

difficulty index but

at the same time

has the regularly of

the mastery type.

8 Item selection Item difficulty and the

discriminating power

of the item are used as

criteria. Deliberate

attempts are n.ade to

eliminate very easy and

very difficult items to

obtain a wide spread of

scores.

Items are selected on

the basis of how well

these relate the pacific

learning tasks. No

attempt is made to

modify items difficult,

on to eliminate easy

items from the rest, in

order to obtain a range

of scores.

Items are selected

on the basis of how

well these relate the

specific learning

tasks. No attempt is

made to modify

items difficulty, or

to eliminate easy

items from the rest ,

in order to obtain a

range of scores .

9 Interpreting the

result

A total score or Several

sub scores are

computed and a pupil's

relative standing in a

group or class is

ascertained. In case of

standardized tests,

norms are used

supplied by the

publisher to interpret

the test scores.

A Pupil's success or

failure on a test item or

small group of similar

test items is determined

and a statement is

prepared that describes

his performance solely

with reference to

certain performance

objectives, unlike norm

referenced test which

are provided with

A Pupil's success or

failure on a test

item or small group

of similar test Items

is determined and a

statement is

prepared that

describes his

performance solely

with reference to

certain performance

objectives unlike



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norms, criterion -

referenced test require

one to set one's own cut

off score " adequate

proficiency to interpret

the results. .

norm and criterion

references tests

SRT scores are

interpreted based

on the optimum

performance of the

students.

10 Validity Content, construct and

criterion - related

validity are appropriate.

Descriptive, functional

and domain - selection

validity are appropriate.

Descriptive,

functional and

domain - selection

validity ure

appropriate.

11 Reliability Classical estimates of

Reliability - Test -

retest equivalent form ,

split - hall and kuden -

Richardsen method

whichever method Is

appropriate and

suitable ) are typically

used

Classical estimates of

reliability are not

completely appropriate.

But concept of precise

measures one that the

small standard error of

measurement is still

important there have

been various attempts

to develop statistical

measures for estimating

the reliability of

criterion - referenced

test

Classical estimates

of reliability are not

completely

appropriate. But the

concept of precise

measures one that

the small standard

error of

measurement is still

Important there

have been various

attempts to develop

statistical measures

for estimating the

reliability of SRT

12 Common uses To determine the

relative standing of a

pupil within a

normative group. To

assist in the selection of

individuals for

educational

programmes,

employment etc.

To provide a more or

less global

representation of pupil

achievement in a

Specified learning area.

To ascertain a pupil's

status with respect to

established standards of

performance, thereby

determining what the

students know and can

do. To evaluate pupil

entry behaviour in a

sequence of instruction,

and to diagnose

learning difficulties of

pupils learning evaluate

the success of an

instructional

programme.

To ascertain a

pupil's status with

respect to

established

standards of

performance,

thereby determining

what the students

can prefer

optimally. To

evaluate pupil entry

behaviour in a

sequence of

Instruction, and to

diagnose learning

difficulties of

pupils To evaluate

the success of an

instructional



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programme.

13 Availability of

Standardized tests Tests are available

covering most of the

Curriculum area.

Attempts are being

made to develop

criterion referenced test

many of which focus

on the basic skills.

Attempts are being

made to develop

self - referenced

test many of which

focus on the basic

skills.

MERITS OF SELF REFERENCED TEST

Students himself knows his expectations and also his real performance. The feedback helps him

to monitor himself and this will lead him for further improvement until he/she achieves the optimum

capabilities. These self referenced tests prove us the famous quotation of Swami Vivekananda, “Arise,

Awake and stop not till your goal is reached”.

DEMERITS OF SELF REFERENCED TEST

To conclude a full-fledged SRT is time consuming as well as costly. However this can be

effectively administered during formative evaluation stage.

CONCLUSION

The foregoing discussion on the pros and cons of norm referenced test, criterion referenced test

and self referenced test and their procedures indicates that there is a place for both in educational testing.

As Mehrens( 1973)6 suggests the way most schools are currently organized with time of instruction

constant for all individuals and degree of learning the variable, discrimination testing should be prevalent.

However as more individualized instructional processes are used and more is learned about how various

subject matters should be sequenced, mastery testing may increase in importance.

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Edition.Pearson.

2. Assessment for Learning, (2015). Bharathidasan University,Thiruchirapalli, Unit-VII p 227-231.

3. Bormuth, J.R.(1970). On the Theory of Achievement Test Items. The University Chicago Press,

Chicago and London.



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4. Brahadeeswaran D and Ramachandrachar K (1990). Use of Criterion referenced tests in

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6. Mehrens, W.A. and Cohmenn, I.J. (1973) Measurement for Educational Evaluation, Holt,

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8. Muthaiyan R and Devanathan S. (2006).Self referenced test and quality improvement in

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