Noahidism or B’nai Noah—sons of Noah—refers to,

arguably, a family of watered–down versions of

Orthodox Judaism. A majority of Orthodox Jews, and

most members of the broad spectrum of Jewish

movements overall, do not proselytize or, borrowing

Christian terminology, “evangelize” or “witness.” In

the U.S., an even larger number of Jews, as with this

writer’s own family of orientation or origin, never

affiliated with any Jewish movement. Noahidism may

have given some groups of Orthodox Jews a method,

arguably an excuse, to bypass the custom of

nonconversion. Those Orthodox Jews are, in any

event, simply breaking with convention, not with a

scriptural ordinance. Although Noahidism is based

upon the Talmud (Hebrew, למוד ,Tạləmūḏ ,[MP3]ת

“instruction”), not the Bible, the text itself does not

explicitly call for a Noahidism per se.

Numerous commandments supposedly mandated for

the sons of Noah or heathen are considered within the

context of a rabbinical conversation. Two only

partially overlapping enumerations of seven

“precepts” are provided. Furthermore, additional

precepts, not incorporated into either list, are

mentioned. The frequently referenced “seven laws of

the sons of Noah” are, therefore, misleading and,

indeed, arithmetically incorrect. By my count,

precisely a dozen are specified. Although I, honestly,

fail to understand why individuals would self–identify

with a faith which labels them as “heathen,” that is

their business, not mine. The translations will follow a

series of quotations pertinent to this monotheistic and

talmudic (Hebrew, למודי ,tạləmūḏiy ,[MP3]ת

“instructive”) new religious movement (NRM). Indeed,

the first passage quoted below was excerpted from the

translated source text for Noahidism:

Our Rabbis taught: [Any man that curseth his God, shall bear

his sin. It would have been sufficient to say], “A man, etc:”

What is taught by the expression any man? The inclusion of

heathens, to whom blasphemy is prohibited just as to Israelites,

and they are executed by decapitation; for every death penalty

decreed for the sons of Noah is only by decapitation.

Now, is [the prohibition of blasphemy to heathens] deduced

from this verse? But it is deduced from another, viz., The Lord,

referring to the ‘blessing’ of the Divine Name. — R. Isaac the

smith replied; This phrase [“any man”] is necessary only as

teaching the inclusion of substitutes of God’s name, and the

Baraitha is taught in accordance with R. Meir’s views For it has

been taught: Any man that curseth his God shall bear his sin.

Why is this written? Has it not already been stated, And he that

blasphemeth the name of the Lord, he shall surely be put to

death? Because it is stated, And he that blasphemeth the name

of the Lord shall surely be put to death, I might think that death

is meted out only when the ineffable Name is employed. Whence

do I know that all substitutes [of the ineffable Name] are

included [in this law]? From the verse, Any man that curseth his

God-shewing culpability for any manner of blasphemy [even

without uttering the Name, since the Name is not mentioned in

this sentence]: this is the view of R. Meir. But the Sages

maintain: [Blasphemy] with use of the ineffable Name, is

punishable by death: with the employment of substitutes, it is

the object of an injunction. [but not punishable by death].

This view [of R. Isaac the smith] conflicts with that of R.

Miyasha; for R. Miyasha said: If a heathen [son of Noah]

blasphemed, employing substitutes of the ineffable Name, he is

in the opinion of the Sages punishable by death. Why so? —

Because it is written, as well the stranger, as he that is born in

the land [when he blasphemeth the name of the Lord, shall be

put to death]. This teaches that only the stranger [i.e.. a

proselyte], and the native [i.e., a natural born Israelite] must

utter the ineffable Name; but the heathen is punishable even for

a substitute only. But how does R. Meir interpret the verse, “as

well the stranger, as he that is born in the land”? — It teaches

that the stranger and citizen are stoned, but a heathen is

decapitated. For I would think, since they are included [in the

prohibition], they are included [in the manner of execution too]:

hence we are taught otherwise. Now how does R. Isaac the smith

interpret the verse, “as well the stranger, as he that is born in

the land”, on the view of the Rabbis? — It teaches that only a

stranger and a native must revile the Name by the Name, but for

a heathen this is unnecessary. Why does the Torah state any

man? — The Torah employed normal human speech.

Our Rabbis taught: seven precepts were the sons of Noah

commanded: social laws; to refrain from blasphemy, idolatry;

adultery; bloodshed; robbery; and eating flesh cut from a living

animal.

R. Hanania b. Gamaliel said: Also not to partake of the blood

drawn from a living animal. R. Hidka added emasculation. R.

Simeon added sorcery. R. Jose said: The heathens were

prohibited everything that is mentioned in the section on

sorcery. viz., There shall not be found among you any one, that

maketh his son or daughter to pass through the fire, or that

useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a

witch, or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a

wizard, or a necromancer. For all that do these things are an

abomination unto the Lord: and because of these abominations

the Lord thy God doth drive them [sc. the heathens in Canaan]

out from before thee. Now, [the Almighty] does not punish

without first prohibiting. R. Eleazar added the forbidden

mixture [in plants and animals]: now, they are permitted to

wear garments of mixed fabrics [of wool and linen] and sow

diverse seeds together; they are forbidden only to hybridize

heterogeneous animals and graft trees of different kinds.…

Surely it has been taught: Just as the Israelites were ordered to

set up law courts in every district and town, so were the sons of

Noah likewise enjoined to set up law courts in every district and

town! — But Raba answered thus: The author of this Baraitha

[which states that social laws were added at Marah] is a Tanna

of the School of Manasseh, who omitted social laws and

blasphemy [from the list of Noachian precepts] and substituted

emasculation and the forbidden mixture [in plants, ploughing.

etc.]. For a Tanna of the School of Manasseh taught: The sons of

Noah were given seven precepts. viz., [prohibition of] idolatry,

adultery, murder, robbery, flesh cut from a living animal,

emasculation and forbidden mixtures.

〜 Multiple authors. “Sanhedrin Tractate of the Talmud—

Chapters 56a and 56b.” Hebrew–English edition of the

Babylonian Talmud. Isidore Epstein, translator. Volume 20.

London: Soncino Press. 1969. Pages 306–385.

Noahide commandments, whose number is well known and

appears in the Talmud, for they are in truth broad categories,

each containing many particulars.

〜 Reb Moshe Steinerman. Newly Born Jew: Noahides and

Conversion to Judaism. Jerusalem, Israel: The Library of Jewish

Law, 1998. Page 11.

The Seven Noahide Laws are:

1. Avodah Zarah: Prohibition on idolatry.

2. Birchat HaShem: Prohibition on

blasphemy and cursing the Name of God.

3. Shefichat Damim: Prohibition on murder.

4. Gezel: Prohibition on robbery and theft.

5. Gilui Arayot: Prohibition on immorality

and forbidden sexual relations.

6. Ever Min HaChay: Prohibition on

removing and eating a limb from a live

animal.

7. Dinim: Requirement to establish a justice

system and courts of law to enforce the

other six laws.

〜 Steve Cohen. What about the Noahide Laws? Brentwood,

Tennessee: The Apple of His Eye Mission Society, Inc. 2015.

Pages 2–3.

To the Gentiles who were not prepared to enter the fold of

Judaism, a moral code, known as the seven commandments of

the sons of Noah, was offered. It consisted of the precepts: “The

practice of equity, prohibitions against blaspheming the Name,

idolatry, immorality, bloodshed, robbery, and devouring a limb

torn from a live animal” (Sanh. [Sanhedrin tractate of the

Talmud] 56a). By righteous conduct, based upon these

fundamental laws, they would earn the divine approval.

〜 A. Cohen. Everyman’s Talmud. London: J. M. Dent & Sons

Ltd. or New York: E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc. 1949. Page 65.

Practically speaking, there are no normal people that convert to

Judaism. Therefore, it has to be some sort of internal calling, a

spark that can’t be explained logically. This calling, if

unanswered can be emotionally painful, filled with loneliness,

confusion and grief. Therefore, you must address this yearning

seriously.

People who are seeking to better understand this calling, usually

start out inside the B’nei Noach, Noahide movement, fulfilling

the Torah commandments for gentiles. Many might even find

themselves in the false messianic Judaism movement which is

mostly just a Christian cult used to convert Jews to Christianity.

Anything that even has a trace of Judaism seems to spark the

interest of the searching non–Jew. G–d protect those lost in such

a false movement as Messianic Judaism which believe in Jesus

as they secretly call him. Thousands of Jews have been trapped

by the snare of these pretend to be Jews. It is quite common for

spiritually searching people to get caught up in spiritually

fulfilling eastern religions only to latter find them to be lacking

any real substance.

〜 Nahum Rakover. Law and the Noahides: Law as a Universal

Value. Rachel Steinerman, editor. Safed, Israel: Ilovetorah

Jewish Outreach Network. 2019. Page 19.

Over many centuries, the long and bitter conditions of exile —

including the great social, philosophical, and spiritual

revolutions that swept the world — not only had a marked effect

on the way Torah is practiced and taught, but on what is

practiced and taught. Some obligations were all but forgotten,

particularly national obligations on the Jewish People as a

whole. One such obligation was the spread of the observance of

the Seven Noahide Laws.

〜 Rabbi Michael Shelomo Bar–Ron. Guide for the Noahide: A

Complete Guide to the Laws of the Noahide Covenant and Key

Torah Values for All Mankind. Second edition. Springdale,

Arkansas: Lightcatcher Books. 2010. Kindle edition.

The Jewish people had been instructed at Mount Sinai to teach

the laws to the non–Jewish nations, but not at peril to their lives.

In those exilic days, if a Jew were to tell Christians or Moslems

that their knowledge of God was lacking, the response would

have been an attack upon the Jewish community. So the Jew

was silent in exile and the Noahide Doctrine became virtually

extinct. With the exception of the Khazars during the seventh

through the eleventh centuries C.E., there is hardly a word

mentioned about Gentiles embracing the Jewish view of

spiritual matters.

〜 Chain Clorfene and Yakov Rogalsky. The Path of the

Righteous Gentile: A Practical Guide to the Seven Laws of Noah.

North Charleston, South Carolina: CreateSpace Independent

Publishing Platform. 2016. Kindle edition.

Israel’s rabbis, the devout Orthodox scholars of our own

generation, are the guardians and judges of the Torah. They “sit

in Moses’ seat” as the teachers of the Revolution. As such, their

first duty, naturally, is to Israel. They have the right and the

obligation to prescribe God’s laws to Israel. While they also

have an obligation to others, their duty, as they have seen it, is

less one of prescribing the details of God’s Noahide laws than of

simply describing matters of Torah to B’nai Noah — and usually

even then, only upon being asked. Indeed, some rabbis would go

further, saying that Israel should point the nations to Truth —

to freedom and the blessings of the good life — solely by means

of Israel’s silent example, rather than by teaching the nations

any specific precepts of Torah.

〜 Michael Ellias Dallen. The Rainbow Covenant: Torah and the

Universal Laws. Springdale, Arkansas: Lightcatcher Books.

2003. Kindle edition.

1. Nôḥiydūṯ ʾô Šẹḇạʿ Miṣəwōṯ/Miṣəvōṯ Bənēy Nōḥ⇄ạ

(Hebrew, ע מצוות בני נח ב ,([MP3] נוח ידות או ש

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘Noahidism or seven laws of sons of Noah’)”

2. Nʾọʾạhiydiysạm ʾọdẹʿr Ziybẹn Gẹʿzẹʿṣẹn pūn dēʿr

Qiynədẹʿr pūn Nʾọʾạh (Yiddish, ן ער זיב ם אד הידיס נאא

ה ן פון דער קינדער פון נאא עזעצ ,([MP3] ג

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘Noahidism or seven laws of the children of Noah’)”

3. Noahidismus oder sieben Gesetzen von der Kinder

von Noah (German [MP3]),

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘Noahidism or seven laws of the children of Noah’)”

4. Nūḥiyyaẗ ⫯aw Sab°ʿaẗ Qawānīn ⫯Ab°nāˁ Nūḥ

(Arabic, نوحية أو سبعة قوانين أبناء نوح [MP3]),

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘Noahidism/Noahideness or seven laws of sons of

Noah’)”

5. Nūḥ°garāýí ýā Qawānín•i Haf°t°gānah•i Ḱūdaḱān•i

Nūḥ (Persian, نوحگرایی ی ا قوانين هفت;گانه کودکان نوح

[MP3]), “Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide

movement (‘Noahidism or sevenfold laws of

children/sons of Noah’)”

6. Nuhgaroī yo Qavonin•i Haftgona•i Kudakon•i Nuh

(Tajik, Нуҳгароӣ ё Қавонини Ҳафтгонаи

Кудакони Нуҳ [MP3]), “Noahidism/Noachidism or

Noahide movement (‘Noahidism or sevenfold laws of

children/sons of Noah’)”

7. da Zāman da Nūḥ ʾAw°wah Qawānīn (Pashto, د

Noahidism/Noachidism“ ,([MP3]زامن د ن وح اووه قوانين

or Noahide movement (‘the sons of Noah seven

laws’)”

8. Nūḥa ḱē Bēṭōṉ mēṉ sē Sāta Qānūnōṉ (Urdu, وح کے

ن

وونں

ان ے

قےات سے سے

ی

ے

وں م

ٹ

یے

Noahidism/Noachidism or“ ,([MP3]ب

Noahide movement (‘seven laws through sons of

Noah’)”

9. Nūha ke Beṭoṃ meṃ se Sāta Kānūnoṃ (Hindi, नह क बटो म स सात काननो [MP3]),

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘seven laws through sons of Noah’)”

10. Nūha dē Putarāṁ dē Sata Kānūnāṁ (Guramukhi

Punjabi, ਨਹ ਦ ਪਤਰਾ ਦ ਸਤ ਕਾਨਨਾ [MP3]),

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘seven laws of sons of Noah’)”

11. Nūḥa dē Putarāṉ dē Sata Qānūnāṉ (Shahmukhi

Punjabi, اں ے

ون

ان ے

ے ق

ے سےےاں دےرے

ے پ

ےوحے د

,([MP3]ن

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘seven laws of sons of Noah’)”

12. Nūḥ ǧō Puʈōn ǧō Sat Qānūnōn (Sindhi, نوح جو پٽون

Noahidism/Noachidism or“ ,([MP3]جو ست قانونون

Noahide movement (‘seven laws of sons of Noah’)”

13. Nōhēra Putra gulō ēra Sātaṭi Āꞌina gulō (Bengali,

ননোহের পতর গহ ো এর সোতটি আইন গহ ো [MP3]),

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘seven laws of sons of Noah’)”

14. Nuhilik, Noahidizm, Nuhilik Akımı, Yedi

Kanunlar Nuh Oğullarına, Nuh Yedi Kanunları,

Nuhꞌun Oğulları, Nuhꞌun Evrensel Yasaları ve Nuh

Kanunları (Turkish [MP3]),

“Noahidism/Noachidism or Noahide movement

(‘Noahidism, Noahidism, Noahide movement, seven

laws given to the sons of Noah, seven laws of Noah,

Noah’s laws, Noah’s universal laws, and sons of

Noah’)”

NoahidismNoahidism (/ˈnoʊə.haɪd.ɪsm/) or Noachidism(/ˈnoʊə.xaɪd.ɪsm/) is a monotheistic branch of Judaism basedon the Seven Laws of Noah,[1][2] and their traditionalinterpretations within Rabbinic Judaism.[2][3] According to theJewish law, non-Jews (Gentiles) are not obligated to convert toJudaism, but they are required to observe the Seven Laws ofNoah to be assured of a place in the World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba), the final reward of the righteous.[1][2][3][4][5] The divinelyordained penalty for violating any of these Noahide Laws isdiscussed in the Talmud,[3] but in practical terms it is subject tothe working legal system which is established by the society atlarge.[3] Those who subscribe to the observance of the NoahicCovenant are referred to as B'nei Noach (Hebrew: בני נח, "Children of Noah") or Noahides(/ˈnoʊ.ə.haɪdɪs/).[1][2] Supporting organizations have been established around the world over the pastdecades by either Noahides or Orthodox Jews.

Historically, the Hebrew term B'nei Noach has applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah.[1][3]

However, nowadays it's primarily used to refer specifically to those non-Jews who observe the SevenLaws of Noah.[1][2]

According to a Noahide source in 2018, there are over 20,000 official Noahides, and the country with thegreatest number is the Philippines.[6]

The Seven Laws of NoahHistorical movementsModern Noahidism

High Council of B’nei NoahRabbinical Council for the Noahide Movement

AcknowledgmentSee alsoReferencesExternal links

The seven laws listed by the Mishnah in Sanhedrin 56a are:

1. Do not worship idols.2. Do not blaspheme God.3. Do not murder.

The rainbow is a modern symbol ofNoahidism, representing God'spromise to Noah to never again floodthe earth and destroy humanity.

Contents

The Seven Laws of Noah

4. Do not practice sexual immorality.5. Do not steal.6. Do not eat flesh from a living animal.7. Establish Courts of Justice to build upon these laws.[7]

The Sebomenoi or God-fearers are an early example of non-Jews being included within the Jewishcommunity.[8]: 30–32

There are two different concepts of Noahidism in Judaism:

1. The B'nei Noah movement whose members observe the Seven Commandments or Laws[9]

only and hold that the remaining commandments do not apply to them. This is the view ofChabad-Lubavitch and a few other movements. This means that Noahides may not observethe Sabbath, study Torah (except for the Seven Laws), etc.

2. The B'nei Noah movement whose members hold that they can adhere completely toJudaism in order to learn from the Jews and together promote the World to Come (OlamHa-Ba) but without becoming a part of the Jewish people (i.e. without performing a giyur).After B'nei Noah accept the obligatory seven commandments, they can, if they so desire,carry out the rest of the Jewish commandments, including studying the Torah, observing theSabbath, celebrating Jewish holidays, etc. This view is held, for example, by Yoel Schwartzand Oury Amos Cherki.

According to the first approach, the answer to the question "Can a non-Jew observe the Sabbath andstudy the Torah?" is negative, and according to the second one, it is affirmative.

In one place in his books, Maimonides writes,[10] "The gentile must not observe the Sabbath and studythe Torah," while in another place he says,[11] "If a Noahide wants to observe additional commandmentsbesides the seven basic ones of B'nei Noah, he receives a reward from Heaven, and we (the Jews) mustsupport him in this." Cherki explains this apparent contradiction in Maimonides by saying that the goyand B'nei Noah are different halakhic concepts. A goy is a gentile who has not yet accepted thecommandments of B'nei Noah. However, if he has already accepted Seven Laws, he ceases to be a goyand became a B'nei Noah, and as such can follow additional commandments, including keeping theSabbath and teaching the Torah.[12]

A High Council of B’nei Noah, set up to represent B'nei Noah communities around the world, wasendorsed by a group that claimed to be the new Sanhedrin.[13][14]

The Rabbinical Council for the Noahide Movement is composed of the rabbis of the Noahide Academyof Jerusalem (http://www.noahide-academy.com/) which include Rabbi Moshe Weiner, author of theDivine Code, the complete compilation of the Noahide Code of Law, Rabbi Moshe Perets, ExecutiveDirector of the Noahide Academy of Jerusalem, Dr Michael Schulman, Rabbi Shimon Cowen, RabbiYtshock Dubovick, Rabbi Assaf Studnitz, Rabbi Zalman Notik, and Rabbi Assi Harel.[15]

Historical movements

Modern Noahidism

High Council of B’nei Noah

Rabbinical Council for the Noahide Movement

Meir Kahane and Shlomo Carlebach organized one of the first Noahide conferences in the 1980s.[16] In1990, Kahane was the keynote speaker at the First International Conference of the Descendants of Noahin Fort Worth, Texas.

The Chabad-Lubavitch movement has been the most active in Noahide outreach, believing that there isspiritual and societal value for non-Jews in at least simply acknowledging the seven laws, and even moreso if they accept or observe them. In 1991, they had a reference to these laws enshrined in aCongressional proclamation: Presidential Proclamation 5956,[17] signed by then-President George H. W.Bush. Recalling Joint House Resolution 173, and recalling that the ethical and moral principles of allcivilizations come in part from the Seven Noahide Laws, it proclaimed March 26, 1991 as "EducationDay, USA" Subsequently, Public Law 102-14 formally designated the Lubavitcher Rebbe's 90th birthdayas "Education Day, USA," with Congress recalling that "without these ethical values and principles, theedifice of civilization stands in serious peril of returning to chaos," and that "society is profoundlyconcerned with the recent weakening of these principles, that has resulted in crises that beleaguer andthreaten the fabric of civilized society."[18]

In April, 2006, the spiritual leader of the Druze community in Israel, Sheikh Mowafak Tarif, met with arepresentative of Chabad-Lubavitch to sign a declaration calling on all non-Jews in Israel to observe theNoahide Laws as laid down in the Bible and expounded upon in Jewish tradition. The mayor of theGalilean city of Shefa-'Amr (Shfaram) — where Muslim, Christian and Druze communities live side-by-side — also signed the document.[19]

In March, 2007, Chabad-Lubavitch gathered ambassadors from six countries to take part in a gathering todeclare, in the name of the states they represent, their support of the universal teachings of NoahideLaws. They represented Poland, Latvia, Mexico, Panama, Ghana, and Japan. They were part of a specialprogram organized by Harav Boaz Kali.[20]

In April, Abu Gosh mayor Salim Jaber accepted the seven Noahide laws as part of a mass rally byChabad at the Bloomfield Stadium in Tel Aviv. In May, the newly elected president of France, NicolasSarkozy, met with a Chabad-Lubavitch rabbi, Dovid Zaoui, who presented him with literature on theuniversal teachings of the Noahide Laws.[21]

In 2016 Chief Rabbi Yitzhak Yosef taught that Jewish law requires that the only non-Jews allowed to livein Israel are Noahides: “According to Jewish law, it’s forbidden for a non-Jew to live in the Land of Israel– unless he has accepted the seven Noahide laws.” The Anti-Defamation League issued a strongdenunciation of Yosef’s comments, and called on him to retract them.[22]

In October, 2019 Oury Amos Cherki released the first ever prayer book for Noahides.

Ger toshavHaredi JudaismHasidic JudaismJudaizersProselyteRighteous among the Nations

Acknowledgment

See also

Righteous gentilesSons of NoahShitufSubbotniks

1. "The 7 Noahide Laws: Universal Morality" (https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/62221/jewish/The-7-Noahide-Laws-Universal-Morality.htm). Chabad.org. Chabad-Lubavitch.2018.

2. Kress, Michael (2018). "The Modern Noahide Movement" (https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-modern-noahide-movement/). My Jewish Learning.

3. Singer, Isidore; Greenstone, Julius H. (1906). "Noachian Laws" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9679-laws-noachian). Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation.

4. Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 8:14.5. Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew ed., Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, end of article); note

the variant reading of Maimonides and the references in the footnote.6. Ilany, Ofri (12 September 2018). "The Messianic Zionist Religion Whose Believers Worship

Judaism (But Can't Practice It)" (https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-the-messianic-zionist-religion-that-wants-to-recruit-7-billion-members-1.6455144). Haaretz. Retrieved27 October 2018.

7. "Sanhedrin 56" (http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_56.html). BabylonianTalmud. Halakhah.

8. Martin Goodman (2007). Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays (https://books.google.com/books?id=YVI2a9jc4pMC&pg=PA30&dq=Tosefta+Avodah+Zarah+9:4&hl=en&sa=X&ei=k3LuVPeUC_WIsQTQ0oBo&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Tosefta%20Avodah%20Zarah%209%3A4&f=false). BRILL. Retrieved 17 January 2014.

9. Seven Commandments (http://noahideworldcenter.org/wp_en/7-commandments)10. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings 10:9.11. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings 10:10.12. The meaning of the chosen people and what is a goy (http://noahideworldcenter.org/wp_en/

the-meaning-of-the-chosen-people-and-what-is-a-goy)13. "Sanhedrin Moves to Establish Council For Noahides" (http://www.israelnationalnews.com/n

ews.php3?id=90646). Israel National News.14. "- Israel National News" (http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=96347). Israel

National News.15. http://www.noahide-academy.com/about-us/16. Halevi, Ezra (January 10, 2006). "Sanhedrin Recognizes Council to Teach Humanity ´Laws

of Noah" (http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/96347). Arutz 7 News.17. "Presidency" (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=23514). UCSB. Retrieved

February 25, 2017.18. "Thomas" (http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c102:H.J.RES.104.ENR:). LoC. Retrieved

February 25, 2017.19. "Druze Religious Leader Commits to Noachide "Seven Laws" " (http://www.israelnationalne

ws.com/News/News.aspx/56379). Israel national news. 2004-01-18. Retrieved 2014-01-18.20. Ambassadors Sign 7 Mitzvos Declaration (http://chabadjapan.org/blog_e/?p=3), Chabad

Japan; accessed February 25, 2017.21. French President Sarkozy Discusses Sheva Mitzvos (http://www.chabad.info/index.php?url=

article_en&id=8980), Chabad; accessed February 25, 2017.

References

Brit Olam movement (http://www.en.noahideworldcenter.org/)

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22. "Non-Jews in Israel must keep Noahide laws, chief rabbi says" (http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Non-Jews-are-forbidden-by-Jewish-law-to-live-in-Israel-chief-rabbi-says-449395), TheJerusalem Post, March 28, 2016

External links

Seven Laws of NoahThe Seven Laws of Noah (Hebrew: שבע מצוות בני נחSheva Mitzvot B'nei Noach), also referred to as theNoahide Laws or the Noachide Laws (from the Hebrewpronunciation of "Noah"), are a set of imperatives which,according to the Talmud, were given by God[1] as a bindingset of laws for the "children of Noah" – that is, all ofhumanity.[2][3]

According to Jewish tradition, non-Jews who adhere tothese laws because they were given by Moses[4] are said tobe followers of Noahidism and regarded as righteousgentiles, who are assured of a place in Olam Haba (עולםthe world to come), the final reward of the ,הבאrighteous.[5][6]

The Seven Laws of Noah include prohibitions againstworshipping idols, cursing God, murder, adultery andsexual immorality, theft, eating flesh torn from a livinganimal, as well as the obligation to establish courts ofjustice.

The Seven LawsOrigin

Torah sourcesBook of JubileesActs 15Modern scholarship

In HalakhaTalmudPunishmentSubdivisionsGer toshav (resident alien)Contemporary status

MaimonidesChristianityChabad movement

Sefer Sheva Mitzvot HashemPublic recognition

United StatesIsraeli Druze

The rainbow is the unofficial symbol ofNoahidism, recalling the Genesis floodnarrative in which a rainbow appears toNoah after the Great Flood, indicating thatGod would not flood the planet and destroyall life again.

Contents

See alsoReferencesFurther readingExternal links

The seven Noahide laws as traditionally enumerated are the following:[7][8]

1. Not to worship idols.2. Not to curse God.3. To establish courts of justice.4. Not to commit murder.5. Not to commit adultery, bestiality, or sexual immorality.6. Not to steal.7. Not to eat flesh torn from a living animal.

According to the Talmud,[7] the rabbis agree that the seven laws were given to the sons of Noah.However, they disagree on precisely which laws were given to Adam and Eve. Six of the seven laws areexegetically derived from passages in Genesis,[9] with the seventh being the establishing of courts.

The earliest complete rabbinic version of the seven laws can be found in the Tosefta:[10]

“ Seven commandments were commanded of the sons of Noah:

1. concerning adjudication (dinim)2. concerning idolatry (avodah zarah)3. concerning blasphemy (qilelat ha-shem)4. concerning sexual immorality (gilui arayot)5. concerning blood-shed (shefikhut damim)6. concerning robbery (gezel)7. concerning a limb torn from a living animal (ever min ha-hay) ”

According to the Genesis flood narrative, a deluge covered the whole world, killing every surface-dwelling creature except Noah, his wife, his sons and their wives, and the animals taken aboard Noah'sArk. According to this, all modern humans are descendants of Noah, thus the name Noahide Laws isreferred to the laws that apply to all of humanity. After the flood, God sealed a covenant with Noah withthe following admonitions (Genesis 9 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0109.htm#1)):

Flesh of a living animal: "However, flesh with its life-blood [in it], you shall not eat." (9:4)Murder and courts: "Furthermore, I will demand your blood, for [the taking of] your lives, Ishall demand it [even] from any wild animal. From man too, I will demand of each person's

The Seven Laws

Origin

Torah sources

brother the blood of man. He who spills the blood of man, by man his blood shall be spilt; forin the image of God He made man." (9:5–6)

The Book of Jubilees, generally dated to the 2nd century BCE,[11] may include an early reference toNoahide Law at verses 7:20–28:

And in the twenty-eighth jubilee Noah began to enjoin upon his sons' sons the ordinancesand commandments, and all the judgments that he knew, and he exhorted his sons to observerighteousness, and to cover the shame of their flesh, and to bless their Creator, and honourfather and mother, and love their neighbour, and guard their souls from fornication anduncleanness and all iniquity. For owing to these three things came the flood upon the earth ...For whoso sheddeth man's blood, and whoso eateth the blood of any flesh, shall all bedestroyed from the earth.[12][13]

The Jewish Encyclopedia article on Saul of Tarsus states:

According to Acts, Paul began working along the traditional Jewish line of proselytizing inthe various synagogues where the proselytes of the gate [e.g., Exodus 20:9 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0220.htm#9)] and the Jews met; and only because he failed to winthe Jews to his views, encountering strong opposition and persecution from them, did heturn to the Gentile world after he had agreed at a convention with the apostles at Jerusalemto admit the Gentiles into the Church only as proselytes of the gate, that is, after theiracceptance of the Noachian laws (Acts 15:1–31)".[14]

The article "New Testament" states:

For great as was the success of Barnabas and Paul in the heathen world, the authorities inJerusalem insisted upon circumcision as the condition of admission of members into thechurch, until, on the initiative of Peter, and of James, the head of the Jerusalem church, itwas agreed that acceptance of the Noachian Laws—namely, regarding avoidance of idolatry,fornication, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal—should be demanded of theheathen desirous of entering the Church.[15]

David Novak presents a range of theories regarding the origin of the Noachide laws, including the Bible,Hittite law, the Maccabean period, and the Roman period.[16]

Book of Jubilees

Acts 15

Modern scholarship

In Halakha

According to the Talmud, the Noahide Laws apply to all humanity. In Judaism, בני נח B'nei Noah(Hebrew, "Descendants of Noah", "Children of Noah") refers to all of humankind.[17] The Talmud alsostates: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come".[18] Any non-Jew who livesaccording to these laws is regarded as one of "the righteous among the gentiles".

The rabbis agree that the seven laws were given to the sons of Noah. However, they disagree on preciselywhich laws were given to Adam and Eve. Six of the seven laws are exegetically derived from passages inGenesis. The Talmud adds extra laws beyond the seven listed in the Tosefta which are attributed todifferent rabbis, such as the grafting of trees and sorcery among others,[19]:30–31[20] Ulla going so far asto make a list of 30 laws.[21] The Talmud expands the scope of the seven laws to cover about 100 of the613 mitzvoth.[22]:18

In practice Jewish law makes it very difficult to apply the death penalty.[23] No record exists of a gentilehaving been put to death for violating the seven laws.[24] Some of the categories of capital punishmentrecorded in the Talmud are recorded as having never been carried out. It is thought that the rabbisincluded discussion of them in anticipation of the coming messianic age.[23]

The Talmud lists the punishment for blaspheming the Ineffable Name of God as death. The sons of Noahare to be executed by decapitation for most crimes,[25] considered one of the lightest capitalpunishments,[26] by stoning if he has intercourse with a Jewish betrothed woman,[27] or by strangulationif the Jewish woman has completed the marriage ceremonies, but had not yet consummated themarriage.[27] In Jewish law the only form of blasphemy which is punishable by death is blaspheming theIneffable Name (Leviticus 24:16 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0324.htm#16)).[28] SomeTalmudic rabbis held that only those offences for which a Jew would be executed, are forbidden togentiles.[29] The Talmudic rabbis discuss which offences and sub-offences are capital offences and whichare merely forbidden.[30]

Maimonides states that anyone who does not accept the seven laws is to be executed, as God compelledthe world to follow these laws.[31] However, for the other prohibitions such as the grafting of trees andbestiality he holds that the sons of Noah are not to be executed.[32] Maimonides adds a universalismlacking from earlier Jewish sources.[22]:18 The Talmud differs from Maimonides in that it considers theseven laws enforceable by Jewish authorities on non-Jews living within a Jewish nation.[22]:18

Nahmanides disagrees with Maimonides' reasoning. He limits the obligation of enforcing the seven lawsto non-Jewish authorities taking the matter out of Jewish hands. The Tosafot seems to agree withNahmanides reasoning.[33]:39 According to some opinions, punishment is the same whether theindividual transgresses with knowledge of the law or is ignorant of the law.[34]

Various rabbinic sources have different positions on the way the seven laws are to be subdivided incategories. Maimonides', in his Mishneh Torah, included the grafting of trees.[32] Like the Talmud, heinterpreted the prohibition against homicide as including a prohibition against abortion.[35][36] David benSolomon ibn Abi Zimra, a commentator on Maimonides, expressed surprise that he left out castration andsorcery which were also listed in the Talmud.[37]

Talmud

Punishment

Subdivisions

The Talmudist Ulla said that here are 30 laws which the sons of Noah took upon themselves. However heonly lists three, namely the three that the Gentiles follow: not to create a Ketubah between males, not tosell carrion or human flesh in the market and to respect the Torah. The rest of the laws are not listed.[38]

Though the authorities seem to take it for granted that Ulla's thirty commandments included the originalseven, an additional thirty laws is also possible from the reading. Two different lists of the 30 laws exist.Both lists include an additional twenty-three mitzvot which are subdivisions or extensions of the sevenlaws. One from the 16th-century work Asarah Maamarot by Rabbi Menahem Azariah da Fano and asecond from the 10th century Samuel ben Hofni which was recently published from his Judeo-Arabicwritings after having been found in the Cairo Geniza.[39][40] Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Chajes suggests MenahemAzariah of Fano enumerated commandments are not related to the first seven, nor based on Scripture, butinstead were passed down by oral tradition.[41]

In earlier times, a Gentile living in the Land of Israel who accepted the Seven Laws in front of arabbinical court was known as a ger toshav (literally stranger/resident).[42] The regulations regardingJewish-Gentile relations are modified in the case of a ger toshav.[43]

Historically, some rabbinic opinions consider non-Jews not only not obliged to adhere to all theremaining laws of the Torah, but actually forbidden to observe them.[44][45]

Noahide law differs radically from Roman law for gentiles (Jus Gentium), if only because the latter wasenforceable judicial policy. Rabbinic Judaism has never adjudicated any cases under Noahide law,[24]

Jewish scholars disagree about whether Noahide law is a functional part of Halakha ("Jewish law").[46]

Some modern views hold that penalties are a detail of the Noahide Laws and that Noahides themselvesmust determine the details of their own laws for themselves. According to this school of thought – see N.Rakover, Law and the Noahides (1998); M. Dallen, The Rainbow Covenant (2003) – the Noahide Lawsoffer mankind a set of absolute values and a framework for righteousness and justice, while the detailedlaws that are currently on the books of the world's states and nations are presumptively valid.

In recent years, the term "Noahide" has come to refer to non-Jews who strive to live in accord with theseven Noahide Laws; the terms "observant Noahide" or "Torah-centered Noahides" would be moreprecise but these are infrequently used. Support for the use of "Noahide" in this sense can be found withthe Ritva, who uses the term Son of Noah to refer to a Gentile who keeps the seven laws, but is not a GerToshav.[47] The rainbow, referring to the Noahide or First Covenant (Genesis 9), is the symbol of manyorganized Noahide groups, following Genesis 9:12–17 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0109.htm#12).[48]

To various modern theologians the Noahide laws represent the inclusive nature of Judaism because theyaffirm the equality of Jews and non-Jews. To other intellectuals these seven laws represent natural lawwhich are accessible to all through intellect and do not require revelation. According to Robert Eisen thesecond stream of thought ignores how a non-Jew could access these laws without the Jewish revelations.To Eisen, these set of laws impose a Jewish understanding of morality upon non-Jews. To Eisen, theNoahide laws represent more of a barrier between Jews and non-Jews, because non-Jews are forbidden toobserve Jewish laws.[8]

Ger toshav (resident alien)

Contemporary status

The Jewish scholar Maimonides (12th century) held that Gentiles may have a part in the world to comejust by observing Noahide law and accepting it as given by Moses. Such children of Noah become thestatus of Chasidei Umot HaOlam—Pious People of the World, and are different from children of Noahwho only keep the seven laws out of moral/ethical reasoning alone. He writes in his book of laws:"[49]

Anyone who accepts upon himself and carefully observes the Seven Commandments is ofthe Righteous of the Nations of the World and has a portion in the World to Come. This is aslong as he accepts and performs them because (he truly believes that) it was the Holy One,Blessed Be He, Who commanded them in the Torah, and that it was through Moses ourTeacher we were informed that the Sons of Noah had already been commanded to observethem. But if he observes them because he convinced himself, then he is not considered aResident Convert and is not of the Righteous of the Nations of the World, but merely one oftheir wise.[50]

Some later editions of the Mishneh Torah differ by one letter and read "Nor one of their wise men." Thelater reading is narrower. Spinoza read Maimonides as using nor and accused him of being narrow andparticularistic. Other philosophers such as Hermann Cohen and Moses Mendelssohn have used moreinclusive interpretations of the passage by Maimonides.[51]

In either reading, Maimonides appears to exclude philosophical Noahides from being Righteous Gentiles.Thus Maimonides emphasizes that a truly Righteous Gentile follows the seven laws because they aredivinely revealed and thus are followed out of obedience to God.[51][52] According to StevenSchwarzschild, this position has its source in Maimonides' adoption of Aristotle's skeptical attitudetowards the ability of reason to arrive at moral truths,[53] and "many of the most outstanding spokesmenof Judaism themselves dissented sharply from" this position, which is "individual and certainly somewhateccentric" in comparison to other Jewish thinkers.[54] Authorities who condition non-Jews' World toCome on their actions, without mentioning Maimonides' further condition, include Judah haNasi,[55]

Menachem Meiri,[56] Joseph Albo,[57] and Israel Lipschitz.[58]

The Apostolic Decree recorded in Acts 15 is commonly seen as a parallel to Noahide Law;[59] however,some modern scholars dispute the connection between Acts 15 and Noahide Law,[60] the content ofNoahide Law, the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles, and the nature of biblical law inChristianity. The Apostolic Decree is still observed by Eastern Orthodoxy and includes some foodrestrictions.[61]

The 18th-century rabbi Jacob Emden proposed that Jesus, and Paul after him, intended to convert thegentiles to the Noahide laws while calling on the Jews to keep the full Law of Moses.[62]

Maimonides stated that God commanded Moses to compel the world to accept these sevencommandments. In 1983 Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson urged his followers to actively engage inactivities to inform non-Jews about these seven commandments, which had not been done in previousgenerations.[63]

Maimonides

Christianity

Chabad movement

After Rabbi Schneerson started his Noahide Campaign in the1980s, a codification of the exact obligations of the Gentiles inthe spirit of the classical Shulchan Aruch was needed. In 2005,Rabbi Moshe Weiner of Jerusalem accepted to produce an in-depth codification of the Noahide precepts.[64] The work is calledSefer Sheva Mitzvot HaShem, (The Book of Seven DivineCommandments) published 2008/2009. As it was approved byboth of the then presiding chief rabbis of Israel (Rabbi ShlomoMoshe Amar and Rabbi Yonah Metzger) as well as by otherHasidic and non-Hasidic halachic authorities, it can claim anauthoritative character and is referred as a Shulchan Aruch[65] forGentiles at many places.

In 1987 President Ronald Reagan signed a proclamation speakingof "the historical tradition of ethical values and principles, whichhave been the bedrock of society from the dawn of civilizationwhen they were known as the Seven Noahide Laws, transmittedthrough God to Moses on Mount Sinai",[66] and in 1991,Congress stated in the preamble to the 1991 bill that established Education Day in honor of the birthdayof Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the leader of the Chabad movement:

Whereas Congress recognizes the historical tradition of ethical values and principles whichare the basis of civilized society and upon which our great Nation was founded; Whereasthese ethical values and principles have been the bedrock of society from the dawn ofcivilization, when they were known as the Seven Noahide Laws [...][67]

In January 2004, Sheikh Mowafak Tarif, the spiritual leader of Israeli Druze, signed a declaration, whichcalled on non-Jews living in Israel to observe the Noahide Laws. He was joined by the mayor of Shefa-'Amr.[68]

Code of HammurabiList of ancient legal codesNatural lawShituf

James the Just, whose judgmentwas adopted in the Apostolic Decreeof Acts 15:20: "but we should write tothem [Gentiles] to abstain only fromthings polluted by idols and fromfornication and from whatever hasbeen strangled and from blood."(NRSV)

Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem

Public recognition

United States

Israeli Druze

See also

References

1. According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah,page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given toAdam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietarylaw to have been given to Noah.

2. Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction)states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category ofthe sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicatesthat the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, seealso Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligatedin, albeit with some differences in the details.

3. Compare Genesis 9:4–6 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0109.htm#4).4. "Melachim uMilchamot 8:11" (http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1188353/jewish/

Melachim-uMilchamot-Chapter-8.htm). www.chabad.org. last two sentences of the three.Retrieved 2015-06-24.

5. Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 8:146. Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, end of article);

note the variant reading of Maimonides and the references in the footnote7. "Shared values: The Noahide Laws" (https://web.archive.org/web/20171008130536/http://je

wsforjudaism.org/knowledge/articles/shared-values-noahide-laws/). Jews for Judaism.Archived from the original (http://jewsforjudaism.org/knowledge/articles/shared-values-noahide-laws/) on 8 October 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2014.

8. Josef Meri (23 June 2016). The Routledge Handbook of Muslim-Jewish Relations (https://books.google.com/books?id=OXF9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT191). Taylor & Francis. pp. 191–.ISBN 978-1-317-38320-8.

9. Rabbinical authorities disputed whether there was only one or several commandmentsgiven to Adam: see Sanhedrin 56a/b (http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_56.html)

10. Lewis Ray Rambo, Charles E. Farhadian, eds. (2014). The Oxford Handbook of ReligiousConversion (https://books.google.com/?id=UEzgAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA591&dq=Tosefta+Avodah+Zarah+noah#v=onepage&q=Tosefta%20Avodah%20Zarah%20noah&f=false). OxfordUniversity Press. p. 591. ISBN 978-0-19-533852-2.

11. James C. VanderKam. The Book of Jubilees (Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha).Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1-85075-767-2. pp. 17–21.

12. Jubilees at wesley.nnu.edu (http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/noncanon/ot/pseudo/jubilee.htm), This is R. H. Charles' 1913 translation from the Koine Greek, but Jubilees is alsoextant in Geez and multiple texts found at Qumran which are still being examined.

13. "Jewish Encyclopedia: Jubilees, Book of: The Noachian Laws" (http://jewishEncyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=582&letter=J&search=jubilees#1948). Jewishencyclopedia.com.Retrieved 8 November 2014.

14. "Saul of Tarsus" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=283&letter=S&search=Saul%20of%20Tarsus). Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 November 2014.

15. "New Testament — Spirit of Jewish Proselytism in Christianity" (http://jewishEncyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&letter=N&search=New%20Testament#717). Jewish Encyclopedia.Retrieved 8 November 2014.

16. The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism: A historical and constructive study of the NoahideLaws New York: E. Mellen Press. 1983. Chapter 1

17. Encyclopedia Talmudit, Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction18. Sanhedrin 105a

19. Martin Goodman (2007). Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays (https://books.google.com/?id=YVI2a9jc4pMC&pg=PA30&dq=Tosefta+Avodah+Zarah+9:4#v=onepage&q=Tosefta%20Avodah%20Zarah%209%3A4&f=false). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-15309-7.Retrieved 17 January 2014.

20. Sanhedrin 56a/b (http://www.halakhah.com/sanhedrin/sanhedrin_56.html), quoting ToseftaAvodah Zarah 9:4; see also Rashi on Genesis 9:4

21. Chullin 92a-b22. Joel Lurie Grishaver, Rabbi Stuart Kelman, eds. (1996). Learn Torah With 1994-1995 Torah

Annual: A Collection of the Year's Best Torah (https://books.google.com/?id=8pxv3NpOLdEC&pg=PA18&dq=maimonides+seven+laws+differ+from+the++talmud#v=onepage&q=maimonides%20seven%20laws%20differ%20from%20the%20%20talmud&f=false). Torah AuraProductions. ISBN 978-1-881283-13-3.

23. Jewishvirtuallibrary.org (https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03929.html)

24. per Novak, 1983:28ff.25. "Sanhedrin" (http://halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com 56a.

Retrieved 25 February 2015.26. Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Judges, Laws of Sanhedrin, chapter 14, law 427. "Melachim uMilchamot 9:7" (http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1188354/jewish/M

elachim-uMilchamot-Chapter-9.htm). www.chabad.org. Retrieved 2015-06-24.28. Jewishencyclopedia.com (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3354-blasphemy)29. "Sanhedrin" (http://halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com 56b.

Retrieved 25 February 2015.30. "Sanhedrin" (http://halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com 57a-b.

Retrieved 25 February 2015.31. "Mishneh Torah Shoftim, Laws of Kings and their wars: 8.13" (http://halakhah.com/rst/kingsa

ndwars.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com. Retrieved 25 February 2015.32. "Mishneh Torah Shoftim, Laws of Kings and their wars: 10:8" (http://halakhah.com/rst/kingsa

ndwars.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com. Retrieved 25 February 2015.33. Lawrence H. Schiffman, Joel B. Wolowelsky, eds. (2007). War and Peace in the Jewish

Tradition (https://books.google.com/books?id=L4YpnaFxUrYC&pg=PA39). KTAV PublishingHouse, Inc. ISBN 978-0-88125-945-2.

34. Babylonian Talmud, Makkot 9a, commentary of Rashi35. "Mishneh Torah Shoftim, Laws of Kings and their wars: 9:6" (http://halakhah.com/rst/kingsan

dwars.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com. Retrieved 25 February 2015.36. "Sanhedrin" (http://halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com 57b.

Retrieved 25 February 2015.37. Sanhedrin 56b.38. Chullin 92a, and see Rashi.39. Mossad HaRav Kook edition of the Gaon's commentary to Genesis40. "The Thirty Mitzvot of the Bnei Noach" (http://www.noachide.org.uk/html/30_commandment

s.html). noachide.org.uk. Retrieved 15 November 2014.41. Kol Hidushei Maharitz Chayess I, end Ch. 10

42. In order to find a precedent the rabbis went so far as to assume that proselytesof this order were recognized in Biblical law, applying to them the term "toshab"("sojourner," "aborigine," referring to the Canaanites; see Maimonides'explanation in "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7; see Grätz, l.c. p. 15), in connection with"ger" (see Ex. xxv. 47, where the better reading would be "we-toshab"). Anothername for one of this class was "proselyte of the gate" ("ger ha-sha'ar," that is,one under Jewish civil jurisdiction; comp. Deut. v. 14, xiv. 21, referring to thestranger who had legal claims upon the generosity and protection of his Jewishneighbors). In order to be recognized as one of these the neophyte had publiclyto assume, before three "ḥaberim," or men of authority, the solemn obligationnot to worship idols, an obligation which involved the recognition of the sevenNoachian injunctions as binding ('Ab. Zarah 64b; "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7). [...] The more rigorous seem to have been inclined to insist upon such convertsobserving the entire Law, with the exception of the reservations andmodifications explicitly made in their behalf. The more lenient were ready toaccord them full equality with Jews as soon as they had solemnly forswornidolatry. The "via media" was taken by those that regarded public adherence tothe seven Noachian precepts as the indispensable prerequisite (Gerim iii.; 'Ab.Zarah 64b; Yer. Yeb. 8d; Grätz, l.c. pp. 19–20). The outward sign of thisadherence to Judaism was the observance of the Sabbath (Grätz, l.c. pp. 20 etseq.; but comp. Ker. 8b).

— "Proselyte (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12391-proselyte#anchor4)", Jewish Encyclopedia (1906).

43. Encyclopedia Talmudit, Hebrew edition, 5739/1979, entry Ger Toshav44. "Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah." (http://jewishEncyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142

&letter=G#543). Jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 8 November 2014.45. "Sanhedrin" (http://halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Sanhedrin.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com 59a-b.

Retrieved 25 February 2015.46. cf. Bleich47. Encyclopedia Talmudit, Hebrew edition, 5741/1981, Appendix, entry Ben Noah, introduction48. "Noahide Laws or Noachide Laws" (http://setterfield.org/Noahide_Laws.html).49. Mishneh Torah, Shoftim, Laws of Kings and their wars 8:14 or 8:1150. Reuven Brauner (2012). "TRANSLATION OF THE FINAL CHAPTER OF THE RAMBAM'S

MISHNEH TORAH" (http://halakhah.com/rst/kingsandwars.pdf) (PDF). Halakhah.com.Retrieved 26 May 2014.

51. T. M. Rudavsky (2009). Maimonides (https://books.google.com/?id=8OISKHHuUIkC&pg=PA179&dq=nor+of+'the+pious+among+the+gentiles,'+nor+of+their+wise+men#v=onepage&q=nor%20of%20'the%20pious%20among%20the%20gentiles%2C'%20nor%20of%20their%20wise%20men&f=false). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-1-4443-1802-9.Retrieved 26 May 2014.

52. Moshe Halbertal (2013). Maimonides: Life and Thought (https://books.google.com/?id=UY2GAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA253&dq=Maimonides+laws+of+kings+wise+men#v=onepage&q=Maimonides%20laws%20of%20kings%20wise%20men&f=false). Princeton University Press.p. 253. ISBN 978-1-4008-4847-8. Retrieved 26 May 2014.

53. Steven S. Schwarzschild, "Do Noachite Have to Believe in Revelation?", Jewish QuarterlyReview Vol. 53, No. 1 (Jul., 1962), pp.44-45: "the basic philosophical reason whichcompelled Maimonides to take this restrictive position toward the Noachides was the factthat he had learned from his teacher Aristotle and was ready also for religious reasons tobelieve that ethics are not a purely rational, philosophic or scientific discipline. Only thebarest outline of general ethical principles can be defined by logical methods. Thesubstance of the matter which resides in its details can be obtained only through positivestatutes, traditions, or divine commands, none of which are produced by conscious, rationalprocesses"

54. Steven S. Schwarzschild, "Do Noachite Have to Believe in Revelation?", Jewish QuarterlyReview Vol. 53, No. 1 (Jul., 1962), pp.46, 47

55. Babylonian Talmud, Avodah Zarah 10b (https://www.sefaria.org.il/Avodah_Zarah.10b.8?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en)

56. Beit HaBechirah to Sanhedrin 57: שכל בן נח שראינוהו מקבל עליו שבע מצות הוא מחסידי אומות.העולם ובכלל בעלי דת ויש לו חלק לעולם הבא

57. Sefer haIkkarim 1:23 (https://www.sefaria.org.il/Sefer_HaIkkarim%2C_Maamar_1.23.5?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=he)

58. Boaz commentary to Pirkei Avot 3:1; he says that a non-Jew who "do[es] not act like Esau"has a portion in the World to Come, and gives as examples non-Jews who made greatcontributions to humanity yet presumably never accepted Jewish theology, includingEdward Jenner and Johannes Guttenberg (source (https://www.etzion.org.il/en/r-lipshutzs-attitude-towards-non-jews)).

59. The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries), Yale University Press(December 2, 1998), ISBN 0-300-13982-9, chapter V

60. Joseph Fitzmyer, The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries), YaleUniversity Press (December 2, 1998), ISBN 0-300-13982-9, chapter V

61. Karl Josef von Hefele's commentary on canon II of Gangra (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.v.iv.ii.html) notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, therule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. Withthe Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. Balsamonalso, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary onthe sixty-third Apostolic Canon, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased toobserve this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about theyear 400, is shown by St. Augustine in his work Contra Faustum, where he states that theApostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark ofNoah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, thiscommand concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was onlyobserved by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third (731)forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. Noone will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of theundisputed Ecumenical Synods, can be of greater and more unchanging force than thedecree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that itsdecree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canonsmay be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."

62. Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentile: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=G#543): "R. Emden (), in a remarkable apology forChristianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b–34b, Hamburg, 1752),gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was toconvert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow theMosaic law; this explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding thelaws of Moses and the Sabbath."

Barre Elisheva. Torah for Gentiles – the Messianic and Political Implications of the BneiNoah Laws, 2008, ISBN 978-965-91329-0-4.Bleich, J. David. "Judaism and natural law" in Jewish law annual, vol. VII 5–42Bleich, J. David. "Tikkun Olam: Jewish Obligations to Non-Jewish Society" in: Tikkun olam:social responsibility in Jewish thought and law. Edited by David Shatz, Chaim I. Waxmanand Nathan J. Diament. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1997. ISBN 0-7657-5951-9.Broyde, Michael J. "The Obligation of Jews to Seek Observance of Noahide Laws byGentiles: A Theoretical Review" in Tikkun olam: social responsibility in Jewish thought andlaw. Edited by David Shatz, Chaim I. Waxman and Nathan J. Diament. Northvale, N.J. :Jason Aronson, 1997. ISBN 0-7657-5951-9.Cecil, Alan W. The Noahide Code: A Guide to the Perplexed Christian. (Aventura: Academyof Shem Press, 2006). ISBN 0-9779885-0-3.Cohen, Yakov Dovid. Divine Image, Insights into the Laws of Noah, published by TheInstitute of Noahide Code 2006 ISBN 1-4243-1000-8 online www.Noahide.orgCowen, Shimon Dovid. Perspectives on the Noahide Laws – Universal ethics. The Instituteof Judaism and Civilization (3rd edition) 2008 ISBN 0-9585933-8-8 www.ijc.com.auClorfene C and Rogalsky Y. The Path of the Righteous Gentile: An Introduction to theSeven Laws of the Children of Noah. Targum Press, 1987. ISBN 0-87306-433-X. Onlineversion (https://web.archive.org/web/20050421080058/http://www.moshiach.com/action/morality/introduction.php).Dallen, Michael (http://www.1stcovenant.com/about_us.htm). The Rainbow Covenant: Torahand the Seven Universal Laws (http://www.1stcovenant.com/thebook.htm) ISBN 0-9719388-2-2 Library of Congress Control Number 2003102494 and online excerpts (http://www.1stcovenant.com/pages/books.htm#exerpts) and comics (http://www.1stcovenant.com/articles/cartoons_000.htm)Lichtenstein, Aaron. The Seven Laws of Noah. New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph SchoolPress and Z. Berman Books, 2d ed. 1986. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 80-69121.Novak, David. The image of the non-Jew in Judaism: an historical and constructive study ofthe Noahide Laws. New York : E. Mellen Press, 1983.Novak, David. Natural law in Judaism. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press,1998.Rakover, Nahum. Law and the Noahides: law as a universal value. Jerusalem: Library ofJewish Law, 1998.

63. Ilana E. Strauss (January 26, 2016). "The Gentiles Who Act Like Jews" (https://www.tabletmag.com/jewish-life-and-religion/196588/the-gentiles-who-act-like-jews). Tablet Magazine.Nextbook Inc. Retrieved October 25, 2018.

64. The Divine Code, Rabbi Moshe Weiner, Ed. Dr. Michael Schulman Ph.D., Vol, I., p. 21,2008, publ. Ask Noah International

65. Letter of Blessing (for Sefer Sheva Mitzvoth HaShem), Rabbi Yonah Metzger, Chief Rabbiof Israel, p.1.

66. "The Rebbe and President Ronald Reagan" (http://www.chabad.org/142535). Chabad.org.Retrieved 8 November 2014.

67. Thomas.loc.gov (http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c102:h.j.res.104.enr:)68. "Druze Religious Leader Commits to Noachide "Seven Laws" " (http://www.israelnationalne

ws.com/News/News.aspx/56379). 2004-01-18. Retrieved 2014-01-18.

Further reading

Spitzer, Jeffrey. "The Noahide Laws" (https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-noahide-laws/). My Jewish Learning.Singer, Isidore; Greenstone, Julius H. (1906). "Noachian Laws" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9679-laws-noachian). Jewish Encyclopedia. Kopelman Foundation.What does God expect from non-Jews (http://www.noahidenations.com)Ask Noah International and "The Divine Code" – Shulchan Aruch (Code of Torah Law) forGentiles (http://www.asknoah.org)Institute of Noahide Code (http://www.Noahide.org)Wikinoah: Online resource of history, halacha, publications, and websites concerning BneiNoah (http://www.wikinoah.org)Detailed explanations of the Noahide Laws for Beginners (https://web.archive.org/web/20111130162915/http://thenoahidelaws.com/)Seven Laws of Noah (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Gg9kw4eoc) Animated video

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The Seven Laws of Noah andthe Non-Jews who Follow Them

By Michael Kress

Sitting at a table at Mendy’s Kosher Delicatessen in New York,Jim Long pauses to say a blessing in Hebrew before biting intoa massive hamburger topped with fried pastrami. “This pastramiis better than bacon,” he declares in his warm voice tingedwith an Arkansan accent. The 58-year-old filmmaker—who nolonger permits himself bacon—is in the city with his wifeCarol, who sits primly beside him. They are here to speak atseveral Orthodox synagogues about their documentary, Riddlesof the Exodus, which examines the biblical account through thelens of Egyptian archaeological finds.

The Longs are an observant couple. Hebrew phrases pepper theirconversation—a b’ezrat Hashem (with God’s help) here, a baruchHashem (praise God) there. Back in Arkansas, they keep atraditional Jewish home. “We’ve got blessings in ivrit[Hebrew] hanging on the walls, and menorahs on display,” Longexplains. Each year, they build a sukkah and attend a Passoverseder. “Our oldest grandson just turned six and already knowshis aleph-bet,” Long boasts.

But despite the baruch Hashems, the menorahs, the sukkah, theavoidance of pork and the intimate familiarity with advancedrabbinic texts, Jim and Carol Long are not Jewish, nor do they

have any plans to convert. They are Noahides: non-Jews whoaccept the authority of Jewish law and focus their livesaround the Jewish concept of Sheva Mitzvot B’nei Noach or theSeven Commandments for the Children of Noah. This set of lawsis intended for non-Jews and, according to tradition, predatethe Ten Commandments given at Mount Sinai. “I believe exactlywhat a Jew believes,” Long tells me. “My belief system isexactly parallel to that of an Orthodox Jew. That doesn’t meanI am one.”

Unbeknownst to most Jews, there are hundreds, maybe eventhousands, of Noahides, and most, like the Longs, are formerChristians who’ve turned their backs on the faith. This is notthe first time the world has seen a community of “RighteousGentiles” who center their beliefs around Judaism but it isthe first time in history that such a group has begun toorganize as a worldwide movement. And that movement is beingactively encouraged by some Orthodox Jewish groups—inparticular, the Brooklyn-based Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidim.

About forty blocks north of Mendy’s deli, Rabbi Yakov Cohenscurries around a second-floor office at the Schneerson Centerfor Jewish Life, the home of Chabad on the Upper East Side ofManhattan.

The 30-something Brooklynite with a close-cropped reddishbeard, rarely sits still: he devotes his copious energies tohelping out with the Chabad center’s core mission—classes,prayer services and other programs for Jewish residents ofthis tony Manhattan neighborhood.

His true passion, however, lies in reaching out to non-Jewsthrough what are usually referred to as the “Seven Laws,”which he describes as pillars of universal morality that serveas a “balm for a world of conflict and immorality.” Jewishteachings say that God first gave these laws to Adam, thenreaffirmed them as part of the covenant he made with Noahafter the Flood. Just as the Jews have the Ten Commandments

(plus an additional 603 mitzvot), non-Jews—all of whom aretechnically the children of Noah—have the Seven Laws, whichcommand them to establish a legal system and refrain frommurder, blasphemy, idolatry, adultery, theft and eating theflesh of a living animal.

“The non-Jews have the full length and breadth of Torah—theyjust have a different role in it,” says Cohen, his rapid-firedelivery complete with a yeshiva-ish lilt. “The role of everyperson is to be a good person, to bring divine light, to drawdown godliness, Hashem, into the world. To do it as a Jew, asa non-Jew, it doesn’t matter. It’s the same light,” he says.“It’s the same Godly energy.”

Like virtually all Chabad Hasidim, Cohen seeks counsel in thewords of Menachem Mendel Schneerson, the late Lubavitch rebbe,who died at age 92 in 1994 and is still affectionatelyreferred to simply as the “the rebbe.” “Influencing non-Jewsto keep their mitzvos, the Seven Noahide Laws… will assist ourtask of making the world into a dwelling place for God, andhelp bring about the arrival of Messiah,” Schneerson said in a1987 speech during a Purim celebration. In response toteachings like this, thousands of his followers fanned outaround the globe to battle what they saw as society’s moraldegeneracy, bringing yiddishkeit to non-observant Jews andseeking out and supporting interested non-Jews.

About six years ago, Cohen founded Noahide.org, a website thatserves as a sort of Noahide think tank, through which he runsconferences, publishes papers and counsels non-Jews from asfar away as Scandinavia. Other Chabad-associated websites suchas AskNoah.org and 7for70.com (meaning, seven laws for theproverbial 70 nations of the world) likewise seek to spreadNoahide values to non-Jews in English, French, Spanish andother languages. Rabbis from Shimon Cowen in Australia toImmanuel Schochet in Canada offer halachic advice to Noahidesand lecture about what Jewish tradition expects of non-Jews.In Israel, Chabad emissaries visit Arab and Druze villages to

pass out literature about the Seven Laws and converse with thesometimes bewildered—but often receptive—locals. In additionto preparing the world for the Messiah, they see themselves aspresenting moral values that will end the centuries-oldanimosities between Muslims and Jews.

“We, the Jewish people, especially frum people, have to be alight upon the nations and we have to tell them what Torahsays,” says Cohen. “We have the responsibility to shed lighton the world.”

Jack Saunders has a snowy white beard of biblicalproportions.

Back in the 1980s he was a Baptist minister at Frazier’sChapel Independent Baptist Church in Cohutta, Georgia, nearthe Tennessee border. But that was before the now 58-year-oldTennessean began to question the fundamentals of his faith andcame to the conclusion that the gospel stories of Jesus andthe entire New Testament are false.

“It was kind of disturbing,” he says of the experience. “Butif you’re looking for truth and truth smacks you in the face,then you have to do something. You have to be able to confrontit and say, ‘This is the truth’ and let go of your emotions.”

Saunders recalls how hard it was to express his doubts to hisparishioners and admit that he had “been wrong for all thoseyears.” The process was slow. For about a year and a half hepreached only from the Jewish Bible, what Christians call theOld Testament. Then one Sunday morning, Saunders recalls, hestood on the pulpit and read from Isaiah 7:14, in which ayoung woman, interpreted by Christians to be a virgin, givesbirth to Jesus. For the first time he let his parishionersknow that he saw no hint of Christian prophecy in thatpassage. “That’s when everything, you may say, hit the fan.”

Some church-goers abandoned Saunders, but nearly half of the

congregation’s 70 members were moved by the pastor’s change ofheart and stayed as Frazier’s Chapel Independent BaptistChurch removed its steeple and crosses. “At the time,”Saunders says, “the only thing we knew was what we werenot.” After reading about the Seven Laws and studying with arabbi, Saunders and his remaining flock became Noahides andredubbed their place of worship Frazier’s Chapel B’nai NoachStudy Center. “I wanted to be able to read the Hebraic sourcesby myself,” says Saunders, who has since learned Hebrew. “Ididn’t want to be lied to because I’d been lied to by allthose Christians.”

It was Texas archaeologist Vendyl Jones who introduced JimLong to the Seven Laws. The two met in 1993 when Jonesappeared on the Dallas radio show that Long produced. A formerBaptist preacher, Jones had grown dismayed with what heconsidered the anti-Jewish sentiments of the Gospels andsought council from rabbis, studied in Israel and became aNoahide. He is believed to have been the inspiration for thecharacter Indiana Jones in the film Raiders of the Lost Arkand is the founder of the Vendyl Jones Research Institute—anonprofit based in Grandview, Texas, devoted to Biblicalarcheology. Considered one of the pioneers of the modernNoahide movement, Jones fondly remembers meeting Schneerson inhis Brooklyn home and the rabbi’s encouraging words: “‘VendylJones, you are doing the most important work in the world.’”

Long found himself intrigued by Jones’s spiritual journey.Having drifted from denomination to denomination until heabandoned Christianity altogether, Long “was looking forsomething to fill the void.” Shortly after the radiointerview, he began attending Torah classes and joined Joneson archeological digs in the Middle East.

For Pam Rogers, the break with Christianity was morewrenching. Rogers and her husband, Larry, who live in Tulsa,Oklahoma, were members of the Worldwide Church of God, a smallChristian movement that observes the Sabbath on Saturdays,

before becoming leaders of a Messianic Jewish congregation. Inthe early 1990s, a Jewish man befriended them and challengedthem to prove the validity of the Christian Bible. As thecouple tried to defend their views, they came to believe thatthe New Testament distorted the teachings of the Hebrew Bible.

The decision to become a Noahide threatened to break theRogers family apart. Pam’s father, a Pentecostal preacher,refused to speak to her for four years. Larry lost his jobbecause he refused to work on Saturdays. The couple almostdivorced because Pam made the decision to build her lifearound the Seven Laws before Larry did. “We lose our children,our spouses, our identities,” Rogers says of the sacrificesthat she and other Noahides are often forced to make for theirfaith.

Despite what might seem an obvious trajectory, following theSeven Laws is not a path to becoming a Jew, says Yakov Cohenof the Schneerson Center. “We’re not interested inmembership,” he says.

Rather, the Chabad sees Judaism as a “universal religion” thatoffers salvation to everyone without conversion.

Jews are not known for proselytizing, and most Jews believethat Judaism prohibits it. David Novak—a Conservative rabbiand leading authority on the Seven Laws and what Judaismrequires of non-Jews—debunks that idea. “Find me one halachicprohibition against proselytizing,” he says. The popularlyaccepted notion that Judaism opposes proselytizing, Novakargues, rests less on theology than on the fact that most ofJewish history has been a perpetual struggle for survival.“For most of the time, Jews couldn’t do it.”

Novak, who teaches at the University of Toronto, points tosporadic attempts to convert people to Judaism throughouthistory. The best-known effort took place during the time ofthe Second Temple, which stood from 515 to 70 B.C.E. Living

under the Romans, Jews actively proselytized, with greatsuccess. Some non-Jews converted, others simply took onaspects of observant Jewish life and became part of Jewishcommunities. Called the “God Fearers” (Yirei Adonai), they areimmortalized in the Book of Psalms.

While Jewish law does not prohibit proselytization, it doesnot call for a world of Jewish converts, either. Thetraditional messianic vision, as articulated most famously inthe Book of Isaiah, is of a world at peace in which everyoneacknowledges one God, even if all do not adopt Judaism:

And many peoples shall go and say: ‘Come ye, and let us go upto the mountain of the Lord, to the house of the God ofJacob; and He will teach us of His ways, and we will walk inHis paths.’ For out of Zion shall go forth the law, and theword of the Lord from Jerusalem. And He shall judge betweenthe nations, and shall decide for many peoples; and theyshall beat their swords into plowshares…

Even in a text as familiar as the Aleinu prayer, Jewsregularly reference a vision of Jews and non-Jews under amonotheistic ruler—to many, a clear allusion to Noahides:

All the world’s inhabitants will recognize and know that toyou, every knee should bend, every tongue should swear.Before You, Lord, our God, they will bend every knee and castthemselves down and to the glory of your name they willrender homage, and they will all accept upon themselves theyoke of your kingship, that you may reign over them soon andeternally.

Since the earliest days of Christianity, Jewish sages haveargued over whether the Noahide commandment not to worship

“false gods” is compatible with other religions.

Islam, the rabbis hold, is acceptable because of its adamantlymonotheistic stance. Christianity, on the other hand, remainsa subject of contention, with many arguing that belief in theTrinity is polytheistic, and therefore out of bounds underNoahide law.

Another critical debate centers around whether the Seven Lawsare a set of universal moral imperatives that people intuit ontheir own or are precepts that Jews must actively bring to theworld. The dominant halachic attitude has been that Jews arenot required to spread Noahide teachings to non-Jews. MosesMaimonides, the medieval Jewish philosopher and legalauthority, disagreed. In his monumental 12th-century work theMishneh Torah, Maimonides envisioned a society in which non-Jews would be governed by Jewish law, noting that they couldchoose to convert. “If they do not want to, we do not compelthem to accept the Torah and the commandments. Moses did,however, command in the name of God to compel all people toaccept the Noahide laws,” Maimonides continued. “Compel” mayseem a particularly strong word, but Maimonides’s stance isclear: Jews must do what they can to teach non-Jews about theNoahide laws.

The 19th century Italian rabbi and famed Kabbalist, ElijahBenamozegh, also believed that Jews have a responsibility toguide non-Jews towards the path of righteousness. Shortlybefore his death in 1900, Benamozegh received a letter fromFrenchman Aimé Pallière seeking advice on converting toJudaism. Benamozegh told the young man there was another way.“The religion of humanity is no other than Noahism,” the rabbiwrote to Pallière. “Here is the religion preserved by Israelto be transmitted to the Gentiles. It is the path which liesopen before your efforts, before mine as well, to spread theknowledge thereof, as is my duty to do so.” Called the “firstand last high priest of the Noahide religion,” Pallière is

believed to have been the first modern Noahide. A talentedwriter, he learned Hebrew, lectured at the Orthodox RabbinicalSchool of France and urged Jews to follow Orthodox traditions.

Benamozegh believed “that mankind cannot rise to the essentialprinciples on which society must rest unless it meet[s] withIsrael. And Israel cannot fathom the depths of its ownnational and religious tradition, unless it meet[s] withmankind.” A half-century later, Benamozegh’s dream of aJewish-supported Noahide worldwide movement would be seizedupon by Schneerson. “Every Jew has the obligation to ensurethat all the peoples of the world observe the Seven NoahideLaws” and that non-Jews, as well as Jews, “acknowledge God asCreator and ruler of the world,” Schneerson declared.

It’s a position that remains controversial. “If Jews aretelling Gentiles what to do, it’s a form of imperialism,”Novak says. To him, the Seven Laws are valuable inconstructing a moral foundation that enables Jews to speak outon social issues, but not as part of a religion around whichnon-Jews should structure their daily lives. “Why would anyGentile want to be told by Lubavitch—or any other rabbi—whatto do?” Novak asks. “I am suspicious of anyone who wants tolive this way.”

Novak isn’t alone in his suspicions. “With a lot of rabbis,there’s still this skepticism and fear that someone’s tryingto infiltrate your shul and will end up being some sort ofmissionary trying to bring people to Christianity,” JackSaunders says of the reception Noahides often receive whenseeking guidance. Counseling Noahides is not the sort ofsubject covered in a typical rabbinical school education andrabbis tend to confront the issue only if approachedpersonally by a non-Jew.

Barry Freundel, the author of Contemporary Orthodox Judaism’sResponse to Modernity and rabbi of Washington, DC’s KesherIsrael, a modern Orthodox synagogue, is among the many rabbis

who have never been approached by a Noahide. Freundel doesn’tshare Schneerson’s belief that Jews are required to spread theNoahide laws to non-Jews—but he also doesn’t believe that Jewscan ignore interested Noahides. “Once they are doing it, youare required to help them,” he says.

Carol Long wishes there were many more rabbis who were willingto work with Noahides. “They have to know there are actuallypeople out there looking to them for leadership and spiritualguidance and who respect what they bring to the world.”

Today’s Noahide movement has no prescribed ritual andliturgical life.

Even the laws themselves—six out of the seven—are prohibitionssuch as “don’t kill” and “don’t steal.”

“We need to give more than ‘don’t, don’t, don’t,’” LarryRogers says. If more people are going to become Noahide, “theyhave to have a life. They have to know there are lifecelebrations,” he says. “We’re trying to find our place withHashem.”

To add greater meaning to their lives, some Noahides havecreated a lifestyle parallel to that of Orthodox Judaism: Theystudy Jewish texts, pray and follow some of what are known asthe “positive commandments”—rituals and other mitzvot. They’veadopted portions of Jewish liturgy and prayers, removing allmentions of chosenness, to make clear that this concept onlyapplies to Jews.

But “there are so many opinions about Noahide halacha,” saysPam Rogers. “It’s very confusing for us Gentiles.” The Noahideapproach to Shabbat illustrates the difficulty of decidingwhich Jewish traditions to follow. Rogers and her husband tryto avoid work and set aside time for a festive meal andprayer, but don’t refrain from using electrical devices.Others may shun the use of electricity but go out of their way

to perform at least one activity over the course of Shabbatthat distinguishes them from Jews. Jack Saunders, for example,writes a check. “I always do something that makes it known I’mnot Israel,” he says.

From his base in New York, Yakov Cohen is working to bringstructure to this mosaic of Noahide spiritual life. He andothers are creating a Noahide siddur (prayerbook) tostandardize prayers, and a liturgy of lifecycle rituals, suchas funerals and baby-naming ceremonies. This year, one of thefirst Noahide weddings was held in Buffalo, New York, under achuppa. The officiating rabbi spoke of the Seven Laws as themarriage’s foundation and sealed it with a contract modeledafter the traditional ketuba. Rabbis are also working on thefirst-ever Noahide Shulhan Arukh—a comprehensive book of lawpertaining to non-Jews, which will spell out the specifics ofNoahide life, making clear which mitzvot are acceptable forthem and which aren’t. “We know what they can’t do,” saysCohen. “Let’s see what they can do.”

Noahides are few, dispersed, often misunderstood and theycrave community.

Lucky ones, like Saunders, find likeminded souls near homewith whom to gather together to study Jewish texts, pray,discuss the challenges of the Noahide life and socialize.Local groups, such as the Chavurath B’nei Noach (theFellowship of the Children of Noah) of Ft. Worth, Texas, serveas an important source of communal life for their members.Organizations such as The Root & Branch Association, NoahideNations, Rainbow Covenant and B’nai Noach Torah Instituteprovide advice and support to Noahides wherever they live,often through the Internet.

No single organization, however, is widely recognized asrepresentative of the worldwide movement. That’s partlybecause of the diffuse and ad hoc nature of Noahide

organizations, but it is also reflective of the nature of themovement, which is composed of independent-minded people whohave rejected their traditional faith and are willing tofollow a largely uncharted spiritual path. “We’re veryiconoclastic—we’re all about taking down the idols,” Jim Longsays. Saunders puts it more pessimistically: “It seems likeevery time we try to organize, it doesn’t go well.”

The most recent effort to bring Noahides together comes in theform of High Council of B’nei Noah, an umbrella organizationthat seeks to fill the leadership vacuum. The High Council’smission is to provide support for Noahides, educate thegeneral public, serve as a liaison with the Jewish communityand standardize Noahide beliefs and practices. Last January,members of the Council—which included Saunders and Long—wereinaugurated in Jerusalem, where they recited the followingoath:

“I pledge my allegiance to Hashem, God of Israel, Creator andKing of the Universe, to His Torah and its representatives,the developing Sanhedrin. I hereby pledge to uphold the SevenLaws of Noah in all their details, according to Oral Law ofMoses under the guidance of the developing Sanhedrin.”

The Noahide Council is supported by the respected OrthodoxRabbi Adin Steinsaltz, best known for the edition of theTalmud that bears his name, but who’s also the leader of the“developing Sanhedrin” cited in the oath. Steinsaltz’sSanhedrin is the most recent attempt to revive the GreatSanhedrin of 71 sages who met in Jerusalem until 425 C.E. todiscuss matters of concern to the Jewish people and adjudicatedisputes. Steinsaltz argues that both Jews and Noahides followdifferent parts of the same belief system and can even beconsidered members of the same religion. “Even from simply autilitarian point of view, we Jews have hardly any friends inthe world. B’nei Noah are by definition our closest friends,”he says. “So we should reach out to them.”

Already, the Council has been troubled by internaldisagreements and criticism from outsiders. Some Noahides areunhappy that its members were appointed by the Sanhedrinrather than voted on, while others complain that all itsmembers are American. Jack Saunders is among those who haveleft the Council, tiring of the strife though still supportiveof its mission. “For me, it’s a wonderful thing,” he says, butcautions that “working out all the problems is going to betough.”

Steinsaltz believes the Council—and the broader Noahidecommunity—will overcome these rifts. Long also remainsoptimistic. A major conference for Noahides in Jerusalem forOctober 2007, during Sukkot, is in the works and Long hopes itwill serve as an inspiration for Noahides worldwide. “We thinkthat we could act as a gesher, a bridge, between Jews andNoahides,” he says.

As a child of a Jewish father, Philip Levy, a 28-year-oldNoahide from the northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, DC,could walk into any Reform synagogue as a full-fledgedmember.

But after drifting from Catholicism, his mother’s religion, toevangelical Christianity, he found meaning in OrthodoxJudaism. Through the Internet and guided by the local Chabadcommunity, Levy came to self-identify as a Noahide. He takesclasses and attends services as a non-Jew at a Chabadsynagogue and even created a website, novanoahides.org (novaas in Northern Virginia)—in the hope of meeting other Noahideswho live nearby. So far, he has only found one.

Why doesn’t Levy take that last step and convert, so he can beconsidered Jewish according to Orthodox standards and become afull member of the community? Nearly all Noahides grapple withthe conversion question, sometimes for years and withoutdefinitive conclusion. After all, they adhere to traditional

Jewish commandments more strictly than most Jews and many canquote from rabbinic texts as well as yeshiva students.

Some have become Jewish, but they are a minority. For therest, the reasons for not converting are complicated. “I wasraised on bacon and eggs,” Levy jokes, “and if I had to givethem up I don’t know what I’d do.” More seriously, he talksabout an “attachment” to his “Gentileness” and his respect forhis mother.

But for most Noahides the decision not to convert boils downto the fact that they find spiritual fulfillment in what theyview as their role in the divine plan for the world: To followthe lead of the Jewish people—not become them. “Israel waschosen to be a nation of kings and priests and a light untothe nations,” Pam Rogers explains. “We decided if everybodyconverted, who would Israel have to be priests to?”

They believe that they can have a greater impact as non-Jewsfollowing the Torah than as Jewish converts, both byencouraging other non-Jews to live according to Noah’s lawsand by calling upon Jews to observe their own traditions. “IfI just converted and went out to the non-Jewish world talkingabout the Torah and the prophets and how great it was, thenI’d just be another Jew running my mouth,” says Jack Saunders.

To those who take the long view of Jewish history, likeUniversity of Toronto professor Novak, the Noahide movement isdestined to peter out, as did the Second Temple-era GodFearers. Eventually, Novak reasons, Noahides will return totheir original faiths or convert to Judaism. “If you wantrabbis to tell you what to do, why not convert to Judaism?” heasks. “It’s an untenable situation.”

A couple of months after meeting the Longs at Mendy’s KosherDelicatessen, I called them at their home in Arkansas to askhow they envisioned the Noahide future, in 15, 20, or even 50years. “There will be places in every state and nation where

people can go to study and worship,” answered Carol. No othergroup of Righteous Gentiles has had the tools of moderntechnology with which to communicate, organize effectively anddispense information. This, Jim said, not only insures thelong-term sustainability, but the growth of the Noahidemovement. Then he asked me a question: “Do you know what kindof world we would live in if all nations honored the SevenLaws?” He took a quick breath and answered his own query: “Itwould be transformational. If we were to stop killing, stopstealing, establish real courts of justice everywhere in theworld, do you see what would happen? We’d have world peace.”

Momentmag.com offers just a taste of what MOMENT magazine hasto offer.

The 7 Laws of the Children of Noah

1. With respect to God's commandments, all of humanity is

divided into two general classifications: the Children of

Israel and the Children of Noah.

2. The Children of Israel are the Jews, the descendants of the

Patriarch Jacob. They are commanded to fulfill the 613

Commandments of the Torah.

3. The Children of Noah comprise the seventy original

nations of the world and their branches. They are

commanded concerning the Seven Universal Laws, also

known as the Seven Laws of the Children of Noah or the

Seven Noahide Laws.[1] These Seven Universal Laws

pertain to idolatry, blasphemy, murder, theft, sexual

relations, eating the limb of a living animal, and establishing

courts of law.

4. All Seven Universal Laws are prohibitions. Do not wonder

at this. Negative commandments are of a higher order than

positive commandments, and their fulfillment, which takes

more effort than positive commandments, earns a greater

reward.

5. Men and women are equal in their responsibility to

observe the seven commandments.[2]

6. It is a matter of dispute as to when a person becomes

responsible for his or her actions under these laws. One

opinion holds that it depends on the intellectual development

of the individual.[3] According to this opinion, as soon as a

child has attained the maturity to understand the meaning

and significance of the Seven Universal Laws, he is obligated

to the fullest extent of the law. The other opinion is that a

boy reaches the age of legal responsibility at his thirteenth

birthday and a girl at her twelfth birthday.[4]

7. The Children of Noah are permanently warned

concerning the Seven Universal Laws. This means that

ignorance of the law is not a valid defense. One cannot claim,

for example, that he did not know that idolatry was one of

the seven commandments. Nor can he claim that he did not

know that bowing down to an idol constitutes idolatry. (He

can, however, claim that he did not know that such-and-such

was an idol, for this is not ignorance of the law.) Therefore,

one is duty bound to study the Seven Universal Laws to the

best of one's ability and to teach the knowledge of them to

one's children.

8. When one of the Children of Noah resolves to fulfill the

Seven Universal Commandments, his or her soul is elevated.

This person becomes one of the Chasidei Umot ha-Olam, the

Pious Ones of the Nations, and receives a share of the

Eternal World.[5] The Holy Scriptures call one who accepts

the yoke of fulfilling the Seven Universal Laws a ger toshav,

a proselyte of the gate. This person is permitted to live in the

Land of Israel and to enter the Holy Temple in Jerusalem

and to offer sacrifices to the God of Israel.[6]

9. Although the Children of Noah are commanded only

concerning the Seven Universal Commandments, they are

permitted to observe any of the 613 Commandments of the

Torah for the sake of receiving divine reward.[7] The

exceptions to this are:[8]

a. Observing the Sabbath in the manner of the Jews

(resting from the actions that were needed for the building of

the Tabernacle during the Exodus from Egypt)

b. Observing the Jewish holy days in the manner of the

Jews (resting in a similar manner to the Sabbath)

c. Studying those parts of the Torah that do not apply to

the Noahides’ service of God

d. Writing a Torah scroll (the Five Books of Moses) or

receiving an aliyah to the Torah (reading a portion of the

Torah at a public gathering)

e. Making, writing, or wearing tefilin, the phylacteries

worn during prayer that contain portions of the Torah

f. Writing or affixing a mezuzah, the parchment contain-

ing portions of the Torah, to one's doorposts or gateposts

(Note: A prime purpose of the Seven Universal Laws is to

teach the Children of Noah about the Oneness of God, and

therefore those parts of Torah that pertain to this knowledge

are permissible for him to study. This includes the entirety

of the twenty-four books of the Hebrew Scriptures. Also, the

study of any part of the Torah that brings one to greater

knowledge concerning the performance of the Seven

Noahide Commandments is permissible. But Talmudic or

Halakhic study of subjects that pertain exclusively to the

Jew's service of God is forbidden. The Noahide who studies

portions of the Torah that do not pertain to him damages his

soul.[9])

10. If a Noahide is striving in the learning of Torah or

keeping the Sabbath in the manner of Jews or reveals new

aspects of Torah, he may be physically restrained and

informed that he is liable for capital punishment, but is not

put to death.

(Note: The action taken against him is only meant to

dissuade him from doing forbidden acts. If the court that is

established in consonance with the Seven Universal Laws

gives the death penalty to a Noahide, the execution is an

atonement for this person's transgression, and consequently

one who transgresses and is punished by the court can merit

a portion in the World to Come.[10] Furthermore, the

Noahide must experience reincarnation to be able to atone

for transgressions he had done.)

11. The responsibility of The Seven Noahide Laws is a yoke

of faith in God. This means that the laws must be observed

solely because God commanded them. If the Children of

Noah observe these Seven Universal Laws for any reason or

intention other than to fulfill God's will, the performance is

invalid and no divine reward is received. This means that if

one of the Children of Noah says, "These laws seem sensible

and beneficial, therefore I will observe them," his actions

accomplish nothing and he receives no reward.[11]

12. When one of the Children of Noah engages in the study

of the Seven Universal Laws, he is able to attain a spiritual

level higher than the High Priest of the Jews, who alone has

the sanctity to enter the Holy of Holies in the Temple in

Jerusalem. [12]

13. If one of the Children of Noah wishes to accept the full

responsibility of the Torah and the 613 Commandments, he

or she can convert and become a Jew in every respect. One

who elects to do this is called a ger tzedek, a righteous

proselyte. [13] It is a principle of Judaism, however, not to

seek converts, and one who requests conversion is generally

discouraged. Should the person persist in the desire to

convert, counsel should be taken only with an Orthodox

rabbi or scholar, for conversion not in accord with Halakha,

Torah Law, is no conversion at all, and conversion

supervised and bestowed by rabbis who themselves do not

follow the laws of the Torah are null and void, neither

recognized in heaven nor by any God-fearing Jew.

14. It is incorrect to think that since the Children of Israel

have 613 Commandments and the Children of Noah have

seven commandments, the ratio of spiritual worth is

proportionally 613 to seven. The truth is that the Seven

Universal Laws are general commandments, each containing

many parts and details, whereas the 613 Commandments of

the Torah are specific, each relating to one basic detail of the

Divine Law. Therefore, the numerical disparity in no way

reflects the relative spiritual worth of the two systems of

commandments. [14] The prime difference in the service of

the Israelite and that of the Noahide is that the Noahide sees

the existence of existence, that is, he refines the world,

whereas the Israelite sees the non-existence of existence, that

is, he reveals the Godliness in the world. Of course, refining

the world reveals its inherent Godliness and revealing

Godliness automatically refines the world.

15. The statutory punishment for transgressing any one of

the Seven Laws of Noah is capital punishment. [15]

According to some, punishment is the same whether one

transgresses with knowledge of the law or is ignorant of the

law. [16] According to others, a transgressor of the Noahide

Law who is ignorant of the law receives the death penalty

only in the case of murder. [17]

16. If the courts cannot punish an individual for lack of

witnesses or any other reason (see the chapter on Courts of

Law), the transgressor will be punished by Divine Decree.

[18]

17. Besides the Seven Universal Commandments, the

Children of Noah have traditionally taken it upon

themselves to fulfill the commandment of honoring father

and mother. [19] (see the chapter on Honoring Father and

Mother).

18. Some authorities are of the opinion that the Children of

Noah are obligated to fulfill the commandment of giving

charity. [20] Others state that it is proper and meritorious

for the Children of Noah to give charity but that it is not

actually commanded of them. [21]

19. If a Noahide who follows the Seven Universal Laws gives

charity, the Israelites accept it from him and give it to the

poor of Israel, since through the merit of giving charity to

the poor among the Jewish people one is given life by God

and saved from death. But a Noahide who does not accept

the yoke of the Seven Noahide Laws and gives charity is not

permitted to give it to the needy of Israel. His charity may be

given to poor Noahides only.

20. If one of the Children of Noah arises and performs a

miracle and says that God sent him, then instructs others to

add to or subtract from any of the Seven Universal Laws or

explains them in a way not heard at Mount Sinai, or claims

that the 613 Commandments given to the Jews are not

eternal, but limited to a fixed period of time, this person is

deemed a false prophet and incurs the death penalty.[22]

21. There is an oral tradition that the Children of Noah are

forbidden to interbreed animals of different species or to

graft trees of different kinds,[23] although some authorities

hold that they are permitted to do either.[24] However, they

may wear shaatnez (clothing containing both wool and linen)

and they may plant different seeds such as grape and wheat

in the same field, which are acts forbidden to Jews. [25]

Forbidden interbreeding and grafting are not punishable in

courts of law.

22. The Sages of Israel state that Children of Ketura (the

sons of Abraham's concubine, Hagar) who were born after

Ishmael and Isaac must by law be circumcised. Since today

the descendants of Ishmael are intermixed with the

descendants of the other sons of Hagar, all are obligated to

be circumcised on the eighth day after they are born. Those

transgressing this are not liable for the death penalty.[26]

This law applies only to Semitic peoples, although all other

nations are allowed to circumcise if they desire.

23. One opinion holds that only the six sons of Hagar and not

their descendants were obligated to be circumcised.[27]

24. In accord with the Seven Universal Commandments,

man is enjoined against creating any religion based on his

own intellect. He either develops religion based on these

Divine Laws or becomes a righteous proselyte, a Jew, and

accepts all 613 commandments of the Torah.[28]

(Note: Concerning making holidays for themselves,

Noahides may participate in the celebration of certain

Jewish holidays, such as Shavuot, celebrating the Giving of

the Torah, since the Children of Noah received their

commandments at the same time, or Rosh Hashanah, the

Jewish New Year and Day of Judgment, since all mankind is

judged by God on that day, so it should therefore be

important to the Noahide as well as the Israelite. Rosh

Hashanah is also the day that Adam, the First Man, was

created by God, and all mankind is descended from Adam

just as it is from Noah.[29] Even these, however, the Noahide

celebrates only in order to bring additional merit and

reward to himself, and he may not rest in the manner of the

Jews. Moreover, the Noahide is strictly forbidden to create a

new holiday that has religious significance and claim that it

is part of his own religion, even if the religion is the

observance of the Seven Noahide Laws. For example, it

would be forbidden to make a holiday celebrating the

subsiding of the waters of the Flood of Noah or anything of

the like. And, all the more so, it would be forbidden to

institute holidays that ascribe religious significance to events

outside the purview of the Seven Noahide Commandments.

Celebrating secular activities and commemorating historical

events, even if they involve a festive meal, are permissible.)

25. The nations of the world acknowledge the existence of

God and they do not transgress the will of God. Their failing

is an inability to be nullified to God, and they deny His

Oneness by thinking that they themselves are separate

entities, calling Him the God of gods. Therefore, we find that

when they transgress the Seven Noahide Commandments, it

is only because the spirit of folly enters them and covers the

truth, concealing it from them.[30] But from their essential

being, they are not able to transgress the Will of God.

Therefore, even Balaam, the wicked prophet who had sexual

relations with an animal, his ass, which is a clear

transgression of the Seven Noahide Laws, said, "I am not

able to transgress the word of God" (Num. 22:18).

26. The commandment to be fruitful and multiply was given

to Noah, but inasmuch as it was not repeated at Mount

Sinai, this commandment is not considered part of the Seven

Universal Laws.[31] However, the Children of Noah have the

obligation to make the whole earth a dwelling place for

mankind.[32] This is minimally achieved by every couple

giving birth to a male and a female child who are in turn

capable of reproduction.[33] Moreover, the couple that

bears more children is credited with bringing more spiritual

goodness into the world, assuming that these children are

reared in an environment of morality by fulfilling the Seven

Universal Laws.

27. A Noahide who strikes an Israelite causing even a slight

wound, though he is theoretically condemned for this, does

not receive the death penalty.[34]

28. When a Noahide dies, he is to be buried in the earth, "for

out of it were you taken; for you are dust and unto dust you

shall return" (Gen. 3:19). This does not mean that the

Children of Noah transgress one of the Seven

Commandments by utilizing another process such as

cremation or cryogenic preservation, but they will lack the

atonement that burial in the earth accomplishes.[35]

29. By observing the Seven Universal Laws, mankind is

given the means by which it can perfect itself. The

individual, through these laws, has the power to refine his

essential being, and can reach higher and higher without

limit. For it is written, "I call heaven and earth to bear

witness, that any individual, man or woman, Jew or Gentile,

freeman or slave, can have the Holy Spirit bestowed upon

him. It all depends on his deeds."[36] And it is also written,

"Ultimately, all is understood: fear God and observe His

commandments, for this is the completion of man" (Eccles.

12:13).

[1] Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 56a

[2] Encyclopedia Talmudica, The Children of Noah, volume

3, page 348

[3] The Rosh (Rabbeinu Asher), responsa number 16

[4] Babylonian Talmud, Nazir 29b, commentary of Rashi,

"And Rabbi Yose..."; Likutei Sichot of the Lubavitcher

Rebbe, volume 5, page 421

[5] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 8, law 11

[6] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Forbidden Relationships,

chapter 14, law 7

[7] Ibid., Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 10

[8] Ibid., chapter 10, law 9 and the commentary of Radvaz

on chapter 10, law 10

[9] Yud-Tess Kislev Farbrengen with the Lubavitcher Rebbe,

5745 (1984)

[10] Tanya, Iggeret HaTshuvah, chapter 1, page 90b

[11] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 8, law 11

[12] Babylonian Talmud, Baba Kamma 38a

[13] Shulchan Arukh, Yoreh Deah, Laws of Conversion,

chapter 268, law 2

[14] The Seven Laws of Noah, Lichtenstein, chapter 9, page

89

[15] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 14

[16] Babylonian Talmud, Makkot 9a, commentary of Rashi,

"Therefore..."

[17] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 1

[18] Commentary of Rashi on Exod. 23:7 and 21:13;

Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 37b

[19] Nahal Eshkol, Laws of Circumcision, chapter 39,

number 6

[20] Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 56b, commentary of

Rabbeinu Nissim, "And He commanded him - these are the

judges"

[21] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 10

[22] Mishneh Torah, Laws of the Foundation of Torah,

chapter 9, law 1

[23] Ibid., Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 6

[24] Shulchan Arukh, Yoreh Deah, chapter 297, note 3,

commentary of the Shach

[25] Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 56b

[26] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 7, 8

[27] Babylonion Talmud, Sanhedrin 59b, commentary of

Rashi, "And if you want to say circumcision..."

[28] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 9

[29] Me'am Loez, Genesis, chapter 13, page 194

[30] Sefer HaArchin Chabad, volume 2, The Nations of the

World, chapter 1, section 3, page 269

[31] Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 59b

[32] Sefer Hahinnukh, First Commandment

[33] Shulchan Arukh, Even HaEzer, chapter 1, law 5

[34] Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, chapter 10, law 6

[35] Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 46b

[36] Tanna D'bei Eliyahu, beginning of chapter 9

1

THE SEVEN NOAHIDE LAWS: OF MONKEY BRAINS AND COURTS

IRENE M ERKER ROSENBERG*

[1] Almost everyone knows, or at least has heard of, the Ten Commandments, which were

given to the Jewish people at Mount Sinai after the exodus from Egypt: to believe in God, not to

engage in idolatry or to take God's name in vain, to observe the Sabbath, to honor one's father and

mother, not to murder, commit adultery, steal, give false testimony, or covet.1 Fewer know about

the Seven Noahide laws,2 which were given to Adam3 and reaffirmed by God to Noah after the

* Royce R. Till Professor of Law, University of Houston Law Center. B.A., College of the Cityof New York, 1961; LL.B., New York University School of Law, 1964. My thanks to HarrietRichman, Faculty Services Librarian, University of Houston Law Library, for her excellentresearch services and to the University of Houston Law Foundation for its financial support.This essay is dedicated to the memory of my husband, Yale L. Rosenberg.

1The Ten Commandments appear twice in the Old Testament: Exodus 20:2-14 and Deuteronomy5:6-18. The wording is not exactly the same and commentators explore those differences indepth. Note, for example, that the Exodus version says, "remember" ("zachor") the Sabbath,whereas Deuteronomy states, "safeguard" ("shamoor") the Sabbath.

2 See THE ARTSCROLL BABYLONIAN TALMUD, at Sanhedrin 56a5 (Hersh Goldwurm, ed. 1994)[hereinafter BABYLONIAN TALMUD] (listing the seven universal laws).

3 There is a dispute as to which of the Noahide laws were given to Adam and which to Noah.One of the difficulties with the argument that God gave all seven laws to Adam is that Adam wasprohibited from eating meat altogether. See Genesis 1:29. Why then tell Adam that he is not toeat the limb taken from a live animal? Man was not given permission to eat meat until after theFlood. Genesis 9:3-4. See 1 ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA 141 (Isadore Epstein & Harry Freedmaneds., 1969) [hereinafter ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA] (noting that "[s]ome derive this [theprohibition against eating a limb severed from a live animal] from the words spoken to Adam,‘you may freely eat’ (Genesis 2, 16) implying that he may eat only of that which stands ready tobe eaten, thus excluding a limb severed from a living animal, since a live animal does not stand tobe eaten. . . . Others derive it from the words spoken to Noah (Id. 9, 4), ‘Only flesh with the lifethereof . . . shall you not eat.’"). Therefore some conclude that God gave Adam only sixcommandments and added the seventh regarding eating the limb of a live animal to Noah. See 1M IDRASH RABBAH 131, 278 (H. Freedman trans., 1983)[hereinafter MIDRASH RABBAH]. See also

2

Flood4, thus "predat[ing] the revelation of biblical legislation to the Jewish people."5 These

universal laws prohibit idolatry, blasphemy, murder, illicit sexual relations, robbery, eating a limb

taken from a live animal, and failing to establish courts of law. The Noahide laws are all negative

commandments,6 prohibitions against doing or failing to do certain acts, and violators are subject to

the death penalty.7

[2] Jewish law posits that the Seven Noahide laws bind all non-Jews.8 Jews are also required to

observe the seven universal laws, but only as a matter of Jewish law, that is, the Decalogue and the

613 commandments derived from it.9 This distinction has practical consequences because of the

Deuteronomy 12:23 ("you shall not eat the life with the meat" (prohibiting the ingestion ofblood)).

There are also different opinions as to the precise biblical source of the Noahide laws,their exact number and their content. Some, for example, argue that non-Jews are prohibited fromperforming sterilization and the mixing of different seeds and animals. See discussion inBABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, at Sanhedrin 56a5-57a2, and 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA 361-64.

4 See CHAIM CLORFENE & YAKOV ROGALSKY, THE PATH OF THE RIGHTEOUS GENTILE 7-9 (1987)[hereinafter RIGHTEOUS GENTILE] (arguing that God gave Adam all seven laws and commanded himto teach it to succeeding generations, and after the Flood "God reaffirmed the original sevencommandments that He had taught Adam." Id. at 9). See also discussion supra note 3.

5 NAHUM RAKOVER, LAW AND THE NOAHIDES 9 (1998) [hereinafter RAKOVER].

6 The duty to establish courts appears to be a positive commandment: set up courts of law. It isviewed, however, as a negative commandment, that is, do not fail to establish courts of law. SeeRIGHTEOUS GENTILE, supra note 4, at 101-02.

7 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, at Sanhedrin 57b3 n.30. There are different opinions as towhich of the four biblical death penalties applies to a Noahide convicted in a court of law--stoning, burning, beheading or strangulation. The majority rule is that he is subject todecapitation. 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA, supra note 3, at 377.

8 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin at 56a5.

9 See BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, at Makkos 23b3 (noting that "[s]ix hundred and thirteen

3

differences in interpretation of both sets of laws.10 Some of the Noahide laws prohibit conduct that

is also encompassed in the Decalogue, such as the prohibitions against murder and theft, but others

do not.11 A few of the Noahide laws are interpreted more strictly than their counterparts in Jewish

law, that is, a non-Jew would be liable for committing a certain act, but a Jew would not.12 Most

are, however, more lenient13 than the 613 commandments governing Jews.14

[3] There is "no original text of the Noahide Code"15 as it is not explicitly stated in the Torah,

the first five books of the Bible. The earliest source systematically discussing and analyzing the

seven laws is Talmudic.16 Although there is no express statement of them in the Torah, the

are included in the Ten Commandments").

10 See 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA, supra note 3, at 363 (noting that "[t]he seven preceptscontain both stringencies and leniencies which differentiate Noahides from Jews").

11 For example, there is no requirement that non-Jews observe the Sabbath, and indeed, althoughNoahides generally may observe almost all of the 613 rules binding on Jews, Sabbath observanceis prohibited. See RIGHTEOUS GENTILE, supra note 4, at 41.

12 See 1 ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA, supra note 3, at 141-42 (discussing the difference between theMosaic kosher laws and the Noahide prohibition against eating the limb of a live animal). Jewsmay eat the meat of a ritually slaughtered animal even if there is still some movement in theanimal. Noahides are not obliged to ritually slaughter animals, but they may not eat the meat ofthem until the limbs have completely stopped moving or quivering. But see BABYLONIAN TALMUD,supra note 2, at Chullin 33a1 (asking, "Is there such a thing that an object or action could bepermitted to a Jew and forbidden to a gentile?").

13 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin at 58b3 n.24.

14 See MAIMONIDES, THE COMMANDMENTS (Charles B. Chavel trans., 1967) (a two volume workexplaining the 248 positive commandments and the 365 negative commandments incumbent uponthe Jewish people).

15 AARON LICHTENSTEIN, THE SEVEN LAWS OF NOAH 11 (2d ed., 1981) [hereinafter LICHTENSTEIN].

16 Id. Rabbi Lichtenstein notes that "the earliest book of the Halakha [law] which undertakes todelineate the Seven Laws is the Tosefta, attributed to Hiyya bar Abba, born circa 160 [C.E.]."

4

Noahide laws are learned by biblical exegesis.17

[4] The biblical source for the Noahide laws is not obvious. Genesis 2:16 states, "And

HASHEM God commanded the man, saying, ‘Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat.’" 18

The verse is redundant19 as God had already informed Adam of this fact in Genesis 1:29, "I have

given to you all herbage yielding seed that is on the surface of the entire earth, and every tree that

has seed-yielding; it shall be yours for food." The Torah is very terse, and in most cases when a

letter, word or phrase is merely duplicative, it is there to teach us something.20 According to the

Sages, each word of this superfluous verse in Genesis 2:16 alludes to the Seven Commandments

given to Adam and his descendants.21

17 See THE COMPLETE ARTSCROLL SIDDUR 49-53 (Nosson Scherman trans., 1993) (the thirteen rulesof interpreting the Torah).

18 Unless otherwise noted, English translations of the Bible are taken from THE ARTSCROLL STONE

EDITION OF THE CHUMASH (Nosson Scherman ed., 11th ed. 2001). The word HASHEM literallymeans "the name;" it is used in place of God's actual name so that it is not said frivolously or invain. When the Torah is read for religious purposes, God’s actual name is uttered. The name forHASHEM denotes God's aspect of mercy. The Hebrew word for God in the verse denotes Hisattribute of strict justice.

19 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin at 56b1 n.9.

20 See NEHAMA LEIBOWITZ, STUDIES IN BERESHIT (Genesis) 82 (Aryeh Newman trans., 4th rev. ed.1981) (noting, "the Torah's sparing use of words and avoidance of every unnecessary repitition,even the addition or subtraction of a letter"). Leibowitz explains that "[t]he choice of every word[in the Torah] is deliberate and there is nothing accidental or coincidental in it but the imparting ofsome specific lesson". Id. at 513. This principle does not always apply. Sometimes the Torahmay repeat a word or phrase because that was how people commonly spoke. See BABYLONIAN

TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin at 56a5.

21 The translation of Genesis 2:16 in the ArtScroll version of the BABYLONIAN TALMUD issomewhat different from the ArtScroll version of the Torah. See text supra note 18. The verse astranslated in the BABYLONIAN TALMUD is "Hashem God commanded upon the man saying ‘Ofevery tree of the garden you may surely eat.’" See BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin

5

[5] Since Jews are commanded to obey 613 laws, one might conclude either that they need

more restrictions, or that they enjoy a greater spiritual worth than non-Jews who have only seven

commandments. One answer is that the Noahide laws are stated in general terms but they

encompass various details and aspects,22 whereas the 613 laws are specific. For example, "[t]he

single Noahide law against sexual immorality prohibits adultery, sodomy, and various types of

incest. Yet, each of these specific offenses is enumerated separately among the 613."23

Furthermore, if one counts only those of the 613 laws that are applicable in modern times (many

commandments refer to ritual practice in the Temple), the ratio between the number of Jewish and

Noahide laws is greatly diminished. As one noted scholar, Rabbi Aaron Lichtenstein, has observed:

It becomes apparent then that a comparison between just sevenNoahide laws and six hundred thirteen Mitzvoth [commandments]cannot be invoked as a supposed indication of the relativelimitedness of the Noahide system, for the seven Noahide laws refer

at 56b1. The words "He commanded," refers to a system of law; the word "Lord,"(Hashem)refers to "blessing," that is, cursing the name of God; the word "God," refers to idolatry, "uponthe," means murder, "saying" (which is also redundant), refers to sexual transgressions, "of everytree of the garden" alludes to theft, and "you may surely eat," prohibits eating the limb takenfrom a live animal. Each of these meanings is supported by the use of the same words appearingin other verses.

22 See 4 ENCYCLOPEDIA TALMUDICA, supra note 3, at 362-64 (noting that the seven laws aregeneralizations and setting forth a list of the details of these laws compiled by an early Sagewhich encompass 30 precepts: unity of God, idolatry, blasphemy, prayer, taking an oath in vain,suicide, homicide, sexual relations with another man's wife, marriage by dowry and gift, relationswith a sister, sodomy, bestiality, castration, eating the carcass of a dead animal, a limb taken froma live animal, eating blood, hybridization of animals, sacrifices from clean animals, robbery,honoring one's father and mother, consigning one's children to the fire, augury, soothsaying,divining, sorcery, casting spells, consulting a ghost, consulting a familiar spirit, inquiring of thedead. One of the precepts is missing in the manuscript. The missing precept follows theprohibition against hybridization of animals; perhaps the missing precept is a prohibition againstthe hybridization of seeds. See discussion in BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, at Sanhedrin56b1.

23 LICHENSTEIN, supra note 15, at 17.

6

to seven broad areas of legislation, whereas each of the six hundredthirteen refer to a separate, specific, narrowly construed statute.That is to say, the word ‘law’ as found in the term ‘Seven Laws’refers to a broad legislative area; the word ‘commandment’ as foundin the term ‘Six Hundred Thirteen Commandments’ refers to a starklegal dictum qualified as a mere bylaw of the broader area.24

He concludes that sixty-six commandments can be derived from the Seven Noahide laws.25 It is the

same type of exegesis by which the 613 commandments governing Jews were derived from the

Decalogue.26 "Therefore, the numerical disparity in no way reflects the relative spiritual worth of

the [Noahide] commandments."27

[6] Official recognition of the Seven Noahide Laws is contained in a congressional resolution

signed by President Bush in 1991, noting that "the historical tradition of ethical values and

principles which are the basis of civilized society . . . have been the bedrock of society from the

dawn of civilization, when they were known as the Seven Noahide Laws."28 There are small

communities of Noahide observers in the United States and indeed throughout the world. A leading

figure in the movement is Vendyl Jones who conducts archeological digs to find the Ark of the

Covenant.29 He is reputed to be the model for the Indiana Jones movies.30 Although most

24 Id. at 92.

25 Id. at 93.

26 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, at Makkos 23b3.

27 RIGHTEOUS GENTILE, supra note 4, at 43.

28 H.R.J. Res. 104, 102d Cong. (1991), Pub.L. No. 102-14.

29 Information about Vendyl Jones and the B'nai Noach movement can be found athttp://www.vendyljones.org.il (last visited Nov. 1, 2004).

7

Noahides start as Christians who want to learn more about their roots, they are neither Christian

nor Jewish. They simply follow the Noahide laws and call themselves B'nai No'ach,31 which is

Hebrew for the sons of Noah. In some communities they study and observe some aspects of

Jewish law, even though it is not commanded.32 Some do, however, go on to convert to Judaism,

although traditional Jewish law does not encourage conversion33--it is not a religion that actively

seeks proselytes. To the contrary, Judaism asserts that "by observing the Seven Noahide

Commandments, a Gentile fulfills the purpose of creation and receives a share of the World to

Come, the blessed spiritual world of the righteous."34

[7] I had always understood the enduring importance of the values embedded in the seven laws.

The prohibition against eating the flesh or limb of a living animal gave me pause, mainly because I

could not imagine anyone doing such a thing. Apparently, however, it was customary to do so, else

there would have been no need to prohibit such conduct. It may well be that prior to refrigeration

people would cut off a piece of meat from a live animal as a way of assuring a supply of fresh

meat,35 or it may have been an aspect of pagan rituals.36 But is the law of enduring significance? Is

30 For a fascinating article on Vendyl Jones' life and activities, see Gerard Robbins, Vendyl Jonesand the Ark of the Covenant, JEWISH HERALD VOICE OF HOUSTON, TEXAS (May 2000), available athttp://www.rense.com/general2/ark.htm.

31 See J. DAVID DAVIS, FINDING THE GOD OF NOAH: THE SPIRITUAL JOURNEY OF A BAPTIST M INISTER

FROM CHRISTIANITY TO THE LAWS OF NOAH (1996).

32 See, e.g., Leslie Scrivener, Noahides Make a Leap of Faith, The Toronto Star, May 19, 1996,at F7; R. Gustav Niebuhr, Christian Fundamentalists Seek Roots of Their Faith: There Goes theSteeple, Wall S. J., Mar. 20, 1991, at A1.

33 See BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Yevamos at 47a3-47b2.

34 RIGHTEOUS GENTILE, supra note 4 at 4.

8

it fundamental in the same way as the prohibitions against murder and theft?37

[8] Subsequently, I learned that there are modern cultures which view certain foods obtained in

that way as a delicacy. A friend was telling me about her first visit to an Asian country. Fine

restaurants in that country had special tables with holes carved in the middle of them. A monkey,

the top of whose head had been lopped off, is placed under the table, the exposed brain showing

through, and diners ate the monkey’s brains while it was still alive.38 Presumably the monkey does

35 Cf., Genesis 37:2: "and Joseph brought a bad report of them [his brothers] to their father."Rashi, the great 12th century commentator on the Torah and the Talmud, notes that Joseph"would report to his father that they ate a part cut off from a living animal." 1 THE PENTATEUCH

AND RASHI'S COMMENTARY 370 (Abraham ben Isaiah and Benjamin Sharfman, trans. 1950). InDeuteronomy 12:23 God commands Moses: "Only be steadfast in not eating the blood." Rashinotes that "[f]rom the words "Be steadfast" you can derive that they were dissolute in the eatingof blood; consequently it was necessary to state "Be steadfast." 5 RASHI'S COMMENTARY at 120.See also Alyza, The Sheva Mitzvot B'nai Noach: An Introduction ¶ 18 available at<http://www.homeworship101.com/bb-c5_sacred_covenants.htm> (

Today in the western world we have refrigeration and the storageof meat is not given much thought. But in the harsh pagan world,people would cut off a limb of the animal they used for food, tieoff the stump of the severed limb so it would not bleed to death,and then leash up the animal so it would not run away. They left itto suffer until more meat was needed in a day or two, then hack offanother limb, and so on. Some people prided themselves on howlong they could keep an animal alive, while slowly carving it todeath. This concept of keeping meat fresh, is a treatment to animalsthat is still being carried out today in some third world countries.

).

36 See DAVID NOVAK, THE IMAGE OF THE NON-JEW IN JUDAISM (1983).

37 See Lichtenstein, supra note 15 at 56: "A question that can legitimately be raised here is: Doesnot the Limb of a Living Creature seem too puny a violation to be found alongside suchconsiderations as adultery, murder, theft, idolatry, etc.?"

38 JOY M ASOFF, OH, YUCK, THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EVERYTHING NASTY 100 (2000)(my thanks toYosef Kerzner, age 13, for finding this source). But see references at

9

not feel any pain, or it is restrained, otherwise eating dinner would be a somewhat challenging

experience. The recent outbreak of monkey pox will undoubtedly deter this activity.39 The practice

of eating meat from a living animal is also apparently practiced in the United States. In some areas

of the country bulls are castrated while they are alive and the testicles are cooked and eaten as a

delicacy known as "Rocky Mountain" oysters.40

[9] Therefore, the prohibition speaks to actual practices, then and now. Transcending these

aspects, however, on a value level, what kind of person would inflict such pain on living animals?

There are studies indicating that many violent criminals have a history of cruelty to animals in their

childhood.41 Perhaps in recognition of such a connection the Torah speaks to the issue of animal

cruelty in a variety of contexts. Deuteronomy 22:4 admonishes a person to help someone unload

his donkey that has fallen on the road because of the heavy burden it carries. Deuteronomy 22:6-7

requires that if a person finds a nest with the female bird roosting on its eggs or its young, he

should not take the mother with the young: "Let the mother go, taking only the young for

yourself." Similarly, in Leviticus 22:28 there is a prohibition against killing a mother and its

www.maxent.org/ch/monkey_brainsref.html, claiming that this is merely an urban legend.Nonetheless, some of their own citations belie that claim.

39 See, e.g., Denise Grady & Lawrence Altman, Beyond Cute: Exotic Pets Come Bearing ExoticGerms, N.Y. Times, June 17, 2003, at F1 (describing how monkey pox was transmitted into theUnited States).

40 Yirmeyahu Bindman, The Seven Colors of the Rainbow: Torah Ethics for Non-Jews 106(1995)[hereinafter Rainbow].

41 See Margit Livingston, Desecrating the Ark: Animal Abuse and the Law’s Role in Prevention,87 IOWA L. REV. 1, 17-22 (2001) (analyzing various studies concerning a link between cruelty toanimals and criminal behavior).

10

offspring on the same day.42 The Ten Commandments demand that the Sabbath be observed not

only by people, but also by their animals--it is a day of rest for "your ox, your donkey, and your

every animal." 43 In the Talmud there is an extensive discussion regarding cruelty to animals in

general. The debate is not whether there is a prohibition against making animals suffer, but whether

the commandment comes from the Torah or is merely a rabbinic ordinance.44 The conclusion is that

it is a biblical prohibition.

[10] If one learns it is wrong to be cruel to animals,45 or to cause them unnecessary pain or

emotional distress, even to assuage their hunger, then surely that lesson will extend to human

beings. The commandment instills a reverence for living creatures and helps the individual achieve

greater refinement and spirituality, and, in that sense, fits comfortably along with the other

fundamental Noahide laws.46

[11] The commandment that most intrigues me, however, is the requirement that courts of law

be established. There are various disputes among the commentators regarding the exact content of

42 “But you shall not slaughter, from the herd or the flock, an animal with its young on the sameday.”

43 Deuteronomy 5:12-15

44 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Bava Metzia at 32b1-33a1.

45 Lichtenstein, supra note 15 at 57 (notes the various Jewish laws prohibiting cruelty to animalsin various contexts).

46 See 4 SEFER HAHINNUCH, THE BOOK OF [MITZVOT] EDUCATION 409-10 (Charles Wengrov, trans.1988)[hereinafter SEFER HAHINNUCH](noting in Commandment 452 that "[a]t the root of theprecept lies the reason that we should not train our spirit in the quality of cruelty. . . there is nogreater cruelty in the world than when one cuts a limb or flesh from an animal while it is yet alivebefore him, and he eats it.")

11

this requirement.47 One of these disputes concerns whether "Noahides are permitted to legislate

their own laws" or are bound by Jewish law.48 But all seem to agree that it includes establishing

courts of law and prohibiting any act that would lead to "an unjust judicial decision."49 To ensure

implementation of these two principles, many scholars believe that at least twenty precepts of the

613 Commandments of Jewish law are applicable to this Noahide requirement to establish a legal

system: (1) "to appoint judges and officers in each and every community," (2) "to treat the litigants

equally before the law," (3) "to inquire diligently into the testimony of a witness," (4) to assure

"against the wanton miscarriage of justice by the court," (5) prohibiting a "judge [from] accepting a

bribe or gift from a litigant," (6) prohibiting "the judge showing marks of honor to but one litigant,"

(7) enjoining "the judge [from] acting in fear of a litigant's threats," (8) prohibiting "the judge [from]

out of compassion, favoring a poor litigant," (9) prohibiting "the judge discriminating against the

litigant because he is a sinner," (10) prohibiting "the judge, out of softness, putting aside the

penalty of a mauler or killer," (11) prohibiting "the judge [from] discriminating against a stranger or

47 For example, Maimonides believed that the Noahide commandment to establish courtsencompassed only an order to establish a court system so as to enforce the other sixcommandments. Nachmonides, on the other hand, believed that this commandment also requiredNoahides to set up an entire system of civil law. BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin56a5 n.48. Maimonides thought that such a requirement stemmed from the Noahide law againsttheft. Id. For an extensive discussion regarding the differences between Maimonides andNachmanides see LICHTENSTEIN, supra note 15, at 35-43. For another scholarly exposition of thisissue see RAKOVER, supra note 5, at 55-86.

48 The conflict stems from the different views of two talmudic Sages. Although it is agreed thatthe biblical source for the Noahide laws is Genesis 2:16, there is a debate concerning which wordof the verse refers to a system of laws. One Sage learns this obligation from the words "Hecommanded," and another infers it from the word "God." The first Sage concludes that Noahidesare permitted to pass their own laws, whereas the other finds that the laws legislated byNoahides must be the same as Jewish law. See discussion in RAKOVER, supra note 5, at 56-57.

12

orphan," (12) enjoining "the judge hearing one litigant in the absence of the other," (13) prohibiting

"appointing a judge who lacks knowledge of the Law," (14) prohibiting "the court killing an

innocent man," (15) prohibiting "incrimination by circumstantial evidence,"50 (16) prohibiting

"punishing for a crime committed under duress,"51 (17) requiring "that the court is to administer the

death penalty by the sword (i.e., decapitation)," (18) prohibiting "anyone taking the law into his

own hands to kill the perpetrator of a capital crime," (19) a duty "to testify in court," and (20)

prohibiting "testifying falsely."52

[12] Almost all of these rules concerning the courts are sophisticated and fundamental to a

righteous system of justice. They pale, however, in comparison to Jewish law, which is almost

fanatically concerned with courts, their rules and procedures, and the fear of convicting innocent

people. In Exodus 18, Moses' father-in-law, Yitro, visits Moses in the desert and observes him

judging cases from morning to night. In Exodus, Yitro advises Moses to get some help:

And you shall discern from among the entire people, men ofaccomplishment, God-fearing people, men of truth, people whodespise money, and you shall appoint them leaders of thousands,leaders of hundreds, leaders of fifties, and leaders of tens. They shalljudge the people at all times, and they shall bring every major matterto you, and with every minor matter they shall judge.53

49 LICHTENSTEIN, supra note 15, at 31.

50 But see RIGHTEOUS GENTILE, supra note 4, at 102.

51 At common law duress was a defense for every crime but murder. State v. Toscano, 378 A.2d755, 756 (N.J. 1977). Section 2.09 of the Model Penal Code makes duress an affirmative defensewithout excluding homicide. MODEL PENAL CODE §2.09.

52 These duties are set forth in LICTENSTEIN, supra note 15, at 31-35. See also RAINBOW, supranote 4, at 113-20 (discussing the laws that are necessary in a just society).

53 Exodus 18:21-22.

13

[13] Jewish law, however, is composed not only of the Written law, the Torah, but also the Oral

law. Indeed, the Written law cannot be read in isolation from the Oral law. The latter consists of the

Mishnah, redacted circa 200 C.E., and the Gemara, redacted circa 500 C.E. Together they are

known as the Talmud.54 The Talmud is divided into 60 odd tractates, comprising over 5,000 pages,

written in Aramaic, with no vowels or punctuation.55 Together they are known as the Talmud.56

The Talmud is divided into 60 odd tractates, comprising over 5,000 pages, written in Aramaic, with

no vowels or punctuation.57 There is no index or table of contents. The terseness is baffling. With

whichever tractate you start learning, it is taken for granted that you know all of it. One must,

however, accept the Talmud on its own terms or concede defeat and withdraw.

[14] In the Babylonian Talmud,58 tractate Sanhedrin deals with courts, crimes and punishments,

and it is filled with robust debates concerning the minutiae of law. The disputants intellectually

wrap themselves around the particular issue, turning it over and around, inside and out, quoting

sources and poking holes in each other's arguments, until the matter is resolved or the Sages say

"Taykoo"--it will be decided when the Messiah comes. It is an elaborate edifice devoted to

54 ADIN STEINSALTZ, THE TALMUD, THE STEINSALTZ EDITION: A REFERENCE GUIDE (Israel V. Bermantrans., 1989).

55 See Irene M. Rosenberg & Yale L. Rosenberg, In the Beginning: The Talmudic Rule AgainstSelf-Incrimination, 63 N.Y.U.L. REV. 955, 966-74 (1988).

56 Adin Steinsaltz, The Talmud, The Steinsaltz Edition: A Reference Guide (Israel V. Bermantransl, 1989).

57 See Irene M. Rosenberg & Yale L. Rosenberg, In the Beginning: The Talmudic Rule AgainstSelf-Incrimination, 63 N.Y.U.L. Rev. 955, 966-74 (1988).

58 There is another Talmud called the Jerusalem Talmud, which was composed by the Sages ofIsrael. For various reasons, the Babylonian Talmud has historically been viewed as more

14

ascertaining truth and justice as revealed by God.

[15] Over the years, my husband and I have written numerous articles about Jewish law,

concentrating on the talmudic debates.59 At first, the judicial system seemed, not to put too fine a

point on it, which is particularly strange in criminal law. In time we came to know and appreciate

the wisdom of the Sages.

[16] Jewish courts trying criminal cases are composed of 23 judges (three for civil cases),60 who

hector the life out of witnesses, admonishing them to tell the truth, or else.61 Only competent

witnesses may testify, namely males,62 who are unrelated to the defendant or to each other,63 are

not insane, blind, deaf or mute,64or do not lend money on interest,65 or engage in nefarious

activities such as gambling or raising pigeons.66

[17] There must be two witnesses to the crime.67 The witnesses must warn the defendant that

authoritative.

59 See, e.g., Irene M. Rosenberg & Yale L. Rosenberg, Lone Star Liberal Musings on "Eye forEye" and the Death Penalty, 1998 Utah L. Rev. 505; Irene M. Rosenberg & Yale L. Rosenberg,"Perhaps What Ye Say is Based Only on Conjecture"--Circumstantial Evidence, Then and Now,31 Hous. L. Rev. 1371 (1995). See also articles cited infra in notes 66, 69, and 78.

60 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 2a1.

61 Id. at 37a3.

62 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Shevuos 30a2.

63 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Makkos 6a1.

64 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Bava Basra 128a3-128b1.

65 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 24b2.

66 Id.

15

the act he is about to commit is a crime.68 The defendant must verbally acknowledge the warning,69

thus obviating any claims of ignorance of the law, and then proceed to commit the crime in full view

of the witnesses. Circumstantial evidence, no matter how reliable, is prohibited.70 Causation

requirements are very stringent.71 Confessions are of no evidentiary value, even if they are

completely voluntary; no person may incriminate himself.72 The case must be tried and proven

only through the testimony of the witnesses.73 The judges question them separately and

intensively, probing to find inconsistencies in their testimony.74 If there are any discrepancies, even

those that are minor, their testimony is excluded and the defendant is acquitted.75 The judges

cannot render a verdict the day the trial ends, they must retire and think about the case, looking for

loopholes, until the following day.76

67 Deuteronomy 17:6, 19:15, Numbers 35:30.

68 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 80b1.

69 Id. at 81b2.

70 Id. at 37b1.

71 See Irene M. Rosenberg, Yale L. Rosenberg & Bentzion S. Turin, Murder by Gruma:Causation in Homicide Cases Under Jewish Law, 80 B.U. L. REV. 1017, 1051 (2000).

72 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 9b2.

73 Id.

74 Id. at 37a3, 40a1-40a4.

75 See Irene M. Rosenberg & Yale L. Rosenberg, Guilt: Henry Friendly Meets the MaHaRaL ofPrague, 90 MICH. L. REV. 604, 619-25 (1991)

76 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 40a3. See also Irene M. Rosenberg & Yale L.Rosenberg, Guilt: Henry Friendly Meets the MaHaRaL of Prague, 90 MICH. L. REV. 604, 619-25(1991)(describing and analyzing the overnight deliberation law).

16

[18] The difficulty in obtaining a conviction in the Jewish courts77 is captured in a famous

Talmudic passage discussing whether a court is named the "bloody Sanhedrin" because it convicted

one person in seven years or one person in seventy years.78 Some argue that these laws were

merely aspirational or idealistic and were never actually implemented.79 The difficulty is that the

Talmud is replete with references to actual cases,80 thus indicating that they were of practical

import. In any event, the strict rules governing the criminal law clearly represent normative Jewish

law.

[19] As noted above, there are disputes as to the content of the Noahide law regarding the

establishment of a legal system, but most agree that this commandment is governed by at least

some of the super-stringent rules of Jewish law and legal procedure.81 However, there are

exceptions.82 A Noahide may be convicted by one judge.83 It is unclear whether circumstantial

77 Many of the safeguards applicable in the Jewish courts did not apply to the king's court. SeeTHE CODE OF M AIMONIDES, Book 14: The Book of Judges, Kings and Wars 3:8-10, at 213-14(Abraham M. Hershman trans., 1949). Furthermore, in times of emergency some of the ruleswere suspended for short periods of time even in the rabbinic courts. See BABYLONIAN TALMUD,supra note 2, at 46a3 (allowing punishment without the usual safeguards because of theexigencies of the times).

78 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Makkos 7a1.

79 See, e.g., GEORGE F. MOORE, 2 JUDAISM 186-87 (1930).

80 See, e.g., AARON SCHREIBER, JEWISH LAW AND DECISION-MAKING 278 (1979).

81 See generally, BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 56b3 n.33.

82 See 1 MIDRASH RABBAH, Genesis, supra note 3 at 279-80 (noting that the Noahide prohibitionagainst bloodshed encompasses murder by an agent, the killing of an embryo, and the proceduralrule that confessions are admissible).

83 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 57b1.

17

evidence is sufficient to establish guilt.84 Defendants are presumed to know the Seven Noahide

laws, and therefore, a witness need not warn them that they are about to commit a crime.85 There

need be only one witness to convict, if he is known to be a righteous person. If the witness's

character is not known, two witnesses are required.86 A defendant may testify against himself, but

since his character is then in issue, a second witness is required to support a verdict of guilt.87 As in

Jewish law, a witness can only be male, however he may be related to the defendant, as can the

judge.88 These procedures are extrapolated from various biblical sources.89

[20] In Genesis 9:5, which is a superfluous verse,90 God says to Noah: "However, your blood

which belongs to your souls I will demand; of every beast will I demand it; but of man, of every

man for that of his brother I will demand the soul of man."91 The words "your blood which belongs

84 Compare CLORFENE & ROGALSKY, supra note 4, at 102, with LICHTENSTEIN, supra note 15, at 31.

85 See BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 57b1; CLORFENE & ROGALSKY, supra note 4,at 102. See also SEFER HAHINNUCH, supra note 4, at 147-49 (arguing that notice is not neededbecause "it makes no difference in their [Noahide] law, whether a transgression occurredunintentionally or deliberately"). This is contrary to Jewish law. See Irene M. Rosenberg, Yale L.Rosenberg & Bentzion S. Turin, Murder by Gruma: Causation in Homicide Cases Under JewishLaw, 80 B.U. L. REV. 1017, 1024-30 (2000)(noting the various grades of homicide under Jewishlaw).

86 CLORFENE & ROGALSKY, supra note 4 at 108.

87 Id. In American law a confession need only be supported by evidence that the crime occurred.Smith v. United States, 348 U.S. 147, 153-54 (1954)(noting that generally guilt can be establishedby the defendant's uncorroborated confession).

88 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 57b1.

89 Id.

90 Id. at 57b1 n.4.

18

to your souls, I will demand," teaches that a person may be be executed by one judge,92 that no

prior warning is required is learned from the words "of every beast will I demand it,"93 that only

one witness is necessary to convict stems from "I will demand it,"94 that a woman may not testify

is alluded to by the words "from the hand of man,"95 and finally, that the testimony of a relative is

permitted comes from "every man's brother."96

[21] One can argue that these are only minimum requirements, and therefore Noahides may

require stricter rules. On the other hand, one can conclude that since the Talmud specifically

mentions the more lenient rules applying to Noahide laws, they are bound to convict people based

on these less strict practices.97 However, notwithstanding any differences between Noahide and

Jewish courts, it is clear that the former must at least adhere to procedures and rules that assure not

only the appearance of fairness, but also prevent conviction of the innocent, a problem that we in

the United States have yet to solve.98 The Noahide law teaches us that following the rules is

91 Id. at 57b1 nn. 4 & 5.

92 Id. at 57b5 (noting that the singular "I" is used).

93 BABYLONIAN TALMUD, supra note 2, Sanhedrin 57b1 n.6 (arguing that a murderer, just as abeast, need not receive a warning).

94 Id. at 57b1 & note 7.

95 Id. at 57b1 & note 8.

96 Id. at 57b1 & note 9.

97 RAKOVER, supra note 5 at 73.

98 See Hugo A. Bedau & Michael L. Radelet, Miscarriages of Justice in Potentially Capital Cases,40 STAN. L. REV. 21, 35-36 (1987)(concluding from a study of 350 defendants sentenced to death,that 40% were innocent); see also Herrera v. Collins, 506 U.S. 390, 400 (1993)(ruling that claimsof actual innocence unconnected to a constitutional violation is not cognizable in federal habeas

19

important and indeed doing so may assure that correct decisions are rendered. The rules, however,

must reflect a humane substantive law:

[T]he commandment to establish a legal system requires theestablishment of a just legal system, one that is applied with fairnessand before whom all are equal. . . . Law that violates fundamentalhuman values does not satisfy modern conceptions of the rule of lawand certainly does not meet the Noahide obligation to create a justlegal system. Those who follow the dictates of an unjust legalsystem are held accountable for obeying the law and not resisting it.It was on this basis that war criminals were tried and convicted atthe international tribunal in Nurenberg after World War II.99

[22] "And God said, `Let us make Man in our image, after our likeness.'"100 God then

commanded man to "[b]e fruitful and multiply."101 But understanding the essence of His creation

all too well, He then directed man to establish courts of law to assure justice and harmony. That

commandment is a precious gift to all people.

corpus).

99 RAKOVER, supra note 5 at 7-8 (emphasis in original).

100 Genesis 1:26.

101 Id.

God-fearerGod-fearers (Greek: φοβούμενος τὸν Θεόν, Phoboumenoston Theon)[1] or God-worshippers (Greek: θεοσεβής,Theosebes)[1] were a numerous class of gentile sympathizersto Hellenistic Judaism that existed in the Greco-Romanworld,[2][3][4][5] which observed certain Jewish religiousrites and traditions without becoming full converts toJudaism.[2][3][6][7] The concept has precedents in theproselytes of the Hebrew Bible.

OverviewOrigin, history, status and diffusion

SourcesHebrew BibleIn inscriptions, texts and papyriIn early Christian writings

Role in Pauline ChristianitySee alsoNotes and referencesExternal links

Over the last 50 years a growing number of scholars of Judaic studies and history of Judaism becameinterested in the subject of God-fearers and their relationship with Hellenistic Judaism and earlyChristianity. According to the most common assumption,[8] Jews that lived in the Greco-Roman worldduring the Hellenistic and Roman period were not involved in active missionary efforts of massconversion among Pagans,[9] although many historians disagree.[8][10][11][12]

As Jews emigrated and settled in the Roman provinces of the Empire, Judaism became an appealingreligion to a large number of Pagans, for many reasons;[6][7][11] God-fearers and proselytes thatunderwent full conversion were Greeks or Romans, and came from all social classes: they were mostlywomen[10] and freedmen[10] (liberti), but there were also artisans, soldiers and few people of high status,like patricians and senators.[10]

The class of God-fearers existed between the 1st[11] and the 3rd century CE.[13][14] They are mentionedin Latin and Greek literature, Flavius Josephus' and Philo's historical works, rabbinic literature, earlyChristian writings, and other contemporary sources such as synagogue inscriptions from Diaspora

Sardis Synagogue (3rd century, Turkey)had a large community of God-fearers andJews integrated into the Roman civic life.Contents

Overview

Origin, history, status and diffusion

communities[6][7][14] (Palestine,[10] Rome[2] and Asia Minor).[6][7][10]

In the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh), there is some recognition of gentile monotheistic worship as beingdirected toward the God of the Jews. This forms the category of yir’ei HaShem/yir’ei Shamayim(Hebrew: יראי השם , meaning "Fearers of the Name"/"Fearers of Heaven",[4][14] "the Name" being aJewish euphemism for Yahweh, cf. Psalm 115:11 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt26b5.htm#11)).[15][16] This was developed by later rabbinic literature into the conceptof Noahides, gentiles that follow the Seven Laws of Noah, which rabbinic writings assigned to theNoahic Covenant.[17]

The Greek terms that refer to God-fearers (theosebeis, sebomenoi, phoboumenoi, metuentes)[4][14][18] arefound in ancient literature (Greek, Roman, and Jewish) and synagogue inscriptions discovered inAphrodisias,[6][14][19] Panticapaeum, Tralles, Sardis, Venosa, Lorium (in Rome), Rhodes, Deliler(Philadelphia) and Miletus.[6][7]

Judging from the distinctions in the Acts of the Apostles it is thought that they did not become gerimtzedekim,[20] which required circumcision,[21] although the evidence across the centuries varies widelyand the meaning of the term may have included all kinds of sympathetic gentiles, proselytes or not.[22]

There are also around 300 text references (4th century BCE to 3rd century CE) to a sect of Hypsistarians,some of whom practiced Sabbath and which many scholars see as sympathizers with Judaism related toGod-fearers.[23]

God-fearers is used of those pagans who attached themselves in varying degrees to Judaism withoutbecoming total converts, and are referred to in the Christian New Testament's Acts of the Apostles,[24]

which describes the Apostolic Age of the 1st century.

So Paul stood up, and motioning with his hand said: "Men of Israel, and you that fear God(οἱ φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν), listen".

— Acts 13:16

Brethren, sons of the family of Abraham, and those among you that fear God (ἐν ὑμῖνφοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν), to us has been sent the message of this salvation.

— Acts 13:26 (RSV)

Sources

Hebrew Bible

In inscriptions, texts and papyri

In early Christian writings

Role in Pauline Christianity

Judaising Gentiles and God-fearers are considered by modern scholars to be of significant importance tothe growth of early Christianity;[25][26] they represented a group of Gentiles who shared religious ideasand practices with Jews, to one degree or another. However, the God-fearers were only "partial" converts,engaged in certain Jewish rites and traditions without taking a step further to actual conversion toJudaism, which would have required full adherence to the 613 Mitzvot, including various prohibitions(kashrut, circumcision, Shabbat observance etc.) that were generally unattractive to would-be Gentile(largely Greek) converts. The rite of circumcision was especially unappealing and execrable in Classicalcivilization[26][27][28] because it was the custom to spend an hour a day or so exercising nude in thegymnasium and in Roman baths, therefore Jewish men did not want to be seen in public deprived of theirforeskins.[27][28] Hellenistic and Roman culture both found circumcision to be cruel and repulsive.[27][28]

The Apostle Paul in his letters fiercely criticized the Judaizers that demanded circumcision for Gentileconverts, and opposed them;[26][29][30][31] he stressed instead that faith in Christ constituted a NewCovenant with God,[31] a covenant which essentially provides the justification and salvation for Gentilesfrom the harsh edicts of the Mosaic Law, a New Covenant that didn't require circumcision[26][29][30][31]

(see also Justification by faith, Pauline passages supporting antinomianism, Abrogation of Old Covenantlaws). Lydia of Thyatira, who became Paul's first convert in Europe, is described as "a worshipper ofGod" (Acts 16:14 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2016:14–16:14&version=rsv)); the Roman soldier Cornelius and the Ethiopian eunuch are also considered bymodern scholars as God-fearers.[25][32]

In Paul's message of salvation through faith in Christ as opposed to submission under the MosaicLaw,[26] many God-fearers found an essentially Jewish group to which they could belong without thenecessity of their accepting Jewish Law. Aside from earning Paul's group a wide following, this view wasgeneralized in the eventual conclusion that converts to Christianity need not first accept all Jewish Law(see Apostolic Decree), a fact indispensable to the spread of the early Christians which would eventuallylead to the distinction between Judaism and Christianity as two separate religions.

Anti-Judaism in early ChristianityBiblical law in ChristianityCouncil of JerusalemDual-covenant theologyFear of GodGenerations of NoahGer toshavJewish ChristiansNew Perspective on PaulNoahidismSabiansSplit of early Christianity and JudaismSupersessionism

1. Sim, David C. & MacLaren, James S. (2013). "Chapter 1, Paragraph 3: God-Fearers" (https://books.google.it/books?id=qNBBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15). Attitudes to Gentiles

See also

Notes and references

in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 15–23. ISBN 978-0-56763-766-6.

2. Kraabel, A. T. (1981). "The Disappearance of the 'God-Fearers' ". Numen. Leiden: BrillPublishers. 28 (2): 113–126. JSTOR 3270014 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270014).

3. Feldman, Louis H.; Reinhold, Meyer, eds. (1996). " "Sympathizers" (God-fearers)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=_kvhzxTf6QoC&pg=PA137). Jewish Life and Thought amongGreeks and Romans. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 137–145. ISBN 0-567-08525-2.

4. Marcus, Ralph. "The Sebomenoi in Josephus". Jewish Social Studies. Indiana UniversityPress. 14 (3): 247–250. JSTOR 4465081 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4465081). "We knowfrom Pagan, Christian and Jewish sources that during the Hellenistic and early Romanperiods some Gentiles were so strongly attracted to Judaism that they became convertsand undertook to observe Jewish laws and customs in the same manner as did the Jewsthemselves. [...] It is also commonly assumed that there were some Gentiles who did not goso far as to become converts but indicated their belief in monotheism and gave up theworship of Pagan gods. How far they went in openly dissociating themselves fromPaganism and in associating themselves with Judaism we do not know. These Gentilesympathizers are commonly thought to be referred by the terms sebomenoi orphoboumenoi ton theon and metuentes in Greek and Latin sources, and yir᾿ê shamayim"fearers of Heaven" (i.e. God-fearers) in some early Rabbinic passages."

5. Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1986). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 3 (FullyRevised ed.). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. p. 1010. ISBN 0-8028-3783-2. "Manyscholars see a parallel between the "God-fearers" in rabbinic literature and the "God-fearers" in the NT. In rabbinic literature the ger toshab was a Gentile who observed theNoachian commandments but was not considered a convert to Judaism because he did notagree to circumcision. [...] some scholars have made the mistake of calling the ger toshab a"proselyte" or "semiproselyte." But the ger toshab was really a resident alien in Israel. Somescholars have claimed that the term "those who fear God" (yir᾿ei Elohim/Shamayim) wasused in rabbinic literature to denote Gentiles who were on the fringe of the synagogue. Theywere not converts to Judaism, although they were attracted to the Jewish religion andobserved part of the law."

6. Trebilco, Paul, I «Timorati di Dio» in Lewin, Ariel (editor), Gli ebrei nell'Impero romano:saggi vari, pp. 161–193, La Giuntina, Florence, 2001, ISBN 88-8057-120-6.

7. Trebilco, Paul; Davies, William David & Finkelstein, Louis. "Chapter 3: The Jews in AsiaMinor, 66-c. 235 CE" (https://books.google.it/books?id=BjtWLZhhMoYC&pg=PA80&lpg=PA80). In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–82. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8.

8. Sand, Shlomo; Ilany, Ofri (21 March 2008). "Shattering a 'National Mythology' " (https://www.haaretz.com/1.5007179). Haaretz. Tel Aviv. Retrieved 26 July 2018. "The people did notspread, but the Jewish religion spread. Judaism was a converting religion. Contrary topopular opinion, in early Judaism there was a great thirst to convert others. TheHasmoneans were the first to begin to produce large numbers of Jews through massconversion, under the influence of Hellenism. The conversions between the HasmoneanRevolt and Bar Kochba's rebellion are what prepared the ground for the subsequent, wide-spread dissemination of Christianity. After the victory of Christianity in the fourth century, themomentum of conversion was stopped in the Christian world, and there was a steep drop inthe number of Jews. Presumably many of the Jews who appeared around theMediterranean became Christians. But then Judaism started to permeate other regions –pagan regions, for example, such as Yemen and North Africa. Had Judaism not continuedto advance at that stage and had it not continued to convert people in the pagan world, wewould have remained a completely marginal religion, if we survived at all."

9. Catherine Hezser, Jewish Travel in Antiquity (2011), Mohr Siebeck, p. 438, Tübingen,Germany, ISBN 978-3-16-150889-9.

10. Louis H. Feldman, "The Omnipresence of the God-Fearers" (http://cojs.org/louis-h-feldman-omnipresence-god-fearers-biblical-archaeology-review-12-5-1986/), Biblical ArchaeologyReview 12, 5 (1986), Center for Online Judaic Studies.

11. Shaye J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah (1989), pp. 55–59, WestminsterJohn Knox Press, Louisville: Kentucky, ISBN 978-0-664-25017-1.

12. A. T. Kraabel, J. Andrew Overman, Robert S. MacLennan, Diaspora Jews and Judaism:essays in honor of, and in dialogue with, A. Thomas Kraabel (1992), Scholars Press,ISBN 978-15-55406-96-7. "As pious gentiles, the God-fearers stood somewhere betweenGreco-Roman piety and Jewish piety in the synagogue. In his classic but now somewhatoutdated study titled Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, Harvard scholarGeorge Foot Moore argued that the existence of the God-fearers provides evidence for thesynagogue's own missionary work outside of Palestine during the first century C.E. TheGod-fearers were the result of this Jewish missionary movement."

13. Robert F. Tannenbaum, "Jews and God-Fearers in the Holy City of Aphrodite" (http://cojs.org/robert-f-tannenbaum-jews-god-fearers-holy-city-aphrodite-biblical-archaeology-review-12-5-1986/), Biblical Archaeology Review 12, 5 (1986), Center for Online Judaic Studies.

14. Louis H. Feldman (1992). " "Sympathizers" with Judaism" (https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA389). In Attridge, Harold W.; Hata, Gohei (eds.). Eusebius,Christianity, and Judaism. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. pp. 389–395. ISBN 0-8143-2361-8.

15. Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace. ed. Roger Boase,Hassan Bin (FRW) Talal . Ashgate. 2010 Page 203 "Nevertheless, by late biblical timesIsraelites realised that there were other people in the world who worshipped the one,unseen God. Such people form the category of yir'ei Hashem (God-fearers, cf. Psalm115:11); perhaps it is to ..."

16. Jeffrey M. Cohen 500 questions and answers on Chanukah 2006 "Hence the references tothem in Jewish sources such as Sebomenoi or Yir'ei Hashem (God-fearers). Many of themaccepted monotheism, though held back from many other basic ritual precepts."

17. Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 56a, 56b.18. Pieter W. van der Horst, God-fearers (theosebeis) (http://classics.oxfordre.com/view/10.109

3/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8035) (2015), OxfordClassical Dictionary.

19. The face of New Testament studies: a survey of recent research Scot McKnight, Grant R.Osborne – 2004 "Theosebeis in the Aphrodisias Inscription" RB 2 [1992]: 418–24), whosurmises that the two God-worshipers, Eummonius and Antoninus, who were studyingTorah were actual God-fearers, but those listed on the other side of the pillar were ..."

20. Jacobs, Joseph; Hirsch, Emil G. (1906), "Proselyte" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12391-proselyte#anchor5), Jewish Encyclopedia, "In contradistinction to the ger toshab, thefull proselyte was designated as "ger ha-ẓedeḳ," "ger ha-berit" (a sincere and righteousproselyte, one who has submitted to circumcision; see Mek., Mishpaṭim, 18; Gerim iii.). Thecommon, technical term for "making a convert" in rabbinical literature is "ḳabbel" (toaccept), or "ḳareb taḥat kanfe ha-Shekinah" (to bring one near, or under the wings of, theShekinah). This phrase plainly presupposes an active propaganda for winning converts(comp. Cant. R. v. 16, where God is referred to as making propagandic efforts). In fact, thatproselytes are welcome in Israel and are beloved of God is the theme of many a rabbinicalhomily (Ruth R. iii.; Tan., Wayiḳra [ed. Buber, 3]; see also Mek., Mishpaṭim, 18; Tosef.,Demai, ii. 10; Bek. 32a)."

21. Proselytes and God-fearers Kirsopp Lake22. Todd C. Penner, In praise of Christian origins: Stephen and the Hellenists, p. 226, 2004:

"The category of Theosebes is notoriously difficult to delineate. It is debatable whether ornot the term was ever a widely recognized technical designation of a Gentile "hanger-on,"and much of the evidence is difficult to date".

23. James D. Arvila, p. 29.24. Journal of Biblical Studies: Godfearer, by J. Brian Tucker (http://www.journalofbiblicalstudie

s.org/Issue10/Godfearer.pdf): "The traditional understanding of God-fearers, i.e. F.F. Bruce,“God-fearers were Gentiles who attached themselves in varying degrees to the Jewishworship and way of life without as yet becoming full proselytes.”"

25. Dunn, James D. G. (2009). Beginning from Jerusalem: Christianity in the Making. 2. GrandRapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. p. 446. ISBN 978-0-8028-3932-9.

26. Bisschops, Ralph (January 2017). "Metaphor in Religious Transformation: 'Circumcision ofthe Heart' in Paul of Tarsus" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312589528_Metaphor_in_Religious_Transformation_'Circumcision_of_the_Heart'_in_Paul_of_Tarsus) (PDF). InChilton, Paul; Kopytowska, Monika (eds.). Language, Religion and the Human Mind. NewYork: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190636647.003.0012 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190636647.003.0012). ISBN 978-0-19-063664-7.Retrieved 30 November 2019.

27. Rubin, Jody P. (July 1980). "Celsus' Decircumcision Operation: Medical and HistoricalImplications" (http://www.cirp.org/library/restoration/rubin/). Urology. Elsevier. 16 (1): 121–124. doi:10.1016/0090-4295(80)90354-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0090-4295%2880%2990354-4). PMID 6994325 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6994325). Retrieved30 November 2019.

28. Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision: In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=514&letter=C&search=circumcision#2): "Contact withGrecian life, especially at the games of the arena [which involved nudity], made thisdistinction obnoxious to the Hellenists, or antinationalists; and the consequence was theirattempt to appear like the Greeks by epispasm ("making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i.15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18; Tosef., Shab. xv. 9; Yeb.72a, b; Yer. Peah i. 16b; Yeb. viii. 9a). All the more did the law-observing Jews defy theedict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and theJewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselvescircumcising their sons."; Hodges, Frederick M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in AncientGreece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos,Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/) (PDF). Bulletin of the History of Medicine. Johns Hopkins University Press. 75(Fall 2001): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fbhm.2001.0119). PMID 11568485 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11568485). Retrieved 30 November2019.

29. Dunn, James D. G., ed. (2007). " 'Neither circumcision nor uncircumcision, but...' " (https://books.google.com/books?id=hD8r9kotxQgC&pg=PA314). The New Perspective on Paul:Collected Essays. Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament. 185.Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. pp. 314–330. ISBN 978-3-16-149518-2. Retrieved 30 November2019.

30. Thiessen, Matthew (2016). "Gentile Sons and Seed of Abraham" (https://books.google.com/books?id=e3dYCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105). Paul and the Gentile Problem. New York: OxfordUniversity Press. pp. 105–115. ISBN 978-0-19-027175-6. Retrieved 30 November 2019.

Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm) mentions"fearers of God"Louis H. Feldman, “The Omnipresence of the God-Fearers” (http://cojs.org/louis-h-feldman-omnipresence-god-fearers-biblical-archaeology-review-12-5-1986/), Biblical ArchaeologyReview 12, 5 (1986), Center for Online Judaic StudiesA. Chaniotis, "Godfearers in the City of Love" (http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=3&ArticleID=2), Biblical Archaeology Review 36, 3 (2010),Biblical Archaeology SocietyA. Guttmacher, "Fear of God" (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=71&letter=F&search=fear%20of%20god) (1906), Jewish Encyclopedia

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31. Acts 15:1–2 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2015:1–15:2&version=rsv), Acts 15:6–10 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2015:6–15:10&version=rsv), Gal 5:2–3 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%205:2–5:3&version=rsv), Gal 5:6–12 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%205:6–5:12&version=rsv), Gal 6:12–15 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%206:12–6:15&version=rsv), Phil 3:2–3 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Philippians%203:2–3:3&version=rsv), 1 Cor 7:17–21 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1_Corinthians%207:17–7:21&version=rsv), Rom 2:17–29 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%202:17–2:29&version=rsv), Rom 3:9–28 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%203:9–3:28&version=rsv), Rom5:1–11 (https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%205:1–5:11&version=rsv).

32. Fredriksen, Paula (2018). When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation (https://books.google.com/books?id=NW9yDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA155). London: Yale University Press.p. 155. ISBN 978-0-300-19051-9.

External links

ProselyteThe biblical term "proselyte" is an anglicization of the Koine Greek term προσήλυτος (proselytos), asused in the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) for "stranger", i.e. a "newcomer to Israel";[1] a "sojournerin the land",[2] and in the Greek New Testament[3] for a first-century convert to Judaism, generally fromAncient Greek religion. It is a translation of the Biblical Hebrew phrase גר תושב (ger toshav).[3]

"Proselyte" also has the more general meaning in English of a new convert to any particular religion ordoctrine.

History of the proselyte in IsraelIn JudaismIn early ChristianitySee alsoReferencesExternal links

The Law of Moses made specific regulations regarding the admission into Israel's community of such aswere not born Israelites.[4]

The New Testament makes mention of proselytes in synagogues.[5] The name proselyte occurs in theNew Testament only in Matthew and Acts.[6] The name by which they are commonly designated is thatof "devout men", or men "fearing God", or "worshipping God", "fearers of Heaven" or "God-fearers".[7][8][9][10]

On the historical meaning of the Greek word, in chapter 2 of the apocryphal gospel Acts of Pilate(roughly dated from 150 to 400 CE), Annas and Caiaphas define "proselyte" for Pilate:

And Pilate, summoning the Jews, says to them: You know that my wife is a worshipper ofGod, and prefers to adhere to the Jewish religion along with you. ... Annas and Caiaphas sayto Pilate: All the multitude of us cry out that he [Jesus] was born of fornication, and are notbelieved; these [who disagree] are proselytes, and his disciples. And Pilate, calling Annasand Caiaphas, says to them: What are proselytes? They say to him: They are by birthchildren of the Greeks, and have now become Jews.

— Roberts Translation[11]

Contents

History of the proselyte in Israel

In Judaism

There are two kinds of proselytes in Rabbinic Judaism: ger tzedek (righteous proselytes, proselytes ofrighteousness, religious proselyte, devout proselyte) and ger toshav (resident proselyte, proselytes of thegate, limited proselyte, half-proselyte).

A "righteous proselyte" is a gentile who has converted to Judaism, is bound to all the doctrines andprecepts of the Jewish religion, and is considered a full member of the Jewish people. The proselyte iscircumcised as an adult (milah l'shem giur), if male, and immerses in a mikvah to formally effect theconversion.

A "gate proselyte"[12] is a resident alien who lives in the Land of Israel and follows some of the Jewishcustoms.[10] They are not required to be circumcised nor to comply with the whole of the Torah. They arebound only to conform to the Seven Laws of Noah[10] (do not worship idols, do not blaspheme God'sname, do not murder, do not commit fornication (immoral sexual acts), do not steal, do not tear the limbfrom a living animal, and do not fail to establish rule of law) to be assured of a place in the World tocome.

The "religious proselytes" spoken of in Early Christian writings[13] were likely righteous proselytesrather than gate proselytes.[14] There is some debate however as to whether proselytes known as God-fearers (Phoboumenoi)[15] and/or Worshippers (Sebomenoi),[16] who were baptized but not circumcised,fall into the righteous or gate category. The New Testament uses the word four times, exclusivelyreferring to converts to Judaism, and never referring to conversion to Christianity[17].

AnusimGerimNoahidismSons of Noah

1. 1 Chronicles 22:2 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1+Chronicles+22:2–22:2&version=nrsv)

2. Exodus 12:48 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+12:48–12:48&version=nrsv);20:10 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+20:10–20:10&version=nrsv); 22:21 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+22:21–22:21&version=nrsv)

3. "Genesis 1:1 (KJV)" (https://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/gen/1/1/s_1001). Blue Letter Bible.4. Exodus 20:10 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+20:10–20:10&version=nrsv);

23:12 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+23:12–23:12&version=nrsv); 12:19 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+12:19–12:19&version=nrsv); 12:48 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus+12:48–12:48&version=nrsv); Deuteronomy 5:14 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy+5:14–5:14&version=nrsv); 16:11-14 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy+16:11–16:14&version=nrsv), etc.

In early Christianity

See also

References

5. Acts 10:2-7 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+10:2–10:7&version=nrsv); 13:42-50 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:42–13:50&version=nrsv); 17:4 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+17:4–17:4&version=nrsv); 18:7 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+18:7–18:7&version=nrsv); Luke 7:5 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke+7:5–7:5&version=nrsv)

6. Matthew 23:15 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Matthew+23:15–23:15&version=nrsv);Acts 2:10 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+2:10–2:10&version=nrsv); 6:4 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+6:4–6:4&version=nrsv); 13:43 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:43–13:43&version=nrsv)

7. Louis H. Feldman (1992). " "Sympathizers" with Judaism" (https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA389). In Attridge, Harold W.; Hata, Gohei (eds.). Eusebius,Christianity, and Judaism. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. pp. 389–395. ISBN 0-8143-2361-8.

8. Feldman, Louis H.; Reinhold, Meyer, eds. (1996). " "Sympathizers" (God-fearers)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=_kvhzxTf6QoC&pg=PA137). Jewish Life and Thought amongGreeks and Romans. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 137–145. ISBN 0-567-08525-2.

9. Marcus, Ralph. "The Sebomenoi in Josephus". Jewish Social Studies. Indiana UniversityPress. 14 (3): 247–250. JSTOR 4465081 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4465081). "We knowfrom Pagan, Christian and Jewish sources that during the Hellenistic and early Romanperiods some Gentiles were so strongly attracted to Judaism that they became convertsand undertook to observe Jewish laws and customs in the same manner as did the Jewsthemselves. [...] It is also commonly assumed that there were some Gentiles who did not goso far as to become converts but indicated their belief in monotheism and gave up theworship of Pagan gods. How far they went in openly dissociating themselves fromPaganism and in associating themselves with Judaism we do not know. These Gentilesympathizers are commonly thought to be referred by the terms sebomenoi orphoboumenoi ton theon and metuentes in Greek and Latin sources, and yir᾿ê shamayim"fearers of Heaven" (i.e. God-fearers) in some early Rabbinic passages."

10.

“ Proselytes ad God-fearers.-Many scholars see a parallel between the "God-fearers" in rabbinic literature and the "God-fearers" in the NT. In rabbinicliterature the ger toshab was a Gentile who observed the Noachiancommandments but was not considered a convert to Judaism because he didnot agree to circumcision. [...] some scholars have made the mistake ofcalling the ger toshab a "proselyte" or "semiproselyte." But the ger toshabwas really a resident alien in Israel. Some scholars have claimed that theterm "those who fear God" (yir᾿ei Elohim/Shamayim) was used in rabbinicliterature to denote Gentiles who were on the fringe of the synagogue. Theywere not converts to Judaism, although they were attracted to the Jewishreligion and observed part of the law. ”

— Geoffrey W. Bromiley, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (1986, Fully Revised Edition), p.1010, Vol. 3, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids: Michigan, ISBN 0-8028-3783-2.

11. "Gospel of Nicodemus: Acts of Pilate (ANF text)" (http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/gospelnicodemus-roberts.html). earlychristianwritings.com.

12. bible verse Exodus 20:9-10, Deut 5:13-14, Deut 14:20-29 Deut 16:10-14, Deut 24:13-14,Deut 26:11-12, Deut 31:11-12

13. Acts 13:43 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:43–13:43&version=nrsv)14. The Bauer lexicon calls it a "mixed expression"

BeJewish.org (http://www.BeJewish.org)Abrahams, Israel (1911). "Proselyte" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Proselyte). Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). pp. 455–456.

Driscoll, James F. (1911). "Proselyte" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Proselyte). Catholic Encyclopedia. 12.

Jacobs, Joseph; Hirsch, Emil G. (1905). "Proselyte" (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12391-proselyte). The Jewish Encyclopedia. 10. pp. 220–224.AskNoah.org - United Noahide Academies (http://www.asknoah.org)Noahide.org - Institute of Noahide Law (http://www.noahide.org)HaMikdash.com - The Responsibilities of the Gentiles (https://web.archive.org/web/20060718210224/http://www.hamikdash.com/Rambam.html)BneiNoach.org - Noachide Resource Center (http://www.bneinoach.org/news.php)Noachide.org.uk - Bnai Noach in the UK (http://www.noachide.org.uk)Free Online Book: 'The Path of the Righteous Gentile' (https://web.archive.org/web/20060711034402/http://www.moshiach.com/action/morality/in-depth.php)Gentiles and Circumcision (https://web.archive.org/web/20060613184451/http://www.gentiles-and-circumcision.info/)Godfearers in the City of Love (http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=3&ArticleID=2) Biblical Archaeology Review

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15. Luke 1:50 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke+1:50–1:50&version=nrsv),18:2-4 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Luke+18:2–18:4&version=nrsv); Acts 10:2 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+10:2–10:2&version=nrsv),10:22 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+10:22–10:22&version=nrsv),10:35 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+10:35–10:35&version=nrsv),13:16 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:16–13:16&version=nrsv),13:26 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:26–13:26&version=nrsv); 1 Pet2:17 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1+Peter+2:17–2:17&version=nrsv); Rev 14:7 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Revelation+14:7–14:7&version=nrsv), 19:5 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Revelation+19:5–19:5&version=nrsv)

16. Acts 13:43 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:43–13:43&version=nrsv),13:50 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+13:50–13:50&version=nrsv),16:14 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+16:14–16:14&version=nrsv),17:4 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+17:4–17:4&version=nrsv),17:17 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+17:17–17:17&version=nrsv),18:7 (https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Acts+18:7–18:7&version=nrsv);Josephus Ant. 14.7.2 (http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-14.htm)

17. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Gerhard Kittel, Gerhard Friedrich, trans.Geoffrey Bromiley, volume VI p742.

External links

Generations of NoahThe Generations of Noah or Table of Nations, broadly referredto as Origines gentium, is a genealogy of the sons of Noah,according to the Hebrew Bible (Genesis 10), and their dispersioninto many lands after the Flood,[1] focusing on the major knownsocieties. The term nations to describe the descendants is astandard English translation of the Hebrew word "goy", followingthe c. 400 CE Latin Vulgate's "nationes", and does not have thesame political connotations that the word entails today.[2]

The list of 70 names introduces for the first time a number of wellknown ethnonyms and toponyms important to biblicalgeography,[3] such as Noah's three sons Shem, Ham and Japheth,from which 18th century German scholars at the GöttingenSchool of History derived the race terminology Semites, Hamitesand Japhetites. Certain of Noah's grandsons were also used fornames of peoples: from Elam, Ashur, Aram, Cush, and Canaanwere derived respectively the Elamites, Assyrians, Arameans,Cushites, and Canaanites. Likewise from the sons of Canaan:Heth, Jebus, and Amorus were derived Hittites, Jebusites, andAmorites. Further descendants of Noah include Eber – fromShem (from whom come the "Hebrews"); the hunter-king Nimrod– from Cush; and the Philistines – from Misrayim.

As Christianity spread across the Roman world, it carried the ideathat all people were descended from Noah. But the tradition ofHellenistic Jewish identifications of the ancestry of variouspeoples, which concentrates very much on the EastMediterranean and the Near East (described below), becamestretched and its historicity questioned. Not all Near Easternpeople were covered, and northern peoples important to the LateRoman and medieval world, such as the Celtic, Slavic, Germanic,and Nordic peoples were not covered, nor were others of theworld's peoples, such as sub-Saharan Africans, NativeAmericans, and peoples of Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent,the Far East, and Australasia. A variety of arrangements weredevised by scholars in order to make the table fit, with forexample the Scythians, who do feature in the tradition, beingclaimed as the ancestors of much of northern Europe.[4]

According to Joseph Blenkinsopp, the 70 names in the list express symbolically the unity of humanity,corresponding to the 70 descendants of Israel who go down into Egypt with Jacob at Genesis 46:27 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0146.htm#27) and the 70 elders of Israel who visit God with Mosesat the covenant ceremony in Exodus 24:1–9 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0224.htm#1).[5]

This T and O map, from the firstprinted version of Isidore'sEtymologiae, identifies the threeknown continents as populated bydescendants of Sem (Shem), Cham(Ham) and Iafeth (Japheth).

The world according to the Mosaicaccount (1854 map)

Table of NationsBook of GenesisBook of ChroniclesBook of JubileesSeptuagint version1 Peter

Sons of Noah: Shem, Ham and JaphethProblems with identification

Ethnological interpretationsExtrabiblical sons of NoahSee alsoNotesReferences

CitationsBibliography

External links

On the family pedigrees contained in the biblical pericope of Noah, Saadia Gaon (882‒942) wrote:

The Scriptures have traced the patronymic lineage of the seventy nations to the three sons ofNoah, as also the lineage of Abraham and Ishmael, and of Jacob and Esau. The blessedCreator knew that men would find solace at knowing these family pedigrees, since our souldemands of us to know them, so that [all of] mankind will be held in fondness by us, as atree that has been planted by God in the earth, whose branches have spread out anddispersed eastward and westward, northward and southward, in the habitable part of theearth. It also has the dual function of allowing us to see the multitude as a single individual,and the single individual as a multitude. Along with this, man ought to contemplate also onthe names of the countries and of the cities [wherein they settled]."[6]

Maimonides, echoing the same sentiments, wrote that the genealogy of the nations contained in the Lawhas the unique function of establishing a principle of faith, how that, although from Adam to Moses therewas no more than a span of two-thousand five hundred years, and the human race was already spreadover all parts of the earth in different families and with different languages, they were still people havinga common ancestor and place of beginning.[7]

Chapters 1–11 of the Book of Genesis are structured around five toledot statements ("these are thegenerations of..."), of which the "generations of the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth" is the fourth.Events before the Genesis flood narrative, the central toledot, correspond to those after: the post-Flood

Contents

Table of Nations

Book of Genesis

world is a new creation corresponding to the Genesis creationnarrative, and like Adam, Noah has three sons who will populatethe world. The correspondences extend forward as well: there are70 names in the Table, corresponding to the 70 Israelites who godown into Egypt at the end of Genesis and to the 70 elders ofIsrael who go up the mountain at Sinai to meet with God inExodus. The symbolic force of these numbers is underscored bythe way the names are frequently arranged in groups of seven,suggesting that the Table is a symbolic means of implyinguniversal moral obligation.[8] The number 70 also parallels acorruption of the account in the Hebrew religion, the Canaanitemythology, where 70 represents the number of gods in the divineclan who are each assigned a subject people, and where thesupreme god El and his consort, Asherah, has the title"Mother/Father of 70 gods," which, due to the coming ofmonotheism, had to be changed, but its symbolism lived on in thenew religion.

The overall structure of the Table is:

1. Introductory formula, v.12. Japheth, vv.2–53. Ham, vv.6–204. Shem, vv.21–315. Concluding formula, v.32.[9]

The overall principle governing the assignment of various peoples within the Table is difficult to discern:it purports to describe all humankind, but in reality restricts itself to the Egyptian lands of the south, theMesopotamian lands, and Anatolia/Asia Minor and the Ionian Greeks, and in addition, the "sons ofNoah" are not organized by geography, language family or ethnic groups within these regions.[10] TheTable contains several difficulties: for example, the names Sheba and Havilah are listed twice, first asdescendants of Cush the son of Ham (verse 7), and then as sons of Joktan, the great-grandsons of Shem,and while the Cushites are North African in verses 6–7 they are unrelated Mesopotamians in verses 10–14.[11]

The date of composition of Genesis 1–11 cannot be fixed with any precision, although it seems likely thatan early brief nucleus was later expanded with extra data.[12] Portions of the Table itself 'may' derivefrom the 10th century BCE, while others reflect the 7th century BCE and priestly revisions in the 5thcentury BCE.[1] Its combination of world review, myth and genealogy corresponds to the work of theGreek historian Hecataeus of Miletus, active c.520 BCE.[13]

I Chronicles 1 includes a version of the Table of Nations from Genesis, but edited to make clearer that theintention is to establish the background for Israel. This is done by condensing various branches to focuson the story of Abraham and his offspring. Most notably, it omits Genesis 10:9–14, in which Nimrod, ason of Cush, is linked to various cities in Mesopotamia, thus removing from Cush any Mesopotamianconnection. In addition, Nimrod does not appear in any of the numerous Mesopotamian King Lists.[14]

Noah dividing the world between hissons. Anonymous painter; Russia,18th century

Book of Chronicles

The Table of Nations is expanded upon in detail in chapters 8–9of the Book of Jubilees, sometimes known as the "LesserGenesis," a work from the early Second Temple period.[15]

Jubilees is considered pseudepigraphical by most Christian andJewish sects but thought to have been held in regard by many ofthe Church Fathers.[16] Its division of the descendants throughoutthe world are thought to have been heavily influenced by the"Ionian world map" described in the Histories (Herodotus),[17]

and the anomalous treatment of Canaan and Madai are thought tohave been "propaganda for the territorial expansion of theHasmonean state".[18]

The Hebrew bible was translated into Greek in Alexandria at the request of Ptolemy II, who reigned overEgypt 285–246 BCE.[19] Its version of the Table of Nations is substantially the same as that in theHebrew text, but with the following differences:

It lists Elisa as an extra son of Japheth, giving him eight instead of seven, while continuingto list him also as a son of Javan, as in the Masoretic text.Whereas the Hebrew text lists Shelah as the son of Arpachshad in the line of Shem, theSeptuagint has a Cainan as the son of Arpachshad and father of Shelah – the Book ofJubilees gives considerable scope to this figure. Cainan appears again at the end of the listof the sons of Shem.Obal, Joktan's eighth son in the Masoretic text, does not appear.[20]

In the First Epistle of Peter, 3:20, the author says that eight righteous persons were saved from the GreatFlood, referring to the four named males, and their wives aboard Noah's Ark not enumerated elsewherein the Bible.

The Genesis flood narrative tells how Noah and his three sons Shem, Ham, and Japheth, together withtheir wives, were saved from the Deluge to repopulate the Earth.

Shem's descendants: Genesis chapter 10 verses 21-30 gives one list of descendants ofShem. In chapter 11 verses 10-26 a second list of descendants of Shem names Abrahamand thus the Israelites.[21] In the view of some 17th-century European scholars (e.g., JohnWebb), the Native American peoples of North and South America, eastern Persia and "theIndias" descended from Shem.[22]

Ham's descendants: The forefather of Cush, Egypt, and Put, and of Canaan, whose landsinclude portions of Africa, Arabia, Syria-Palestine and Mesopotamia. The etymology of hisname is uncertain; some scholars have linked it to terms connected with divinity, but adivine or semi-divine status for Ham is unlikely.[23]

Book of Jubilees

Ionian world map

Septuagint version

1 Peter

Sons of Noah: Shem, Ham and Japheth

Japheth's descendants: His name is associated with themythological Greek Titan Iapetos, and his sons includeJavan, the Greek-speaking cities of Ionia.[24] In Genesis9:27 it forms a pun with the Hebrew root yph: "May Godmake room [the hiphil of the yph root] for Japheth, thathe may live in Shem's tents and Canaan may be hisslave."[25]

Based on an old Jewish tradition contained in the AramaicTargum of pseudo-Jonathan ben Uzziel,[26] an anecdotalreference to the Origines gentium in Genesis 10:2-ff (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0110.htm#2) has been passed down,and which, in one form or another, has also been relayed byJosephus in his Antiquities,[27] repeated in the Talmud,[28] andfurther elaborated by medieval Jewish scholars, such as in workswritten by Saadia Gaon,[29] Josippon,[30] and Don IsaacAbarbanel,[31] who, based on their own knowledge of the nations, showed their migratory patterns at thetime of their compositions:

“The sons of Japheth are Gomer, and Magog,[32] and Madai,[33] and Javan,[34] andTuval,[35] and Meshech[36] and Tiras,[37] while the names of their diocese are Africaproper,[38] and Germania,[39] and Media, and Macedonia, and Bithynia, and Moesia (var.Mysia) and Thrace. Now, the sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz,[40] and Rifath[41] andTogarmah,[42] while the names of their diocese are Asia,[43] and Parthia and the ‘land of thebarbarians.’ The sons of Javan were Elisha,[44] and Tarshish,[45] Kitim[46] and Dodanim,[47]

while the names of their diocese are Elis,[48] and Tarsus, Achaia[49] and Dardania.” ---Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Genesis 10:2–5

“The sons of Ḥam are Kūš, and Miṣrayim,[50] and Fūṭ (Phut),[51] and Kenaʻan,[52] whilethe names of their diocese are Arabia, and Egypt, and Elīḥerūq[53] and Canaan. The sons ofKūš are Sebā[54] and Ḥawīlah[55] and Savtah[56] and Raʻamah and Savteḫā,[57] [while thesons of Raʻamah are Ševā and Dedan].[58] The names of their diocese are called Sīnīrae,[59]

and Hīndīqī,[60] Samarae,[61] Lūbae,[62] Zinğae,[63] while the sons of Mauretinos[64] are [theinhabitants of] Zemarğad and [the inhabitants of] Mezağ.”[65] ---Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on

Genesis 10:6-7

“The sons of Shem are Elam,[66] and Ashur,[67] and Arphaxad,[68] and Lud,[69] andAram.[70] [And the children of Aram are these: Uz,[71] and Hul,[72] and Gether,[73] andMash.[74]] Now, Arphaxad begat Shelah (Salah), and Shelah begat Eber.[75] Unto Eber wereborn two sons, the one named Peleg,[76] since in his days the [nations of the] earth weredivided, while the name of his brother is Joktan.[77] Joktan begat Almodad, who measuredthe earth with ropes;[78] Sheleph, who drew out the waters of rivers;[79] andHazarmaveth,[80] and Jerah,[81] and Hadoram,[82] and Uzal,[83] and Diklah,[84] and Obal,[85]

and Abimael,[86] and Sheba,[82][87] and Ophir,[88] and Havilah,[89] and Jobab,[90] all ofwhom are the sons of Joktan.”[91] ---Targum Pseudo-Jonathan on Genesis 10: 22–28

1823 map by Robert Wilkinson (seealso 1797 version here). Prior to themid-19th century, Shem wasassociated with all of Asia, Ham withall of Africa and Japheth with all ofEurope.

While the three major family-types of mankind and their distinct physiognamies may be easy torecognise and classify as a whole, determining precise descent-groups, however, based strictly onpatrilineal descent, may prove to be more difficult, owing to the fact that nations are not stationary.People are often multi-lingual and multi-ethnic, and people sometimes migrate from one country toanother - whether voluntarily or involuntarily. Some nations have intermingled with other nations andcan no longer trace their paternal descent,[92] or have assimilated and abandoned their mother's tonguefor another language. In addition, phenotypes cannot always be used to determine one's ethnicity becauseof interracial marriages. A nation today is defined as "a large aggregate of people inhabiting a particularterritory united by a common descent, history, culture, or language." The biblical line of descent isirrespective of language, place of nativity,[93] or cultural influences, as all that is binding is one'spatrilineal line of descent.[94] For these reasons, attempting to determine precise blood relation of anyone group in today's Modern Age may prove futile. Sometimes people sharing a common patrilinealdescent spoke two separate languages, whereas, at other times, a language spoken by a people ofcommon descent may have been learnt and spoken by multiple other nations of different descent.

Identifying human races in terms of their Biblical lineage, based on the Generations of Noah, has beencommon since antiquity. The early modern Biblical division of the world's races into Semites, Hamitesand Japhetites was coined at the Göttingen School of History in the late 18th century – in parallel withthe Color terminology for race which divided mankind into five colored races ("Caucasian or White","Mongolian or Yellow", "Aethiopian or Black", "American or Red" and "Malayan or Brown"). Thisdesignation, while perhaps generally correct, can also be misleading, since some of Shem's posterity areknown to have dark complexions, as stated by Pirke Rabbi Eliezer.[95]

While Genesis 10 was covered extensively by numerous Christian, Jewish and Muslim scholars overmany centuries, the phrase "Table" of nations only appeared and became popular in English from the1830s.

There exist various traditions in post-biblical and talmudic sources claiming that Noah had children otherthan Shem, Ham, and Japheth who were born before the Deluge.

According to the Quran (Hud 42–43), Noah had another unnamed son who refused to come aboard theArk, instead preferring to climb a mountain, where he drowned. Some later Islamic commentators givehis name as either Yam or Kan'an.[96]

According to Irish mythology, as found in the Annals of the Four Masters and elsewhere, Noah hadanother son named Bith who was not allowed aboard the Ark, and who attempted to colonise Irelandwith 54 persons, only to be wiped out in the Deluge.

Some 9th-century manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle assert that Sceafa was the fourth son ofNoah, born aboard the Ark, from whom the House of Wessex traced their ancestry; in William ofMalmesbury's version of this genealogy (c. 1120), Sceaf is instead made a descendant of Strephius, thefourth son born aboard the Ark (Gesta Regnum Anglorum).

Problems with identification

Ethnological interpretations

Extrabiblical sons of Noah

An early Arabic work known as Kitab al-Magall "Book of Rolls" (part of Clementine literature)mentions Bouniter, the fourth son of Noah, born after the flood, who allegedly invented astronomy andinstructed Nimrod.[97] Variants of this story with often similar names for Noah's fourth son are also foundin the c. fifth century Ge'ez work Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan (Barvin), the c. sixth centurySyriac book Cave of Treasures (Yonton), the seventh century Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius(Ionitus[98]), the Syriac Book of the Bee 1221 (Yônatôn), the Hebrew Chronicles of Jerahmeel, c. 12th–14th century (Jonithes), and throughout Armenian apocryphal literature, where he is usually referred toas Maniton; as well as in works by Petrus Comestor c. 1160 (Jonithus), Godfrey of Viterbo 1185(Ihonitus), Michael the Syrian 1196 (Maniton), Abu al-Makarim c. 1208 (Abu Naiţur); Jacob vanMaerlant c. 1270 (Jonitus), and Abraham Zacuto 1504 (Yoniko).

Martin of Opava (c. 1250), later versions of the Mirabilia Urbis Romae, and the Chronicon Bohemorumof Giovanni di Marignola (1355) make Janus (the Roman deity) the fourth son of Noah, who moved toItaly, invented astrology, and instructed Nimrod.

According to the monk Annio da Viterbo (1498), the Hellenistic Babylonian writer Berossus hadmentioned 30 children born to Noah after the Deluge, including Macrus, Iapetus Iunior (Iapetus theYounger), Prometheus Priscus (Prometheus the Elder), Tuyscon Gygas (Tuyscon the Giant), Crana,Cranus, Granaus, 17 Tytanes (Titans), Araxa Prisca (Araxa the Elder), Regina, Pandora Iunior (Pandorathe Younger), Thetis, Oceanus, and Typhoeus. However, Annio's manuscript is widely regarded today ashaving been a forgery.[99]

Historicity of the BibleNoah's ArkWives aboard the Ark

Dillmann, A., Genesis: Critically and Exegetically Expounded, Vol. 1, Edinburgh, UK, T. andT. Clark, 1897, 314.Kautzsch, E.F.: quoted by James Orr, "The Early Narratives of Genesis," in TheFundamentals, Vol. 1, Los Angeles, CA, Biola Press, 1917.

1. Rogers 2000, p. 1271.2. Guido Zernatto and Alfonso G. Mistretta (July 1944). "Nation: The History of a Word". The

Review of Politics. Cambridge University Press. 6 (3): 351–366.doi:10.1017/s0034670500021331 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0034670500021331).JSTOR 1404386 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1404386).

3. "Biblical Geography (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06428c.htm)," CatholicEncyclopedia: "The ethnographical list in Genesis 10 is a valuable contribution to theknowledge of the old general geography of the East, and its importance can scarcely beoverestimated."

See also

Notes

References

Citations

4. Johnson, James William, "The Scythian: His Rise and Fall", Journal of the History of Ideas,Vol. 20, No. 2 (Apr., 1959), pp. 250-257, University of Pennsylvania Press, JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2707822)

5. Blenkinsopp 2011, p. 156.6. Saadia Gaon 1984b, p. 180.7. Ben Maimon 1956, p. 381 (part 3, ch. 50).8. Blenkinsopp 2011, pp. 4 and 155–156.9. Towner 2001, p. 102.

10. Gmirkin 2006, p. 140–141.11. Towner 2001, p. 101–102.12. Blenkinsopp 2011, p. 156–157.13. Brodie 2001, p. 186.14. Sadler 2009, p. 123.15. Scott 2005, p. 4.16. Machiela 2009.17. Ruiten 2000.18. Alexander 1988, p. 102–103.19. Pietersma & Wright 2007, p. xiii.20. Scott 2005, p. 25.21. Strawn 2000a, p. 1205.22. Mungello, David E. (1989). Curious land: Jesuit accommodation and the origins of Sinology

(https://books.google.com/?id=wb4yPw4ZgZQC&printsec=frontcover&q=Noah#v=snippet&q=Shem&f=false;). University of Hawaii Press. pp. 179, 336–337. ISBN 0-8248-1219-0."there are more references in that book on the early Jesuits' and others' opinions on Noah'sConnection to China"

23. Strawn 2000b, p. 543.24. Blenkinsopp 2011, p. 158.25. Thompson 2014, p. 102.26. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (1974)27. Josephus 1998, pp. 1.6.1-4.28. Jerusalem Talmud, Megillah 1:9 [10a]; Babylonian Talmud, Yoma 10a29. Saadia Gaon 1984, pp. 31–34.30. Josippon 1971, pp. 1–2.31. Abarbanel 1960, pp. 173–174.32. His progeny were initially called by the Greeks "Scythians" (Herodotus, Book IV. 3-7; pp.

203-207), a people that originally inhabited those lands stretching between the Black andAral Seas (S.E. Europe and Asia), although some of which people later went as fareastward as the Altai Mountains. Abarbanel (1960:173) alleges that Magog was also theprogenitor of the Goths, a Germanic race. The Goths have a history of migration where theyare known to have settled among other nations, such as among the inhabitants of Italy andof France and of Spain. See Isidore of Seville (1970:3). The Jerusalem Talmud, Leiden MS.(Megillah 1:9 [10a]) uses the word Getae to describe the descendants of Magog. Accordingto Isidore of Seville (2006:197), the Dacians (the ancient people inhabiting Romania -formerly Thrace) were offshoots of the Goths.

33. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1.), Madai's posterity inhabited the country of theMedes, the capital city of which, according to Herodotus, was Ecbatana.

34. According to Josippon (1971:1), the descendants of Javan inhabited Macedonia. Accordingto Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1.), from Javan were derived the Ionians and all the Grecians.

35. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1), the descendants of Tuval settled in the IberianPeninsula. Abarbanel (1960:173), citing Josippon, concurs with this view, who adds that,besides Spain, some of his descendants had also settled in Pisa (of Italy), as well as inFrance along the River Seine, and in Britain. The Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 10a),following the Aramaic Targum, ascribes the descendants of Tuval to the region of Bithynia.Alternatively, Josephus may have been referring to the Caucasian Iberians, the ancestors ofmodern Georgians.

36. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1), Meshech was the father of the indigenouspeoples of Cappadocia in Central Anatolia, Turkey, where they had built the city Mazaca.This view is followed by Abarbanel (1960:173), although he seemed to confoundCappadocia with another place by the same name in Greater Armenia, near the EuphratesRiver. R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32 - note 5) opined that the descendants of Meshech had alsosettled in Khorasan. The Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 10a), following the Aramaic Targum,ascribes the descendants of Meshech to the region of Moesia.

37. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1) and the Jerusalem Talmud (Megillah 10a), thedescendants of Tiras are said to have originally settled in the country of Thrace (Thracians).In the Babylonian Talmud (Yoma 10a), one rabbi holds that some of his descendants settledin Persia, a view held also by R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32). According to Josippon (1971:1),Tiras was the ancestor of the Russian people (perhaps Kievan Rus'), as well as of thosepeoples who first settled in Bosnia, and in England (perhaps referring to the ancient Britons,the Picts, and the Scots – a Celtic race). This opinion seems to be followed by Abarbanel(1960:173) who wrote that Tiras was the ancestor of the Russian people and of the nativepeoples of England.

38. The sense here is to Africa Zeugitana in the north; Africa Byzacena to its adjacent south(corresponding to eastern Tunisia), and Africa Tripolitania to its adjacent south(corresponding to southern Tunisia and northwest Libya). All of which were part of theDioecesis Africae, or Africa propria, in early Roman times. See Leo Africanus (1974), vol. 1,p. 22. Neubauer (1868:400) thought that Afriki in the Aramaic text "should necessarilyrepresent a country in Asia here. Some scholars want to see Phrygia there, others Iberia"(End Quote).

39. Historians and anthropologists note that the entire region east of the Rhine River wasknown by the Romans as Germania (Germany), or what is transcribed in some sources asGermani, Germanica. The region, though now settled by a multitude of mixed peoples, wasresettled some 4,500 years ago (based on a study presented in 2013 by Professor Alan J.Cooper, from the Australian Center for Ancient DNA, and by fellow co-worker Dr. WolfgangHaak, who carried out research on early Neolithic skeletons discovered during anexcavation in Sweden, and published in the article, "Ancient Europeans MysteriouslyVanished 4,500 Years Ago"); being resettled by a group of peoples comprising theGermanic Tribes, which group is largely thought to include the Goths, whether Ostrogothsor Visigoths, the Vandals and the Franks, Burgundians, Alans, Langobards, Angles,Saxons, Jutes, Suebi and Alamanni.

40. Considered by many to be the progenitor of the ancient Gauls (the people of Gallia,meaning, from Austria, France and Belgium, although this view is not conclusive. Accordingto Saadia Gaon's Tafsir (a Judeo-Arabic translation of the Pentateuch), Ashkenaz was theprogenitor of the Slavic peoples (Slovenes, etc.). According to Gedaliah ibn Jechia'sseminal work, Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah (p. 219), who cites in the name of Sefer Yuchasin,the descendants of Ashkenaz had also originally settled in what was then called Bohemia,which today is the present-day Czech Republic. This view is corroborated by native Czechhistorian and chronicler Dovid Solomon Ganz (1541–1613), author of a book published inHebrew, entitled Tzemach Dovid (Part II, p. 71; 3rd edition pub. in Warsaw, 1878), who,citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, writes that the Czech Republic was formerly called Bohemia(Latin: Boihaemum). Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1) simply writes for Ashkenaz that he wasthe progenitor of the people whom the Greeks call Rheginians, a people which Isidore ofSeville (2006:193) identified with Sarmatians. Jonathan ben Uzziel, who rendered anAramaic translation of the Book of Jeremiah in the early 1st-century CE, wrote thatAshkenaz in Jeremiah 51:27 is Hurmini (Jastrow: "probably a province of Armenia"), andAdiabene, suggesting that the descendants of Ashkenaz had also originally settled there.

41. R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32) in his translation of Genesis 10:3 thought Rifath to be theprogenitor of the Franks, whom he called in Judeo-Arabic פרנגה. In contrast, Abarbanel(1960:173), like Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1), opined that the descendants of Rifath settledin Paphlagonia, a region corresponding with Cappadocia (Roman province) in Asia Minor.Abarbanel added that some of these people (from Paphlagonia) eventually made their wayinto Venice, in Italy, while others went to France and to Lesser Britain (Brittany) where theysettled along the Loire river. According to Josippon (1971:1), Rifath was the ancestor of theindigenous peoples of Brittany. The author of the Midrash Rabba (on Genesis Rabba §37)takes a different view, alleging that the descendants of Rifath settled in Adiabene.

42. Togarmah is considered by medieval Jewish scholars as being the progenitor of the originalTurks, of whom were the Phrygians, according to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1). According toR. Judah Halevi in his Kuzari, and according to the book Josippon (book I), Togarmahfathered ten sons, who were these: 1. Kuzar (Khazar; Cusar), actually the seventh son ofTogarmah, and whose progeny became known as Khazars. In a letter written by KingJoseph of the Khazar to Hasdai ibn Shaprut, he claimed that he and his people aredescended from Japheth, through son Togarmah; 2. Pechineg (Pizenaci), the ancestor of apeople that settled along the Danube River. Some Pechenegs had also settled along theriver Atil (Volga), and likewise on the river Geïch (Ural), having common frontiers with theKhazars and the so-called Uzes; 3. Elikanos; 4. Bulgar, the ancestor of the early inhabitantsof Bulgaria. These also settled along the lower courses of the Danube River; 5. Ranbina; 6.Turk, perhaps the ancestor of the Phrygians of Asia Minor (Turkey); 7. Buz; 8. Zavokh; 9.Ungar, the ancestor of the early inhabitants of Hungary. These also settled along theDanube River; 10. Dalmatia, the ancestors of the first inhabitants of Croatia. According to R.Saadia Gaon (1984:32 - note 9), some of Togarmah's descendants settled in Tadzhikistan incentral Asia. Jonathan ben Uzziel, who rendered an Aramaic translation of the Book ofEzekiel in the early 1st-century CE, wrote that Togarmah in Ezekiel 27:14 is the province ofGermamia (var. Germania), suggesting that his descendants had originally settled there.The same view is taken by the author of the Midrash Rabba (Genesis Rabba §37).

43. Asia, the sense being to Asia Minor. In the language employed by Israel's Sages, this placeis always associated with the western part of Turkey, the largest city of which region duringthe period of Israel's sages being Ephesus, situated on the coast of Ionia, near present-daySelçuk, Izmir Province, in west Turkey (cf. Josephus, Antiquities 14.10.11).

44. A name typically associated with the Aeolians, who settled in Ilida (formerly known as Elis)in Greece, and in the regions thereabout. Jonathan ben Uzziel, who rendered an Aramaictranslation of the Book of Ezekiel in the early 1st-century CE, wrote that Elisha in Ezekiel27:7 is the province of Italy, suggesting that his descendants had originally settled there.According to Hebrew Bible exegete, Abarbanel (1960:173), they also established a largecolony in Sicily, whose inhabitants are known as Sicilians. According to Josippon (1971:1),Elisha's descendants had also settled in Germany (Almania).

45. According to Abarbanel (1960:173), the descendants of Tarshish eventually settled inTuscany and in Lombardy, and made-up parts of the populations of Florence, Milan, andVenice, underscoring the fact that the migration of man and of different ethnic groups isalways fluid and ever changing.

46. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.1), and R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32), Kitim was thefather of the indigenous peoples who inhabited the isle of Cyprus. According to Josippon(1971:2), Kitim was also the forebear of the Romans who settled along the Tiber river, in theCampus Martius flood plain. Jonathan ben Uzziel, who rendered an Aramaic translation ofthe Book of Ezekiel in the early 1st-century CE, wrote that the Kitim in Ezekiel 27:6 is theprovince of Apulia, suggesting that his descendants had originally settled there.

47. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32 - note 13), the descendants of Dodanim settled inAdana, a city in southern Turkey, on the Seyhan River. According to Josippon (1971:2),Dodanim was the forebear of the Croatians and the Slovenians, among other nations.Abarbanel (1960:173) held that the descendants of Dodanim settled the isle of Rhodes.

48. Now called Ilida (in southern Greece on the Peloponnese).49. This place is distinguished by being the northwestern part of the Peloponnese peninsula.50. Misrayim was the progenitor of the indigenous Egyptians, from whom are descended the

Copts. Misrayim's sons were Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, Casluhim(out of whom came Philistim), and Caphtorim.

51. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.2), and Abarbanel (1960:173), Fūṭ is the progenitorof the indigenous peoples of Libya. R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32 - note 15) writes in Judeo-Arabic that Fūṭ's name has been preserved as an eponym in the town called תפת, andwhich Yosef Qafih thought may have been the town תוות mentioned by Ibn Battuta, a townin the Sahara bounded by present-day Morocco.

52. The reference here is to Canaan, who became the father of eleven sons, the descendantsof whom leaving the names of their fathers as eponyms in their respective places wherethey came to settle (e.g. Ṣīdon, Yəḇūsī, etc. See Descendants of Canaan). The children ofCanaan had initially settled the regions south of the Taurus Mountains (Amanus) stretchingas far as the border of Egypt. During the Israelite's conquest of Canaan under Joshua,some of the Canaanites were expelled and went into North Africa, settling initially in andaround Carthage; on this account see Epiphanius (1935), p. 77 (75d - §79) and MidrashRabba (Leviticus Rabba 17:6), where, in the latter case, Joshua is said to have written threeletters to the Canaanites, requesting them to either take leave of the country, or makepeace with Israel, or engage Israel in warfare. The Gergesites took leave of the country andwere given a country as beautiful as their own in Africa propria. The Tosefta (Shabbat 7[8]:25) mentions the country in respect to the Amorites who went there.

53. Not identified. Possibly a region in Libya. Jastrow has suggested that the place may havebeen an Egyptian eparchy or nomos, probably Heracleotes. The name also appears in RavYosef's Aramaic Targum of I Chronicles 1:8–ff.

54. Sebā is thought to have left his name to the town of Saba, which name, according toJosephus (Antiquities 2.10.2.), was later changed by Cambyses the Persian to Meroë, afterthe name of his own sister. Sebā's descendants are thought to have originally settled inMeroë, along the banks of the upper Nile River.

55. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32), this man's descendants are said to have settled inZawilah, a place explained by medieval traveler Benjamin of Tudela as being "the land ofGana (Fezzan south of Tripoli)," situated at a distance of a 62-day caravan-journey, goingwestward from Assuan in Egypt, and passing through the great desert called Sahara. SeeAdler (2014), p. 61 (https://books.google.ca/books?id=mflHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA61&dq=Jewish+Travellers+zawilah&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj37rn8mLbYAhVjxoMKHbS2BsQQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q&f=false)). The Arab chronicler and geographer, Ibn Ḥaukal (travelled943-969 CE), says of Zawilah that it is a place in the eastern part of the Maghreb, addingthat "from Kairouan (Tunis) to Zawilah is a journey of one month." Abarbanel (1960:174),like Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.2.), explains this strip of country to be inhabited by theGaetuli, and which place is described by Pliny in his Natural History as being between Libyaand a stretch of desert as one travels southward. The 10th-century Karaite scholar, Yefetben Ali (p. 114 - folio A), identified "the land of Havilah" in Genesis 2:11 with "the land ofZawilah," and which he says is a land "encompassed by the Pishon river," a river which heidentified as the Nile River, based on an erroneous, medieval-Arab geographicalperspective where the Niger River was thought to be an extension of the Nile River. See IbnKhaldun (1967:118). In contrast, Yefet ben Ali identified the Gihon River of Genesis 2:13with that of Amu Darya (al-Jiḥān / Jayhon of the Islamic texts), and which river encircled theentire Hindu Kush. Ben Ali's interpretation stands in direct contradiction to Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, where it assigns the "land of Havilah" (in Gen. 2:11) to the "land of India."

56. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32 - note 18), Savtah was the forebear of the peopleswho originally settled in Zagāwa, a place thought to be identical with Zaghāwa in the far-western regions of Sudan, and what is also called Wadai. According to Josephus(Antiquities 1.6.2.), the descendants of Savtah were called by the Grecians "Astaborans," anortheastern Sudanic people.

57. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32), Savteḫā was the progenitor of the inhabitants ofDemas, probably the ancient port city and harbour in Tunisia, mentioned by Pliny, now anextensive ruin along the Barbary Coast called Ras ed-Dimas, located ca. 15 kilometres(9.3 mi) from the island of Lampedusa, and ca. 200 kilometres (120 mi) southeast ofCarthage.

58. Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.2.) calls the descendants of Dedan "a people of westernAethiopia" and which place "they founded as a colony" (Αἰθιοπικὸν ἔθνος τῶν ἑσπερίωνοἰκίσας). R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32 - note 22), in contrast, thought that the children ofDedan came to settle in India.

59. A place thought to be in present-day Sudan.60. A place on the sub-continent of India.61. Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, describes this place as being situate along the banks

of the Nile River.62. Also known as Byzacium, or what is now called Tunisia.63. The medieval Arab geographers gave the name Zinğ or Zinj to the African people who dwell

along the Indian Ocean, such as in present-day Kenya, but may also refer to places alongthe Swahili Coast. See Ibn Khaldun (1927), p. 106, who writes in the 14th-century of theZinğ on this wise: "Ibn-Said enumerates nineteen peoples or tribes of which the black raceis made up; Thus, on the East side, on the Indian Ocean, we find the Zendj (sic), a nationwhich owns the city of Monbeça (Mombasa) and practices idolatry" (End Quote). IbnKhaldun (1967), p. 123, repeats the same in his work, The Muqaddimah, placing the peoplewho are called Zinğ along the coast of the Indian Ocean, between Zeila and Mogadishu.

64. Mauretinos was the forebear of the Black Moors, from whom the region in North Africabears its name. His name is generally associated with the biblical Raʻamah, and whoseposterity were called Maurusii by the Greeks. In Tangier (the 1st Mauretania), the BlackMoors were already a minority race at the time of Pliny, largely supplanted by theGaetulians. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:32), the descendants of Raʻamah(Mauretinos) were thought to have settled Kakaw, possibly Gao, along the bend of the NigerRiver. Alternatively, Saadia Gaon may have been referring to the Gaoga who inhabit aregion bordering on Borno to the west and Nubia to the east. On this place, see LeoAfricanus (1974: vol. 3, p. 852 - note 27).

65. Mezağ is now El-Jadida in Morocco.66. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:33 - note 47), the descendants of Elam settled in

Khuzestan (Elam), and which, according to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.) were "theancestors of the ancient Persians."

67. According to R. Saadia Gaon (1984:33 - note 48), Ashur was the progenitor of the Assyrianrace, whose ancestral territory is around Mosul in northern Iraq, near the ancient city ofNineveh. The same view was held by Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.).

68. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), Arphaxad's descendants became known by theGreeks as Chaldeans (Chalybes), who inhabited the region knownn as Chaldea, in present-day Iraq.

69. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), Lud was the forebear of the Lydians. The Asatirdescribes the descendants of two of the sons of Shem, viz. Laud (Ld) and Aram, as alsohaving settled in a region of Afghanistan formerly known as Khorasan (Charassan), butknown by the Arabic-speaking peoples of Afrikia (North Africa) as simply "the isle" (Arabic:Al-gezirah). (see: Moses Gaster (ed.), The Asatir: The Samaritan Book of the "Secrets ofMoses", The Royal Asiatic Society: London 1927, p. 232)

70. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), Aram was the progenitor of the Syrians, a peoplewho originally settled along the Euphrates River and, later, all throughout Greater Syria. R.Saadia Gaon (1984:33 - note 49), dissenting, thought that Aram was the progenitor of theArmenian people.

71. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), the descendants of Uz founded the cities ofTrachonitis and Damascus. R. Saadia Gaon (1984:33 - note 50) possessed a tradition thatUz's descendants also settled the region in Syria known as Ghouta.

72. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), the descendants of Hul (Ul) founded Armenia.Ishtori Haparchi (2007:88), dissenting, thought that Hul's descendants settled in the regionknown as Hulah, south of Damascus and north of Al-Sanamayn (Ba'al Maon).

73. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), the descendants of Gether founded Bactria.Josephus is most-likely referring here to the Kushans (of the Pamirs mountain range), who,according to the Chinese historian and geographer Yu Huan (2004: section 5, note 13), hadoverrun Bactria and settled there in the late second-century BCE. Prior to this time, theregion had been settled by rulers of Greek descent and heritage who had been there sinceAlexander's conquest ca. 328 BCE. The Bactrians of Kushan descent are known in Chineseas Da Yuezhi. The old Bactria (Chinese: Daxia) is thought to have included northernAfghanistan, including Badakhshan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, as far as the region ofTermez in the west. Prior to the arrival of the Yuezhi in Bactria, they had lived in and aroundthe area of Xinjiang (Western China) where the first known reference to the Yuezhi wasmade in ca. 645 BCE by the Chinese Guan Zhong in his work Guanzi (管子, GuanziEssays: 73: 78: 80: 81). He described the Yúshì 禺氏 (or Niúshì 牛氏), as a people from thenorth-west who supplied jade to the Chinese from the nearby mountains (also known asYushi) in Gansu (see: Iaroslav Lebedynsky, Les Saces, ISBN 2-87772-337-2, p. 59).

74. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4.), the descendants of Mash settled the regionknown in classical antiquity as Charax Spasini.

75. Whose posterity were known as the "Hebrews", after the name of their forebear.

76. From Peleg's line descended the Israelites, the descendants of Esau, and the Arabiannations (Ishmaelites), among other peoples - all sub-nations.

77. In the South Arabian tradition, he is today known by the name Qaḥṭān, the progenitor of theSabaean-Himyarite tribes of South Arabia. See Saadia Gaon (1984:34) and Luzzatto, S.D.(1965:56).

78. According to Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74), Almodad's descendants settled along the"coastal plains," without naming the country.

79. According to Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983), p. 74, Sheleph's descendants settled along the"coastal plains," without naming the country.

80. Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74), a place now called in southern Yemen by the nameḤaḍramawt. Pliny, in his Natural History, mentions this place under the nameChatramotitae.

81. Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74) calls the place inhabited by Jerah's descendants "IbnQamar" ("the son of Moon") – an inference to the word "Jerah" (Heb. ירח) which means"moon," and where he says are now the towns of Dhofar in Yemen, and Qalhāt in Oman,and al-Shiḥr (ash-Shiḥr).

82. Nethanel ben Isaiah 1983, p. 74.83. The old appellation given to the city of Sana'a in Yemen was Uzal. Uzal's descendants are

thought to have settled there. See Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74); Luzzatto, S.D. (1965:56);and see Al-Hamdāni (1938:8, 21), where it was later known under its Arabic equivalentAzāl.

84. According to Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74), Diklah's posterity were said to have foundedthe city of Beihan.

85. A place which Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74), calls in Judeo-Arabic אלאעבאל = al-iʻbāl.86. According to Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74), Abimael's posterity inhabited the place called

Al-Jawf.87. Pliny, in his Natural History, mentions this place under the name Sabaei.88. In Jewish tradition, Ophir is often associated with a place in India, where the descendants of

Ophir are thought to have settled. Fourteenth-century biblical commentator, Nathanel benIsaiah, writes: "And Ophir, and Havilah, and Jobab (Gen. 10:29), these are the tracts ofcountries in the east, being those of the first clime" (End Quote), and which first clime,according to al-Biruni, the sub-continent of India falls entirely therein. Cf. Josephus,(Antiquities of the Jews 8.6.4., s.v. Aurea Chersonesus). The 10th-century lexicographer,Ben Abraham al-Fasi (1936:46), identified Ophir with Serendip, the old Persian name for SriLanka (aka Ceylon).

89. Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74) calls the land settled by Havilah's posterity as being "a landinhabited in the east". Targum Pseudo-Jonathan ascribes the "land of Havilah" in Genesis2:11 to the "land of India." Josephus (Antiquities 1.1.3.), writing on the same verse, saysthat "Havilah" is a place in India, traversed by the Ganges River.

90. Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:74), calls the land settled by Jobab's posterity as being "a landinhabited in the east".

91. According to Josephus (Antiquities 1.6.4. [1.147]), the posterity of Joktan settled all thoseregions "proceeding from the river Cophen (a tributary of the Indus), inhabiting parts of India(Ἰνδικῆς) and of the adjacent country Seria (Σηρίας)." Of this last country, Isidore of Seville(2006:194) wrote: "The Serians (i.e. Chinese, or East Asians generally), a nation situated inthe far East, were allotted their name from their own city. They weave a kind of wool thatcomes from trees, hence this verse 'The Serians, unknown in person, but known for theircloth'."

92. According to an ancient Jewish teaching in Mishnah (Yadayim 4:4), Sennacherib, the kingof Assyria, came up and put all the nations in confusion. Therefore, Judah, a person whothought he was of Ammonite descent, was permitted to marry a daughter of Israel.

Abarbanel, Isaac (1960). Commentary of Abarbanel on the Torah (Genesis) (https://www.hebrewbooks.org/14387) (in Hebrew). 1. Jerusalem: Bene Arbel Publishers. (an Englishtranslation published in 2016, by the Golan Abarbanel Research Institute,OCLC 1057900303 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1057900303))Adler, Elkan Nathan (2014). Jewish Travellers. London: Routledge. OCLC 886831002 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/886831002). (first printed in 1930)Alexander, Philip (1988). "Retelling the Old Testament" (https://books.google.com/books?id=yO48AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA102#v=onepage&q&f=false). It is Written: Scripture CitingScripture: Essays in Honour of Barnabas Lindars, SSF. CUP Archive.ISBN 9780521323475.Al-Hamdāni, al-Ḥasan ibn Aḥmad (1938). The Antiquities of South Arabia - The EighthBook of Al-Iklīl. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 251493869 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/251493869). (reprinted in Westport Conn. 1981)Ben Abraham al-Fasi, David (1936). Solomon Skoss (ed.). The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary ofthe Bible, Known as 'Kitāb Jāmiʿ al-Alfāẓ' (Agron) of David ben Abraham al-Fasi (inHebrew). 1. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 46. OCLC 840573323 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840573323).Ben Maimon, Moses (1956). Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer(2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publishers. OCLC 318937112 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/318937112).Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2011). Creation, Un-creation, Re-creation: A Discursive Commentaryon Genesis 1–11 (https://books.google.com/?id=B12qwOSMD20C&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). A&C Black. ISBN 9780567372871.Bøe, Sverre (2001). Gog and Magog: Ezekiel 38–39 as pre-text for Revelation 19, 17–21and 20, 7–10 (https://books.google.com/?id=vettpBoVOX4C&pg=PA76&dq=%22the+longest+and+the+most+influential+oracles+concerning+the+Gog-traditions+up+to+the+time+of+Revelation%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20longest%20and%20the%20most%20influential%20oracles%20concerning%20the%20Gog-traditions%20up%20to%20the%20time%20of%20Revelation%22&f=false). Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 9783161475207.Brodie, Thomas L. (2001). Genesis As Dialogue: A Literary, Historical, and TheologicalCommentary (https://books.google.com/?id=2slFA-c0yPQC&dq=Genesis+%22Table+of+Nations%22). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198031642.

93. A case in point is Bethuel the Aramean ("Syrian") in Gen. 25:20, who was called an"Aramean", not because he was descended from Aram, but because he lived in the countryof the Aramaeans (Syrians). So explains Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983:121–122).

94. Babylonian Talmud (Yebamot 62a), RASHI, s.v. חייס.95. Eliezer ben Hyrcanus (1983). Pirke Rabbi Eliezer (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: "Eshkol"

Publishers. p. 77 (chapter 24). OCLC 301805102 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/301805102).

96. This was observed as early as 1734, in George Sale's Commentary on the Quran.97. Klijn, Albertus (1977). Seth: In Jewish, Christian and Gnostic Literature (https://books.googl

e.com/books?id=zpY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA54). BRILL. ISBN 90-04-05245-3., page 5498. S.P. Brock notes that the earliest Greek texts of Pseudo-Methodius read Moneton, while the

Syriac versions have Ionţon (Armenian Apocrypha, p. 117 (https://books.google.com/books?id=AllY-mu65KsC&pg=PA123&dq=maniton+noah&sig=-f9dPnGz0czMO-kfP5MAxhoaJ-o#PPA116,M1))

99. Gascoigne, Mike. "Travels of Noah into Europe" (http://www.annomundi.com/history/travels_of_noah.htm). www.annomundi.com.

Bibliography

Carr, David McLain (1996). Reading the Fractures of Genesis: Historical and LiteraryApproaches (https://books.google.com/?id=8UJctZxFHikC&dq=Genesis+%22Table+of+Nations%22). Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664220716.Day, John (2014). "Noah's Drunkenness, the Curse of Canaan" (https://books.google.com/?id=3YJnAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39&dq=%22the+Greek+mythological+titan+called+Iapetos%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20Greek%20mythological%20titan%20called%20Iapetos%22&f=false). In Baer, David A.; Gordon, Robert P. (eds.). Leshon Limmudim: Essays on theLanguage and Literature of the Hebrew Bible in Honour of A.A. Macintosh. A&C Black.ISBN 9780567308238.Epiphanius (1935). James Elmer Dean (ed.). Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights andMeasures - The Syriac Version. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 123314338 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123314338).Gmirkin, Russell (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Historiesand the Date of the Pentateuch (https://books.google.com/?id=CKuoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA141&dq=%22Table+of+Nations+is+a+subject+of+perpetual+debate%22#v=onepage&q=%22Table%20of%20Nations%20is%20a%20subject%20of%20perpetual%20debate%22&f=false). Bloomsbury Publishing USA. ISBN 9780567134394.Granerød, Gard (2010). Abraham and Melchizedek (https://books.google.com/?id=kBBrXzw3m2cC&pg=PA131&dq=%22there+is+no+consensus+about+the+date+of+composition+of+the+Priestly+writing%22#v=onepage&q=%22there%20is%20no%20consensus%20about%20the%20date%20of%20composition%20of%20the%20Priestly%20writing%22&f=false).Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110223453.Ibn Khaldun (1927). Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afriqueseptentrionale (Histoire des Dynasties Musulmanes) (in French). 2. Translated by Baron deSlane. Paris: P. Geuthner. OCLC 758265555 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/758265555).Ibn Khaldun (1967). N.J. Dawood (ed.). The Muqaddimah: an Introduction to History. 1.Translated by Franz Rosenthal (2 ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.OCLC 750556436 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/750556436).Ishtori Haparchi (2007). Avraham Yosef Havatzelet (ed.). Sefer Kaftor Ve'ferah (in Hebrew).2 (chapter 11) (3 ed.). Jerusalem: Bet ha-midrash la-halakhah ba-hityashvut.OCLC 32307172 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32307172).Isidore of Seville (1970). History of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi. Translated by GuidoDonini and Gordon B. Ford, Jr. Leiden: E.J. Brill. OCLC 279232201 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/279232201).Isidore of Seville (2006). Barney, Stephen A.; Lewis, W.J.; Beach, J.A. (eds.). TheEtymologies of Isidore of Seville. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83749-1. OCLC 1130417426 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1130417426).Josephus (1998). Jewish Antiquities. The Loeb Classical Library. 1. Translated by Henry St.John Thackeray. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674995759.Josippon (1971). Hayim Hominer (ed.). Josiphon by Joseph ben Gorion Hacohen (3 ed.).Jerusalem: Hominer Publication. pp. 1–2. OCLC 776144459 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/776144459). (reprinted in 1978)Kaminski, Carol M. (1995). From Noah to Israel: Realization of the Primaeval Blessing Afterthe Flood (https://books.google.com/?id=EX-xAwAAQBAJ&dq=Ross+table+of+nations#v=onepage&q=%22Gog%2C%20Magog%2C%20and%20the%20latter-day%20emperor%22&f=false). A&C Black. ISBN 9780567539465.Keiser, Thomas A. (2013). Genesis 1–11: Its Literary Coherence and Theological Message(https://books.google.com/?id=XdJNAwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 9781625640925.Knoppers, Gary (2003). "Shem, Ham and Japheth" (https://books.google.com/?id=BFatAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29&dq=%22Knoppers+Shem,+Ham+and+Japheth%22#v=onepage&q=%22Knoppers%20Shem%2C%20Ham%20and%20Japheth%22&f=false). In Graham, Matt

Patrick; McKenzie, Steven L.; Knoppers, Gary N. (eds.). The Chronicler as Theologian:Essays in Honor of Ralph W. Klein. A&C Black. ISBN 9780826466716.Leo Africanus (1974). Robert Brown (ed.). History and Description of Africa. 1–3. Translatedby John Pory. New York Franklin. OCLC 830857464 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/830857464). (reprinted from London 1896)Luzzatto, S.D. (1965). P. Schlesinger (ed.). S.D. Luzzatto's Commentary to the Pentateuch(in Hebrew). 1. Tel-Aviv: Dvir Publishers. OCLC 11669162 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11669162).Macbean, A. (1773). A Dictionary of Ancient Geography: Explaining the Local Appellationsin Sacred, Grecian, and Roman History (https://books.google.com/?id=EqwBAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA36-PA14&lpg=RA36-PA14&dq=Africa+propria+(Pliny%27s+Natural+History)#v=onepage&q&f=false). London: G. Robinson. OCLC 6478604 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6478604).Machiela, Daniel A. (2009). "A Comparative Commentary on the Earths Division" (https://books.google.com/books?id=7O4oKMuLeaQC&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false). The DeadSea Genesis Apocryphon: A New Text and Translation With Introduction and SpecialTreatment of Columns 13–17. BRILL. ISBN 9789004168145.Matthews, K.A. (1996). Genesis 1–11:26 (https://books.google.com/?id=xLe4AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA433&dq=%22the+three+geographical+arcs+of+the+branches+intersect+at+the+center%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20three%20geographical%20arcs%20of%20the%20branches%20intersect%20at%20the%20center%22&f=false). B&H Publishing Group.ISBN 9781433675515.McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch (https://books.google.com/?id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&pg=PA65&dq=%22the+groups+of+people+have+their+own+languages%22#v=onepage&q=%22the%20groups%20of%20people%20have%20their%20own%20languages%22&f=false). Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881461015.Nethanel ben Isaiah (1983). Sefer Me'or ha-Afelah (in Hebrew). Translated by Yosef Qafih.Kiryat Ono: Mechon Moshe. OCLC 970925649 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/970925649).Neubauer, A. (1868). Géographie du Talmud (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DIgYKxhNNL8C) (in French). Paris: Michel Lévy Frères.Pietersma, Albert; Wright, Benjamin G. (2005). A New English Translation of the Septuagint(https://books.google.com/?id=17CBLsFpnsgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Septuagint#v=onepage&q=Septuagint&f=false). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199743971.Rogers, Jeffrey S. (2000). "Table of Nations" (https://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA1271&dq=%22a+schematic+representation+describing+the+expansion+of+humankind%22#v=onepage&q=%22a%20schematic%20representation%20describing%20the%20expansion%20of%20humankind%22&f=false). In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.(eds.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press.ISBN 9789053565032.Ruiten, Jacques T. A. G. M. (2000). Primaeval History Interpreted: The Rewriting of Genesis1–11 in the Book of Jubilees (https://books.google.com/books?id=1xxo82l7TeQC&pg=PA324#v=onepage&q&f=false). BRILL. ISBN 9789004116580.Saadia Gaon (1984). Yosef Qafih (ed.). Rabbi Saadia Gaon's Commentaries on thePentateuch (in Hebrew) (4 ed.). Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook. OCLC 232667032 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/232667032).Saadia Gaon (1984b). Moshe Zucker (ed.). Saadya's Commentary on Genesis (in Hebrew).New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America. OCLC 1123632274 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1123632274).Sadler, Rodney Steven, Jr. (2009). Can a Cushite Change His Skin?: An Examination ofRace, Ethnicity, and Othering in the Hebrew Bible (https://books.google.com/?id=7WQYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA123&dq=%22This+version+of+the+Table+of+Nations+is+similar+to+that%2

2#v=onepage&q=%22This%20version%20of%20the%20Table%20of%20Nations%20is%20similar%20to%20that%22&f=false). A&C Black. ISBN 9780567027658.Sailhamer, John H. (2010). The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition andInterpretation (https://books.google.com/?id=pBVWU9U85m0C&dq=Genesis+%22Table+of+Nations%22). InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830878888.Scott, James M. (2005). Geography in Early Judaism and Christianity: The Book of Jubilees(https://books.google.com/?id=SVOb6gm_8bEC&pg=PA25&dq=%22The+list+is+substantially+the+same+in+the+septuagint%22#v=onepage&q=%22The%20list%20is%20substantially%20the%20same%20in%20the%20septuagint%22&f=false). Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521020688.Strawn, Brent A. (2000a). "Shem" (https://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA1271&dq=%22a+schematic+representation+describing+the+expansion+of+humankind%22#v=onepage&q=%22a%20schematic%20representation%20describing%20the%20expansion%20of%20humankind%22&f=false). In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.).Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9789053565032.Strawn, Brent A. (2000b). "Ham" (https://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA1271&dq=%22a+schematic+representation+describing+the+expansion+of+humankind%22#v=onepage&q=%22a%20schematic%20representation%20describing%20the%20expansion%20of%20humankind%22&f=false). In Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (eds.).Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9789053565032.Targum Pseudo-Jonathan (1974). M. Ginsburger (ed.). Pseudo-Jonathan (ThargumJonathan ben Usiël zum Pentateuch (in Hebrew). Berlin: S. Calvary & Co. OCLC 6082732(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6082732). (First printed in 1903, Based on British Museumadd. 27031)Thompson, Thomas L. (2014). "Narrative Reiteration and Comparative Literature: Problemsin Defining Dependency" (https://books.google.com/?id=yFNsBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&dq=%22pun+on+the+name+of+Japheth%22#v=onepage&q=%22pun%20on%20the%20name%20of%20Japheth%22&f=false). In Thompson, Thomas L.; Wajdenbaum, Philippe (eds.).The Bible and Hellenism: Greek Influence on Jewish and Early Christian Literature.Routledge. ISBN 9781317544265.Towner, Wayne Sibley (2001). Genesis (https://books.google.com/?id=6ONdsoa7MHUC&pg=PA105&dq=Genesis+%22Table+of+Nations%22#v=onepage&q=Genesis%20%22Table%20of%20Nations%22&f=false). Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664252564.Uehlinger, Christof (1999). "Nimrod" (https://books.google.com/?id=yCkRz5pfxz0C&pg=PA628&dq=%22Kush+stands+for+Nubia%22%22eponym+of+the+Kassites%22#v=onepage&q=%22Kush%20stands%20for%20Nubia%22%22eponym%20of%20the%20Kassites%22&f=false). In Van der Toorn, Karel; Becking, Bob; Van der Horst, Pieter (eds.). Dictionary ofDeities and Demons in the Bible. Brill. ISBN 9780802824912.Wajdenbaum, Philippe (2014). Argonauts of the Desert: Structural Analysis of the HebrewBible (https://books.google.com/?id=AEiPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT92&dq=Japhet+Iapetos#v=onepage&q=Japhet%20Iapetos&f=false). Routledge. ISBN 9781317543893.Yefet ben Ali (n.d.). Yefet ben Ali's Commentary on the Torah (Genesis) - Ms. B-51 (https://www.nli.org.il/he/manuscripts/NNL_ALEPH000176181/NLI#$FL56789409) (in Hebrew). St.Petersburg, Russia: Institute of Oriental Manuscripts of the Russian Academy of Sciences.Yu Huan (2004), "The Peoples of the West", Weilue 魏略 (http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#section5), translated by John E. Hill (section 5, note 13) (Thiswork, published in 429 CE, is a recension of Yu Huan's Weilue ("Brief Account of the WeiDynasty"), the original having now been lost)

External links

Jewish Encyclopedia (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=134&letter=G):Entry for "Genealogy"

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Generations_of_Noah&oldid=939801465"

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Righteous Among the NationsRighteous Among the Nations (Hebrew: חסידי אמ�ת הע�לם, ḥasidei ummot ha`olam "righteous(plural) of the world's nations") is an honorific used by the State of Israel to describe non-Jews whorisked their lives during the Holocaust to save Jews from extermination by the Nazis for altruisticreasons. The term originates with the concept of "righteous gentiles", a term used in rabbinic Judaism torefer to non-Jews, called ger toshav, who abide by the Seven Laws of Noah.

BestowingRighteous settled in IsraelOther signs of venerationNumber of awards by countrySee alsoReferencesBibliographyExternal links

When Yad Vashem, the Shoah Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, was established in 1953 bythe Knesset, one of its tasks was to commemorate the "Righteous Among the Nations". The Righteouswere defined as non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.

Since 1963, a commission headed by a justice of the Supreme Court of Israel has been charged with theduty of awarding the honorary title "Righteous Among the Nations". Guided in its work by certaincriteria, the commission meticulously studies all documentation including evidence by survivors andother eyewitnesses, evaluates the historical circumstances and the element of risk to the rescuer, and thendecides if the case meets the criteria. Those criteria are:[1]

Only a Jewish party can put a nomination forwardHelping a family member, or helping a Jew who converted to Christianity is not a criterionfor recognition;Assistance has to be repeated or substantialAssistance has to be given without any financial gain expected in return (although coveringexpenses such as food is acceptable)

The award has been given without regard to the social rank of the helper. It has been given to royaltysuch as Princess Alice of Battenberg, Queen Mother Helen of Romania and Queen Elisabeth of Belgiumbut also to others like the philosopher Jacques Ellul and to Amsterdam department store employeeHendrika Gerritsen.[2][3]

Contents

Bestowing

A person who is recognized as Righteous for having taken risksto help Jews during the Holocaust is awarded a medal in theirname, a certificate of honor, and the privilege of having the nameadded to those on the Wall of Honor in the Garden of theRighteous at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem (the last is in lieu of a treeplanting, which was discontinued for lack of space). The awardsare distributed to the rescuers or their next-of-kin duringceremonies in Israel, or in their countries of residence through theoffices of Israel's diplomatic representatives. These ceremoniesare attended by local government representatives and are givenwide media coverage.

The Yad Vashem Law authorizes Yad Vashem "to conferhonorary citizenship upon the Righteous Among the Nations, andif they have died, the commemorative citizenship of the State ofIsrael, in recognition of their actions". Anyone who has beenrecognized as "Righteous" is entitled to apply to Yad Vashem forthe certificate. If the person is no longer alive, their next of kin isentitled to request that commemorative citizenship be conferredon the Righteous who has died.

In total, 27,362 (as of 1 January 2018)[4] men and women from51 countries have been recognized,[4] amounting to more than10,000 authenticated rescue stories. Yad Vashem's policy is topursue the program for as long as petitions for this title arereceived and are supported by evidence that meets the criteria.[5]

Recipients who choose to live in the State of Israel are entitled toa pension equal to the average national wage and free health care,as well as assistance with housing and nursing care.

At least 130 Righteous non-Jews have settled in Israel. They were welcomed by Israeli authorities, andwere granted citizenship. In the mid-1980s, they became entitled to special pensions. Some of themsettled in British Mandatory Palestine before Israel's establishment shortly after World War II, or in theearly years of the new state of Israel, while others came later. Those who came earlier often spoke fluentHebrew and have integrated into Israeli society.[6]

The Righteous are honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in theUnited States on 16 July.

One Righteous Among the Nations, Saint Elizabeth Hesselblad of Sweden, has been canonized a saint inthe Catholic Church.[7] Five others have been beatified: Blessed Giuseppe Girotti, O.P., and OdoardoFocherini of Italy,[8][9] Blessed Klymentiy Sheptytsky, M.S.U., of Austria-Hungary,[10] Blessed BernhardLichtenberg of Germany,[11] and Blessed Sára Salkaházi of Hungary.

Memorial tree in Jerusalem, Israelhonoring Irena Sendler, a PolishRoman Catholic nurse who saved2,500 Jews

The Righteous Medal of MartaBocheńska

Righteous settled in Israel

Other signs of veneration

In 2015, Lithuania's first street sign honoring a Righteous Amongthe Nations was unveiled in Vilnius.[12] The street is namedSimaites Street, after Ona Šimaitė, a Vilnius University librarianwho helped and rescued Jewish people in the Vilna Ghetto.[12]

As of 16 June 2017, the award has been made to 26,513people.[4]

The Righteous Diploma of MariaKotarba

A Righteous Among the Nationsaward ceremony in the PolishSenate, 2012

1940 issued visa by Consul ChiuneSugihara in Lithuania

Number of awards by country

Rank CountryNumber

ofawards

1 Poland 6,863

2 Netherlands 5,595

3 France 3,995

4 Ukraine 2,634

5 Belgium 1,731

6 Lithuania 891

7 Hungary 844

8 Italy 682

9 Belarus 641

10 Germany 601

11 Slovakia 572

12 Greece 335

13 Russia 204

14 Serbia 139

15 Latvia 136

16 Czech Republic 118

17 Croatia 117

18 Austria 109

19 Moldova 79

20 Albania 75

21 Norway 67

22 Romania 60

23 Switzerland 49

24 Bosnia and Herzegovina 47

25 Armenia 24

26 Denmark, United Kingdom 22

28 Bulgaria 20

29 North Macedonia, Sweden 10

31 Slovenia 15

32 Spain 9

33 United States 5

34 Estonia, Turkey, Portugal 3

37 Brazil, Chile, Indonesia, Peru, 2

Polish passport extended in 1941 byRighteous Among the NationsChilean diplomat Samuel del Campo

Jan Zwartendijk hand signed visafrom 1940

University study booklet issued toPolish Righteous Among the NationsWladyslaw Smolski in 1938.

Republic of China

42

Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, ElSalvador, Georgia, Ireland, Japan,

Luxembourg, Montenegro, Vietnam

1

British Hero of the HolocaustEuropean Day of the RighteousIndividuals and groups assisting Jews during the HolocaustList of Righteous Among the Nations by countryRighteousnessVirtuous paganŻegota

1. Gunnar S. Paulsson, "The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland", TheJournal of Holocaust Education, volume 7, nos. 1 & 2 (summer/autumn 1998): pp. 19–44.Reprinted in "Collective Rescue Efforts of the Poles", p. 256.

2. Gerritsen, Hendrika Jacoba (Heinsius) (http://db.yadvashem.org/righteous/family.html?language=en&itemId=4043182), in The Righteous Among the Nations. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem,retrieved online 6 April 2018.

3. "Familieberichten" (https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urn=ABCDDD:010833219:mpeg21:a0223)[Family notices]. Het Parool. 28 December 1990. Retrieved 13 April 2018 – via Delpher.

4. "About the Righteous: Statistics" (https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/statistics.html).Names of Righteous by Country. Yad Vashem The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes'Remembrance Authority. 1 January 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.

5. "First Arab Nominated for Holocaust Honor" (http://palestinianpundit.blogspot.com/2007/01/first-arab-nominated-for-holocaust.html). Associated Press. 30 January 2007. Retrieved1 February 2007.

6. "Story in The Forward re Righteous Gentiles who settled in Israel" (http://forward.com/articles/143987/righteous-moved-to-israel-after-saving-jews-in-hol). Forward.com. Retrieved6 September 2013.

7. Mark Greaves, Swedish Sister who hid Jews from the Nazis is to be canonised (http://www.catholicherald.co.uk/news/2015/12/18/swedish-sister-who-hid-jews-from-the-nazis-is-to-be-canonised/), Catholic Herald, 18 December 2015. Accessed 19 December 2015.

8. "Blessed Giuseppe Girotti: Another Dominican Saint in the Making" (http://www.op.org/en/content/blessed-giuseppe-girotti-another-dominican-saint-making). Order of Preachers.Retrieved 21 December 2016.

9. "Odoardo Focherini: Late journalist, hero and Blessed of the Catholic Church" (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1BH-X8Wzmw). Rome Reports. Retrieved 19 June 2013.

10. "Beatification of the Servants of God on June 27, 2001", Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church(http://www.ugcc.org.ua/35.0.html?&L=2) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20141129055636/http://www.ugcc.org.ua/35.0.html?&L=2) November 29, 2014, at the WaybackMachine

11. Gaydosh, Brenda (2017). Bernhard Lichtenberg. Roman Catholic Priest and Martyr of theNazi Regime, Lanham. p. 175

See also

References

The Heart Has Reasons: Holocaust Rescuers and Their Stories of Courage, MarkKlempner, ISBN 0-8298-1699-2, The Pilgrim Press.Righteous Gentiles of the Holocaust: Genocide and Moral Obligation, David P. Gushee,ISBN 1-55778-821-9, Paragon House Publishers.The Lexicon of the Righteous Among the Nations, Yad Vashem, Jerusalem. (volumes:Poland, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Europe I, Europe II).To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue, Land-Weber, Ellen, ISBN 0-252-02515-6,University of Illinois Press.The Seven Laws of Noah, Lichtenstein, Aaron, New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph SchoolPress, 1981, ASIN B00071QH6S.The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism, Novak, David, ISBN 0-88946-975-X, New York andToronto: Edwin Mellen Press, 1983.The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust, Paldiel,Mordecai, ISBN 0-88125-376-6, KTAV Publishing House, Inc.Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocaust's Long Reach into Arab Lands,Robert Satloff, Washington Institute for Near East Policy, (PublicAffairs, 2006) ISBN 1-58648-399-4.When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland, Tec,Nechama, ISBN 0-19-505194-7, Oxford University Press.Zegota: The Council to Aid Jews in Occupied Poland 1942-1945, Tomaszewski, Irene &Werbowski, Tecia, ISBN 1-896881-15-7, Price-Patterson.Tolerance in Judaism: The Medieval and Modern Sources, Zuesse, Evan M., In: TheEncyclopaedia of Judaism, edited by Jacob Neusner, A. Avery-Peck, and W.S. Green,Second Edition, ISBN 90-04-14787-X, Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2005, Vol. IV: 2688-2713.When Courage Was Stronger Than Fear: Remarkable Stories of Christians Who SavedJews from the Holocaust by Peter Hellman. 2nd edition, ISBN 1-56924-663-7, Marlowe &Companym, 1999.Rescue and Flight: American Relief Workers Who Defied the Nazis, Subak, SusanElisabeth, University of Nebraska Press, 342 pp., 2010.Ugo G. Pacifici Noja e Silvia Pacifici Noja, Il cacciatore di giusti: storie di non ebrei chesalvarono i figli di Israele dalla Shoah, Cantalupa Torinese, Effatà, 2010, (in Italian),ISBN 978-88-7402-568-8.Paul Greveillac, Les fronts clandestins : quinze histoires de Justes (https://web.archive.org/web/20140517154659/http://www.nicolas-eybalin.com/livre-Les_Fronts_clandestins-53-1-1-0-1.html) (in French), Nicolas Eybalin publishing, 2014 (ISBN 978-2-36665-000-6).

The Righteous Among the Nations (http://www.yadvashem.org/righteous?WT.mc_id=ggcamp&WT.srch=1) at Yad Vashem. Its online exhibitions include:

"Their Fate Will Be My Fate Too…" Teachers Who Rescued Jews During the Holocaust(http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/righteous-teachers/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki)

12. "Lithuania's first street honoring Holocaust Righteous unveiled in Vilnius | JewishTelegraphic Agency" (http://www.jta.org/2015/09/25/news-opinion/world/lithuanias-first-street-honoring-holocaust-righteous-unveiled-in-Vilnius). Jta.org. 25 September 2015. Retrieved26 September 2015.

Bibliography

External links

Spots of Light: Women in the Holocaust (http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/exhibitions/spots_of_light/index.asp?WT.mc_id=wiki)

"Polish Righteous – Recalling Forgotten History" (https://sprawiedliwi.org.pl/en) (Websiteportal for the multimedia-based project and its research documentation and presentations).sprawiedliwi.org.pl. Warsaw, Poland: POLIN Museum of the History of Polish Jews. 2016.Heroes and Heroines of the Holocaust (http://isurvived.org/TOC-II.html#Up) at theHolocaust Survivors' NetworkKlempner, Mark (2017). "Heart Has Reasons: Holocaust Rescuers and Their Stories ofCourage" (http://www.hearthasreasons.com) (Website portal of resources for the book andlectures of the same name, with PDF and audio excerpts). hearthasreasons.com. The siteincludes extensive lists of articles, books and film/video/DVDs about Holocaust rescuersand related heroes, plus a reading group guide and book excerpts such as:

Rut Matthijsen: Chemistry of Compassion (http://www.hearthasreasons.com/rut.pdf) —the story of a Dutch biochemist and Righteous Gentile

Photo gallery on righteous gentiles during the Holocaust (http://motlc.wiesenthal.org/albums/palbum/p03/a0190p3.html) at the Simon Wiesenthal CenterRescuers (https://web.archive.org/web/20150822060512/http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/rescuetoc.html) at the Jewish Virtual LibraryKaroly Szabo - Wallenberg, 1947, 1965 (http://www.spacetime-sensor.de/wallenberg.htm):Holocaust Memorial Budapest, testimony from the Jakobovics familyThe Jewish Foundation for the Righteous (http://www.jfr.org) at JFR.orgAuschwitz: Inside the Nazi State (https://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/learning/index.html) at theAmerican public television broadcaster PBSzyciezazycie.pl (http://zyciezazycie.pl/index.php?lang=en), a site commemorating Poleswho gave their lives to save JewsGardens of the Righteous Worldwide Committee (http://www.gariwo.net/eng_new/)Essay: "Paying the ultimate price" (http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1238562943837&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull) by Irena Steinfeldt, The Jerusalem Post, 14 April2009."AJPN - anonymes, Justes et persécutés durant la période nazie dans les communes deFrance (The Anonymous, Just and Percecuted during the Nazi period in the communes ofFrance)" (http://www.ajpn.org). www.ajpn.org (in French). Bordeaux, France: AJPN. 2008–2016.

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Ger toshavGer toshav (Hebrew: גר תושב, ger "foreigner" or "alien" + toshav "resident", lit. "resident alien"[1]) isa term in Judaism for a gentile (non-Jew) living in the Land of Israel who agrees to be bound by theSeven Laws of Noah,[2] a set of imperatives which, according to the Talmud, were given by God[3] as abinding set of laws for the "children of Noah" – that is, all of humanity.[4][5] A ger toshav is thereforecommonly deemed a righteous gentile (Hebrew: חסיד אומות העולם chassid umot ha-olam "PiousPeople of the World").[6]

DefinitionModern times and viewsSee alsoReferences

A ger toshav is a gentile who accepts the authority of the Torah and the rabbis upon himself, butspecifically as applied to gentiles. The term ger toshav may be used in a formal or informal sense.

In the formal sense, a ger toshav is a gentile who officially accepts the seven Noahide Laws as bindingupon himself in the presence of a beth din (Jewish rabbinical court). In the Talmudic discussion regardingthe ger toshav, there are two other, differing minority opinions (Avodah Zarah, 64b) as to what the gertoshav accepts upon himself:[6][7]

1. To abstain from idolatrous practices of any kind (detailed in Exodus 20:2–4 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0220.htm#2), Deut 5:6–8 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0505.htm#6)).[2]

2. To uphold all the 613 commandments in rabbinical enumeration,[2] except for the prohibitionagainst eating kosher animals that died by means other than ritual slaughter, or possibly[6]

(Meiri) any prohibition not involving kareth.

The accepted legal definition is the majority opinion that the ger toshav must accept the seven NoahideLaws before a rabbinical court of three.[2][6] Such a ger toshav receives certain legal protections andprivileges from the community, the rules regarding Jewish-Gentile relations are modified, and there is aBiblical obligation to render him aid when in need. The restrictions on having a gentile do work for a Jewon the Sabbath are also stricter when the gentile is a ger toshav.[8]

In the informal sense, a ger toshav is one who accepts the Noahide Laws on his own, or alternatively,simply rejects idolatry[2][6] (the latter issue is in particular brought up regarding Muslims.)[6] Moreformally, a gentile who accepts the Seven Mitzvot, although not before a beth din, is known as chasidumot ha'olam, which means "Pious People of the World."[9] There is discussion among the halakhicauthorities as to which of the rules regarding a ger toshav would apply to the informal case.[2][8]

Contents

Definition

The procedure has been discontinued since the cessation of the year of Jubilee, and hence, there are noformal gerim toshvim (plural) extant today. However, it can be argued that a great deal are "informal"ones,[6] especially since it is possible to be a chasid umot ha'olam even when the Jubilee Year is notobserved.[10]

Judaism encourages non-Jews to adhere to the Noahide Laws.[11] Some groups, notably ChabadLubavitch, have set up classes and networks for Gentiles who commit themselves to this legal system(see Noahide Campaign). The Lubavitcher Rebbe himself encouraged his followers on many occasionsto teach the Seven Laws of Noah, devoting some of his addresses to the subtleties of this code.[12][13][14]

In 2008, a new code of law, written by Rabbi Moshe Weiner specifically for Noahides, was publishedunder the auspices of Ask Noah International. The book's stated intention is to serve as the first ever"Shulchan Aruch for all the laws of the Children of Noah," and is entitled Sefer Sheva MitzvotHashem.[15] To grant it authority, it bears letters of endorsement from Rabbi Zalman Nechemia Goldbergof the Supreme Rabbinical Court of Israel, both the Chief Rabbis of Israel, and letters of blessing andapprobation from various other notable rabbis around the world. In the code itself, it states that[16] "atthis time, while we do not accept geirim toshvim for the sake of (granting) the privileges of (the gertoshav) [for example, to live in the Land of Israel], nevertheless, if he comes before (a rabbinical courtof) three of his own free will to accept upon himself to be a ger toshav and one of the Pious People of theWorld, for the sake of accepting his mitzvot, we accept him." Later, it notes that one of the "Pious Peopleof the World" (chasid umot ha'olam) is not necessarily also a ger toshav, and it is possible to be a chasidumot ha'olam despite not being a ger toshav. In fact, it lists four possibilities for Gentiles:[9]

1. Complete conversion to Judaism of his own free will2. Upholding the Seven Mitzvot of the Children of Noah, i.e. chasid umot ha'olam3. Ger toshav4. Having himself circumcised

A Gentile is obligated to accept the Seven Mitzvot, but is not required to appear before a rabbinical courtto become a ger toshav; that is a personal choice.[17]

According to Kellner (1991) on Maimonides, a ger toshav could be a transitional stage on the way tobecoming a ger tzedek (Hebrew: גר צדק) or "righteous alien", a convert to Judaism. He conjecturesthat only a full ger tzedek would be found at the time of the Messiah.[18]

However, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneersohn states that the status of ger toshav will continue toexist, even in the Messianic era. This is based on the statement in Hilchot Melachim 12:5 that "the entireworld's (kol ha'olam) occupation will be nothing but to know G‑d." In its plain meaning, he asserts, kolha'olam also includes Gentiles. As proof, he cites 11:4, also dealing with the Messianic era, where thesimilar term ha'olam kulo, "the world in its entirety," clearly refers to Gentiles. Continuing the text inHilchot Melachim 12:5, Maimonides explicitly changes the topic to Jews by using the term Yisra'el,explaining that "Therefore, the Jews will be great sages and know the hidden matters, grasping theknowledge of their Creator according to the full extent of human potential," indicating that Jew andGentile will co-exist in the time of the Messiah.[19]

Modern times and views

In any case, even when there is a Jewish king and a Sanhedrin, and all the twelve tribes live in the Landof Israel, Jewish law does not permit forcing someone to convert and become a ger tzedek against hiswill.[20]

Am ha-aretzConversion to JudaismGod-fearerNoahidismProselyteRighteous Among the NationsSeven Laws of NoahVirtuous pagan, similar concept in Christianity

1.

[...] In rabbinic literature the ger toshab was a Gentile who observed theNoachian commandments but was not considered a convert to Judaismbecause he did not agree to circumcision. [...] some scholars have made themistake of calling the ger toshab a "proselyte" or "semiproselyte." But the gertoshab was really a resident alien in Israel. Some scholars have claimed that theterm "those who fear God" (yir᾿ei Elohim/Shamayim) was used in rabbinicliterature to denote Gentiles who were on the fringe of the synagogue. Theywere not converts to Judaism, although they were attracted to the Jewishreligion and observed part of the law.

— Geoffrey W. Bromiley, The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia(1986, Fully Revised Edition), p. 1010, Vol. 3, Eerdmans, Grand Rapids:Michigan, ISBN 0-8028-3783-2.

See also

References

2.

In order to find a precedent the rabbis went so far as to assume that proselytesof this order were recognized in Biblical law, applying to them the term "toshab"("sojourner," "aborigine," referring to the Canaanites; see Maimonides'explanation in "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7; see Grätz, l.c. p. 15), in connection with"ger" (see Ex. xxv. 47, where the better reading would be "we-toshab"). Anothername for one of this class was "proselyte of the gate" ("ger ha-sha'ar," that is,one under Jewish civil jurisdiction; comp. Deut. v. 14, xiv. 21, referring to thestranger who had legal claims upon the generosity and protection of his Jewishneighbors). In order to be recognized as one of these the neophyte had publiclyto assume, before three "ḥaberim," or men of authority, the solemn obligationnot to worship idols, an obligation which involved the recognition of the sevenNoachian injunctions as binding ('Ab. Zarah 64b; "Yad," Issure Biah, xiv. 7). [...] The more rigorous seem to have been inclined to insist upon such convertsobserving the entire Law, with the exception of the reservations andmodifications explicitly made in their behalf. The more lenient were ready toaccord them full equality with Jews as soon as they had solemnly forswornidolatry. The "via media" was taken by those that regarded public adherence tothe seven Noachian precepts as the indispensable prerequisite (Gerim iii.; 'Ab.Zarah 64b; Yer. Yeb. 8d; Grätz, l.c. pp. 19–20). The outward sign of thisadherence to Judaism was the observance of the Sabbath (Grätz, l.c. pp. 20 etseq.; but comp. Ker. 8b).

— "Proselyte (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12391-proselyte#anchor4)", Jewish Encyclopedia (1906).

3. According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah,page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given toAdam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietarylaw to have been given to Noah.

4. Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry Ben Noah, introduction)states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category ofthe sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicatesthat the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, seealso Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligatedin, albeit with some differences in the details.

5. Compare Genesis 9:4–6 (https://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0109.htm#4).6. Rabbi Shlomo Yosef Zevin, ed. (1979). "Ger Toshav, Section 1". Encyclopedia Talmudit (in

Hebrew) (Fourth Printing ed.). Jerusalem, Israel: Yad Harav Herzog (Emet).7. Talmud b. Sanhedrin 56a, 56b8. Rabbi Shlomo Yosef Zevin, ed. (1979). Encyclopedia Talmudit (in Hebrew) (Fourth Printing

ed.). Jerusalem, Israel: Yad Harav Herzog (Emet).

9. Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem, p. 27: עוד מבאר בלקוטי שיחות ע"פ הצפנת פענחשחסיד אומות העולם אינו דוקא גר תושב, ואפשר לב"נ להיות חסיד אומות העולם,אע"פ שאינו גר תושב. ולכן לא הזכיר הרמב"ם כאן ש'אין מקבלין גר תושב אלאבזמן שהיובל נוהג' כדרכו בכל מקום (הארה: ראה הל' ע"ז פ"י, הל' מילה פ"א, הל'שבת פ"כ, הל' איסורי ביאה פי"ד.) שהזכיר דין ג"ת, כי אין כוונת הרמב"ם שכופיןב"נ להיות ג"ת, אלא לבאר האפשרויות העמודות לב"נ על פי התורה. א) גרותגמורה מרצונו, ב) קיום שבע מצוות – ועל זה צוה ה' את משה לכופם, ג) גר תושב,It is further explained in Likkutei Sichot according to the Tzafnat Pane'ach" ד) למול עצמו.that a chasid umot ha'olam [lit. Pious People of the World] is not necessarily a ger toshav,and it is possible for a Gentile [lit. Descendant of Noah] to be a chasid umot ha'olam despitehim not being a ger toshav. And therefore the Rambam did not mention here that "We onlyaccept a ger toshav while the Jubilee Year is observed" as usual in all the places (footnote:See Hilchot Avodah Zarah ch. 10, Hilchot Milah ch. 1, Hilchot Shabbat ch. 20, HilchotIssurei Bi'ah ch. 14) that he mentions the law of the ger toshav, because the Rambam'sintention was not that we force Gentiles [lit. Descendants of Noah] to be geirim toshvim, butrather to explain the options that stand for the Gentile [lit. Descendant of Noah] according tothe Torah: 1) Complete conversion by his own free will, 2) upholding the seven mitzvot –and regarding this, G‑d commanded Moses to compel them, 3) ger toshav, 4) to circumcisehimself."

10. Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem, p. 28: ד חיוב בן נח ואפשרותו להיות חסיד אומ"ה הוא.The obligation of the gentile [lit בכל זמן, ואינו תלוי בזמן שמקבלין גר תושב.Descendant of Noah] and his ability to be a chasid umot ha'olam are at all times, and arenot dependent on the time that we accept a ger toshav."

11. pp.27, 40 et al, Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem12. Likutei Sichot vol. 26, p. 13313. Likutei Sichot vol. 35, p. 9714. Likutei Sichot vol. 4, 109415. Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem, title page16. Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem, p. 18. Square brackets in the original; round brackets are the

translator's interpolations. Also see footnote 10 at length there, explaining the sources forthe ruling. Original Hebrew: ולכן בזמן הזה, אע"פ שאין מקבלין ג"ת לענין זכויותיו[כגון לגור בארץ ישראל], מ"מ אם בא לקבל על עצמו מרצונו להיות גר תושבוחסיד אומ"ה בפני ג' לענין קבלת מצוותיו מקבלין אותו.

17. Sefer Sheva Mitzvot Hashem, p. 28: א. בן נח חייב לקבל על עצמו ולקיים שבע מצוותמפני שה' צוה לבני נח והודיע ע"י משה רבינו בתורה, והנזהר לקיימן משום כך הריזה 'חסיד אומות העולם'.... ו. גר תושב וחסיד אומות העולם שתי תוערים הם. ואיןב"נ צריך לקבל על עצמו להיות גר תושב, וכן אינו צריך לקבל על עצמו עול ז'A Gentile [lit. Descendant of Noah] is required to accept .1" מצוות בפני בית דין ישראל.upon himself and uphold the seven mitzvot because G‑d [so] commanded the children ofNoah through our Teacher Moses in the Torah. One who is careful to uphold them becauseof this is a chasid umot ha'olam [lit. Pious People of the World].... "6. Ger toshav and chasidumot ha'olam are two different terms. A Gentile is not required to accept upon himself to bea ger toshav, and so too is not required to accept the yoke of the seven mitzvot before aJewish beit din."

The Seven Laws of Noah, Lichtenstein, Aaron, New York: The Rabbi Jacob Joseph SchoolPress, 1981.The Image of the Non-Jew in Judaism, Novak, David, ISBN 0-88946-975-X, New York andToronto: Edwin Mellen Press, 1983.Tolerance in Judaism: The Medieval and Modern Sources, Zuesse, Evan M., In: TheEncyclopaedia of Judaism, edited by J. Neusner, A. Avery-Peck, and W.S. Green, SecondEdition, ISBN 90-04-14787-X, Leiden: Brill, 2005, Vol. IV: 2688–2713Encyclopedia Talmudit, Hebrew edition, 5739/1979, entry Ger ToshavSheva Mitzvot Hashem, Weiner, Moshe, Jerusalem: Ask Noah International, 2008.(Hebrew)The World of The Ger, Rabbi David Katz and Rabbi Chaim Clorfene

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18. Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish people -Menachem Marc Kellner – 1991 (S U N YSeries in Jewish Philosophy) (9780791406915): Page 44 "against my reading ofMaimonides is strengthened by the fact that Maimonides himself says that the ger toshav isaccepted only during the time that the Jubilee is practiced.43 The Jubilee year is no longerpracticed in this dispensation ...... Second, it is entirely reasonable to assume thatMaimonides thought that the messianic conversion of the Gentiles would be a process thatoccurred in stages and that some or all Gentiles would go through the status of ger toshavon ...But this question aside, there are substantial reasons why it is very unlikely thatMaimonides foresaw a messianic era in which the Gentiles would become onlysemiconverts (ger toshav) and not full converts (ger tzedek). ...But the main thrust of all theMaimonidean texts we have been analyzing here is that in the days of the Messiah allhuman beings will stand before God equally and jointly. What is a semiconvert?Maimonides explains that the ger toshav "

19. Schneersohn, Menachem Mendel. Sha'arei Ge'ulah. pp. 267–8 (translated from Hebrew;emphasis and round brackets, but not the square brackets, in original text): There is afurther detail in the wording of the Rambam in the completion and conclusion of his book[Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim 12:5]: "And the occupation of the entire world will not beanything other than to know G‑d." Because in its plain meaning, it thereby includes thenations of the world as well (similar to what the Rambam wrote in the previous chapter, thatthe Messianic king will "improve the world in its entirety to serve G‑d... I will transform thenations etc."), especially since immediately afterwards the Rambam changes [terminology]and writes "And therefore Israel will be great sages etc." From this it is clear that the phraseentire world written above is intended to thereby include the children of Noah as well.

20. Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim 8:10 (http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1188353/jewish/Chapter-8.htm)