\"munchausen in rome: plautine braggarts and hellenistic storytelling\". plautus doctus:...

$: \"Munchausen in Rome: Plautine Braggarts and Hellenistic Storytelling\". Plautus Doctus: Plautine Comedy and its Intellectual Context. Workshop, 20-21 June 2016, organized by Sophia$
1

Ioannis M Konstantakos

Munchausen in Rome Plautine Braggarts and Hellenistic Storytelling

The braggarts of Plautine comedy (usually milites gloriosi and their slaves or

associates but also other charlatans such as the Sycophanta of the Trinummus)

are marvellous storytellers They fill the stage with their tales of impossible feats

exotic wonders and extraordinary adventures in far-off lands Antamoenides in

the Poenulus gives battle against flying men with slings and balls of bird-lime

The impostor of the Trinummus recounts how he sailed in a small fishing-boat

upstream the river which flows from the sky Pyrgopolynices the eponymous

miles gloriosus is glorified as a superhuman warrior who once shattered the leg

of an elephant with a blow of his fist A similar feat is engraved on the personal

seal of captain Therapontigonus Platagidorus in the Curculio This latter

champion is also said to have vanquished half of the known and the unknown

world in twenty days Stratophanes in the Truculentus boasts of his infant son

who asked for a sword and shield immediately upon his birth and is expected to

enlist in a legion and win war spoils

The Greek comic tradition provides parallels for this kind of fantastic

braggadocio although these are mainly found in Aristophanes and Middle

Comedy earlier than the generation of Menander and his contemporaries who

furnished most of Plautusrsquo immediate models The Greek tales delivered again

by boastful officers or itinerant charlatans similarly revolve around wondrous

phenomena and marvels of faraway lands However they present a conspicuous

difference by comparison to the Plautine discourses In Greek comedy the

braggartsrsquo travelogues concentrate invariably on the extreme luxury of the exotic

places visited by the blowhard The emphasis falls on elements of extravagant

hedonism such as the huge amounts of food consumed the bizarre sensuality of

customs or the world of the banquet and its pleasures Often the boastful tales

represent grotesque distortions of common sympotic practices and delights

For example the title-hero of Antiphanesrsquo Stratiotes describes the

extraordinary spectacle of a Cypriot king who was fanned at dinner by doves

flapping their wings Another alazon in Alexisrsquo Eisoikizomenos muses over an

exotic banquet during which doves were dipped into perfume and then let loose

2

to fly around and sprinkle the guests Ephippusrsquo Geryones and Peltastes included

a fantastic tirade about a gigantic fish larger than Crete and cooked in an

analogously proportioned casserole to satisfy a fabulous king The ambassadors

returning from Persia in Aristophanesrsquo Acharnians extol the exorbitant gluttony

of the Persian people and the enormous quantities of food served at the

Achaemenid royal table The excesses of gastronomy are coupled with extreme

costliness with regard to the other paraphernalia of the banquet mdash golden cups

and soft mattresses In Mnesimachusrsquo Philip the blustering warrior claims that

he and his men swallow swords and broken javelins at dinner gulp down flaming

torches as a side-dish lie on shields and breastplates instead of cushions and

wear catapults on their heads instead of wreaths The weapons of war take here

the place of the foodstuffs and equipment of the banquet so as to highlight the

braggartrsquos superhuman militarism Even in New Comedy the few extant relics of

such fantastic narratives remain true to the preoccupation with the culinary or the

sympotic In Menanderrsquos Halieus a returning soldier reports on the voracity of

Dionysius the tyrant of Pontic Heracleia who lied down in his rolls of fat obese

like a pig and wished himself a death from overeating Bias in the Kolax

faithfully reflected in this respect by the Thraso of Terencersquos Eunuch also

confines his braggadocio to his distinctions in the symposium He boasts about

his witty jokes and boon companionship with the king in convivial occasions or

about the large amounts of wine he gulped down Although there are no stories of

wonders in the Kolax and its Roman offshoot the typically Hellenic emphasis on

banqueting and its pleasures is retained

In Greek comic bragging therefore it is traditionally the pleasures of

feasting that are ludicrously exaggerated and transformed into grotesque

spectacles The alazon is the main adversary of the comic hero the opponent that

must be ridiculed and defeated in the end Since the comic herorsquos final victory is

regularly celebrated with a great feast of eating and drinking it seems natural

that the braggart antagonist should be associated with an exorbitant distortion of

these same pleasures In this respect the Greek practice corresponds to a

primordial constituent of the comic genre The tales of the Plautine braggarts on

the other hand display a different kind of emphasis Although feasting is an

3

integral part of Plautusrsquo stage fictions as well the narratives of the Plautine

blowhards concentrate rather on genuinely fantastic and fairytale elements The

main focus is now on motifs of pure fabulous storytelling such as superhuman

powers extraordinary voyages imaginary creatures and miraculous exploits

The Greek bragging is Rabelaisian the Plautine is Munchausenesque

An explanation of this divergence may be sought in a significant body of

marvel literature which appeared precisely between the end of Middle or the

beginnings of New Comedy and Plautusrsquo period of activity The Hellenistic age

saw the rise of a large number of genres which can be collectively categorized as

ldquotravel narrativerdquo or ldquoethnographical fictionrdquo The roots of this literary vogue can

be traced back to earlier historiography (eg the fabulous materials in Herodotus

and Ctesias) or even to the dawn of heroic myth (cf the epic adventures of

Odysseus and the Argonauts) But the wide-ranging conquests of Alexander and

the resulting contacts of the Greeks with vast areas of the Orient gave a new

impetus to narratives concerning the marvels of distant lands and the adventures

of travellers An extensive corpus of such works was produced in direct

connection with Alexanderrsquos expedition In the decades after the Macedonian

conquerorrsquos death many histories of his wars were authored by men who had

personally served in the eastern campaigns (Nearchos Aristoboulos Onesikritos

and others) or had obtained first-hand information from the participants

(Kleitarchos) These historical works included much lore regarding the

wonderful sights and strange peoples encountered by the Greek troops in the

regions of Central Asia or India Other historians and ethnographers of that

period such as Megasthenes who visited Chandraguptarsquos court as ambassador of

Seleucus and wrote a work about India reproduce the same kind of material

Soon Alexanderrsquos travel adventures were fictionalized in a novelistic

genre the so-called Wunderbriefe or ldquoletters of wondersrdquo that is fictitious

epistles supposedly penned by Alexander himself or by his marshals and

recounting the experiences of the Macedonian army in the remotest places of the

Orient The letter format was a felicitous convention for this kind of writing

about wondrous lands and monstrous populations The fantastic sights were

dressed up as ldquoauthenticrdquo eyewitness accounts given by the Macedonian king

4

himself or by his commanders and thus placed less strain on credibility Several

Wunderbriefe were circulating in the Hellenistic period Some of them were later

absorbed into the so-called Alexander Romance of Pseudo-Callisthenes an

extensive biographical fiction about the life and exploits of the Macedonian

conqueror Certain epistolary texts also survive in later Latin translations or are

known from brief excerpts in authors such as Strabo

The love of wonders and paradox left strong marks on Hellenistic

literature Many more writings of the time incorporated fabulous tales of exotic

voyages Authors such as Euhemerus Iambulus and Hecataeus of Abdera

cultivated the genre of ldquoutopian fictionrdquo in their novelistic works they narrated

their travels to the edges of the earth (the extreme north of the Hyperboreans or

the islands far to the south of Arabia and India) and described imaginary ideal

societies which they encountered there Lucian will later parody this multifarious

literature of travels and marvels in his comic travelogue novel the True

Histories Lucianrsquos travesties offer an idea of the richness and diversity of these

works which must have been widespread in Hellenistic times but are now lost or

survive in fragments

The comparison between the extant remains of Hellenistic marvel

literature and the fantastic discourses of Plautusrsquo braggarts reveals a large amount

of parallels Unsurprisingly the greatest number of similarities is found in the

writings about Alexanderrsquos campaigns whether historical or novelistic ones

These compositions authored by veteran officers of the Asiatic expedition or

fictitiously presented as the reports of the Macedonian conqueror himself made

up collectively the largest body of ldquosoldiersrsquo talesrdquo in Hellenistic letters Thus

they offered a repertory of fabulous materials fit to be placed in the mouth of

boastful soldiers or their comic attendants Nevertheless several comparable

elements are also traced in other Hellenistic genres

Antamoenidesrsquo battle against the flying men in the Poenulus essentially

reproduces a type of tale which recurs many times in the Wunderbriefe about

Alexanderrsquos expedition a few specimens also turn up in the historiographers

though in a variant or curtailed form Typically such episodes are set during the

march of Alexander and his army through the remotest areas of the East in India

5

or Central Asia The troops encounter a monstrous hybrid population with mixed

human and animal characteristics for example giant men with lionsrsquo faces and

bodies overgrown with thick hair centaurs with a manrsquos upper torso and the

hindquarters of horses dog-headed humans or men covered with wild boarsrsquo fur

and barking like dogs enormous women with long beastly nails and the legs of

wild asses and so forth Alexander and his army give battle against these

monstrous populations which prove highly resistant and difficult to subdue

Finally the Macedonian hero conceives an artifice by which he manages to

overcome the hybrid monsters The essence of his stratagem consists precisely in

treating the opponents like beasts in accordance with their zoomorphic parts

rather than like a regular human army to be confronted in tactical warfare

Sometimes the scheme is simple fires are lit to scare away the beastly

humanoids or the Macedonian soldiers emit loud cries and blow trumpets the

sound of which puts the monsters to flight or the bloodhounds of the Greek army

are set on the half-animal enemies In certain cases more elaborate methods are

devised In the battle against the centaurs Alexander has a large ditch dug around

the Greek camp and covered with reeds and straw The Macedonian soldiers

provoke the monsters by shooting at them harmless arrows of plain wood The

centaurs thus underestimate the danger of the human army and are lured into

galloping against the Greek camp only to fall into the concealed ditch like game

entrapped in a hunt The same type of episode is repeatedly parodied in Lucianrsquos

True Histories Possibly this kind of narrative was more widely diffused in

Hellenistic marvel literature beyond the legends of Alexander Reports about

monstrous peoples living in the far east had old roots in Greek ethnographical

writing from Scylax of Caryanda down to Ctesias and Megasthenes

Antamoenidesrsquo tall tale shares with these fabulous narratives the same

storyline together with several motifs The Plautine captain also encounters a

population of hybrid creatures homines volatici who combine the human figure

with animal elements birdsrsquo wings and feathers and also heads similar to those

of turtle-doves A classic technique of parody is used here in order to mock the

fantastic conceptions of Hellenistic storytelling The sinister and menacing

aspects of the legendary monsters are replaced with anodyne or downright

6

ridiculous ones Instead of the grim and dangerous accoutrements of savage

deadly beasts (the shaggy fur of wild boars the sharp nails of predatory animals

the hindquarters of strong stallions or wild asses the heads of hounds or lions)

the Plautine hybrids are equipped with harmless feathers and the brittle heads of

small birds which produce an innocuous and laughable spectacle Lucian uses

the same method in his own parodies when he makes his heroes encounter

humans with the heads of eels and tunas or the tails of turbots and swordfishes

The horrendous monsters of thrilling fiction which had something of the

nightmarish quality of Hieronymus Bosch are turned into ludicrous

conglomerates fit for illustrating the pages of Lewis Carrollrsquos Alice

Like Alexander and his army Antamoenides gives battle against the

hybrid creatures and vanquishes them by means of a stratagem Balls of birdlime

are shot from slings against the flying men and presumably stick on their wings

thus immobilizing the creatures and bringing them down Antamoenides then

pierces the brain of each one of them with a feather Similar to Alexanderrsquos

artifices this extravagant Plautine device relies on the enemiesrsquo animal nature

and zoomorphic parts Antamoenides employs standard tools and methods of

fowling (birdlime slings piercing of the birdrsquos head) instead of war tactics he

beats the avian men precisely because he treats them like birds rather than as a

regular human army The comic miles reproduces on a light-hearted level the

legendary feats of the Macedonian conqueror In some episodes of this type

Alexander strives to capture specimens of the monstrous population and keep

them in custody but they do not survive more than a few days because they

cannot bear the separation from their tribe or the diet of the Macedonian camp

This is forwarded as an explanation for the fact that no such marvellous creatures

were brought by the Macedonian army back to our familiar world By analogy

Antamoenides asserts that his homines volatici existed in point of fact but they

cannot be seen any longer because Antamoenides himself exterminated all of

them in his decimating Pentetronic battle

Beings with mixed human and avian features also occur in some episodes

of the Wunderbriefe of Alexander although these episodes do not exactly

conform to the narrative type examined above One of the fictional epistles

7

describes the Macedoniansrsquo voyage into the fabulous land of the blessed which

is clad in darkness After a long march Alexander encounters two large birds

with human faces which are flying above and speak with the voices of men

These creatures warn the Macedonian hero not to proceed further into the domain

of the gods instead they promise him victory in his impending war against the

Indian king Porus Later Alexander flies in the air sitting in a basket which is

carried aloft by two enormous vultures but he meets again a bird with a manrsquos

form which advises the foolhardy hero to return to earth In another novelistic

letter Alexander discovers a wondrous bird similar to a dove but endowed with

human voice in a golden cage hanging inside the temple of a fabulous country

As is the case with many marvellous legends about Alexander the human-

avian crossbreeds are ultimately inspired from actual sights experienced by the

Greek veterans during the campaigns in the east Reliefs of winged

anthropomorphic genii were a standard decorative motif in the royal palaces and

temples of Assyria at the time of Assurnasirpal II Sargon II and Sennacherib

(9th to 7th centuries BC) These wise spirits (apkallucirc in Akkadian) were

believed to guard and protect the buildings Usually they are portrayed as human

figures equipped with large wings on their back sometimes they also have an

eaglersquos or vulturersquos head (cf the heads of turtle-doves in Antamoenidesrsquo comic

parody) From Mesopotamia this ornamental motif also spread to Achaemenid

Iran and is found in sculptures of Cyrusrsquo palace at Pasargadae and of the royal

complex at Persepolis The Macedonian troops may have seen such works of art

during their march towards Babylon after the battle of Arbela or at the capture of

Persepolis or when Alexander visited Pasargadae The anthropomorphic birds of

the Wunderbriefe and Antamoenidesrsquo parody of them represent the ultimate

fictional metamorphosis of an age-old theme of Near-Eastern art

Two Plautine captains boast of wondrous feats against elephants

Pyrgopolynices is said to have crashed the leg of an elephant with a casual blow

of his fist if he had made a serious effort he would have pierced the

pachydermrsquos skin innards and bones through and through Therapontigonusrsquo

seal-ring depicts an armed man who cuts an elephant in two with his sword

8

These extravagant exploits may be read as comic inflations of Hellenistic wonder

tales especially from the legendarium of Alexander

According to a testimonium of Lucian the historian Aristoboulos praised

to excess the feats of Alexander in the battle against Porus by the river Hydaspes

the Macedonian king was said to combat with elephants and slay them with a

single stroke of his javelin A commemorative decadrachm coin minted after the

battle portrays indeed Alexander on horseback as he strikes the elephant of

Porus with his spear This incident must have been rendered by Aristoboulos in

an adulatory manner Plautus exaggerates this type of story to the point of surreal

grotesqueness Similarly in a fictitious Wunderbrief of Alexander to Aristotle

the Macedonian hero and his soldiers chase a herd of elephants and hamstring

almost a thousand of them The image on Therapontigonusrsquo seal comically

magnifies this achievement instead of cutting only the knee tendons the warrior

now splits the entire body of the pachyderm in two Some historians of

Alexander attribute analogous capacities to King Porus or to certain Indian tribes

the latter are supposed to be so large-sized as to straddle elephants with the same

ease with which ordinary people mount on horses The basic idea in all these

tales as in the bravados of the Plautine miles is the superman who can match an

elephant with the mere stature of his own body

In the Trinummus the Sycophanta recounts his arduous voyage upstream

the river that flows from under the throne of Jove in the middle of the sky This

fabulous account may parody a passage from Euhemerusrsquo travel novel which

refers to a navigable river in the utopian island of Panchaea The river called

ldquoWater of the Sunrdquo derives from a fount in the vicinity of a tall mountain which

is dedicated to the gods and named ldquoseat of heavenrdquo (Οὐρανοῦ δίφρος) In the

charlatanrsquos fairytale Euhemerusrsquo metonymy is comically literalized Instead of a

mountain figuratively styled ldquothe chair of Heavenrdquo because of its divine

associations the river now springs from under a real chair used by the supreme

divinity in heaven

Other aspects of the Sycophantarsquos tale recall the historians and

geographers of Alexander A prominent theme in these latter authors is the

exploration of rivers encountered by the Macedonian army during the eastern

9

campaigns and especially the search for the riversrsquo sources According to a

report of Nearchos Alexander thought for some time that the rivers of India mdash

the Hydaspes the Acesines and the Indusmdash flowed into the Nile after they had

traversed a long stretch of desert The conqueror thus planned to navigate these

rivers all the way until he would reach the Nile and the land of Egypt although

he finally understood the fallaciousness of his theory Alexanderrsquos scheme and

the Sycophantarsquos enterprise are alike in that both of them entail an impossible

voyage through the entire course of great rivers Interestingly the Nile is called

διιπετής in the Greek poetic tradition a Homeric epithet traditionally understood

by ancient readers as ldquofalling from Zeusrdquo or ldquoflowing from heavenrdquo The

Sycophantarsquos tale is based on a ludicrous materialization of this old epic

expression The Plautine river is διιπετής in the most concrete sense it springs

from under the throne of Juppiter himself from the middle of the sky The

Sycophantarsquos adventure appears as a comic extension and fulfillment of

Alexanderrsquos original plan The great Macedonian desired to navigate an Indian

river throughout its course so as to arrive to the sky-fallen Nile the Plautine

charlatan purports to have pursued this voyage even further up to the sources of

the sky-fallen river in the heavenly domain of Jove Here the parody is achieved

through the absurd materialization of a metaphorical turn of phrase

Further the Sycophanta accomplishes his voyage in a little fishing boat

(horiola) which only carries two persons mdash the charlatan himself and a

companion Similarly in Iambulusrsquo novelistic travelogue the hero and his

comrade traverse the vast ocean in a small craft (πλοιάριον) which has room

only for the two of them until they reach a utopian island at the edge of the

southern sea Overall the Sycophantarsquos tale seems to be a comic pastiche of

various motifs from a wide repertoire of Hellenistic marvel narratives

Therapontigonus in the Curculio is described as a mighty conqueror that

single-handedly subdued a vast number of countries within twenty days His

conquests include many well-known regions of the Near East (from Caria Lycia

and Syria to Arabia Persia and Paphlagonia) side by side with grotesquely

named imaginary lands Peredia and Perbibesia Centauromachia Unomammia

and the entire coast of Conterebromnia This catalogue is often read as a parody

10

of the triumphal inscriptions of Hellenistic monarchs which regularly contain

lengthy enumerations of subjugated territories Therapontigonus is sometimes

interpreted as a stage travesty of a specific ruler such as Ptolemy III or

Demetrius Poliorcetes but it is wiser to view him as an amalgam of generic

features inspired from various Hellenistic potentates including Alexander the

Great The immense extent of the lands conquered within an incredibly brief time

is a ludicrous exaggeration of the achievements of Alexander who overran the

entire Achaemenid Empire as well as northern India in the space of a few years

The playwright reduces military glory to laughter by turning the years into days

and thus making the miles appear as an absurdly overblown Uumlbermensch

The coexistence of real and imaginary places in Therapontigonusrsquo list also

recalls a characteristic feature of the legendary tradition about Alexander In the

Wunderbriefe as later in Pseudo-Callisthenesrsquo romance the Macedonian hero

begins by subjugating real countries according to the historical record (Egypt

Babylon Persia and India) but then moves on to fantastic regions the land of

darkness with its fountains of immortality wild deserts populated by monstrous

tribes or wondrous animals the fabulous City of the Sun built of gold and

emeralds the fictionalized Ethiopia of Queen Candace with its legendary riches

and romanticized court life or the mythical land of the Amazons Already in

some of the more fanciful historians (Kleitarchos Onesikritos Polykleitos)

Alexander alongside his historical campaigns was said to approach the

legendary country of the Amazons and to encounter their representatives The

Plautine mock-glorification of Therapontigonusrsquo victories satirizes precisely this

assortment of real and imaginary geography

Significantly most of the fantastic ingredients of Therapontigonusrsquo

triumphal record correspond to fabulous adventures attested in the legendarium

of Alexander Centauromachia literally ldquothe land of the battle of the centaursrdquo

recalls the clash of Alexanderrsquos army with a monstrous half-human half-horse

population which is narrated in a Wunderbrief Unomammia the country of the

ldquoOne-Breastedrdquo alludes to the Amazons who were reputed to pinch off their

right breasts so as to throw more easily their javelins in war Alexanderrsquos

meeting with the Amazons was recounted both in historical accounts and in the

11

epistolary romances In the latter indeed the Amazons finally submit to the

Macedonian conqueror after exchanging a few letters of negotiation with him

Conterebromnia is apparently derived from the verb conterere (ldquowear out

destroyrdquo) and Bromius a cult epithet of the god Dionysus The word may thus

signify ldquothe land worn down by Dionysusrdquo and this offers another point of

contact with Alexanderrsquos campaigns Megasthenes and other Hellenistic

historians paralleled Alexander with Dionysus because the two of them were the

only invaders who ever managed to conquer India Dionysus was the first to

overrun the Indian land to which he introduced civilization and Alexander was

put forward as Dionysusrsquo imitator and successor Therapontigonusrsquo

Conterebromnia may be a humorous kenning for Alexanderrsquos Indian expedition

in pursuit of the tracks of Bromius and of the country Bromius overpowered In

the Wunderbriefe the Macedonian king also visits various places dedicated to

Dionysus at the edges of the earth He discovers a monument set up by the god

at the furthest borders of India but moves on because he wishes to surpass even

Dionysus in the range of his travels In another episode Alexander explores a

temple over the ldquoharbour of Lyssosrdquo replete with Bacchic statues of satyrs and

maenads and capacious drinking-vessels In the end however the hero is

frightened and forced to live by a loud roar of drums auloi and other

instruments mdash clearly the furious sound of Dionysus-Bromius the god of tumult

who did not tolerate trespassers in his holy place In these narratives Alexander

and Dionysus appear as antagonists the young Macedonian tries to emulate the

wanderings of the god but is rebuked for his presumption Thus Alexanderrsquos

effort to ldquowear downrdquo Bromius is ultimately unsuccessful But the superhuman

Plautine captain experiences no such limitations and may add Conterebromnia

the victory over the Bromius himself to his catalogue of exploits

Stratophanesrsquo infant son in the Truculentus cries for a sword and a buckler

immediately upon birth The proud father expects his wondrous baby to enlist at

once in a legion and gain booty in war This burlesque hyperbole is inspired from

a well-known historical theme Alexanderrsquos impressively young age at the time

of his victories in the East The Macedonian king was only twenty-two when he

began his great campaign against Persia and had completely overrun the

12

Achaemenid Empire four years later he even managed to annex northern India

before dying at the age of thirty-three Historical and biographical literature

emphasizes Alexanderrsquos astonishing youth as one of the most admirable aspects

of his achievements Stratophanesrsquo superhumanly precocious infant represents

the same theme in a comically distortive manner as though the image of

Alexanderrsquos youth were placed under a huge magnifying glass

In some historical anecdotes Alexander is actually called a child (παῖς or

μειράκιον) by his scornful enemies such as Demosthenes the Persian king or

the conspirator Philotas In every case of course the Macedonian hero rebuts his

detractors by demonstrating his truly manly virtues In a Hellenistic epistolary

novel later incorporated into Pseudo-Callisthenes King Darius sends a letter to

Alexander and disdainfully exhorts him to return to the lap of his mother like a

weak child who is still in need of education and nursing Darius even applies

with rhetorical exaggeration the verb τιθηνίζεσθαι which would literally

designate the Macedonian hero as a baby suckling from his motherrsquos breast

Along with this letter the Persian king dispatches to Alexander toys namely a

whip and a ball The whip as Darius writes indicates that the young Macedonian

is still at an age to be disciplined The ball also signifies that Alexander is merely

a child fit only for playing with his age-mates and not for undertaking great

military campaigns In his reply however Alexander takes the whip to

symbolize the weapons by which he will defeat the Persians As for the ball this

represents the spherical world over which the Macedonian king will dominate

Alexander thus turns the toys into weapons and emblems of power

The basic motifs of these rhetorical fictions are ridiculously overblown in

the fanciful image of Stratophanesrsquo little son Like Alexander the ldquochildrdquo who

yet proved his manly worth by his war feats the soldierrsquos baby enlists in the

army and wins war spoils already from infancy Alexander instead of playing

with the toys dispatched by Darius takes them for weapons which will procure

him military victory and dominion Comparably Stratophanesrsquo infant cries for a

sword and a buckler instead of the toys one would have normally expected arms

are his playthings and war is his game Once again a rhetorical figure is

13

literalized The comic poet turns the quasi boyish young warrior into an actual

small boy and thus reduces the encomia of Alexander to comic absurdity

Other elements of the Plautine tirades also find notable parallels in

Hellenistic marvel lore although there is no time to analyze them now

Generally the quantity of these parallels is impressive especially if we take into

account that most of the Greek writings of this kind survive in a fragmentary or

abridged form mainly through excerpts or retellings in the compilations of later

authors If more of these works had survived the similarities with Plautusrsquo

extraordinary tales might have been more numerous and more precise The

Roman playwright imitates various elements of the marvel stories particular

motifs but also larger narrative structures story patterns or types of tale To

transform the fantastic materials into the stuff of comedy Plautus uses all the

stock techniques of parody exaggeration to the point of grotesqueness

magnification of every element to an outrageous degree as though the model

were reflected on an enlarging carnival mirror replacement of the sinister aspects

with harmless or ridiculous ones literal interpretation of rhetorical figures

materialization of metaphors or comic exploitation of their extreme

consequences in practical terms Above all Plautus freely combines or

amalgamates ingredients of diverse provenance which occur across a wide range

of Hellenistic marvel writings Usually it is impossible to pinpoint a single

specific source for Plautusrsquo comic conception Rather the comic braggarts

borrow many distinctive motifs from multiple sources and fuse them together

into a new hilarious creation of their own

If Plautus parodies Hellenistic wonder tales how did he learn them Oral

tradition may be responsible to a certain extent especially in the case of well-

known topoi such as Alexanderrsquos youth But it seems insufficient as an overall

explanation given the wealth and variety of the traceable parallels One

hypothesis would be that the stories of Plautusrsquo braggarts are essentially copied

from the Greek New Comedy models The writers of Hellenistic comic drama

must have known some of the rich corpus of contemporary marvel literature

Histories of Alexanderrsquos expedition novelistic works about his explorations in

the Orient romances of travel and utopia ethnographic accounts and

14

paradoxographies all these were very much a literary fashion in the early

Hellenistic period The literate readership of the time doubtless cherished these

new modes of writing about the extraordinary Professional men of letters as the

comic poets certainly were would have been familiar with such works and could

have expected at least a cultivated part of their audience to enjoy the parodies

Less learned spectators would still be entertained by the mere exorbitance of the

braggartsrsquo fantasies And if the subtle Menander was reluctant to include such

fabulous stuff in his realistic fictions other dramatists such as Philemon and

Diphilus who favoured broader kinds of humour might have indulged in satire

of contemporary marvellous storytelling

Nevertheless most of the Latin passages display the distinctive marks of

Plautine humour mdash the exuberance of comic ideas vivid imagery and

imaginative exaggeration that are typically associated with the comedian of

Sarsina Plautus seems to have put much of his art and of his heart in these

delightful swashbuckling daydreams the laughing echoes and saucy parodies of

Hellenistic marvel lore are woven together with a verve that smacks of original

creativity rather than mere translation Another possibility therefore must be

kept open Plautus himself had access to Hellenistic writings of travel and

wonder whether historical or novelistic ones

The available information about the reception of such works in

Republican Rome is scant Still there are indications that educated Romans

around Plautusrsquo time as well as afterwards enjoyed the products of this literary

vogue Ennius the patriarch of Roman poetry translated into Latin the utopian

travel novel of Euhemerus About a century after Plautus the work of

Kleitarchos one of the more fanciful historians of Alexander was familiar to

docti such as Cornelius Sisenna and Cicero Later in Imperial times almost all

the historical and ethnographic writings of this kind were excerpted by the

diligent Pliny and Gellius discovered at the book market in Brundisium a bunch

of very old and yellowed Greek books full of fabulous tales mdash among them the

writings of Ctesias and Onesikritos as well as paradoxographical collections All

this does not amount to much but it does document the circulation of such works

in Italy and an interest of the Roman educated elites for the marvels of

15

Hellenistic storytelling Plautus apart from a master of popular comedy was also

a learned poet hiding the mind of a well-read intellectual behind the mask of the

Atellan buffoon He may well have been familiar with the fashionable narrative

compositions of the Hellenistic literature of his time

Ioannis M Konstantakos Plautus doctus Plautine comedy and its intellectual context

httpuoaacademiaeduIoannisKonstantakos International Workshop Athens 20 June 2015

httpscholaruoagriokonstan

Munchausen in Rome Plautine braggarts and Hellenistic storytelling

16

1 The Greek tradition of ldquoRabelaisianrdquo braggadocio

11 Aristophanes Acharnians 65ndash89

ΠΡΕΣΒΕΥΤΗΣ Ἐπέμψαθrsquo ἡμᾶς ὡς βασιλέα τὸν μέγαν μισθὸν φέροντας δύο δραχμὰς τῆς ἡμέρας ἐπrsquo Εὐθυμένους ἄρχοντος ΔΙΚΑΙΟΠΟΛΙΣ Οἴμοι τῶν δραχμῶν ΠΡ Καὶ δῆτrsquo ἐτρυχόμεσθα διὰ Καϋστρίων πεδίων ὁδοιπλανοῦντες ἐσκηνημένοι ἐφrsquo ἁρμαμαξῶν μαλθακῶς κατακείμενοι ἀπολλύμενοι ΔΙΚ Σφόδρα γὰρ ἐσῳζόμην ἐγὼ παρὰ τὴν ἔπαλξιν ἐν φορυτῷ κατακείμενος ΠΡ Ξενιζόμενοι δὲ πρὸς βίαν ἐπίνομεν ἐξ ὑαλίνων ἐκπωμάτων καὶ χρυσίδων ἄκρατον οἶνον ἡδύν ΔΙΚ Ὦ Κραναὰ πόλις ἆρrsquo αἰσθάνῃ τὸν κατάγελων τῶν πρέσβεων ΠΡ Οἱ βάρβαροι γὰρ ἄνδρας ἡγοῦνται μόνους τοὺς πλεῖστα δυναμένους φαγεῖν τε καὶ πιεῖν ΔΙΚ Ἡμεῖς δὲ λαικαστάς γε καὶ καταπύγονας ΠΡ Ἔτει τετάρτῳ δrsquo εἰς τὰ βασίλειrsquo ἤλθομεν ἀλλrsquo εἰς ἀπόπατον ᾤχετο στρατιὰν λαβών κἄχεζεν ὀκτὼ μῆνας ἐπὶ χρυσῶν ὀρῶν mdash ΔΙΚ Πόσου δὲ τὸν πρωκτὸν χρόνου ξυνήγαγεν Τῇ πανσελήνῳ ΠΡ mdash κᾆτrsquo ἀπῆλθεν οἴκαδε Εἶτrsquo ἐξένιζε παρετίθει δrsquo ἡμῖν ὅλους ἐκ κριβάνου βοῦς mdash ΔΙΚ Καὶ τίς εἶδε πώποτε βοῦς κριβανίτας Τῶν ἀλαζονευμάτων ΠΡ Καὶ ναὶ μὰ Δίrsquo ὄρνιν τριπλάσιον Κλεωνύμου παρέθηκεν ἡμῖν ὄνομα δrsquo ἦν αὐτῷ φέναξ

12 Ephippos Geryones fr 5

τούτῳ δrsquo ὁπόταν ναέται χώρας ἰχθύν τινrsquo ἕλωσrsquo οὐχ ἡμέριον τῆς περικλύστου δrsquo ἁλίας Κρήτης μείζω μεγέθει λοπάς ἐστrsquo αὐτῷ δυνατὴ τούτους χωρεῖν ἑκατόν καὶ περιοίκους εἶναι ταύτῃ Σίνδους Λυκίους Μυγδονιώτας Κραναούς Παφίους τούτους δrsquo ὕλην κόπτειν ὁπόταν βασιλεὺς ἕψῃ τὸν μέγαν ἰχθύν καὶ προσάγοντας καθrsquo ὅσον πόλεως ἕστηκεν ὅρος τοὺς δrsquo ὑποκαίειν λίμνην δrsquo ἐπάγειν ὕδατος μεστὴν εἰς τὴν ἅλμην τοὺς δrsquo ἅλας αὐτῷ ζεύγη προσάγειν μηνῶν ὀκτὼ συνεχῶς ἑκατόν περιπλεῖν δrsquo ἐπὶ τοῖς ἄμβωσιν ἄνω πέντε κέλητας πεντεσκάλμους περιαγγέλλειν τrsquo laquoοὐχ ὑποκαίεις Λυκίων πρύτανι ψυχρὸν τουτί παύου φυσῶν Μακεδὼν ἄρχων σβέννυ Κέλθrsquo ὡς μὴ προσκαύσῃςraquo

Cf Ephippos Peltastes fr 19 Athen VIII 347BndashC τὰ αὐτὰ ταῦτα εἴρηκεν ὁ Ἔφιππος κἀν Πελταστῇ τῷ δράματι ἐν ᾧ καὶ ταῦτα ἐκείνοις ὑποτέτακται

τοιαῦθrsquo ὑθλῶν δειπνεῖ καὶ ζῇ θαυμαζόμενος μετὰ μειρακίων οὐ γινώσκων ψήφων ἀριθμούς σεμνὸς σεμνῶς χλανίδrsquo ἕλκων





17

13 Antiphanes Stratiotes fr 200

(A) ἐν Κύπρῳ φῄς εἰπέ μοι διήγετε πολὺν χρόνον (Β) τὸν πάνθrsquo ἕως ἦν ὁ πόλεμος (Α) ἐν τίνι τόπῳ μάλιστα λέγε γάρ (Β) ἐν Πάφῳ οὗ πρᾶγμα τρυφερὸν διαφερόντως ἦν ἰδεῖν ἄλλως τrsquo ἄπιστον (Α) ποῖον (Β) ἐρριπίζετο ὑπὸ τῶν περιστερῶν ὑπrsquo ἄλλου δrsquo οὐδενὸς δειπνῶν ὁ βασιλεύς (Α) πῶς ἐάσας τἆλλα γὰρ ἐρήσομαί σε τοῦθrsquo (Β) ὅπως ἠλείφετο ἐκ τῆς Συρίας ἥκοντι τοιούτου μύρῳ καρποῦ σύχνrsquo οἷόν φασι τὰς περιστερὰς τρώγειν διὰ τὴν ὀσμὴν δὲ τούτου πετόμεναι παρῆσαν οἷαί τrsquo ἦσαν ἐπικαθιζάνειν ἐπὶ τὴν κεφαλήν παῖδες δὲ παρακαθήμενοι ἐσόβουν ἀπαίρουσαι δὲ μικρόν οὐ πολύ τοῦ μήτrsquo ἐκεῖσε μήτε δεῦρο παντελῶς οὕτως ἀνερρίπιζον ὥστε σύμμετρον αὐτῷ τὸ πνεῦμα μὴ περίσκληρον ποιεῖν

14 Alexis Eisoikizomenos fr 63

οὐ γὰρ ἐμυρίζετrsquo ἐξ ἀλαβάστου πρᾶγμά τι γιγνόμενον ἀεί κρονικόν ἀλλὰ τέτταρας περιστερὰς ἀφῆκεν ἀποβεβαμμένας εἰς οὐχὶ ταὐτὸν μὰ Δία τὴν αὐτὴν μύρον ἰδίῳ δrsquo ἑκάστην πετόμεναι δrsquo αὗται κύκλῳ ἔρραινον ἡμῶν θαἰμάτια καὶ στρώματα μή μοι φθονήσητrsquo ἄνδρες Ἑλλήνων ἄκροι ἠλειφόμην ὑόμενος ἰρίνῳ μύρῳ

15 Mnesimachus Philippos fr 7

ἆρrsquo οἶσθrsquo ὁτιὴ πρὸς ἄνδρας ἐστί σοι μάχη οἳ τὰ ξίφη δειπνοῦμεν ἠκονημένα ὄψον δὲ δᾷδας ἡμμένας καταπίνομεν ἐντεῦθεν εὐθὺς ἐπιφέρει τραγήματα ἡμῖν ὁ παῖς μετὰ δεῖπνον ἀκίδας Κρητικάς ὥσπερ ἐρεβίνθους δορατίων τε λείψανα κατεαγότrsquo ἀσπίδας δὲ προσκεφάλαια καὶ θώρακας ἔχομεν πρὸς ποδῶν δὲ σφενδόνας καὶ τόξα καταπάλταισι δrsquo ἐστεφανώμεθα

16 Menander Halieus fr 25

παχὺς γὰρ ὗς ἔκειτrsquo ἐπὶ στόμα

ἐτρύφησεν ὥστε μὴ πολὺν τρυφᾶν χρόνον

ἴδιον ἐπιθυμῶν μόνος μοι θάνατος οὗτος φαίνεται εὐθάνατος ἔχοντα πολλὰς χολλάδας κεῖσθαι παχὺν ὕπτιον μόλις λαλοῦντα καὶ τὸ πνεῦμrsquo ἔχοντrsquo ἄνω ἐσθίοντα καὶ λέγοντα laquoσήπομrsquo ὑπὸ τῆς ἡδονῆςraquo

17 Menander Colax fr 2

(ΒΙΑΣ) κοτύλας χωροῦν δέκα ἐν Καππαδοκίᾳ κόνδυ χρυσοῡν Στρουθία τρὶς ἐπέπιον μεστόν γrsquo (ΣΤΡΟΥΘΙΑΣ) Ἀλεξάνδρου πλέον τοῦ βασιλέως πέπωκας (ΒΙ) οὐκ ἔλαττον οὐ μὰ τὴν Ἀθηνᾶν (ΣΤΡ) μέγα γε

fr 6

Zenobius Proverbia 282 βοῦς Κύπριος ἴσον τῷ laquoσκα-τοφάγος εἶraquo μέμνηται ταύτης Μένανδρος ἐν Κόλακι

fr 3

(ΣΤΡΟΥΘΙΑΣ) γελῶ τὸ πρὸς τὸν Κύπριον ἐννοούμενος

18 Terence Eunuchus 395ndash433

(THRASO) est istuc datum profecto ut grata mihi sint quae facio omnia (GNATHO) advorti hercle animum (TH) vel rex semper maxumas mihi agebat quidquid feceram aliis non item (GN) labore alieno magno partam gloriam verbis saepe in se transmovet qui habet salem quod in test (TH) habes (GN) rex te ergo in oculis mdash (TH) scilicet (GN) mdash gestare (TH) vero credere omnem exercitum

consilia (GN) mirum (TH) tum sicubi eum satietas hominum aut negoti si quando odium ceperat requiescere ubi volebat quasi mdash nostin (GN) scio quasi ubi illam exspueret miseriam ex animo (TH) tenes tum me convivam solum abducebat sibi (GN) hui regem elegantem narras (TH) immo sic homost perpaucorum hominum (GN) immo nullorum arbitror si tecum vivit (TH) invidere omnes mihi mordere clanculum ego non flocci pendere illi invidere misere verum unus tamen impense elephantis quem Indicis praefecerat is ubi molestus magis est ldquoquaesordquo inquam ldquoStrato eon es ferox quia habes imperium in beluasrdquo (GN) pulchre mehercle dictum et sapienter papae iugularas hominem quid ille (TH) mutus ilico (GN) quidni esset () (TH) quid illud Gnatho quo pacto Rhodium tetigerim in convivio numquam tibi dixi (GN) numquam sed narra obsecro (plus miliens audivi) (TH) una in convivio erat hic quem dico Rhodius adulescentulus forte habui scortum coepit ad id alludere et me irridere ldquoquid aisrdquo inquam ldquohomo impudens lepus tutersquos pulpamentum quaerisrdquo (GN) hahahae (TH) quid est (GN) facete lepide laute nil supra tuomne obsecro te hoc dictum erat vetus credidi (TH) audieras (GN) saepe et fertur in primis (TH) meumst (GN) dolet dictum imprudenti adulescenti et libero () quid ille quaeso (TH) perditus risu omnes qui aderant emoriri denique metuebant omnes iam me (GN) haud iniuria





18

2 Antamoenidesrsquo battle against the flying men

21 Plautus Poenulus 470ndash492

(ANTAMOENIDES) ita ut occepi dicere lenulle de illac pugna Pentetronica quom sexaginta milia hominum uno die volaticorum manibus occidi meis (LYCUS) volaticorum ― hominum (ANT) ita deico quidem (LYC) an opsecro usquam sunt homines volatici (ANT) fuere verum ego interfeci (LYC) quo modo potuisti (ANT) dicam viscum legioni dedi fundasque eo praesternebant folia farferi (LYC) quoi rei (ANT) daggerne ad fundas viscus adhaeresceret dagger (LYC) perge optume hercle peiieras quid postea (ANT) in fundas visci indebant grandiculos globos eo illos volantis iussi funditarier quid multa verba quemquem visco offenderant tam crebri ad terram reccidebant quam pira ut quisque acciderat eum necabam ilico per cerebrum pinna sua sibi quasi turturem (LYC) si hercle istuc umquam factum est tum me Iuppiter faciat ut semper sacruficem nec umquam litem (ANT) an mi haec non credis (LYC) credo ut mi aequomst credier age eamus intro (ANT) dum exta referuntur volo narrare tibi etiam unam pugnam (LYC) nil moror

22 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version β 233 Alexanderrsquos letter to Olympias and Aristotle concerning the marvels beyond Iran

καὶ ἐκεῖθεν ἀναχωρήσαντες ἤλθομεν εἴς τινα χλοακὴν χώραν οὗ ἦσαν ἄνθρωποι ἄγριοι γίγασι παρεμφερεῖς τῷ μεγέθει στρογγύλοι δασεῖς πυρροί ὄψεις ἔχοντες ὡς λεόντων καὶ ἄλλοι λεγόμενοι Ὀχλωτοὶ τρίχας μὴ ἔχοντες τὸ μῆκος ἔχοντες πήχεις τέσσαρες τὸ δὲ πλάτος ὡσεὶ λόγχη ἦλθον δὲ πρὸς ἡμᾶς δέρματα περιεζωσμένοι ἰσχυροὶ λίαν ἑτοιμότατοι πολεμῆσαι ἄνευ λογχῶν καὶ βελῶν ἀλλὰ ξύλοις ἔτυπτον τὸ στρατόπεδον καὶ ἀνεῖλον πολλούς τῶν δὲ στρατιωτῶν ἀπολλυμένων ἐκέλευσα πῦρ ἀνάψαι καὶ τῷ πυρὶ αὐτοὺς μάχεσθαι καὶ οὕτως





19

ἀνεχώρησαν οἱ ἀλκιμώτατοι ἄνδρες στρατιῶται δὲ ἀπώλοντο ἑβδομήκοντα δύο καὶ ἐκέλευσα αὐτοὺς εἰς τὸ πῦρ βληθῆναι καὶ τὰ περιλειφθέντα αὐτῶν ὀστᾶ εἰς τὰς πατρίδας αὐτῶν ἀπενεχθῆναι ἐκεῖνοι δὲ ἀφανεῖς ἐγένοντο ()

εἶτα ἐφάνη ἡμῖν περὶ ὥραν ἐννάτην ἢ καὶ δεκάτην ἀνὴρ δασὺς ὥσπερ ὗς καὶ ἐθροήθημεν ἰδόντες τοιοῦτον ζῷον καὶ κελεύω αὐτὸν συλληφθῆναι ὁ δὲ συλληφθεὶς ἀναιδῶς ἡμᾶς ἐκαθόπτευεν καὶ κελεύω ἐκδυθῆναι γυναῖκα καὶ προσενεχθῆναι αὐτῷ ἵνα ἐν ἐπιθυμίᾳ αὐτῆς γένηται ὁ δὲ ἁρπάσας αὐτὴν καὶ δραμὼν πόρρωθεν ταύτην κατήσθιεν συνδραμόντων δὲ τῶν στρατιωτῶν καταλαβεῖν αὐτὸν ἐταρτάρισεν ἐν τῇ γλώττῃ αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀκούσαντες οἱ λοιποὶ σύντοκοι αὐτοῦ ἐξῆλθον ἐφrsquo ἡμᾶς ἐκ τοῦ ἕλους ἄνδρες ὡσεὶ μύριοι ἡμεῖς δὲ ἦμεν μυριάδες τέσσαρες καὶ κελεύω ἀναφθῆναι τὸ ἕλος καὶ θεασάμενοι τὸ πῦρ ἔφυγον διώξαντες δὲ αὐτοὺς ἐδήσαμεν ἐξ αὐτῶν ἄνδρας τετρακοσίους οἳ καὶ ἀποκρατήσαντες τῆς τροφῆς διεφθάρησαν εἶχον δὲ λογισμὸν οὐκ ἀνθρώπινον ἀλλrsquo ὡς οἱ κύνες ὑλάκτουν

23 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version β 2323ndash4 Alexanderrsquos letter to Olympias and Aristotle concerning the marvels beyond Iran

ἐλθόντες οὖν εἴς τινα τόπον περὶ ὥραν ἐννάτην εὕρομεν ὕλην πολλὴν δένδρων καλουμένην Ἀναφνητόν καρπὸν ἐχόντων μήλοις παρεμφερῆ ἦσαν δὲ ἐν τῇ ὕλῃ ἄνθρωποι παμμεγέθεις Φυτοὶ λεγόμενοι ἔχοντες ἀνὰ πηχῶν εἴκοσι τεσσάρων μακροὺς τραχήλους ἔχοντες καὶ τὰς χεῖρας καὶ τοὺς ἀγκῶνας πρίοσι παρεμφερεῖς οἵτινες ἐπεισῆλθον ἡμῖν ἐγὼ δὲ λίαν ἐλυπήθην ἰδὼν τοιαῦτα ζῷα ἐκέλευσα οὖν συλληφθῆναι ἐξ αὐτῶν ὁρμησάντων δὲ ἡμῶν πρὸς αὐτοὺς μετὰ κραυγῆς καὶ σαλπίγγων ἰδόντες ἡμᾶς εἰς φυγὴν ἐτράπησαν ἐφονεύσαμεν δὲ ἐξ αὐτῶν τριακοσίους τριάκοντα δύο ἐκ δὲ τῶν ἡμετέρων στρατιωτῶν ἔθανον ἑκατὸν ἑξήκοντα τρεῖς

24 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version γ 2294ndash11

ὡσεὶ πορείαν ἡμερῶν δέκα ἐμπεριπατήσαντες ἐν ἐρήμοις καὶ λείοις κατήντησαν τόποις καὶ ἰδοὺ γυναῖκες ἄφνω ἐφάνησαν φοβεραὶ τῷ εἴδει καὶ ἄγριαι τοῖς προσώποις τὸ δὲ ὅλον σῶμα αὐτῶν τετριχωμένον ὡς ἄν τις εἴπῃ συῒ ἀγρίῳ αἱ δὲ κόμαι τῆς κεφαλῆς αὐτῶν κατήρχετο μέχρι κνημῶν οἱ δὲ ὀφθαλμοὶ αὐτῶν δίκην ἀστέρων κατέλαμπον οὐχ ὡς δὲ παντὸς ἀνθρώπου εἶχον τὴν θέασιν ἀλλὰ κατήρχοντο ἀπὸ μετώπου ἐπὶ τὸ πρόσωπον αἱ δὲ ὄνυχες αὐτῶν εὐμήκεις ἀνὰ πήχεως μιᾶς καὶ οἱ πόδες αὐτῶν ὡς ὀνάγρου τὸ δὲ μέγεθος τοῦ σώματος αὐτῶν ὡς ἀνδρῶν μεγίστων τριῶν ὡς δὲ ταύτας ἐθεάσαντο καὶ ἀσκόπως ἐπέδραμον αὐταῖς ἀνθυποστρέψασαι ἀνεῖλον ἐκ τῶν στρατιωτῶν τέσσαρας τοῖς ὄνυξιν διασπαράξασαι καὶ πορευθεῖσαι τούτους κατεθοινήσαντο ἐπrsquo ὄψεσιν ἡμῶν ὥστε καὶ τὸν χοῦν ἔνθα τὸ αἷμα αὐτῶν ἐπεπήγει ἐξέλειξαν θαυμαζόντων δὲ πάντων ἡμῶν καὶ ἀπορουμένων ἐπὶ τῇ τοιαύτῃ θεωρίᾳ ἰδοὺ εἰς πλῆθος ἐφαίνοντο καὶ τῇ φάλαγγι ἐπιβᾶσαι μηκόθεν ταῖς χερσὶν ἐκτετακυῖαι ἥρπαζον τοὺς στρατιώτας ἐκ μέσου τῆς φάλαγγος καὶ κατεθοινοῦντο αὐτούς εἰς παντελῆ δὲ ἀπόγνωσιν πάντες ἤλθοσαν καὶ δὴ Ἀλέξανδρος διανοεῖται καὶ κύνας πλείστους ἐκ τοῦ φοσσάτου ἐπισυνάξας mdashπάνυ γὰρ ἐν τῷ κυνηγεῖν πλήθη κυνῶν ἕκαστος ἐκέκτητοmdash ἐπισυνάξας δὲ ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν παντὸς τοῦ στρατοπέδου τοὺς κύνας ἐπικινεῖ πρὸς αὐτὰς Ἀλέξανδρος αὗται δὲ τοὺς κύνας θεασάμεναι εἰς φυγὴν τρέπονται καὶ τὸ πλῆθος αὐταῖς ἐπεχύθη καὶ ἀνεῖλον ἐξ αὐτῶν ἱκανάς αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ ἔφυγον καὶ ἀφανεῖς ἐγένοντο


τῶν ἐκεῖσε οὖν διελθὼν πορείαν ἡμέρας μιᾶς κατέλαβεν τόπον τινά ὁ δὲ τόπος λεῖος καὶ δὴ ἀνθρωποειδῆ ζῷα ἐφαίνοντο ἀπὸ μὲν κεφαλῆς μέχρι ὀμφάλου τέλειοι ἄνθρωποι ὑπῆρχον κάτωθεν δὲ ἵπποι καὶ αὐτοὶ εἰς πλῆθος ἦσαν τόξα ταῖς χερσὶν ἔχοντες τοῖς δὲ βέλεσιν οὐκ ἦν σίδηρος ἀλλrsquo ἀντὶ σιδήρου λίθος ὀξύς καὶ αὐτοὶ πρὸς μάχην ἦσαν ἕτοιμοι ὡς δὲ τούτους ἐθεάσατο ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος κελεύει τὸ φοσσᾶτον ἐκεῖσε παγῆναι καὶ κύκλῳ τῆς φάλαγγος παμμέγεθες ὄρυγμα γενέσθαι τοῦτο δὲ στεγάσαι καλαμίοις καὶ χόρτῳ ἕωθεν δὲ πλησίον τῆς διώρυγος ὀλίγους ἐστήσατο τοξότας ἐν δὲ τοῖς οἰστοῖς εἶπεν μὴ ἔχειν σίδηρα ἀλλὰ μόνα τὰ ξύλα laquoὁπόταν δὲ τῇ μάχῃ πλησιάσωσι τοὺς οἰστοὺς ἐπrsquo αὐτοῖς εὐστόχως τινάξατε τὰ γὰρ βέλη ἐπιτυχόντα καὶ μὴ ἐνεργήσαντα θρασεῖς αὐτοὺς ἀπεργάσονται καὶ ὡς ἂν ἴδητε τούτους ἐπιχυθέντας πρὸς ὑμᾶς ὑμεῖς μὴ δειλιάσητε ἀλλrsquo ἐνδότερον προσποιήσασθε φεύγειν μήπως τῷδε τῷ τρόπῳ τινὰς ἐξ αὐτῶν θηρεῦσαι δυνηθῶμενraquo

τούτου δὲ γενομένου ἡμέρας ἄρτι καταλαβούσης ἰδοὺ παρίστανται οἱ ἔφιπποι ἐκεῖνοι ἄνδρες καὶ τὸ φοσσᾶτον κυκλώσαντες ἵσταντο μηκόθεν τοξεύοντες ὡς δὲ καὶ παρὰ Μακεδόνων ἀντετοξεύοντο ἰδόντες δὲ μηδεμιᾶς πληγῆς ἐνεργητικὰ εἶναι τὰ Μακεδονικὰ βέλη





20

πάντες ἐπισυναχθέντες τὴν τούτων ὡς δὴ κατεγέλων ἀδράνειαν καὶ βουλὴν ἐν ἑαυτοῖς ποιησάμενοι ὥρμησαν ὁμοθυμαδὸν κύκλῳ τοῖς Μακεδόσιν ἐπιχυθῆναι τοῦτο μὲν ἐποίησαν κατrsquo αὐτῶν δέ ὅπου γὰρ ἀνθρωπίνη μορφὴ οὐκ εἰς τέλος ἐμφαίνεται οὐδὲ τὸ φρονεῖν ἀκέραιον πέφυκε καὶ ὡς μὲν ἄνθρωποι τὸ ἀνενέργητον κατεφρόνησαν τῶν βελῶν ὡς δὲ κτήνη τὴν ἀνθρωπίνην οὐκ ἐπενόησαν πανουργίαν ἀσκόπως οὖν κατὰ τοῦ φοσσάτου ὁρμήσαντες οἱ ἀντιμαχόμενοι τούτους ὡς δῆθεν ἔδοξαν φεύγειν καὶ εἰς ἄκραν ἐκχυθέντες τῇ διώρυγι πεπτώκασιν ὡς δὲ τοῦτο ἐγένετο εὐθέως ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος ἐπεξιέναι αὐτοῖς τὸ πλῆθος ἐνόπλους ἐκέλευσεν καὶ τότε πεῖραν ἔλαβον οἵοις ξίφεσιν οἱ Μακεδόνες κέχρηνται ἰσχυροτέροις λίαν καὶ θανατηφόροις ἐξ αὐτῶν δὲ βουληθεὶς Ἀλέξανδρος περιποιήσασθαι καὶ εἰς τὴν καθrsquo ἡμᾶς οἰκουμένην ἀγαγεῖν ἄχρι πεντήκοντα τῆς διώρυγος ἐξήγαγεν οὕσπερ διασώσας μέχρι ἡμερῶν εἴκοσι δύο τὴν αὐτῶν μὴ γινώσκων δίαιταν ἅπαντες ἐφθάρησαν

26 Lucian True Histories 135

laquoἮ γάρraquo ἔφην ἐγώ laquoκαὶ ἄλλοι τινές εἰσιν ἐν τῷ κήτειraquo laquoΠολλοὶ μὲν οὖνraquo ἔφη laquoκαὶ ἄξενοι καὶ τὰς μορφὰς ἀλλόκοτοι τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἑσπέρια καὶ οὐραῖα τῆς ὕλης Ταριχᾶνες οἰκοῦσιν ἔθνος ἐγχελυωπὸν καὶ καραβοπρόσωπον μάχιμον καὶ θρασὺ καὶ ὠμοφάγον τὰ δὲ τῆς ἑτέρας πλευρᾶς κατὰ τὸν δεξιὸν τοῖχον Τριτωνομένδητες τὰ μὲν ἄνω ἀνθρώποις ἐοικότες τὰ δὲ κάτω τοῖς γαλεώταις ἧττον μέντοι ἄδικοί εἰσιν τῶν ἄλλων τὰ λαιὰ δὲ Καρκινόχειρες καὶ Θυννοκέφαλοι συμμαχίαν τε καὶ φιλίαν πρὸς ἑαυτοὺς πεποιημένοι τὴν δὲ μεσόγαιαν νέμονται Παγουρίδαι καὶ Ψηττόποδες γένος μάχιμον καὶ δρομικώτατον τὰ ἑῷα δέ τὰ πρὸς αὐτῷ τῷ στόματι τὰ πολλὰ μὲν ἔρημά ἐστι προσκλυζόμενα τῇ θαλάττῃ ὅμως δὲ ἐγὼ ταῦτα ἔχω φόρον τοῖς Ψηττόποσιν ὑποτελῶν ἑκάστου ἔτους ὄστρεια πεντακόσιαraquo


πάλιν οὖν ὁδεύσαντες σχοίνους τριάκοντα εἴδομεν λοιπὸν αὐγὴν ἄνευ ἡλίου καὶ σελήνης καὶ ἄστρων καὶ εἶδον δύο ὄρνεα πετόμενα καὶ μόνον ἔχοντα ὄψεις ἀνθρωπίνας Ἑλληνικῇ δὲ διαλέκτῳ ἐξ ὕψους ἐκραύγαζον laquoτί χώραν πατεῖς Ἀλέξανδρε τὴν θεοῦ μόνου ἀνάστρεφε δείλαιε Μακάρων γῆν πατεῖν οὐ δυνήσῃ ἀνάστρεψον οὖν ἄνθρωπε καὶ τὴν δεδομένην σοι γῆν πάτει καὶ μὴ κόπους πάρεχε σεαυτῷraquo σύντρομος δὲ γενόμενος κάλλιστα ὑπήκουσα τῇ φωνῇ τῇ ὑπὸ τῶν ὀρνέων μοι δεδομένῃ τὸ δὲ ἕτερον ὄρνεον πάλιν ἐφθέγξατο Ἑλληνικῇ διαλέκτῳ laquoἐκκαλεῖταί σεraquo φησίν laquoἡ ἀνατολή καὶ ἡ Πώρου βασιλεία νίκῃ ὑποτάσσεταί σοιraquo καὶ ταῦτα εἰπόντα τὰ ὄρνεα ἀνέπτησαν ἐγὼ δὲ ἐξιλεωσάμενος καὶ κρατῶν τοὺς ὁδηγούς τὰς ὄνους ἔμπροσθεν βάλλοντες πάλιν κατὰ τὴν ἅμαξαν τῶν ἀστέρων διrsquo ἡμερῶν εἴκοσι δύο ἐξήλθομεν πρὸς τὴν φωνὴν τῶν πώλων καὶ τῶν μητέρων αὐτῶν

28 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version β (cod L) 241 Alexanderrsquos letter to Olympias and Aristotle concerning the marvels beyond Iran

Πάλιν οὖν διενοήθην ἐν ἑαυτῷ λέγων εἰ πάντως ἐνταῦθά ἐστιν τὸ τέρμα τῆς γῆς καὶ ὁ οὐρανὸς ἐνταῦθα κλίνεται ἠβουλήθην οὖν ἱστορῆσαι τὴν ἀλήθειαν προσέταξα οὖν συλληφθῆναι ἐκ ltτῶν ὀρνέωνgt τοῦ τόπου ἐκείνου δύο ἦσαν γὰρ ὄρνεα μέγιστα λευκά ἀλκιμώτατα πάνυ καὶ ἥμερα βλέποντα γὰρ ἡμᾶς οὐκ ἔφευγον τινὲς δὲ τῶν στρατιωτῶν ἐπέβαινον τοῖς τραχήλοις αὐτῶν καὶ ἀνίπταντο βαστάζοντα αὐτούς () δύο οὖν ἐξ αὐτῶν κρατήσας προσέταξα μέχρις ἡμερῶν τριῶν μὴ δοθῆναι αὐτοῖς βρῶσιν τῇ δὲ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ προσέταξα κατασκευασθῆναι ξύλον ὅμοιον ζυγῷ καὶ τοῦτο προσδεθῆναι ἐν τοῖς τραχήλοις αὐτῶν εὐθὺς δὲ κατεσκεύασα ὥσπερ σπυρίδα καὶ εἰσῆλθον κἀγὼ ἐν τῇ σπυρίδι κρατῶν δόρυ ὡσεὶ ἑπτὰ πηχῶν τὸ μῆκος καὶ ἔχον ἐπάνω ἧπαρ ἵππιον εὐθὺς οὖν ἀνέπτη τὰ ὄρνεα τοῦ καταφαγεῖν τὸ ἧπαρ καὶ ἀνῆλθα μετrsquo αὐτῶν ἐν τῷ ἀέρι ὡς νομίζειν με πλησίον τοῦ οὐρανοῦ ὑπάρχειν ὅλως δὲ ἔτρεμα διὰ τὴν ὑπερβάλλουσαν τοῦ ἀέρος ψυχρότητα καὶ ltτὴν ἐκgt τῶν πτερύγων τῶν ὀρνέων γεγενημένην εἶτα συναντᾷ μοι πετεινὸν ἀνθρωπόμορφον καὶ λέγει πρός με laquoὦ Ἀλέξανδρε ὁ τὰ ἐπίγεια μὴ καταλαβὼν τὰ ἐπουράνια ἐπιζητεῖς ὑπόστρεφε οὖν διὰ τάχους ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς μήπως τοῖς ὀρνέοις τούτοις βρῶμα γενήσῃraquo καὶ πάλιν φησὶ πρός με laquoπρόσσχες Ἀλέξανδρε ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν κάτωraquo ἐγὼ δὲ μετὰ φόβου προσσχὼν εἶδον καὶ ἰδοὺ ὄφις μέγας κύκλῳ καὶ μέσον τοῦ ὄφεως ἅλωνα σμικροτάτην καὶ λέγει μοι ὁ συναντήσας μοι laquoἐπίστρεψον οὖν τὸ δόρυ ἐπὶ τὴν ἅλωνα ἥτις ἐστὶν ὁ κόσμος ὁ γὰρ ὄφις ἡ θάλασσά ἐστιν ἡ κυκλοῦσα τὴν γῆνraquo ἐγὼ δὲ ὑποστρέψας βουλήσει τῆς ἄνω προνοίας κατῆλθον ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς μακρόθεν τοῦ στρατοπέδου ἡμερῶν ζʹ ἤμην





21

δὲ εἰς τέλος νενεκρωμένος καὶ ἡμίθνητος εὗρον δὲ ἐκεῖ σατράπην ὑπὸ τὴν ἐμὴν ἐξουσίαν ltκαὶgt λαβὼν παρrsquo αὐτοῦ τριακοσίους ἱππεῖς ἦλθον εἰς τὸ στρατόπεδον

29 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version β 328 Alexanderrsquos letter to Olympias regarding various marvellous lands of the East

Καὶ ἀναχωρήσαντες ἐκεῖθεν ἤλθομεν εἰς Λύσου λιμένα καὶ εὕρομεν ὄρος ὑψηλότατον () καὶ ἄνωθεν ἱερὸν στρογγύλον ἔχον στύλους σαπφειρίνους κύκλῳ ρʹ () ἦν δὲ καὶ ὀρτυγοτροφεῖον χρυσοῦν κρεμάμενον ἐκ τῆς ὀροφῆς ἐν ᾧ ἦν ὄρνεον ἡλίκον περιστερά καὶ ὥσπερ ἀνθρωπίνῃ φωνῇ Ἑλληνικῇ ἐβόησέ μοι καί φησιν laquoἈλέξανδρε παῦσαι λοιπὸν θεῷ ἀντιτασσόμενος καὶ ὑπόστρεφε εἰς τὰ ἴδια μέλεθρα καὶ μὴ προπετεύου ἀναβαίνειν εἰς οὐρανίους ὁδούςraquo βουλομένου δέ μου καθελεῖν αὐτὸ καὶ τὴν κρεμαμένην κανδήλαν ὅπως ἀποστείλω σοι καὶ εἶδον τὸν ἐπὶ τῆς κλίνης κινούμενον ὡς δοκεῖν αὐτὸν ἀναστῆναι ἔφησαν δέ μοι οἱ φίλοι μου laquoπαῦσαι βασιλεῦ ἱερὸν γάρ ἐστινraquo

210 Assyrian winged spirits (apkallu) Reliefs from the palace of Aššurnasirpal ΙΙ Nimrud (9th c BC)





22

3 The soldier and the elephant

31 Plautus Miles Gloriosus 25ndash30

(ARTOTROGUS) edepol vel elephanto in India quo pacto ei pugno praefregisti bracchium (PYRGOPOLYNICES) quid ldquobracchiumrdquo (AR) illud dicere volui ldquofemurrdquo (PY) at indiligenter iceram (AR) pol si quidem conixus esses per corium per viscera perque os elephanti transmineret bracchium

32 Plautus Curculio 420ndash424

(CURCULIO) multam me tibi salutem iussit Therapontigonus dicere et has tabellas dare me iussit (LYCO) mihin (CURC) ita cape signum nosce nostin (LY) quidni noverim clupeatus elephantum ubi machaera diligit

33 Aristoboulos FGrHist 139 T 4 and F 44 (= Lucian How to Write History 12)

ὥσπερ Ἀριστόβουλος μονομαχίαν γράψας Ἀλεξάνδρου καὶ Πώρου καὶ ἀναγνόντος αὐτῷ τοῦτο μάλιστα τὸ χωρίον τῆς γραφῆς mdashᾤετο γὰρ χαριεῖσθαι τὰ μέγιστα τῷ βασιλεῖ ἐπιψευδόμενος ἀριστείας τινὰς αὐτῷ καὶ ἀναπλάττων ἔργα μείζω τῆς ἀληθείαςmdash λαβὼν ἐκεῖνος τὸ βιβλίον (πλέοντες δὲ ἐτύγχανον ἐν τῷ ποταμῷ τῷ Ὑδάσπῃ) ἔρριψεν ἐπὶ κεφαλὴν ἐς τὸ ὕδωρ ἐπειπών laquoκαὶ σὲ δὲ οὕτως ἐχρῆν ὦ Ἀριστόβουλε τοιαῦτα ὑπὲρ ἐμοῦ μονομαχοῦντα καὶ ἐλέφαντας ἑνὶ ἀκοντίῳ φονεύονταraquo

34 Decadrachm commemorating Alexanderrsquos battle against Porus by the Hydaspes (326 BC) Drawing (a) and specimens from the British Museum (b) the American Numismatic Society (c) and the

National Museum of Denmark (d)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

35 Epistola Alexandri Macedonis ad Aristotelem de itinere suo et de situ Indiae sect 39

Ipse cum Poro rege et equitatu procedens video examina bestiarum in nos erectis promuscidibus tendentia Quorum terga et nigra et candida et rubri coloris et quaedam erant varia Hos Porus capi habiles mihi in usus bellorum affirmabat facileque averti posse si ab equitibus verberari sues non desisterent () Nec mora trepidantes elephanti conversi sunt tam plures quam pugnae priores saltus petere coepere bucinis hominum grunnitibus suum attoniti





23

Quorum nos equites caedendo poplites admodum nongentos octoginta occidimus detractisque cornibus et dentibus insigni onustus praeda in castra perveni

36 Archelaos FGrHist 123 F 1 (= Solinus 52)

(In India) quidam populi adeo proceri ut elephantos velut equos facillima insultatione transiliant

37 Plutarch Alexander 6012

οἱ δὲ πλεῖστοι τῶν συγγραφέων ὁμολογοῦσι τὸν Πῶρον ὑπεραίροντα τεσσάρων πηχῶν σπιθαμῇ τὸ μῆκος ἱππότου μηδὲν ἀποδεῖν πρὸς τὸν ἐλέφαντα συμμετρίᾳ διὰ τὸ μέγεθος καὶ τὸν ὄγκον τοῦ σώματος καίτοι μέγιστος ἦν ὁ ἐλέφας

4 Sailing the river that flows from the sky

41 Plautus Trinummus 928ndash945

(SYCOPHANTA) pol illum reliqui ad Rhadamantem in Cecropio [insula] (CHARMIDES) quis homo est me insipientior qui ipse egomet ubi sim quaeritem sed nil disconducit huic rei quid ais quid hoc quod te rogo quos locos adiisti (SYC) nimium mirimodis mirabilis (CH) lubet audire nisi molestumst (SYC) quin discupio dicere omnium primum in Pontum advecti ad Arabiam terram sumus (CH) eho an etiam Arabiast in Ponto (SYC) est non illa ubi tus gignitur sed ubi apsinthium fit ac cunila gallinacea (CH) nimium graphicum hunc nugatorem sed ego sum insipientior qui egomet unde redeam hunc rogitem quae ego sciam atque hic nesciat nisi quia lubet experiri quo evasurust denique sed quid ais quo inde isti porro (SYC) si animum advortes eloquar ad caput amnis quod de caelo exoritur sub solio Iovis (CH) sub solio Iovis (SYC) ita dico (CH) e caelo (SYC) atque medio quidem (CH) eho an etiam in caelum escendisti (SYC) immo horiola advecti sumus usque aqua advorsa per amnem (CH) eho an tu etiam vidisti Iovem (SYC) alii di isse ad villam aiebant servis depromptum cibum deinde porro mdash (CH) deinde porro nolo quicquam praedices

42 Euhemerus Sacred Writing FGrHist 63 F 3 (= Diodorus Siculus 5432ndash446)

πλησίον γὰρ τοῦ τεμένους ἐκ τῆς γῆς ἐκπίπτει τηλικαύτη τὸ μέγεθος πηγὴ γλυκέος ὕδατος ὥστε ποταμὸν ἐξ αὐτοῦ γίνεσθαι πλωτόν ἐκ τούτου δrsquo εἰς πολλὰ μέρη τοῦ ὕδατος





24

διαιρουμένου καὶ τούτων ἀρδευομένων (hellip) ἐπrsquo ἐσχάτῳ δὲ τοῦ δρόμου τὰς πηγὰς ἔχει λάβρως ἐκχεομένας ὁ προειρημένος ποταμός ἔστι δὲ τὸ φερόμενον ῥεῦμα τῇ λευκότητι καὶ γλυκύτητι διαφέρον πρός τε τὴν τοῦ σώματος ὑγίειαν πολλὰ συμβαλλόμενον τοῖς χρωμένοις ὀνομάζεται δrsquo ὁ ποταμὸς οὗτος Ἡ λ ί ο υ ὕ δ ω ρ περιέχει δὲ τὴν πηγὴν ὅλην κρηπὶς λιθίνη πολυτελής διατείνουσα παρrsquo ἑκατέραν πλευρὰν σταδίους τέτταρας ἄχρι δὲ τῆς ἐσχάτης κρηπῖδος ὁ τόπος οὔκ ἐστι βάσιμος ἀνθρώπῳ πλὴν τῶν ἱερέων τὸ δrsquo ὑποκείμενον πεδίον ἐπὶ σταδίους διακοσίους καθιερωμένον ἐστὶ τοῖς θεοῖς καὶ τὰς ἐξ αὐτοῦ προσόδους εἰς τὰς θυσίας ἀναλίσκουσι μετὰ δὲ τὸ προειρημένον πεδίον ὄρος ἐστὶν ὑψηλόν καθιερωμένον μὲν θεοῖς ὀνομαζόμενον δὲ Ο ὐ ρ α ν ο ῦ δ ί φ ρ ο ς καὶ Τριφύλιος Ὄλυμπος μυθολογοῦσι γὰρ τὸ παλαιὸν Οὐρανὸν βασιλεύοντα τῆς οἰκουμένης προσηνῶς ἐνδιατρίβειν ἐν τῷδε τῷ τόπῳ καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ ὕψους ἐφορᾶν τόν τε οὐρανὸν καὶ τὰ κατrsquo αὐτὸν ἄστρα

43 Nearchos FGrHist 133 F 20 (= Strabo Geography 15125)

Ἀλέξανδρον δrsquo ἐν μὲν τῷ Ὑδάσπῃ κροκοδείλους ἰδόντα ἐν δὲ τῷ Ἀκεσίνῃ κυάμους Αἰγυπτίους εὑρηκέναι δόξαι τὰς τοῦ Νείλου πηγάς καὶ παρασκευάζεσθαι στόλον εἰς τὴν Αἴγυπτον ὡς τῷ ποταμῷ τούτῳ μέχρι ἐκεῖσε πλευσόμενον μικρὸν δrsquo ὕστερον γνῶναι διότι οὐ δύναται ὃ ἤλπισε mdash laquoμέσσῳ γὰρ μεγάλοι ποταμοὶ καὶ δεινὰ ῥεῖθρα Ὠκεανὸς μὲν πρῶτονraquo εἰς ὃν ἐκδιδόασιν οἱ Ἰνδικοὶ πάντες ποταμοί

44 Nearchos FGrHist 133 F 32 (= Arrian Anabasis 61)

Ἀλέξανδρος δέ ἐπειδὴ παρεσκευάσθησαν αὐτῷ ἐπὶ τοῦ Ὑδάσπου ταῖς ὄχθαις πολλαὶ μὲν τριηκόντοροι καὶ ἡμιόλιαι πολλὰ δὲ καὶ ἱππαγωγὰ πλοῖα καὶ ἄλλα ὅσα ἐς παρακομιδὴν στρατιᾶς ποταμῷ εὔπορα ἔγνω καταπλεῖν κατὰ τὸν Ὑδάσπην ὡς ἐπὶ τὴν μεγάλην θάλασσαν πρότερον μέν γε ἐν τῷ Ἰνδῷ ποταμῷ κροκοδείλους ἰδών μόνῳ τῶν ἄλλων ποταμῶν πλὴν Νείλου πρὸς δὲ ταῖς ὄχθαις τοῦ Ἀκεσίνου κυάμους πεφυκότας ὁποίους ἡ γῆ ἐκφέρει ἡ Αἰγυπτία καὶ ἀκούσας ὅτι ὁ Ἀκεσίνης ἐμβάλλει ἐς τὸν Ἰνδόν ἔδοξεν ἐξευρηκέναι τοῦ Νείλου τὰς ἀρχάς ὡς τὸν Νεῖλον ἐνθένδε ποθὲν ἐξ Ἰνδῶν ἀνίσχοντα καὶ διrsquo ἐρήμου πολλῆς γῆς ῥέοντα καὶ ταύτῃ ἀπολλύοντα τὸν Ἰνδὸν τὸ ὄνομα ἔπειτα ὁπόθεν ἄρχεται διὰ τῆς οἰκουμένης χώρας ῥεῖν Νεῖλον ἤδη πρὸς Αἰθιόπων τε τῶν ταύτῃ καὶ Αἰγυπτίων καλούμενον ltἢgt ὡς Ὅμηρος ἐποίησεν ἐπώνυμον τῆς Αἰγύπτου Αἴγυπτον οὕτω δὴ ἐσδιδόναι ἐς τὴν ἐντὸς θάλασσαν καὶ δὴ καὶ πρὸς Ὀλυμπιάδα γράφοντα ὑπὲρ τῶν Ἰνδῶν τῆς γῆς ἄλλα τε γράψαι καὶ ὅτι δοκοίη αὑτῷ ἐξευρηκέναι τοῦ Νείλου τὰς πηγάς μικροῖς δή τισι καὶ φαύλοις ὑπὲρ τῶν τηλικούτων τεκμαιρόμενον ἐπεὶ μέντοι ἀτρεκέστερον ἐξήλεγξε τὰ ἀμφὶ τῷ ποταμῷ τῷ Ἰνδῷ οὕτω δὴ μαθεῖν παρὰ τῶν ἐπιχωρίων τὸν μὲν Ὑδάσπην τῷ Ἀκεσίνῃ τὸν Ἀκεσίνην δὲ τῷ Ἰνδῷ τό τε ὕδωρ ξυμβάλλοντας καὶ τῷ ὀνόματι ξυγχωροῦντας τὸν Ἰνδὸν δὲ ἐκδιδόντα ἤδη ἐς τὴν μεγάλην θάλασσαν δίστομον [τὸν Ἰνδὸν] ὄντα οὐδέltνgt τι αὐτῷ προσῆκον τῆς γῆς τῆς Αἰγυπτίας τηνικαῦτα δὲ τῆς ἐπιστολῆς τῆς πρὸς τὴν μητέρα τοῦτο ltτὸgt ἀμφὶ τῷ Νείλῳ γραφὲν ἀφελεῖν καὶ τὸν κατάπλουν τὸν κατὰ τοὺς ποταμοὺς ἔστε ἐπὶ τὴν μεγάλην θάλασσαν ἐπινοοῦντα παρασκευασθῆναί οἱ ἐπὶ τῷδε κελεῦσαι τὰς ναῦς

45 Homer Odyssey 4477 581

(hellip) Αἰγύπτοιο διιπετέος ποταμοῖο

46 Iambulus excerpt in Diodorus Siculus 255

Ἰαμβοῦλος (hellip) ἔδωκεν ἑαυτὸν ἐπὶ τὴν ἐμπορίαν ἀναβαίνων δὲ διὰ τῆς Ἀραβίας ἐπὶ τὴν ἀρωματοφόρον ὑπό τινων λῃστῶν συνελήφθη μετὰ τῶν συνοδοιπόρων τὸ μὲν οὖν πρῶτον μετά τινος τῶν συνεαλωκότων ἀπεδείχθη νομεύς ὕστερον δrsquo ὑπό τινων Αἰθιόπων μετὰ τοῦ συνόντος λῃστευθεὶς ἀπήχθη πρὸς τὴν παραθαλάττιον τῆς Αἰθιοπίας οὗτοι δὲ συνηρπάγησαν εἰς καθαρμὸν τῆς χώρας ὄντες ἀλλοεθνεῖς νόμιμον γὰρ ἦν τοῖς τῇδε κατοικοῦσιν Αἰθίοψι παραδεδομένον ἐκ παλαιῶν χρόνων χρησμοῖς θεῶν κεκυρωμένον (hellip) τοῦ δὲ καθαρμοῦ γινομένου δυσὶν ἀνθρώποις ἦν αὐτοῖς πλοιάριον κατεσκευασμένον τῷ μεγέθει σύμμετρον τούς τrsquo ἐν τῇ θαλάττῃ χειμῶνας ἀναφέρειν ἰσχῦον καὶ ῥᾳδίως ὑπὸ δυοῖν ἀνθρώπων ὑπηρετεῖσθαι δυνάμενον εἰς δὲ τοῦτο τροφὴν δυσὶν ἀνθρώποις ἱκανὴν εἰς ἓξ μῆνας ἐνθέμενοι καὶ τοὺς ἄνδρας ἐμβιβάσαντες προσέταττον ἀνάγεσθαι κατὰ τὸν χρησμόν πλεῖν δὲ διεκελεύοντο πρὸς τὴν μεσημβρίαν ἥξειν γὰρ αὐτοὺς εἰς νῆσον εὐδαίμονα καὶ ἐπιεικεῖς ἀνθρώπους παρrsquo οἷς μακαρίως ζήσεσθαι ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ ἑαυτῶν ἔθνος ἔφασαν ἐὰν μὲν οἱ πεμφθέντες εἰς τὴν νῆσον διασωθῶσιν ἑξακοσίων ἐτῶν εἰρήνης καὶ βίου κατὰ πᾶν εὐδαίμονος ἀπολαύσειν εἰ δὲ καταπλαγέντες τὸ μῆκος τοῦ πελάγους εἰς τοὐπίσω ποιήσονται τὸν πλοῦν ὡς ἀσεβεῖς καὶ





25

λυμεῶνας ὅλου τοῦ ἔθνους τιμωρίαις περιπεσεῖσθαι ταῖς μεγίσταις τοὺς μὲν οὖν Αἰθίοπάς φασι μεγάλην πανήγυριν ἀγαγεῖν παρὰ τὴν θάλατταν καὶ θυσίας μεγαλοπρεπεῖς ἐπιτελέσαντας καταστέψαι τοὺς σκεψομένους καὶ καθαρμὸν ποιησομένους τοῦ ἔθνους ἐξαποστεῖλαι τούτους δὲ πλεύσαντας πέλαγος μέγα καὶ χειμασθέντας ἐν μησὶ τέτταρσι προσενεχθῆναι τῇ προσημανθείσῃ νήσῳ στρογγύλῃ μὲν ὑπαρχούσῃ τῷ σχήματι τὴν δὲ περίμετρον ἐχούσῃ σταδίων ὡς πεντακισχιλίων

47 Lucian True Histories 25ndash10

(hellip) χρηστὰ ἐκ μακρῶν πόνων ἐλπίσαντες κατrsquo ὀλίγον ἤδη πλησίον τῆς νήσου ἐγινόμεθα (hellip) προϊόντες δὲ διὰ λειμῶνος εὐανθοῦς ἐντυγχάνομεν τοῖς φρουροῖς καὶ περιπόλοις οἱ δὲ δήσαντες ἡμᾶς ῥοδίνοις στεφάνοις mdashοὗτος γὰρ μέγιστος παρrsquo αὐτοῖς δεσμός ἐστινmdash ἀνῆγον ὡς τὸν ἄρχοντα παρrsquo ὧν δὴ καὶ καθrsquo ὁδὸν ἠκούσαμεν ὡς ἡ μὲν νῆσος εἴη τῶν Μακάρων προσαγορευομένη ἄρχοι δὲ ὁ Κρὴς Ῥαδάμανθυς καὶ δὴ ἀναχθέντες ὡς αὐτὸν ἐν τάξει τῶν δικαζομένων ἔστημεν τέταρτοι (hellip) τέταρτοι δὲ ἡμεῖς προσήχθημεν καὶ ὁ μὲν ἤρετο τί παθόντες ἔτι ζῶντες ἱεροῦ χωρίου ἐπιβαίημεν ἡμεῖς δὲ πάντα ἑξῆς διηγησάμεθα οὕτω δὴ μεταστησάμενος ἡμᾶς ἐπὶ πολὺν χρόνον ἐσκέπτετο καὶ τοῖς συνέδροις ἐκοινοῦτο περὶ ἡμῶν συνήδρευον δὲ ἄλλοι τε πολλοὶ καὶ Ἀριστείδης ὁ δίκαιος ὁ Ἀθηναῖος ὡς δὲ ἔδοξεν αὐτῷ ἀπεφήναντο τῆς μὲν φιλοπραγμοσύνης καὶ τῆς ἀποδημίας ἐπειδὰν ἀποθάνωμεν δοῦναι τὰς εὐθύνας τὸ δὲ νῦν ῥητὸν χρόνον μείναντας ἐν τῇ νήσῳ καὶ συνδιαιτηθέντας τοῖς ἥρωσιν ἀπελθεῖν ἔταξαν δὲ καὶ τὴν προθεσμίαν τῆς ἐπιδημίας μὴ πλέον μηνῶν ἑπτά

5 The conquest of the world in twenty days

51 Plautus Curculio 438ndash452 (CURCULIO) quia nudiusquartus venimus in Cariam ex India ibi nunc statuam volt dare auream solidam faciundam ex auro Philippo quae siet septempedalis factis monumentum suis (LYCO) quam ob rem istuc (CURC) dicam quia enim Persas Paphlagonas Sinopas Arabes Caras Cretanos Syros





26

Rhodiam atque Lyciam Perediam et Perbibesiam Centauromachiam et Classiam Unomammiam Libyamque oram ltomnemgt omnem Conterebromniam dimidiam partem nationum usque omnium subegit solus intra viginti dies (LY) vah (CURC) quid mirare (LY) quia enim in cavea si forent conclusi itidem ut pulli gallinacei ita non potuere uno anno circumirier credo hercle te esse ab illo nam ita nugas blatis

52 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version α 325ndash26 Alexanderrsquos exchange of letters with the Amazons from a Hellenistic epistolary novel

καὶ τὴν πορείαν ἐπὶ Ἀμαζόνας ἐποιεῖτο γενόμενος δὲ παρrsquo αὐταῖς ἔπεμψεν αὐταῖς ἐπιστολὴν περιέχουσαν οὕτως

[Ἐπιστολὴ Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἀμαζόσιν] laquoΒασιλεὺς Ἀλέξανδρος Ἀμαζόσι χαίρειν τὴν μὲν πρὸς Δαρεῖον μάχην οἶμαι ὑμᾶς

ἀκηκοέναι ἐκεῖθεν δὲ εἰς τοὺς Ἰνδοὺς ἐστρατεύσαμεν καὶ εὑρόντες τοὺς dagger ἑπομένους αὐτῷ βασιλεῖς ὄντας δὲ καὶ γυμνοσοφιστάς καὶ λαβόντες φόρον παρrsquo αὐτῶν ἀφήκαμεν ἐπὶ τῶν ἰδίων τόπων μένειν παρακαλέσαντας ἡμᾶς καὶ ἐν εἰρήνῃ τὴν χώραν κατεστήσαμεν ὥστε ἡδέως ἡμᾶς προσδέξασθαι καὶ θυσίαν ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ποιῆσαι ἐκεῖθεν δὲ ἀναζεύγνυμεν πρὸς ὑμᾶς ὑμεῖς οὖν συναντήσατε ἡμῖν οὐ γὰρ ἐρχόμεθα κακοποιήσοντες ἀλλrsquo ὀψόμενοι τὴν χώραν ἅμα δὲ καὶ ὑμᾶς εὐεργετήσοντες ἔρρωσθεraquo

Ταύτης τῆς ἐπιστολῆς ἀναγνωσθείσης γράφουσι καὶ αὐταί [Ἐπιστολὴ Ἀμαζόνων Ἀλεξάνδρῳ] laquoἈμαζόνων αἱ κράτισται Ἀλεξάνδρῳ βασιλεῖ χαίρειν γεγράφαμέν σοι ὅπως εἰδῇς πρὸ

τοῦ σε ἐπιβάλλειν ἐπὶ τοὺς τόπους ἵνα μὴ ἀδόξως ἀναλύσῃς διὰ τῆς ἐπιστολῆς διασαφοῦμέν σοι τὰ κατὰ τὴν χώραν ἡμῶν καὶ ἡμᾶς οὔσας σπουδαίας ἐσμὲν γὰρ τοῦ Ἀμαζονικοῦ ποταμοῦ πέραν οἰκοῦμεν δὲ ἐν νήσῳ ἔστι δὲ τὸ περίμετρον αὐτῆς ἐνιαυτοῦ ltπορείαgt κύκλῳ δὲ ποταμὸς οὐκ ἔχων ἀρχήν ἔστι δὲ μία πρόσοδος ἐσμὲν δὲ αἱ κατοικοῦσαι παρθένοι ἔνοπλοι μυριάδες κʹ ἄρσεν δὲ παρrsquo ἡμῶν οὐδὲν ὑπάρχει οἱ δὲ ἄνδρες πέραν τοῦ ποταμοῦ κατοικοῦσι τὴν χώραν νεμόμενοι ἡμεῖς δὲ κατrsquo ἐνιαυτὸν ἄγομεν πανήγυριν ἱπποφονίαν θύουσαι τῷ Διὶ καὶ Ποσειδῶνι καὶ Ἡφαίστῳ ἐπὶ ἡμέρας λʹ ὅσοι δὲ βούλονται διακορεῦσαί τινας ἐξ ἡμῶν καταμένουσι πρὸς αὐτάς καὶ τὰ θηλυκά ὅσα ἂν τίκτωσι γενόμενα ἑπτέτη διαβιβάζουσι πρὸς ἡμᾶς ὅταν δὲ πολέμιοι ἐπιστρατεύωσι πρὸς ἡμᾶς ἐκπορευόμεθα ἐφrsquo ἵππων αἱ πλεῖσται μυριάδες κʹ αἱ δὲ λοιπαὶ τὴν νῆσον φυλάττουσιν καὶ ἐρχόμεθα εἰς συνάντησιν ἐπὶ τὰ ὅρια οἱ δὲ ἄνδρες ὄπισθεν παρατεταγμένοι ἀκολουθοῦσιν καὶ εἴ τις ἂν ἐν τῷ πολέμῳ τραυματίας γένηται προσκυνεῖται dagger διὰ τῆς ἡμέρας ἐπίετε φρέκετε συγγενείαις στέφανος ἀείμνηστος ὑπάρχει εἴ τις δrsquo ἂν πέσῃ ἐν τῷ πολέμῳ ὑπερμαχοῦσα αἱ ἔγγιστα αὐτῆς χρήματα λαμβάνουσιν οὐκ ὀλίγα ἐὰν δέ τις σῶμα ἀναγάγῃ τῶν ἐναντίων πρόκειται ἆθλον χρυσοῦ καὶ ἀργύρου πλῆθος καὶ σίτησις διὰ βίου ὥστε ἡμᾶς ἀγωνίζεσθαι ὑπὲρ τῆς ἰδίας δόξης κἂν πολεμίων κρατήσωμεν ἢ φύγωσιν αἰσχρὸν αὐτοῖς καταλείπεται εἰς ἅπαντα τὸν χρόνον ἐὰν δὲ ἡμᾶς νικήσωσιν ἔσονται γυναῖκας νενικηκότες ὅρα οὖν βασιλεῦ μὴ τὰ αὐτά σοι συμβήσεται στεφανοῦμεν δέ σε κατrsquo ἐνιαυτόν ὅσον ἐὰν σὺ τάξῃς βουλευσάμενος δὲ ἀντίγραψον ἡμῖν εὑρήσεις δὲ ἡμῶν τὴν παρεμβολὴν ἐπὶ τῶν ὁρίωνraquo

[Ἐπιστολὴ Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἀμαζόσιν] laquoἈλέξανδρος βασιλεὺς Ἁμαζόσι χαίρειν τὰ τρία μέρη τῆς οἰκουμένης κεκυριεύκαμεν καὶ

οὐ διελίπαμεν τρόπαια κατὰ πάντων ἱστάντες αἰσχρὸν οὖν ἡμῖν ἀπολειφθήσεται ἐὰν μὴ στρατευσώμεθα ἐφrsquo ὑμᾶς εἰ μὲν οὖν θέλετε ἀπολέσθαι καὶ ἀοίκητον τὴν χώραν τὴν ἑαυτῶν γενέσθαι μείνατε ἐπὶ τῶν ὁρίων εἰ δὲ βούλεσθε εἰς τὴν ἰδίαν [πόλιν] οἰκεῖν καὶ μὴ πεῖραν πολέμου λαβεῖν διαβᾶσαι τὸν ποταμὸν ὄφθητε ltἡμῖνgt ὡσαύτως δὲ καὶ οἱ ἄνδρες ταξάτωσαν ἑαυτοὺς ἐν τῷ πεδίῳ καὶ ἐὰν ταῦτα πράξητε ὄμνυμι πατέρα ἡμῶν Δία καὶ Ἥραν καὶ Ἄρην καὶ Ἀθηνᾶν νικαφόρον μὴ ἀδικῆσαι ὑμᾶς ἀλλὰ καὶ ὃν ἂν βούλεσθε φόρον λήψομαι παρrsquo ὑμῶν καὶ οὐκ ἐλευσόμεθα εἰς τὴν ὑμετέραν γῆν ἃς δrsquo ἂν κρίνητε ἐφίππους ἐξαποστείλατε πρὸς ἡμᾶς δίδομεν δὲ κατὰ μῆνα ἕκαστον ἑκάστῃ χρυσοῦ μνᾶς εʹ μετὰ δὲ [τὸν] ἐνιαυτὸν αὗται μὲν ἀπελεύσονται ἐπὶ τὰ ἴδια ἑτέρας δὲ ἀποστείλατε βουλευσάμεναι οὖν περὶ τούτων ἀντιγράψατε ἡμῖν ἔρρωσθεraquo





27

[Ἐπιστολὴ Ἀμαζόνων Ἀλεξάνδρῳ] laquoἈμαζόνων αἱ κράτισται καὶ ἡγούμεναι βασιλεῖ Ἀλεξάνδρῳ χαίρειν διδόαμέν σοι

ἐξουσίαν ἐλθεῖν πρὸς ἡμᾶς καὶ θεάσασθαι ἡμῶν τὴν χώραν τασσόμεθα δέ σοι διδόναι κατrsquo ἐνιαυτὸν χρυσοῦ τάλαντα ρʹ καὶ τὰς κρατίστας φʹ ἐξαπεστάλκαμέν σοι εἰς συνάντησιν φερούσας σοι τὰ χρήματα καὶ ἵππους γενναίους ρʹ αὗται ἔσονται παρὰ σοὶ τὸν ἐνιαυτόν εἴ τις δrsquo ἂν διακορευθῇ ὑπὸ ἀλλογενοῦς ἔσται ὡς τὰ πάτρια ἐκβεβηκυῖα γράψον δὲ ἡμῖν ὅσαι ἂν παρὰ σοὶ καταμενοῦσι τὰς δὲ λοιπὰς ἐξαποστείλας λήψῃ ἄλλας πειθαρχοῦμεν δέ σοι καὶ παρόντι ltκαὶ ἀπόντιgt ἀκούομεν γάρ σου τὴν ἀρετὴν καὶ ἀνδραγαθίαν ἡμεῖς γάρ ἐσμεν ltοὐδὲνgt παρὰ τὴν οἰκουμένην πᾶσαν ἣν ἐπελήλυθας ὥστε ltσοιgt ἀντιποιεῖσθαι πραγμάτων ἐδόκει δὲ ἡμῖν καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς ἰδίας οἰκεῖν πειθαρχούσαςraquo

53 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version α 327ndash28 Alexanderrsquos letter to Olympias regarding various marvellous lands of the East

Τούτων δὲ τῶν ἐπιστολῶν διαπεμφθεισῶν γράφει καθrsquo ἑαυτὸν τὰ πεπραγμένα Ὀλυμπιάδι τῇ μητρὶ ἐν ἰδίᾳ γραφῇ οὕτως

[Ἐπιστολὴ Ἀλεξάνδρου Ὀλυμπιάδι] laquoὙπὲρ μὲν τῶν ἐν ἀρχῇ κατασταθέντων ἡμῖν ἕως τῶν κατὰ τὴν Ἀσίαν πραγμάτων

πέπεισμαί σε εἰδέναι ἐκ τῶν παρrsquo ἡμῶν γραφέντων () ἐβαδίζομεν δὲ ἀνὰ παρασάγγας [διrsquo ἡμερῶν εʹ] καὶ ἤλθομεν ἐν ἡμέραις ζʹ ἐπὶ τὸν καλούμενον Θερμώδοντα ποταμόν ὃς ἐξερεύγεται χώραν πεδινὴν καὶ εὐδαίμονα ὧδε δὲ ᾤκουν Ἀμαζονίδες γυναῖκες τῷ μεγέθει ltκαὶ κάλλειgt ὑπερέχουσαι καθrsquo ὑπερβολὴν τῶν λοιπῶν γυναικῶν καὶ κάλλιπποι ἐσθῆτα δὲ φοροῦσιν ἀνθινήν ὅπλοις δὲ ἐχρῶντο ἀργυραῖς ἀξίναις σίδηρος δὲ καὶ χαλκὸς οὐκ ἦν παρrsquo αὐταῖς συνέσει δὲ ἦσαν καὶ ἀγχινοίᾳ κεκασμέναι καὶ παρέβαλλον dagger τῷ δήμῳ παρὰ τὸν ποταμόν οὐ γὰρ ἦν εἰς τὸ πέραν διαβῆναι οὗ αἱ Ἀμαζόνες ᾤκουν ἔστι γὰρ ὁ ποταμὸς μέγας καὶ ἀδιάβατος ἔχει δὲ θηρίων πλῆθος καὶ λίθων μεγάλων αὗται δὲ διαβᾶσαι παρετάξαντο ἡμῖν Καὶ λαβόντες παρrsquo αὐτῶν φόρους ἀνεχωρήσαμεν ἐπὶ τὴν Ἐρυθρὰν θάλασσαν

54 Plutarch Alexander 46 (citing many historians of Alexander)

Ἐνταῦθα δὲ πρὸς αὐτὸν ἀφικέσθαι τὴν Ἀμαζόνα οἱ πολλοὶ λέγουσιν ὧν καὶ Κλείταρχός ἐστι (FGrHist 137 F 15ndash16) καὶ Πολύκλειτος (FGrHist 128 F 8) καὶ Ὀνησίκριτος (FGrHist 134 F 1) καὶ Ἀντιγένης (FGrHist 141 F 1) καὶ Ἴστρος (FGrHist 334 F 26) Ἀριστόβουλος (FGrHist 139 F 21) δὲ καὶ Χάρης ὁ εἰσαγγελεύς (FGrHist 125 F 12) πρὸς δὲ τούτοις Ἑκαταῖος ὁ Ἐρετριεὺς καὶ Πτολεμαῖος (FGrHist 138 F 28) καὶ Ἀντικλείδης (FGrHist 140 F 12) καὶ Φίλων ὁ Θηβαῖος καὶ Φίλιππος ὁ Θεαγγελεὺς (FGrHist 741 F 4) καὶ Φίλιππος ὁ Χαλκιδεὺς καὶ Δοῦρις ὁ Σάμιος (FGrHist 76 F 46) πλάσμα φασὶ γεγονέναι τοῦτο καὶ μαρτυρεῖν αὐτοῖς ἔοικεν Ἀλέξανδρος Ἀντιπάτρῳ γὰρ ἅπαντα γράφων ἀκριβῶς τὸν μὲν Σκύθην φησὶν αὐτῷ διδόναι τὴν θυγατέρα πρὸς γάμον Ἀμαζόνος δrsquo οὐ μνημονεύει λέγεται δὲ πολλοῖς χρόνοις Ὀνησίκριτος ὕστερον ἤδη βασιλεύοντι Λυσιμάχῳ τῶν βιβλίων τὸ τέταρτον ἀναγινώσκειν ἐν ᾧ γέγραπται περὶ τῆς Ἀμαζόνος τὸν οὖν Λυσίμαχον ἀτρέμα μειδιάσαντα laquoκαὶ ποῦraquo φάναι laquoτότrsquo ἤμην ἐγώraquo

55 Megasthenes FGrHist 715 F 4 (= Diodorus Siculus 2383ndash7)

μυθολογοῦσι δὲ παρὰ τοῖς Ἰνδοῖς οἱ λογιώτατοι (hellip) φασὶ γὰρ ἐν τοῖς ἀρχαιοτάτοις χρόνοις παρrsquo αὐτοῖς ἔτι τῶν ἀνθρώπων κωμηδὸν οἰκούντων παραγενέσθαι τὸν Διόνυσον ἐκ τῶν πρὸς ἑσπέραν τόπων ἔχοντα δύναμιν ἀξιόλογον ἐπελθεῖν δὲ τὴν Ἰνδικὴν ἅπασαν μηδεμιᾶς οὔσης ἀξιολόγου πόλεως [τῆς] δυναμένης ἀντιτάξασθαι ἐπιγενομένων δὲ καυμάτων μεγάλων καὶ τῶν τοῦ Διονύσου στρατιωτῶν λοιμικῇ νόσῳ διαφθειρομένων συνέσει διαφέροντα τὸν ἡγεμόνα τοῦτον ἀπαγαγεῖν τὸ στρατόπεδον ἐκ τῶν πεδινῶν τόπων εἰς τὴν ὀρεινήν ἐν ταύτῃ δὲ πνεόντων ψυχρῶν ἀνέμων καὶ τῶν ναματιαίων ὑδάτων καθαρῶν ῥεόντων πρὸς αὐταῖς ταῖς πηγαῖς ἀπαλλαγῆναι τῆς νόσου τὸ στρατόπεδον ὀνομάζεσθαι δὲ τῆς ὀρεινῆς τὸν τόπον τοῦτον Μηρόν καθrsquo ὃν ὁ Διόνυσος ἐξέτρεψε τὰς δυνάμεις ἐκ τῆς νόσου ἀφrsquo οὗ δὴ καὶ τοὺς Ἕλληνας περὶ τοῦ θεοῦ τούτου παραδεδωκέναι τοῖς μεταγενεστέροις τεθράφθαι τὸν Διόνυσον ἐν μηρῷ μετὰ δὲ ταῦτα τῆς παραθέσεως τῶν καρπῶν ἐπιμεληθέντα μεταδιδόναι τοῖς Ἰνδοῖς καὶ τὴν εὕρεσιν τοῦ οἴνου καὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν εἰς τὸν βίον χρησίμων παραδοῦναι πρὸς δὲ τούτοις πόλεών τε ἀξιολόγων γενηθῆναι κτίστην μεταγαγόντα τὰς κώμας εἰς τοὺς εὐθέτους τόπους τιμᾶν τε καταδεῖξαι τὸ θεῖον καὶ νόμους εἰσηγήσασθαι καὶ δικαστήρια καθόλου δὲ πολλῶν καὶ καλῶν ἔργων εἰσηγητὴν γενόμενον θεὸν νομισθῆναι καὶ τυχεῖν ἀθανάτων τιμῶν





28

ἱστοροῦσι δrsquo αὐτὸν καὶ γυναικῶν πλῆθος μετὰ τοῦ στρατοπέδου περιάγεσθαι καὶ κατὰ τὰς ἐν τοῖς πολέμοις παρατάξεις τυμπάνοις καὶ κυμβάλοις κεχρῆσθαι μήπω σάλπιγγος εὑρημένης

56 Megasthenes FGrHist 715 F 11

11a = Strabo 1516

συναποφαίνεται δέ πως καὶ Μεγασθένης τῷ λόγῳ τούτῳ κελεύων ἀπιστεῖν ταῖς ἀρχαίαις περὶ Ἰνδῶν ἱστορίαις οὔτε γὰρ παρrsquo Ἰνδῶν ἔξω σταλῆναί ποτε στρατιάν οὔτrsquo ἐπελθεῖν ἔξωθεν καὶ κρατῆσαι πλὴν τῆς μεθrsquo Ἡρακλέους καὶ Διονύσου καὶ τῆς νῦν μετὰ Μακεδόνων

11b = Arrian Indica 54

οὗτος ὦν ὁ Μεγασθένης λέγει οὔτε Ἰνδοὺς ἐπιστρατεῦσαι οὐδαμοῖσιν ἀνθρώποισιν οὔτε Ἰνδοῖσιν ἄλλους ἀνθρώπους ἀλλὰ Σέσωστριν μὲν τὸν Αἰγύπτιον τῆς Ἀσίης καταστρεψά-μενον τὴν πολλήν ἔστε ἐπὶ τὴν Εὐρώπην σὺν στρατιῇ ἐλάσαντα ὀπίσω ἀπονοστῆσαι Ἰδάνθυρσον δὲ τὸν Σκύθεα ἐκ Σκυθίης ὁρμηθέντα πολλὰ μὲν τῆς Ἀσίης ἔθνεα καταστρέ-ψασθαι ἐπελθεῖν δὲ καὶ τὴν Αἰγυπτίων γῆν κρατέοντα Σεμίραμιν δὲ τὴν Ἀσσυρίην ἐπιχειρέειν μὲν στέλλεσθαι εἰς Ἰνδούς ἀποθανεῖν δὲ πρὶν τέλος ἐπιθεῖναι τοῖς βουλεύμασιν ἀλλὰ Ἀλέξανδρον γὰρ στρατεῦσαι ἐπrsquo Ἰνδοὺς μοῦνον καὶ πρὸ Ἀλεξάνδρου Διονύσου μὲν πέρι πολλὸς λόγος κατέχει ὡς καὶ τούτου στρατεύσαντος ἐς Ἰνδοὺς καὶ καταστρεψαμένου [Ἰνδούς] Ἡρακλέος δὲ πέρι οὐ πολλός

57 Megasthenes FGrHist F 14 (= Arrian Indica 99ndash12)

ἀπὸ μὲν δὴ Διονύσου βασιλέας ἠρίθμεον Ἰνδοὶ ἐς Σανδρόκοττον τρεῖς καὶ πεντήκοντα καὶ ἑκατόν ἔτεα δὲ δύο καὶ τεσσαράκοντα καὶ ἑξακισχίλια (hellip) πρεσβύτερόν τε Διόνυσον Ἡρακλέος δέκα καὶ πέντε γενεῇσιν Ἰνδοὶ λέγουσιν ἄλλον δὲ οὐδένα ἐμβαλεῖν ἐς γῆν τὴν Ἰνδῶν ἐπὶ πολέμῳ οὐδὲ Κῦρον τὸν Καμβύσεω καίτοι ἐπὶ Σκύθας ἐλάσαντα καὶ τἄλλα πολυπραγμονέστατον δὴ τῶν κατὰ τὴν Ἀσίαν βασιλέων γενόμενον τὸν Κῦρον ἀλλὰ Ἀλέξανδρον γὰρ ἐλθεῖν τε καὶ κρατῆσαι [πάντων] τοῖς ὅπλοις ὅσους γε δὴ ἐπῆλθε καὶ ἂν καὶ πάντων κρατῆσαι εἰ ἡ στρατιὴ ἤθελεν οὐ μὲν δὴ οὐδὲ Ἰνδῶν τινὰ ἔξω τῆς οἰκείης σταλῆναι ἐπὶ πολέμῳ διὰ δικαιότητα

58 Kleitarchos FGrHist 137 F 17 (= Scholium on Apollonius Rhodius 2904ndash10a pp 193f

Wendel)

ὅτι δὲ ἐπολέμησεν Ἰνδοὺς ὁ Διόνυσος Διονύσιός (FGrHist 32 F 13) φησι καὶ Ἀριστόδημος ἐν αʹ Θηβαϊκῶν ἐπιγραμμάτων καὶ Κλείταρχος ἐν ταῖς Περὶ Ἀλέξανδρον ἱστορίαις προσιστορῶν ὅτι καὶ Νύσα ὄρος ἐστὶν ἐν Ἰνδικῇ καὶ κισσῷ προσόμοιον φυτὸν φυτεύεται ἐκεῖ ὃ προσαγορεύεται σκινδαψός

59 Epistola Alexandri Macedonis ad Aristotelem de itinere suo et de situ Indiae sectsect 35ndash36

(Porus) me et comites meos et universum ditavit exercitum factusque amicus ex hoste Macedonibus in Herculis Liberique trophea deduxit In orientis autem ultimis oris aurea utraque deorum constituerat simulacra Quae an solida essent ego scire cupiens omnia perforavi et id ipsum ut vidi solida simili metallo complevi Liberumque et Herculem deiectis victimis placavi Ultra deinde progressuri si quid memorabile cerneremus nihil praeter desertos in oceano campos silvasque ac montes audivimus in quibus esse elephanti et serpentes dicebantur Pergebam ad mare tamen volens si possem orbi terrarum circumfluum navigare oceanum Quem quoniam tenebrosum vadosumque mihi locorum incolae affirmabant quodque Herculis et Liberi ultra ausus nemini esset temptandum praestantissimorum deorum tanto maiorem me ipsis velle videri quam in patientia mortalium sacra praeterire vestigia


Καὶ ἀναχωρήσαντες ἐκεῖθεν ἤλθομεν εἰς Λύσου λιμένα καὶ εὕρομεν ὄρος ὑψηλότατον ἐν ᾧ ἀνῆλθον καὶ εἶδον οἰκίας καλὰς χρυσίον καὶ ἀργύριον γεμούσας εἶδον δὲ καὶ περίβολον μέγαν ἐκ σαπφείρου λίθου ἔχοντα ἀναβαθμοὺς ρνʹ καὶ ἄνωθεν ἱερὸν στρογγύλον ἔχον στύλους σαπφειρίνους κύκλῳ ρʹ ἔσωθεν δὲ καὶ ἔξωθεν ἀνάγλυφοι ἀνδριάντες ἡμιθέων γεγλυμμένοι Βάκχαι Σάτυροι Μύστιδες αὐλοῦσαι καὶ βακχεύουσαι διφυεῖς ὁ δὲ πρεσβύτης Μάρων ἐπὶ ὑποζυγίῳ ἦν () ἐξελθὼν δὲ εἰς τὸν περίβολον εἶδον ἐκεῖ κειμένους κρατῆρας χρυσοτορνεύτους δύο χωροῦντας ἀνὰ μετρητὰς ξʹ οὓς καὶ ἐξεμετρήσαμεν ἐν τῷ δείπνῳ ἐκέλευσα δὲ τὴν παρεμβολὴν ἐκεῖ γενέσθαι πᾶσαν καὶ εὐωχηθῆναι ἦν δὲ ἐκεῖ οἶκος μέγας





29

κατεσκευασμένος ἦσαν δὲ ἐκεῖ ποτήρια ἐπίσημα πολλὰ πάσης εὐπρεπείας ἄξια ἐκ λίθων τετορνευμένα ἐν δὲ τῷ κατακλιθῆναι ἡμᾶς τε καὶ τὰ στρατεύματα πρὸς εὐωχίαν ἐπὶ δεῖπνον ἐξαίφνης ὥσπερ βροντὴ βιαία αὐλῶν καὶ κυμβάλων πλήθους καὶ σύριγγος καὶ σάλπιγγος καὶ τυμπάνων καὶ κιθάρας ἐγένετο καὶ τὸ ὄρος ὅλον ἐκαπνίζετο ὥσπερ κεραυνοῦ πολλοῦ πεσόντος ἐφrsquo ἡμᾶς ἡμεῖς οὖν φοβηθέντες ἀνεχωρήσαμεν ἐκ τοῦ τόπου ἐκείνου

6 The infant warrior

61 Plautus Truculentus 505ndash511 (ASTAPHIUM) peperit puerum nimium lepidum (STRATOPHANES) ehem ecquid mei similest (AST) rogas quin ubi natust machaeram et clupeum poscebat sibi (STR) meus est scio iam de argumentis (AST) nimium tui similest (STR) papae iam magnust iamne iit ad legionem ecquae spolia rettulit (AST) daggereredagger nudiusquintus natus ille quidem est (STR) quid postea inter tot dies quidem hercle iam aliquid actum oportuit quid illi ex utero exitiost priursquo quam poterat ire in proelium

62 Plutarch Alexander 116 485

Θηβαίους δrsquo ἀφεστάναι πυθόμενος καὶ συμφρονεῖν αὐτοῖς Ἀθηναίους εὐθὺς ἦγε διὰ Πυλῶν τὴν δύναμιν εἰπὼν ὅτι Δημοσθένει παῖδα μὲν αὐτὸν ἕως ἦν ἐν Ἰλλυριοῖς καὶ Τριβαλλοῖς ἀποκαλοῦντι μειράκιον δὲ περὶ Θετταλίαν γενόμενον βούλεται πρὸς τοῖς Ἀθηναίων τείχεσιν ἀνὴρ φανῆναι (hellip)

(ὁ Φιλώτας) οἷα δὲ νέος πρὸς ἐρωμένην καὶ σὺν οἴνῳ πολλὰ φιλότιμα καὶ στρατιωτικὰ παρρησιαζόμενος ἑαυτοῦ τὰ μέγιστα τῶν ἔργων ἀπέφαινε καὶ τοῦ πατρός Ἀλέξανδρον δὲ μειράκιον ἀπεκάλει διrsquo αὐτοὺς τὸ τῆς ἀρχῆς ὄνομα καρπούμενον

63 Diodorus Siculus 1722 1736 1771ndash2

(Ἀλέξανδρος) νέος γὰρ ὢν παντελῶς καὶ διὰ τὴν ἡλικίαν ὑπό τινων καταφρονούμενος πρῶτον μὲν τὰ πλήθη οἰκείοις λόγοις παρεστήσατο πρὸς εὔνοιαν ()

ἀλλrsquo ὅμως τηλικούτων πραγμάτων καὶ τοσούτων φόβων κατεχόντων τὴν βασιλείαν Ἀλέξανδρος νέος ὢν παντελῶς ἅπαντα τὰ κατὰ τὴν ἀρχὴν δυσχερῆ παραδόξως καὶ συντόμως κατεστήσατο ()

Δαρεῖος γὰρ παραλαβὼν τὴν βασιλείαν πρὸ μὲν τῆς Φιλίππου τελευτῆς ἐφιλοτιμεῖτο τὸν μέλλοντα πόλεμον εἰς τὴν Μακεδονίαν ἀποστρέψαι ἐκείνου δὲ τελευτήσαντος ἀπελύθη τῆς ἀγωνίας καταφρονήσας τῆς Ἀλεξάνδρου νεότητος ἐπεὶ δrsquo ἡ ltδιὰgt τῶν πράξεων ἐνέργεια καὶ ὀξύτης ἐποίησε μὲν τὴν τῶν Ἑλλήνων ἡγεμονίαν πᾶσαν ἀναλαβεῖν καὶ τὴν ἀρετὴν τοῦ νεανίσκου γενέσθαι περιβόητον τότε δὴ νουθετηθεὶς τοῖς ἔργοις ὁ Δαρεῖος ἐπιμέλειαν μεγάλην ἐποιεῖτο τῶν δυνάμεων

64 Pseudo-Callisthenes Alexander Romance version α 136ndash38 Alexanderrsquos exchange of letters with Darius from a Hellenistic epistolary novel

ὑπήντησαν δὲ αὐτῷ πρέσβεις Δαρείου ἐπιστολὰς κομίζοντες καὶ σκῦτος καὶ σφαῖραν καὶ κιβωτόν ἀνατυλίξας δὲ τὰς ἐπιστολὰς ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος ἀνεγίνωσκεν οὕτω περιεχούσας





30

laquoΒασιλεὺς βασιλέων καὶ θεῶν συγγενὴς σύνθρονός τε θεῷ Μίθρᾳ καὶ συνανατέλλων ἡλίῳ ἐγὼ αὐτὸς θεὸς Δαρεῖος Ἀλεξάνδρῳ ἐμῷ θεράποντι τάδε προστάσσω καὶ κελεύω σοι συστρέφειν πρὸς τοὺς γονεῖς σου τοὺς ἐμοὺς δούλους ὄντας καὶ κοιτάζειν εἰς τοὺς κόλπους τῆς μητρός σου Ὀλυμπιάδος ἔτι γὰρ ἡ ἡλικία σου παιδεύεσθαι ὀφείλει καὶ τιθηνίζεσθαι καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἔπεμψά σοι σκῦτος καὶ σφαῖραν καὶ χρυσίον ἵνα ἄρῃς ὅ τι ποτὲ βούλει τὸ μὲν οὖν σκῦτος ὅτι παιδεύεσθαι ὀφείλεις τὴν δὲ σφαῖραν ἵνα παίζῃς μετὰ τῶν συνηλικιωτῶν σου καὶ μὴ ἀγερώχως ἡλικίαν τοσούτων νέων ἀναπείθῃς ὥσπερ ἀρχιλῃστὴς τὰς πόλεις ἀναταράσσωνraquo ()

Καὶ μεθrsquo ἡμέραν ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος γράφει ἐπιστολὴν Δαρείῳ καὶ ἀναγινώσκει λάθρᾳ τῶν γραμματηφόρων τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ σατράπαις οὕτως

laquoΒασιλεὺς Ἀλέξανδρος πατρὸς Φιλίππου καὶ μητρὸς Ὀλυμπιάδος βασιλεῖ βασιλέων καὶ συνθρόνῳ ἡλίου θεοῦ μεγίστου καὶ ἐκγόνῳ θεῶν καὶ συνανατέλλοντι ἡλίῳ μεγάλῳ βασιλεῖ Περσῶν Δαρείῳ χαίρειν () ἀλλrsquo ἔπεμψάς μοι σκῦτος καὶ σφαῖραν καὶ κιβωτὸν χρυσίου σὺ μὲν ἐμοὶ ταῦτα ἔπεμψας χλευαζόμενος ἐγὼ δὲ αὐτὰ ὡς ἀγαθὰ σημεῖα ἀπεδεξάμην καὶ τὸ μὲν σκῦτος ἔλαβον ἵνα ταῖς ἐμαῖς λόγχαις καὶ ὅπλοις δείρω τοὺς βαρβάρους καὶ ταῖς ἐμαῖς χερσὶν εἰς δουλείαν ὑποτάξω τῇ δὲ σφαίρᾳ ἐσήμανάς μοι ὡς τοῦ κόσμου περικρατήσω σφαιροειδὴς γὰρ καὶ στρογγύλος ὑπάρχων ὁ κόσμος τὴν δὲ κιβωτὸν τοῦ χρυσίου μέγα μοι σημεῖον ἔπεμψας σεαυτῷ δὲ ὑποταγὴν ἐμήνυσας ἡττηθεὶς γὰρ ὑπrsquo ἐμοῦ φόρους μοι χορηγήσειςraquo

2

to fly around and sprinkle the guests Ephippusrsquo Geryones and Peltastes included

a fantastic tirade about a gigantic fish larger than Crete and cooked in an

analogously proportioned casserole to satisfy a fabulous king The ambassadors

returning from Persia in Aristophanesrsquo Acharnians extol the exorbitant gluttony

of the Persian people and the enormous quantities of food served at the

Achaemenid royal table The excesses of gastronomy are coupled with extreme

costliness with regard to the other paraphernalia of the banquet mdash golden cups

and soft mattresses In Mnesimachusrsquo Philip the blustering warrior claims that

he and his men swallow swords and broken javelins at dinner gulp down flaming

torches as a side-dish lie on shields and breastplates instead of cushions and

wear catapults on their heads instead of wreaths The weapons of war take here

the place of the foodstuffs and equipment of the banquet so as to highlight the

braggartrsquos superhuman militarism Even in New Comedy the few extant relics of

such fantastic narratives remain true to the preoccupation with the culinary or the

sympotic In Menanderrsquos Halieus a returning soldier reports on the voracity of

Dionysius the tyrant of Pontic Heracleia who lied down in his rolls of fat obese

like a pig and wished himself a death from overeating Bias in the Kolax

faithfully reflected in this respect by the Thraso of Terencersquos Eunuch also

confines his braggadocio to his distinctions in the symposium He boasts about

his witty jokes and boon companionship with the king in convivial occasions or

about the large amounts of wine he gulped down Although there are no stories of

wonders in the Kolax and its Roman offshoot the typically Hellenic emphasis on

banqueting and its pleasures is retained

In Greek comic bragging therefore it is traditionally the pleasures of

feasting that are ludicrously exaggerated and transformed into grotesque

spectacles The alazon is the main adversary of the comic hero the opponent that

must be ridiculed and defeated in the end Since the comic herorsquos final victory is

regularly celebrated with a great feast of eating and drinking it seems natural

that the braggart antagonist should be associated with an exorbitant distortion of

these same pleasures In this respect the Greek practice corresponds to a

primordial constituent of the comic genre The tales of the Plautine braggarts on

the other hand display a different kind of emphasis Although feasting is an

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\"munchausen in rome: plautine braggarts and hellenistic storytelling\". plautus doctus:...

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