L A N G U A G E A N D M E A N I N G : M A L O R Y ' S T R A N S L A T I O N O F T H E G R A I L S T O R Y

Sir Thomas Malory's Tale o f the Sankgreal is about one-third as long as the French Queste del Saint Graal. Not only does the English very faithfully reproduce the plot of its source, but also at least 85~o of the words can be traced back to French equivalents. It was probably with these facts in mind that E. Vinaver opened his editorial notes on the Sankgreal by remarking: "Malory 's Tale o f the Sankgreal is the least original of all his works. Apart from omissions and minor alterations, it is to all intents and purposes a translation of the French Queste. ' u However, a close comparison of Malory's prose with that of his source suggests that, at the very least, we are faced with a particularly fascinat- ing kind of "translation". While plot and vocabulary are not at all original, a comparison of almost any passage of the Sankgreal with its correspondent in the Queste will indicate how, in a very fundamental sense, Malory's originality can be said to be a question of style.

A) Einsi se despit et blasme Lancelot mout forment et fet son duel toute la nuit. Et quant lijorz parut biaus et clers et li oiselet comencerent a chanter parmi le bois et li soleux comenqa a luire par mi les arbres, et il voit le biau tens et il ot le chant des oisaus: dont il s'ert maintes foiz esjoiz, et lors se volt desgarni de routes choses, et de ses armes et de son cheval, et bien set de voir que Nostres Sires s'est corrociez a lui. (62, 8-15)

So thus he sorowed tyll hit was day, and harde the fowlys synge" than somwhat he was comforted. But whan sir Launcelot myssed his horse and hys harneyse, than he wyst well God was displesed with hym. (896, 10-13) z

The eighty-eight words of the Queste are reduced to thirty-seven, prima- rily through the omission of details and of repetitions. The number of verb phrases not only drops from twelve to seven, but also the degree of subordination is reduced. Malory generally prefers simple coordina- tion and his grammar is understandable but casual: no subject is expres- sed for "harde"; " tha t" is omitted at the opening of the complement clause. Just as his language is colloquial, Malory's simple presentation of events builds on common experience. We can empathise with Lancelot's spontaneous relief as the birds' singing signals the end of a troubled night. 8 But the phrasing recreates his jolt of recognition as Lancelot understands that the disappearance of his chivalric equipment in the wake of his vision must mean he is not acting as a truly Christian knight. The narrative is simple and effective: it reports all the facts found in the source. However, Malory's language is in strong contrast to the rather formal and syntactically complicated prose the French uses to specify nuances. For example, the nine verb clauses of the second sentence focus pro- gressively from an impersonal description of Lancelot's environment to his own impression of his natural surroundings to an understanding of

310 Mary Hynes-Berry - Malory's Grail Story

his immediate personal condition, both material and spiritual. Even the verbs intensify f rom voit to the reflexive se voit to the intensive bien set de voir.

This one example accurately represents Malory 's treatment of the Queste as a whole. The Sankgreal translates the basic information found in its source and usually closely reflects the original vocabulary but com- presses the language into a distinct style which transforms our perception of events. Moreover, it is possible to characterize both the types of constructions and the kinds of information which Malory typically eliminates. In general, the Queste's invitation to see the meaning and the manner in which things happened is replaced by a less detailed paratactic account of events. Malory will excise whole paragraphs of explanation, particularly in the sermons. However, a significant amount of reduction is accomplished by selective translation of only the words and phrases essential to the action as such.

13) Cil Vagans estoit uns preudons de bone vie et avoit est6 uns des bons chevaliers dou monde tant come il fu en sa jovente. Et quant il vit les compaignons qui passoient par mi son chastel, si fist maintenant les portes elore de totes pars et dist puis que Diex li avoit tele honor faite qu'il estoient en son pooir, il ne s'en istront devant qu'il les avra serviz de qan qu'il porra. (25, 30-26, 3)

And so they entird into the castell, and the lorde thereof was an olde man that hyght Vagon, and good of hys lyvyng, and sette opyn the gatis and made hem all the chere that he myght. (872, 23-26)

When the French uses several co-ordinate clauses to develop nuances of meaning, Malory usually transmits only the one which gives the general idea & w h a t happened. In passage B, for example, it is significant for the allegory to specify that the host on the first day of the Quest was, above all, a prudhons - the word is used for all the hermits who appear later. But it is also meaningful that he has been a good chevaliers in his youth - one of the lessons of the Grail Quest is that it is difficult indeed to be a good knight in earthly terms and still be a good celestial knight, a prudhons. Likewise, the thought of the dist puis que clause which co-ordinates with f i s t stresses the sacred nature of the quest and emphasises the fervor of Vagon's hospitality but does not advance the action. Similarly in passage A, the three verbs which describe Laneelot's reaction (se despit, blasme a n d f e t son duel) are compressed into one ("sorowed").

c) Et quant il o~ qu'il li crie, si li curt le glaive aloigni~, et Pereeval trest respee, come cil qui bien volt qu'il est a la meslee venuz. Mais li chevaliers, qui tost s'en vouloit delivrer, vient si grant erre come li chevax puet rendre et fiert le ronein parmi le piz si durement qu'il li boute d'outre en outre. Et cil chiet jus, qui a mort estoit feruz. (90, 28-33)

And he turned and set hys speare ayenst sir Percivale, and he smote the hackney in myddis the breste, that he felle downe dede to the erthe. (911, 5-7)

The French prose is filled with relative, adverbial and appositive verb phrases which specify significance (qui a m o r t . . . ) , motive (qui tos t . . .)

M a r y Hynes-Berry - Malory ' s Grail S tory 311

or manner ( come ci l . . . . s i g r a n t . . , s i d u r e m e n t ) . As passage C shows, Malory has a strong tendency to t r im both this kind of construct ion and this kind o f detail, even f rom straightforward narrative.

D) Et por ce qu'il nel veut plus escouter, s'en entre en la meson a l'ermite ou il avoit ses armes mises, si les prent et s'arme vistement. Et quant il s'est armez, si vient a son cheval et monte et dit a Boorz. (189, 4-7)

Ryght so he wente in and toke lays harneyse, and lyght uppon his horse and cam tofore hym and seyde. (969, 27-28)

In both the Ques te and the S a n k g r e a l , q u a n t . . , s i . . . ( w h a n . . . t h a n . . . ) constructions are fairly frequent�9 However, Malory tends to indicate causal sequence - as in passage A : "Bu t whan sir Launcelot myssed his h o r s e . . . " - while the quan t clause in the French usually recapitulates an act ion that was just repor ted - as in passage D, s ' a r m e

� 9 quan t il s ' e s t a rmez . Once again, the instinct o f the French author to spell things out minutely is not translated into English. I f Malory includes a detail repeated in this way, he compresses it into a single statement, as he does in the first half o f passage A. Such substi tution o f an independent for a subordinate construct ion is typical�9

The passages just discussed are examples o f what u has described as se lec t ive a b r i d g e m e n t - Malory picks out and translates only the phrases which contain the information that he considers essential. In other cases, however, Malory compresses the general idea o f his source but does no t rely as closely on the French phrasing, so that the abridgement would be more accurately described as syn the t i c .4 The following passage is an example o f this kind o f abridgement.

E) 11 avoit un brief qui vos devisoit deus voies, l'une a destre et l'autre a senestre. Et par cele a destre devez vos entendre la voie Jhesucrist, la voie de pitid, ou li chevalier Nostre Seignor errent de nuiz et de jorz, de jor selonc l'ame et de nuit selone le cots. Et par cele a senestre devez vos entendre la voie as pecheors, ou li grant peril avienent a cels qui s'i mettent. (45, 9-15)

For the way on the ryght hand betokenyd the hygheway of oure Lorde Jesu Cryst, and the way of a good trew lyver. And the othir way betokenyth the way of synnars and myssebelevers. (886, 12-15)

Whether the abridgement is selective or synthetic, Malory ' s version is clearly syntactically less complex than that o f his source. We have already seen that he tends to eliminate the kinds o f details which are often stated in subordinate constructions. However, it is equally clear that Malory does not confine himself to translating only the main clauses of his source. Rather he tends to translate whatever clauses he does select into looser constructions with fewer subordinates. Several typical cases will illustrate this procedure in more specific detail.

1. Malory is more likely to use a simple preposi t ion or conjunct ion than a subordinating formula (the point under discussion is italicised).

312 M a r y Hynes-Berry - Malory ' s Grail S tory

Maintenant ot entor lui si grant noise et si grant cri qu'il est avis que tuit li anemi d'enfer soient entor lui. (182, 3-5)

And anone he harde a grete noyse and a grete cry as all the fyndys of helle hade bene aboute hym. (966, 9-10)

2. Cons t ruc t ions involving present par t ic ip les can be subst i tu ted for verb phrases .

Et quant il avoient grant piece est~ a genoillons, se s'aseoient tuit, et tendoient tuit les mains vers le ciel et disoient a haute voiz. (131, 1-3)

And all thes worshipt the crosse, knelyng uppon their kneys, holdyng up their hondys towarde the hevyn, and all they seyde. (928, 23-25)

3. Infinit ive phrases will be used a lone ra ther than as pa r t o f a larger, more dependen t const ruct ion .

Lors s'apensa Eve qu'ele n'avoit huche ne autre estui en coi ele le peust es to ier . . . Si le ficha dedenz terre. (212, 20-15)

And for she had no coffir to kepe hit in, she put it in the erthe. (990, 28-29)

4. A b o v e all , M a l o r y repea ted ly uses independen t cons t ruc t ions to t rans la te dependen t clauses.

Et tant se tindrent que la nuiz fu venue noire et oscure, qui a force lesfist de partir. (238, 25-26)

So they helde their journey everych inlycke harde tyll hit was nyghe nyght. Than must they nedis depar~e. (1001, 27-28)

The twin processes o f ab r idgemen t and o f t r ans la t ion f rom hypotaxs is to para taxs is give the S a n k g r e a l a col loquia l tone at the same t ime that they a l low for a fa i r ly casual g rammar . 5 D. S. Brewer has observed:

The colloquial energy of Malory's writing is particularly revealed by his syntax, which is plain enough and rarely gives trouble, but which has a fine unconcern for rules of proper relation, co-ordination, and subordination. He slides from clause to clause in a way that makes it difficult to impose modern bookish punctuation on his syntactic structures. 6

M a l o r y ' s loose, essent ial ly pa ra tac t i c syntax not on ly echoes the pa t te rns o f spoken language; i t also reflects the k ind o f comprehens ion tha t conversa t ion depends on. In o rd ina ry speech one does no t usual ly bo the r to express onesel f ful ly and grammat ica l ly . On one hand, i t is perfect ly acceptab le to speak phrases which are technica l ly f ragments bu t which make perfect sense when given ora l stress. M a l o r y ' s prose regular- ly conta ins such units .

And the three bulles whyche were whyght sauff only one had been spotted? (946, 20-21; cf. Queste 156, 18-21)

And why the other floure drew nye tother, that was the knyght which wolde have defowled her and hymself bothe. (968, 15-16; cf. Queste 156, 22-24)

Mary Hynes-Berry - Malory's Grail Story 313

But more than intonation is involved. By using colloquial language, one suggests that there is a common ground of understanding, that the logic of the thought need not be precisely articulated through use of subordination but can be generally indicated. Thus, in the Sankgreal, sequence is the relationship most often expressed while the reader is often left to intuit cause and effect or purpose.7 Neither the language nor the kind of information we are given invites us to analyse closely or to intellectualize patterns of significance. As Field has pointed out, "We have no sense of an author's mind displayed in grammatical gym- nastics between us and the facts of a scene. We do not need to make an effort to understand implications or apprehend facts. ''8

Malory prefers to focus on the events themselves. In many ways, his language could be called transparent. Things are told so that we focus on the story, not on the telling of it. Both the tone and the kind of detail incline the audience to accept this as a straightforward account. The contrast in the self-consciousness of the language in the two works can be indicated very briefly. In passage D, above, the French specifies that Lionel went into the house of the hermit where he had left his armour, that he took it and that he armed himself and, having done so, he went to his horse. Since the only dwelling mentioned in this incident is the hermit's, Malory sees no reason to explain into which house Lionel went. Similarly, he assumes that anyone would understand that if Lionel took up his armor, it was for the purpose of arming himself, so he says simply " toke hys harneyse." Partly because he does concentrate on events in themselves rather than dilute our response by drawing attention to the patterns of meaning for the whole work, and partly because he allows us to respond to a simple narration rather than to organize the meaning fairly explicitly through subordination, Malory's version is often more dramatically effective than that of his source. He is able to transmit the emotional force of a statement more powerfully because he does forgo the enunciation of meaning so characteristic of the Queste.

"Seignor, vos veez que ceste damoisele est malade, et je la puis garir se je roll, et seje roll, ele n'en puet eschaper. Or me dites que j'en ferd." (239, 33-240, 2)

"Now," syde sir Percivalles sister, "fayre knyghtes, I se well that this jantillwoman ys but dede withoute helpe, and therefore lette me blede." (1002, 25-27)

The passages contain the same information but convey quite different connotations. Malory communicates the human sympathy of a direct response to another's agony by using " I s e . . . " The French is distanced as the maiden's statement unfolds like a syllogism from vos veez to the alternatives underlined by the repetition of se j e voil to her decision. Malory's vocabulary is much more evocative - "ys but dede" with its starkness is more striking than the elaborate and rather euphemistic est m a l a d e . . , ele n'en puet eschaper. Likewise, "therefore lette me blede" is much more moving than the rather bulky or me dites q u e j ' e n f e r d - the

314 Mary ttynes-Berry- Malory's Grail Story

emphasis of the French is somewhat coldly on her decisiveness rather than on her generous decision.

Malory depends on simple words, simply put together. But the effect is potent rather than banal. His prose has the iceberg quality that Heming- way strove for. As the passage just discussed shows, Malory gives his language this kind of resonance by having us respond to what seems to unfold before our eyes so that we invest the incident with our spontaneous understanding & a n d reaction to it. Unlike the Queste, he does not present a very rational, interpretive account.

We can further see the way Malory 's language builds on an assumption of common understanding by examining the use o f adjectives in the two works. In both versions, physical descriptions are very limited. Adjectives are scarce and tend to be restricted to those which denote degree, size and moral quality. While Malory 's adjectives are almost always transla- tions f rom the French, their effect is very different: Malory does not translate the accompanying phrases which specify and elaborate the judgement implicit in the classes of adjectives which are used most often.

Certes, fet le preudons, vos dites verit6, honor i avra il grant, et ce n'iert mie de merveille, car il ert li plus loiax serjanz et li plus verais de toute la Queste. II n'entrera pas en ceste Queste vil ne conchi6 ni oft, come sont li desloial pecheor qui i sont entr6 sanz amendement de vie: car ce est li servises meesme Nostre Seignor... car nus ne puet estre mondez ne netoiez se veraie confession nel visite: par la confession en oste len l 'anemi... (162, 19ft.)

"Sertes," seyde the good man, "that ys sothe withoute fayle, for he shall be the beste knyghte of the worlde and the fayrst of the felyship. But wyte you welle, there shall none attayne hit but by clennes, that yspure confession." (955, 11-14] 9

In the Queste, parameters are indicated for each of the adjectives: Galahad will have grant honor in this quest e a r . . . ; veraie and loiax are contrasted to desloialpecheor in the context o f this particular quest; a long explana- tion, not quoted here, explains veraie confession. But in Malory, the reader automatically invests the adjectives with his own universalised sense of what a "good man" or the "beste knyghte" and "fayrst" or "pure confes- sion" might be. The response is intuitive rather than analytical or reflec- tive.

Malory reinforces his call for an immediate empathetic response by literally dramatizing his presentation of the Queste's story. Indirect discourse is frequently translated in direct address, and much of the narrative commentary is eliminated. Consequently, Malory relies heavily on direct address to give background information, to express emotion and to motivate action. To a certain extent, the narrative could be tran- scribed as stage directions. At the same time, as we have seen, the tone of the speaking voice is colloquial rather than oratorical. The effect is heightened by Malory 's constant use of interjections and apostrophes. While some are to be found in the French, t ime and again, it is Malory who punctuates his characters' speeches with " m a d a m , " "sir," "now,"

Mary Hynes-Berry - Malory's Grail Story 315

"well," " for Goddis sake," or some similar expression. Whether translated or added, these interjections are always more noticeable in the English version because the interchanges between characters are much more rapid. Set speeches and monologues are very rare. Characters almost never speak more than three or four sentences at a time - even the hermits' sermons are not only drastically reduced but also are broken up to suggest conversation.

Clearly Malory translated the Queste into another idiom - one which has both linguistic and perceptual implications. Malory is suggestive rather than precise, simple rather than formally patterned and interested inintuitive understanding rather than in a hidden pattern of significances. Consequently, as faithful as it is to the story line and to the vocabulary, the Sankgreal creates a distinct significance for the Grail story. In fact, the originality of Malory's language provides a clue to the "paradox" that C. S. Lewis puzzled over: "That Malory's handling of the Grail story sounds deeply re l ig ious . . , but that a case can be made for the view that Maiory evaded the religious significance. 'u0 But we should

recognize that the Grail quest was, by its very nature, a deeply reli- gious adventure. As passage after passage has indicated, what Malory actually evaded was not the nature of the story but its allegorical sig- nificance. The difference between the two versions - and the solution to Lewis' paradox - involves a distinction between what is theological and what is religious, on the one hand, and between the meaning of a literary allegory and the meaning of an exemplary narrative, on the other. In the Queste del Saint Graal, the story is a vehicle for a profound allegory of the Eucharistic doctrine. It is very skilfully constructed on every level, including that of stylolinguistics, to make us conscious of finely graded points of moral and theological significance. The theme is articulated in part by having the sermons express a basic conflict between heavenly and earthly chivalry. Lancelot's failure to fully achieve the Grail is stressed as an indication of the ultimate failure of earthly values. It is most unlikely, however, that Malory was even aware of the theological points allegorized in his "frenysshe booke." But when he took up the story two centuries later, he clearly felt that the Grail quest meant some- thing very important, and so he "drewe out" of his source the elements that showed how this quest dramatized the dilemma of a very good man, a very good knight - but one who could not quite bring himself to being perfectly stable (to use Malory's term) in his adherence to his chivalric vocation.11 In Malory, there is no conflict between the two chivalries; the conflict is between good knights and bad and is most poignantly expressed in Lancelot's internal struggle. Thus Lancelot, with his limited success, becomes both an inspiration and a reminder of our human weakness.

The concurrent shift of style and thematic center from the Queste to the Sankgreal is very clearly illustrated by two versions of Lancelot's confession of his great sin, his love for Guinevere.

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Et Lancelot pense un petit, come cil qui onques ne reconut l'afere de lui et de la reine, ne ne dira tant come il vive, se trop granz amonestemenz a ce ne le meine. Si giete un sospir dou cuer etest tel atornez qu'il ne puet issir parole de sa bouche. Et neporec il le diroit volentiers, rues il n'ose, come cil qui plus est coarz que hardiz. Et li preudons l'amoneste toutevoies de regehir son pechi6 et de laissier le tout, car autrement est il honiz s'il ne fet ce qu'il li amoneste, et li promet la vie pardurable por le gehir et enfer pot le celer. Si li dit tant par bones paroles et par bons essamples que Lancelot li comence a dire:

"Sire, fet Lancelot, il est einsi que je sui morz de pechi6 d'une mole dame que je ai amee toute rna vie, et ce est la reine Guenievre, la fame le roi Artus. Ce est cele qui a plent6 m'a don6 l'or et l'argent et les riches dons que je ai aucune foiz donez as povres chevaliers. Ce est cele qui m'a mis ou grant boban et en la grant hautece ou je sui. Ce est cele por qui amor j'ai faites les granz proeces dont toz li mondes parole. Ce est cele qui m'a let venir de povret6 en richece et de mesaise a toutes les terriannes beneur- tez. Mes je sai bien que par cest pechi6 de li s'est Nostres Sires si durement corloeiez a moi qu'il m'a bien mostr6 puis ersoir." (65 30-66, 17)

"Sir," seyde the good man, "hyde none olde synne frome me." "Truly," seyde sir Lancelot, "that were me fulle lothe to discover, for thys fourtene

yere I never discoverede one thynge that I have used, and that may 1 now wyghte my shame and my disadventure."

And than he tolde there the good man all hys lyff, and how he had loved a quene unmesurabely and oute of mesure longe.

"And all my grete dedis of arrays that I have done for the most party was for the quenys sake and for hir sake wolde I do batayle were hit ryght other wronge. And never dud I batayle all only for Goddis sake, but for to wynne worship and to cause me the bettir to be beloved, and litill or nought I thanked never God of hit." (897, 10-2t)

All that has been said abou t Malory ' s t r ans format ion of the language and style of the French Queste can be seen here. The approximately 250 words of the source are reduced to abou t 130. Details of motive and manner , given in subordinate constructions, which emphasise the logic of the thought, are simplified both in terms of in format ion and of syntax. The indirect discourse of the first paragraph in the French is captured in a brief exchange of remarks between the hermi t and Lancelot.

The stylistic difference is striking, bu t it also contr ibutes to the shift in thematic force between the two versions. In the French, the stress of the first paragraph is on Lancelot 's reluctance to confess and the spiri tual consequences of failing to repent. The emphasis is par t of the Queste's systematic humil ia t ion of Lancelot and of the values he represents. The flower of earthly chivalry is such a spiri tual coward that only the threat of eternal shame and hellfire can open his mouth. The analysis and judgement seem stronger because they are given through the impersonal voice of the omniscient nar ra to r ; they are no t just opinions voiced by the characters. However, Ma lo ry is no t interested in the theological sig- nificance of confession and in the elucidat ion of the steps leading to true repentance. Neither is he bui lding up a wholesale condemna t ion of Lance- lot and earthly cbivalry. His " t rans la t ion" of the scene is quite different. We hear f rom Lancelot 's own lips his very h u m a n reluctance to confess a long hidden sin. This unders tandable hesi tat ion wins first our sympathy and then our admira t ion as Lancelot responds immediately to the hermit ' s exhortation, moved by his own sense of guilt and repentance.

Mary Hynes-Berry - Malory's Grail Story 317

In the Queste, the confession is given in direct address. The language is both rhetorical and laden with significance. Things are spelled out so that we can reflect on their deeper meanings. Lancelot is not just guilty - he is spiritually dead because of his sin. That sin is his love for his lady who is the queen, the wife of his liege lord. In four parallel sentences opening ce est cele the conflict between spiritual and earthly rewards is raised again. It is Guinevere who is the source of all his earthly riches and of his selfish abuse of them. She has put him in a position of great arrogance and glory (boban, hautece). But it is specifically the sin of adultery (par cest pechid de li) that made God show his anger against Lancelot in the previous night's incident at the Grail chapel. In Malory, the implications of Lancelot's sinful love are not as clear but the feeling involved is much more evident. The confession of Lancelot's love is set off by the reversion to narrative for this one sentence. The use of the third person suggests how terribly difficult it is to voice his sin. Anyone at all familiar with the relationship should be moved as everything is compressed into a phrase in the admission that he "loved a quene un- mesurabely and oute of mesure longe." "A quene" rather than "Guine- vere" or even "the queen" suggest discretion and concern for her reputa- tion. "unmesurabely" simply expresses their great fidelity while the tragedy of the whole affair is captured in "oute of mesure;" the placement of " longe" properly lets it modify both their love and their sin. The resonance takes place in the reader's heart, not his intellect. It involves him not in judgements but in understanding.

The confession is finished in Lancelot's own voice. Once again, the censure implicit in the Queste is much softened in the Sankgreall. Instead of measuring out all the material advantages he got from his mistress, Lancelot admits a service so intense that he was blind to concern for justice and for gratitude to God. Even more significantly, the suggestion is no longer that the adulterous love is in itself the all encompassing sin and, furthermore, that the confession is motivated by chagrin with his experience at the Grail chapel. In Malory, the use of simple co-ordination suggests that Lancelot's guilt was definitely compounded by his consistent violations of the chivalric code. A knight is sworn to God's service and promises that he will "Take no batayle in wrongfull quarell for no love ne for worldis goodis." (120, 23-24) Lancelot confesses that he has done just the opposite. The switch back to direct address for this part of the confession emphasises that, in the Sankgreall, Lancelot's failure is very much a chivalric one. At the same time, he seems more truly repentant because his confession is not linked to any one manifestation of God's displeasure. Here, as elsewhere, Malory's instinct for more generalized statements makes his rendition more dramatically effective. His command of the art of the unspoken makes us respond to the human factors of the situation first. We are not inclined to concentrate on Lancelot's inade- quacy but to sympathise with his very human struggles. We judge his

318 Mary Hynes-Berry - Ma,ory's Grail Story

behavior as seriously misguided bu t no t as mal ic ious, and find his con- fession bo th moving and inspiring. A s this key passage shows, the or ien- t a t ion o f a l legory towards h idden pa t te rns o f meaning gives it a self- conscious e lement tha t deflects empathy . M a l o r y t ranslates out tha t ele- ment and lets the deeply rel igious d r a m a o f the s i tua t ion assert itself.

But insisting tha t M a l o r y ' s version is bet ter a t br inging out the h u m a n d r a m a does no t mean tha t M a l o r y ' s vers ion is better. Though a compar i - son is involved, no judgemen t o f the compara t ive merits o f the two modes o f presenta t ion is intended. The au tho r o f the Queste no more has fai led to be d ramat ic than M a l o r y has fai led to be allegorical . Ra the r each ar t is t has ski lful ly shaped his prose to the advan tage o f his interest and empha- sis. The passages quo ted in this s tudy should indicate how skilfully the pa t t e rned and ra t iona l language o f the Queste acts as an invi ta t ion to p robe the a l legory which is its themat ic center. But, a t the same t ime, we can recognize tha t M a l o r y exercised real or ig inal i ty by t rans la t ing his F rench b o o k no t jus t into ano the r l anguage but in to ano ther id iom. In the medieval t rad i t ion , M a l o r y gave an o ld s tory a new meaning. The d rama t i zed focus o f tha t meaning, however, makes the s tory seem much more modern .

Chicago Ill. M A R Y H Y N E S - B E R R Y

Notes

This paper was given in a shortered form at the l l th Congress of the International Arthurian Society (August, 1975). Malory quotations are from The Works of Sir Thomas Malory, 2nd edition, ed. Eugene Vinaver (Oxford: Clarendon, 1967). Those from the Queste are from La Queste del Saint GraM, ed. Albert Pauphilet (Paris: Champion, 1923). Page and line references follow in parentheses.

1. Works, 111, p. 1534. Aside from Vinaver's notes, very little has been done on the relation of Malory's style to that of his French source. P. J. C. Field, "Description and Narration in Malory," Speculum XLIII (1968). 476-86, contrasts the proportion of description to narration in the French Balin and in Malory's version as an index to Malory's style. Though the focus of this study is different, it suggests there is some consistency in Malory's treatment ol the French sources. The problem deserves further study.

2. Words underlined in the French are used by Malory. 3. See Vinaver's notes on this passage, Works, Ill, 1553. 4. Unpublished work. I am grateful to Professor Vinaver for discussion of these two

kinds of abridgement. 5. In some cases, Malory's loose grammar certainly reflects the tendency to collocate

clauses which come from different constructions. See passages A and B which both contain verb clauses which do not co-ordinate perfectly with the grammatical subject in the English rendition.

6. Malory: The Morte D'Arthur (Evanston: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1968). p. 13. 7. The predominant conjunctions and adverbs are" whan, than, aftir, now," etc. The

Queste uses many relative pronoun constructions and expresses cause, purpose and degree as often as sequence.

8. Field, "Description," 480. 9. Queste passage continues to p. 164, 6; the equivalent Sankgreal passage is quoted

in full. This is a good example of how substantial the reduction of sermons can be.

Mary Hynes-Berry - Malory's Grail Story 319

10. "The English Prose Morte," Essays on Malory, ed. J. A. W. Bennett (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963), p. 7.

11. Malory's colophon reads: "Thus endith the tale of the Sankgreal that was breffly drwyn oute of the Freynshe-which ys a tale cronycled for one of the trewyst and of the holyst that ys in thys worlde." (1037, 8-11)

Bib l iography

Brewer, D. S., Malory: the Morte D'Arthur. Evanston, Northwestern University Press, 1968.

Field, P. J. C., "Description and Narration in Malory," Speculum XLIII (1968), 476-86.

Lewis, C. S., "The English Prose Morte," Essays on Malory. ed. J. A. W. Bennett. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963.

Pauphilet, Albert, ed. La Queste del Saint Graal. Paris: Champion, 1923. Vinaver, Eugene, ed. The Work of Sir Thomas Malory, 2nd ed. Oxford; Clarendon,

1967.