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Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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Iron and bronze production in Iron Age IIA Philistia: new evidence from Telles-Safi/Gath, Israel

Adi Eliyahu-Behara,b,*, Naama Yahalom-Macka,b, Sana Shilsteina,b, Alexander Zukermanc,Cynthia Shafer-Elliottd, Aren M. Maeire, Elisabetta Boarettof, Israel Finkelsteina, Steve Weinerb

a The Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978, IsraelbDepartment of Structural Biology and the Kimmel Center for Archaeological Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelcW. F. Albright Institute of Archaeological Research, P.O. Box 19096, 91190 Jerusalem, IsraeldDepartment of Biblical Studies, University of Sheffield, South Yorkshire S10 2TY, United KingdomeDepartment of Land of Israel and Archaeology, Bar Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, IsraelfRadiocarbon Dating and Cosmogenic Isotopes Laboratory, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 25 February 2011Received in revised form1 September 2011Accepted 3 September 2011

Keywords:Iron productionSlagBronze crucibleIron Age IIATuyèresMicroarchaeologyPhilistiaPhilistines

* Corresponding author. Department of Structural Bifor Archaeological Science, Weizmann Institute of STel.: þ972 8 9342267; fax: þ972 8 9346062.

E-mail address: adi.behar@weizmann.ac.il (A. Eliy

0305-4403/$ e see front matter � 2011 Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.09.002

a b s t r a c t

A metallurgically-oriented excavation in Area A at Tell es-Safi/Gath yielded evidence for iron and bronzeproduction dating to the early Iron Age IIA. Two pit-like features, which differed considerably from oneanother in colour, texture and content, were excavated. Evidence shows that each feature representsa different in situ activity related to iron production, inferred by the presence of hammerscales, slag prillsand slag. An upturned crucible was found on top of one of the features. Analysis of the crucible slagshowed that it was used for bronze metallurgy. Tuyères, both round and square in cross-section, werefound in and around the two features. The presence of the two industries together presents a uniqueopportunity to explore the relationship between copper and iron working. This is especially importantagainst the background of the scarcity of evidence for iron production in the Levant during the earlyphases of the Iron Age.

� 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

In the Iron Age of the Southern Levant, bronze was usedalongside iron. Iron however gradually replaced bronze for utili-tarian purposes (Gottlieb, 2010; Waldbaum, 1978, 1999; YahalomMack, 2009). Even though iron objects were used for utilitarianpurposes already during the Iron Age IB (late 12the11th centuriesBCE according to the Modified Conventional Chronology (MCC)(Mazar, 2005; Mazar and Bronk-Ramsey, 2008), ca. 1050-940/930BCE according to the Low Chronology (LC) suggested by Finkelstein(Finkelstein and Piasetzky, 2010)), the earliest direct evidence ofiron production published to date comes from sites dated to theIron IIA (early 10themid 9th century BCE according to theMCC, late10th e ca. 800 BCE according to the LC). This evidence is first and

ology and the Kimmel Centercience, Rhovot 76100, Israel.

ahu-Behar).

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foremost from Tell el-Hammeh az-Zarqa in the central JordanValley and Tel Beth Shemesh in the Shephelah (Veldhuijzen andRehren, 2007). Significant evidence of iron production dated tothe Iron Age IIA was unearthed in Hazor (unpublished). Othersporadic finds dated to this period were reported from Arad andBeer Sheba in Gottlieb (2010). During the later phases of the IronAge, iron working is known from several sites, such as Tel Dor(Eliyahu-Behar et al., 2008), Tell esh-Shari’a (Rothenberg andTylecote, 1991) and Tell Hamid (Veldhuijzen, 2005). Evidence forthe production of copper during the Iron IIA is mainly derived fromthe Arabah, where mining and smelting activities were performedin Wadi Faynan, Jordan (Hauptmann, 2007; Levy et al., 2004, 2008)and to a lesser extent in Timna, Israel (Ben Yosef, in preparation;Rothenberg, 1988). There is also evidence of bronze working insettlement sites in Israel, but this is limited to the Iron Age I. Noevidence for such activity during the Iron Age II has so far beenreported (Yahalom Mack, 2009).

Iron smithing differs considerably from bronze casting, since thelatter is heated into a liquid form and then poured into a mould,

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267256

while the former is heated until it is malleable and then forged inorder to refine the metal and shape it. Since the two technologiesare so different and rely on different rawmaterials, it was unclear ifthe two were performed in the same location and whether or notby the same crafts people. The scarcity of production evidencelimits the possibility of reconstructing Iron Age metallurgicalpractises with regard to both metals and certainly the relationshipbetween them.

Direct evidence for bronze and iron working in the samelocation was discovered during the 2010 excavation season atTell es-Safi/Gath. Following the discovery of a crucible lyingupside-down together with some pottery sherds, a metallurgi-cally-oriented excavation of this area was initiated. As excavationproceeded, it became clear that information embedded in thesediments indicated some form of iron production. The followingstudy demonstrates why so little evidence for iron productionactivities has thus far been identified in the archaeological record.It also highlights the importance of metallurgically-orientedexcavation methods for understanding the archaeometallurgicalrecord.

2. Archaeological context

Tell es-Safi/Gath, located on the border between the centralShephelah (Judean foothills) and the southern Coastal Plain of Israel(Fig. 1), is a ca. 50 ha site, identified as the Canaanite and Philistinecity of Gath (Maeir, 2008; Rainey, 1975). Among the many periodsof occupation at this site, several Iron Age strata were uncoveredrepresenting most of the stages of the Philistine material culture.

Fig. 1. A schematic map of Israel showing Iron Age IIA sites with evidence of ironworking.

The latest Philistine stratum (Stratum A3) ended in destruction,dated according to a combination of 14C results and historicalconsiderations to ca. 830 BCE (the late Iron Age IIA) (Sharon et al.,2007). Up until the 2010 season, no evidence of metallurgicalproduction had been discovered at the site.

The remains of metallurgical activity were identified in Area A(squares 223/78D-88B), in a ca. 2� 2.3 m probe under the StratumA3 accumulations (Fig. 2). Exposure of the metallurgical activity iscurrently delimited by the surrounding Stratum A3 walls, whichwere only partially dismantled. The architectural features associ-ated with the metallurgical activity comprise a segment of a stonewall (L131019), which was exposed below the Stratum A3 Wall81307, and an earth surface (L131013) e both of which are attrib-uted to Stratum A4 (Fig. 2b). The latest pottery associated withthese remains dates to the early Iron Age IIA.

Immediately to the south of the metallurgical debris identifiedhere, two superimposed structures were discovered. The earlier one,attributed to StratumA5, comprised a large rectangular hallwith twosymmetrically-placed massive pillar bases, similar to those found inthe roughly contemporary Philistine temple at Tell Qasile (Mazar,1980). Stratum A4 remains in this area were presumably completelydestroyedbybuildingactivities related to the subsequent StratumA3.This latter stratum is represented by a partially excavated structurecontaining a cultic corner with multiple niches, a plastered steppedplatform, and a rich assemblage of cultic finds, including kernoi,apomegranate-shapedvessel, variousbottle-shapedobjects, and twofigurines of a sitting deity. According to the presently available data,the Stratum A5 remains might belong to a public sanctuary, whilethose of Stratum A3might represent a domestic cultic corner. Due tothe clear functional and spatial continuity between Strata A5 and A3in this area, it is quite possible that cultic activitywas conducted there

Fig. 2. (a) A photograph showing the excavated area, with the two metallurgicalfeatures; the Orange Pit (L13015) and Black Depression (L13014). (b) Plan of theexcavated area with the metal workshop and surrounding architectural features.

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267 257

during Stratum A4 as well, although no remains of it survived.Therefore, it can be assumed that the metallurgical activity wascontemporary with the cultic activity conducted nearby.

In the excavated area two main features, approximately 1 mapart, and considerably different in appearance, were identified:L131015, which is a well-defined pit filled with orange-colouredsediment (referred to below as the Orange Pit), and L131014,which is a black ashy depression with no clear contour (referred tobelow as the Black Depression). Part of the Black Depressioncontinued below the Stratum A3 wall W81322. The two features(L131014 and L131015) appear to relate to a floor or a workingsurface (L131013) and to Wall 131019 (Fig. 2a,b). The maximumdepth of both features is 18 cm.

The cruciblewas found upside-down in the sediments above theOrange Pit 131015, in association with several large pottery sherds(Fig. 3a). The pit, which has an elliptical outline (40� 30 cm),appeared to have been lined with material similar to lime plaster(which was formed as a result of heating, see below) and containedorange-coloured vitrified lumps and powder-like sediments. Themagnetic fraction comprised up to 5 wt% of the pit sediments (seeResults), but no charcoal was found. Several fragments of tuyères,with square cross-sections, and one other unidentified ceramicfragment, were found in the pit. Two tuyères were fused togetherby a vitrified glassy layer. Another nearly complete tuyère, alsosquare in cross-section, was found in the vicinity of the Orange Pit131015. A dark greenish-grey slag covered one of the edges of the

Fig. 3. a) The Orange Pit with the crucible and the slag in situ. (b) Photog

pit (Fig. 3a,b). The slag, ca. 2.5 cm thick, is dense, magnetic andbrittle and broke into parts as it was removed. The upper surface ofthe slag is fairly rough, and a 3e5 mm layer of the orangey sedi-ment from the pit adhered to its bottom surface (Fig. 3b).

The Black Depression L131014 measured 50� 70 cm and hada poorly defined contour. It may have originally been a singledepression whose contents were smeared over a wider area, or itwas composed of more than one depression. The depression con-tained several small field stones, which may have originallydelineated it, as well as a rounded hammer stone (pounder), andseveral fragments of tuyères with round cross-sections. The sedi-ments contained numerous pieces of charcoal, three grape seedsand were dominated by fragments of slag, large (>5 mm) and smallhammer scales and slag prills. The total magnetic fraction consti-tuted up to 40 wt% of the sediment (see Results). Several additionalhammer stones (pounders) were found in the vicinity of both pits.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Metallurgy-oriented excavation

The area of interest was excavated by carefully removing layersof sediments in ca. 3e4 cm thick increments. Sediment samplesfrom each layer were collected in 20 ml plastic vials and recordedsequentially. Sediments were also collected from vertical sectionswhenever possible, and control samples were collected from

raphs of the slag (fragment); upper (left) and lower (right) surfaces.

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267258

neighbouring excavation squares. The accurate location of eachsample was determined using a transit integrated with an elec-tronic distance metre (a “total station”). Metallurgical debris,including prills, slag and tuyère fragments, were collected andbrought to the laboratory for further analysis. All the collectedsediment samples were analysed for their metal concentrationsusing X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (see below), in order to identifypossible metallurgical contamination, as the excavation proceeded.The magnetic fraction, i.e. the wt% of magnetic particles collectedusing a strong magnet, was also measured. The metallurgy-oriented excavation ended when the Orange Pit 131015 and BlackDepression 131014 were fully removed and no further contamina-tion or macroscopic evidence for metallurgical activity wasobserved.

In addition, all the sediments from the two well-defined loci ofmetallurgical activity (L131014 and L131015, about 10 and 5 kgrespectively) were collected and brought to the laboratory forfurther treatment. These sediments were subjected to wet sievingand flotation in order to separate the magnetic particles andcharred material, respectively.

3.2. X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

Bulk chemical composition of sediments and artefacts (crucible,tuyère and slag fragments) were obtained by (polarising) EnergyDispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (ED-XRF), using a Spectro-XEPOSinstrument with a palladium (Pd) anode and a set of secondarytargets. We used two modes of analytical evaluation procedures e

powdersandpelletse andhence twosamplepreparationprocedures.The metal contents (mainly iron and copper) of sediment

samples were analysed in order to define major activity areas. Forthis purpose relative data was sufficient. We therefore analysedthese samples as powders under air. Approximately 3 g of eachsample were homogenised and ground to a fine powder (smallerthen 0.5 mm) using an agate mortar and pestle. The sample wasthen placed in an XRF cup with a 4 m Prolene film. Precision andaccuracy were tested by repeated analyses of a standard referencematerial (GSS-1) of similar composition to the average sediment.The standard was measured in each of the sediment runs (12samples in each run). Under these conditions accuracy is generallybetter than 10% for elements present in the analyte atmore than 5%.An exception is alumina (the lowest Z number element analysed inair) for which accuracy was ca. 30% at a given concentration of 14%.However, detection of heavy metals, such as copper and lead thatwere present in trace levels, was possible with relative error esti-mated to be below 10% even for concentrations lower than100 ppm (Table 1).

More quantitative analyses of artefacts such as tuyères, cruciblesand slags were performed under vacuum conditions to improvesensitivity for the lower Z number elements. Analytical specimenswere prepared by milling ca. 5e7 g of sample using a Retch MM-400 mixer mill with agate containers and balls, down to particlesizes below 125 m. Four grams of the fine powder were then mixedwith 0.9 g of industrial powder wax to make a 32 mm diameterpellet, which was pressed under 12 tons. Precision and accuracyunder these conditions were also tested using standard referencematerials. Table 1 shows the results obtained during four differentworking days. Average values are given together with the absoluteand relative deviation (d) from the nominal values of the standards.Note that in this case an iron rich standard (Pl 3.20) was alsomeasured. Under these conditions, relative errors are typicallylower than 10% for all major elements present in the standard atconcentrations greater than 1% (except for sodium the lowermostdetectable element, especially in the presence of high ironconcentrations). The relative error for analysis of trace levels of

higher Z number elements is generally better than 10% for elementspresent at more than 50 ppm in the analyte.

3.3. Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

Representative spectra were obtained by grinding a few tens ofmicrograms of sediment using an agate mortar and pestle. Theground sample was then mixed with KBr (IR-grade) to producea 5 mm diameter pellet using a press. Spectra were collectedbetween 4000 and 400 cm�1 at 4 cm�1 resolution for 32 scansusing a Thermo Nicolet IR-200 spectrometer.

The approximate temperature to which a sediment was burntwas estimated from the clay component as described in detail byBerna (Berna et al., 2007) and by producing grinding curves andanalysing the ratios between the three major peaks of the calcitecomponents in the sample (Regev et al., 2010). Heating experi-ments of the clay separated from the local sediment were con-ducted in an oven by heating the sample to different temperatures(300e900 �C). The sample was maintained at the maximumtemperature for 4 h.

3.4. Microscopy

The mineralogy and microstructure of slag and crucible frag-ments were studied by both optical and electron microscopy. Thisenabled us to address questions regarding the homogeneity of theartefact under study and the arrangement and nature of the phasespresent. We used this information, together with bulk chemicalcompositions obtained by XRF, to interpret possible formationpathways.

Small blocks, ca. 3� 3 cm (cross-section) in size, of the frag-ments were mounted in Epoxy resin and polished down to 1 m. Theblocks were examined using a Nikon Eclipse E-600 Pol polarisedmicroscope in reflected light mode. Further analysis to determinephase composition was carried out on a LEO 55VP scanning elec-tron microscope equipped with an Oxford Instruments energydispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS), and INCA software.

3.5. X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD)

Analysis was carried out using a Rigaku Ultima III instrument,with Cu-Ka radiation at 40 kV/40 mA. Powdered samples (preparedas pellets) were measured in the 2Theta/Theta mode between15e75 degrees, at a fixed rate of 6 s/degree and a sampling intervalof 0.02.

3.6. Radiocarbon dating

Two samples of charred short lived botanical remains weremeasured for radiocarbon dating, namely sample RTK 6254 is threegrape pips from the Black Depression (L131014), and RTK 6253 is anolive pit from a layer underlying the metallurgical features(L131021) and sealed by them. Both samples were identified by Dr.Yael Mahler-Slasky, of the Archaeobotanical Laboratory, Bar IlanUniversity. Samples were prepared in the Radiocarbon Laboratoryat the Weizmann Institute of Science and measured by AcceleratorMass Spectrometry.

4. Results

4.1. Sediments analyses

4.1.1. Copper and iron in the sedimentsOver 100 sediment samples were analysed using XRF in order to

determine their copper and iron contents. For about half of them,

Table 1Accuracy tests: XRF results of three consecutive measurements compared to certified values for a number of reference materials.

Sample name Method Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 S K2O CaO TiO2 MnO Fe2O3 Cu (ppm) Zn(ppm)

Sn(ppm)

Pb(ppm)

Analyticaltotal

Nominal value 1.66 1.81 14.18 62.60 0.17 0.08 2.59 1.72 0.81 0.23 5.19 21 680 6 98GSS-1 Powder 18.83 64.52 0.24 0.02 2.79 2.03 0.95 0.27 5.72 23 731 20 104 95.50GSS-1 18.88 64.51 0.24 0.02 2.78 2.01 0.96 0.26 5.72 24 736 23 106 95.52GSS-1 17.91 64.33 0.23 0.02 2.71 2.06 0.94 0.26 5.65 20 744 19 99 94.24Average 18.54 64.45 0.24 0.02 2.76 2.03 0.95 0.26 5.70 22 737 21 103 95.09STDEV 0.45 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.03 2 5 2 3d (%) 130.75 102.96 139.61 20.79 106.64 118.20 117.47 115.62 109.74 107 108 340 105d (abs) 4.36 1.85 0.07 �0.06 0.17 0.31 0.14 0.04 0.51 1 57 15 5

Nominal value 1.66 1.81 14.18 62.60 0.17 0.08 2.59 1.72 0.81 0.23 5.19 21 680 6 98GSS-1 Pellet 1.68 1.88 13.79 56.13 0.20 0.08 2.36 1.77 0.84 0.23 5.07 18 820 20 88 84.17GSS-1 1.69 1.95 14.25 57.92 0.21 0.09 2.44 1.83 0.85 0.24 5.23 19 847 17 91 86.85GSS-1 1.67 1.94 14.19 57.61 0.22 0.09 2.43 1.82 0.85 0.24 5.22 20 845 17 90 86.41Average 1.68 1.92 14.08 57.22 0.21 0.09 2.41 1.81 0.85 0.24 5.17 19 838 18 90 85.81STDEV 0.01 0.04 0.25 0.96 0.01 <0.01 0.04 0.04 0.01 <0.01 0.09 1 15 1 1d (%) 101.22 106.21 99.27 91.41 124.56 108.05 93.10 105.08 104.78 105.59 99.70 91 123 297 91d (abs) 0.02 0.11 �0.10 �5.38 0.04 0.01 �0.18 0.09 0.04 0.01 �0.02 �2 158 12 �8

Nominal value 2.11 5.25 14.40 35.69 0.03 0.37 0.15 9.86 7.69 0.19 24.75 28 118 1 5GBW07112 Pellet 2.77 4.86 14.73 35.11 0.05 0.95 0.15 10.62 7.85 0.19 22.20 28 141 11 2 99.58GBW07112 2.86 5.02 15.23 36.31 0.05 0.99 0.16 10.99 8.12 0.19 22.95 30 145 9 2 102.97GBW07112 2.85 4.98 15.21 36.14 0.06 0.98 0.16 10.97 8.09 0.19 22.93 31 147 11 2 102.65Average 2.83 4.95 15.06 35.85 0.05 0.97 0.16 10.86 8.02 0.19 22.69 29 144 10 2 101.73STDEV 0.05 0.09 0.28 0.65 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.21 0.15 <0.01 0.43 2 3 1 0d (%) 133.97 94.37 104.56 100.46 196.36 263.11 103.82 110.14 104.30 99.21 91.69 104 122 1136 36d (abs) 0.72 �0.30 0.66 0.16 0.03 0.60 0.01 1.00 0.33 <0.01 �2.06 1 26 9 �3

Nominal value 0.04 0.30 0.12 5.30 0.05 0.01 0.05 0.13 0.02 0.04 96.90 15 20 15Iron STD Pl3.20 Pellet 0.45 0.50 0.13 5.98 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.13 0.02 0.04 91.12 17 13 1 98.48Iron STD Pl3.20 0.41 0.48 0.13 5.88 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.13 0.02 0.04 92.37 23 19 11 99.56Iron STD Pl3.20 0.41 0.48 0.12 5.81 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.12 0.02 0.04 90.25 10 8 0 97.36Average 0.43 0.49 0.13 5.89 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.13 0.02 0.04 91.25 17 13 4 98.47STDEV 0.02 0.01 <0.01 0.09 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.07 7 5 6d (%) 1152.25 162.87 105.83 111.06 75.05 99.83 102.12 96.82 116.42 109.39 94.17 111 66 27d (abs) 0.39 0.19 0.01 0.59 �0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 �5.65 2 �7 �11

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themagnetic fraction inweight percent (wt%) was also determined.The magnetic fraction was found to be composed mainly ofhammer scales, very small fragments of slags and slag prills. Theresults of the XRF analyses are divided into two main metallurgicalfeatures, i.e. the Black Depression and the Orange Pit (L131014 andL131015, respectively) and the surrounding sediments (Fig. 4). Itcan be seen that the copper content of the surrounding sediments isvery low (0.006 wt% CuO on average) and the iron content isclustered around 3.8 wt% (Fe2O3) (Fig. 4a). This presumably repre-sents background levels. The sediments from the two metallurgicalpits, on the other hand, are enriched both in iron and copper, withthe Black Depression having slightly higher concentrations of bothmetals than the Orange Pit. It is clear that the enrichment in ironcontent is correlated to the higher magnetic fraction present (anaverage of ca. 5 wt% in the Black Depression and ca. 4 wt% in theOrange Pit), mostly in the form of hammer scales (Fig. 4b). Note thatFig. 4 is based on the data obtained from sediments collected invials. Wet sieving of the sediments collected from the entire loci ofthe two features, produced a much higher magnetic fractionespecially in the Black Depression (40 wt%). This is attributed to thefact that in the field, using the vials only the small, micro-fractionwas collected, whereas, by the wet sieving we retrieved also thelarger, macro-fraction of the magnetic particles. However, thehigher copper concentrations in the Black Depression remain to beexplained. Hence, even though the two features are in close prox-imity, we conclude that different activities took place in each one ofthe pits.

4.1.2. Mineralogical composition and temperature estimationSediments from the two features as well as the surroundings

were analysed to determine their mineralogical compositions usingFTIR. Representative spectra are shown in Fig. 5a. Clay and calciteare the two major components in all these sediments. Chemicalcompositions obtained by XRF correlate well with these results andshow that the Orange Pit sediments have higher Ca contents (ca.

0

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

CuO

(wt%

)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Fe2O3 (wt%)

All sediments

0

0.005

0.010

0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

-1 4 9 14 19 24 29

CuO

(wt%

)

Magnetic fraction (wt%)

Orange pit Black depression

All sediments Orange pit Black depression

a

b

Fig. 4. Analysis of sediments from the two features and from the surrounding areaobtained by XRF. a) A plot of copper concentration against iron concentration (given inweight percent of the oxide form). b) A plot of copper concentration against themagnetic fraction (measured in weight percent).

Peak

h

Peak height ratio

Fig. 5. (a) FTIR spectra of archaeological and clay heated sediments. IeIII, surroundingsediment, Black Depression and Orange Pit lining, respectively. Two main mineralog-ical components are identified; calcite (peaks at 1432, 873 and 713 cm�1) and clay(main peaks at 1032, 523, 470 and the small bands at 3624 and 3697 cm�1). Note theshift of the clay main peak to higher wavenumbers, its clear broadening, and thedisappearance of the 523 and 3624 and 3697 cm�1 peaks. Such changes are alsoobserved in spectrum (VI) where the clay was heated to 800 �C. IVeVII present spectraobtained from clay separated from representative Tell es-Safi sediment and heated ina furnace for 4 h to (IV) 400 �C, (V) 600 �C, (VI) 800 �C and (VII) 900 �C. A gradient shiftof the main peak to higher wavenumbers and its broadening is clear with increasingtemperature. Other minor changes are also observed. (b) Plot of the n2 versus n4 peakheight. The ‘Orange Pit’ lining in comparison to various calcite formations. Modifiedfrom Regev et al. (2010).

24 wt% on average) with respect to both the surrounding and BlackDepression sediments (ca. 14 wt% Ca). Therefore, we conclude thatthe Orange Pit sediments were intentionally enriched with calcite,up to about 60 wt% CaCO3, to form a special paste mixture that wasused to line the pit.

There are several indications that the Orange Pit and its liningwere exposed to high temperature; mainly the vitrification ofdebris and artefacts from within the pit, and the slag that was

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267 261

formed in the pit and that adhered to the lining (see below). FTIRcan be used to estimate the exposure temperature of a sediment(Berna et al., 2007). The orange lining spectrum was compared tothe spectra of clay separated from local sediment and heated tovarious temperatures in an oven. Spectra IVeVII (Fig. 5a) show theshift in the main peak of the clay with the increasing exposuretemperature, from 1032 to 1060 cm�1, and its broadening as theclay becomes vitreous and a glass phase is formed. Based on this,we estimate that the Orange Pit was exposed to temperaturesaround 800 �C. As opposed to the lining of the Orange Pit, the twospectra obtained from sediments of the black feature as well as itssurroundings do not show changes in their clay component, andmostly resemble the spectrum of the unheated clay or clay heatedto less than 400 �C (Fig. 5a IV). Note that mineralogical changes attemperatures below 400 �C were not detected by infrared spec-trometry for this clay. Hence we can only conclude that thetemperature of these sediments did not exceed 400 �C. Repeatedgrinding tests and measurements of the ratio between the calciteFTIR peaks (at 1423, 875 and 713 cm�1) according to a methoddeveloped by Regev et al. (2010), enable the identification of calciteformed in different ways. Fig. 5b shows that the calcite from theOrange Pit lining plots between modern ash and modern limeplaster. Thus, it may be concluded that the exposure of a calcite-richlining mixture to such high temperatures resulted in the formationof a lining with lime plaster characteristics. We therefore concludethat the Orange Pit was lined with a specially-made mixture andlater exposed to temperatures of at least 800 �C and possiblyhigher, which formed in situ plaster.

4.2. Tuyères and crucible

About a dozen tuyère fragments (some of which may belong tothe same original tuyère) and one fragmented crucible wereunearthed during the excavation. The tuyère fragments all have aninternal elongated cavity that tapers and is round in cross-section(Fig. 6). Externally, the tuyère fragments are either round orsquare in cross-section. Table 2 shows the bulk chemical compo-sition of all the tuyère fragments, one unidentified ceramic frag-ment and the crucible. The crucible slag was mechanicallyseparated from the ceramic body and each was measured sepa-rately (Table 2). All these ceramic fragments have very similarcompositions with regard to their major andminor elements. Smalldifferences in copper and lead concentrations exist between theround and square tuyères (Fig. 7). The round in-section fragmentsare slightly enriched by both copper and lead with respect to thesquare ones (except for one outlier). Note that two fragments (oneof each type) were sampled in three different locations and arepresented in the figure with their standard deviations. This showsthat the variability within the same fragment is much smaller thanbetween different tuyère fragments, and that the two groups areseparated. Also, note that the crucible values are close to the roundtuyères while those of the ‘unidentified’ ceramic fragments arecloser to the square in-section tuyères.

The crucible is a rounded vessel with a thick base (Figs. 6e8). Ithad a layer of ca. 5 mm of slag adhering to its inner surface. XRFanalysis of the crucible slag (Table 2) shows that it is highlyenriched in copper, tin and lead, which is a clear indication that thecrucible was used for bronze production. Also note that iron ispresent in excess amounts in the crucible slag compared to thecrucible ceramic body. Fig. 8 shows SEM images of the crucible slaglayer. We observed two main areas in the slag, with a sharp inter-face between them (Fig. 8a). The first area, which is in contact withthe crucible body, is relatively homogeneous (upper part of theimage). It is essentially a glassy matrix that is the product of theinteraction between the crucible ceramic with the melt creating

a glassy phase and bloating of the ceramic. This glassy phasecontains specks of tiny copper prills (2e3 m), and some larger ones(w100 m). The second main area is more heterogeneous. It isgenerally composed of a similar glassy matrix, but with higheramounts of lead (ca. 6 wt% PbO). Fig. 8b is a higher magnificationview of this area. Some large copper inclusions (white) are seen atthe centre of the image. Stannic oxide (SnO2) rhombohedral crys-tals and globules (bright white), clusters of very small cuprite(Cu2O) dendrites and the formation of malayaite (CaSnSiO5)appearing as grey crystals, were also identified. Laths rich in copper,tin, and iron (light grey) were also observed. Magnetite crystalswere formed in another area of the slag close to the surface (Fig. 8c),as well as ghost structures of bronze prills (Fig. 8d). While it is clearthat bronze was melted within the crucible, there may be someindication of intentional alloying of copper and tin, rather than themere recycling of bronze scrap (see Discussion).

4.3. Iron slag

During excavation, the iron slag did not retain its overallstructure, but broke into parts. It was therefore difficult to assignthe different fragments to their original locations. However, somefragments preserve the full thickness of the slag as was clear by theorange lining adhered to one side (bottom) and a thin crust on thetop surface.

Analysis of some of the slag fragments showed that it is highlyheterogeneous, both in its chemical composition and microstruc-ture. Table 2 shows bulk chemical compositions obtained from fivefragments (4 g each). Two fragments (METI-27 and METI-28) aredominated by SiO2 while the three others have higher concentra-tion of iron oxide. CaO is present in all samples in relatively highamounts, with an average of 16 wt%. Copper is only present at traceca. 100 ppm.

SEM-EDS analyses show some general characteristics; theformation of fine wüstite (FeO) dendrites surrounded by a glassyphase fromwhich large olivine crystals precipitated during cooling.Fig. 9 shows backscattering SEM images of characteristic areasformed within the slag. A representative area (ca. 1.6 mm wide,Fig. 9a) composed of a substantial amount of first generation (egg-shaped) wüstite is seen surrounded by a glassymatrix inwhich fine(second generation) wüstite dendrites precipitated after thesolidification of olivine crystals (Fig. 9b,c). EDS analyses (Table 3)confirmed the identification of wüstite and showed that the olivinecrystals can be identified as kirschsteinite (CaFeSiO4), which is ingood agreement with the relatively high CaO content measured byXRF. Near the surface of the slag, magnetite (Fe3O4) was formed asa result of more oxidising conditions (Fig. 9d). The identification ofthe magnetite was inferred from the crystal morphology, andconfirmed by EDS analyses revealing minor amounts of Al and Ti inaddition to the iron oxide (see Table 3).

Mineralogical compositions of the five slag fragments (given inTable 3) were also studied using XRD. Fig. 10 shows the diffractionpattern obtained from two representative samples (METI-28 andMETI-35). Kirschsteinite, wüstite, and magnetite were identified inboth samples, confirming the SEM-EDS results. However, sampleMETI-28 is dominated by an additional diffraction pattern derivingfrom an ironecalcium pyroxene phase ((Ca, Fe)2Si2O6) which wasnot identified microscopically. Moreover, it has a higher magnetiteproportion relative towüstite compared to sampleMETI-35. Hence,sample METI-28 reflects local higher oxidation conditions. Thecoexistence of pyroxene and olivine phases in the slag in general isan indication of the variable oxidation/reduction conditions, underwhich the slag was formed.

From the above it is clear that this is a slag related to ironproduction. The mineralogy and microstructure are characteristic

Fig. 6. Tuyères; square in cross-section (1e5), round in cross-section (6e7) and crucible (8).

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267262

of bloomery iron smelting slag. The chemical composition,although with relatively high CaO content, is in good agreementwith some bloomery slags published in the literature (Morton andWingrove, 1969, 1972; Paynter, 2006).

4.4. Radiocarbon dating

The two short lived sampleswerepre-treated for 14Cdatingusingthe AcideAlkalieAcid procedure (Yizhaq et al., 2005). Both samplesprovided enough carbon for the measurement, with around 75%pre-treatment efficiency and about 70% carbon. These results indi-cate a good state of preservation for the charred remains. Results aregiven in Table 4. 14C ages are reported in conventional radiocarbonyears (before present¼ 1950) in accordance with internationalconvention, and are corrected for fractionation based on the stan-dard d13C value of e25& (wood) (Stuiver and Polach, 1977). Cali-brated ages in calendar years are given to �1s and �2s (standarddeviation). They were obtained using the calibration tables in(Reimer et al., 2009) by means of OxCal v. 4.1.5 of Bronk-Ramsey(2010)�. (Bronk-Ramsey, 1995, 2001),

5. Discussion

The metal workshop described here represents an importantaddition toourknowledgeof IronAgemetalworking in the SouthernLevant. The calibrated radiocarbon dates obtained from the Black

Depression range between 900 and 820 BCE for �1s, and 935 and800 BCE for �2s, with only 2% of the probability distributionbetween970and960BCE. Therefore, the activity reportedheremostprobably occurred sometime during the late 10the9th century BCE.This thereforeappears tobeoneof theearliest smithies known in theregion, together with Tell el-Hammeh az-Zarqa, Jordan and Tel BethShemesh, Israel (Veldhuijzen and Rehren, 2007).

The discovery of a metal production area at Tell es-Safi/Gath,identified as one of the five major Philistine cities, has an impor-tant implication from a historical/cultural perspective. While therehas been extensive discussion of the biblical reference to thepractise of metallurgy in Philistia (I Samuel 13:19e22), withvirtually no archaeological evidence for this (e.g., McNutt, 1990),the currently reported finds provide the first actual physicalevidence for iron production in Philistia during the Iron Age.

The excavated material demonstrates that both copper/bronzeand iron were produced in the same location. This phenomenon isalso known from the Tel Beth Shemesh smithy. Together withevidence for ironworking, several copper objects and twenty-six ironobjects were found, bringing Veldhuijzen (2005) to hypothesize thatthe Beth Shemesh iron smiths were also repairing copper objects. Asimilaroccurrencecanbeseen in themetallurgicaldebris found in the7th century BCE ‘Assyrian pit’ at Tel Dor (Eliyahu-Behar et al., 2008).

The excavated area of the production site at Tell es-Safi/Gathcovers about 5 m2, and yielded only a few macroscopic artefacts.The site contained two features embedded within the sediments.

Table

2XRFco

mpositional

dataob

tained

from

tuyè

res,crucibleceramic

andslag

,uniden

tified

ceramic

frag

men

tan

diron

slag

.Datais

normalised

to10

0%,a

ndthean

alytical

sum

isalso

give

n.

Sample

nam

eSa

mple

type

Na 2O%

MgO

%Al 2O3%

SiO2%

P 2O5%

SO3

K2O%

CaO

%TiO2%

MnO%

FeO%

Cu

(ppm)

Zn (ppm}

Rb

(ppm)

Sr (ppm)

Sn (ppm)

Pb (ppm)

Analytical

total

MET

I-18

Squaretuye

re1.74

3.07

11.76

56.66

0.66

0.27

2.66

14.53

1.33

0.15

6.36

240

9758

502

160

2183

.92

MET

I-19

Squaretuye

re1.91

3.23

12.13

58.70

0.50

0.08

2.01

12.91

1.36

0.14

6.27

7783

4540

247

bdl

89.11

MET

I-20

Squaretuye

re1.66

2.71

12.18

59.84

0.57

0.18

2.42

11.88

1.38

0.13

6.28

7896

5450

230

1484

.50

MET

I-21

aSq

uaretuye

re2.04

3.26

11.65

56.85

0.64

0.16

2.08

14.67

1.34

0.16

6.38

7187

4949

724

1184

.69

MET

I-25

Squaretuye

re1.31

2.70

12.43

61.07

0.55

0.11

2.23

10.81

1.39

0.14

6.48

7310

457

487

2218

76.67

MET

I-22

Rou

ndtuye

re1.30

2.62

12.61

60.76

0.54

0.17

2.37

11.07

1.41

0.14

6.24

124

9958

491

6621

79.48

MET

I-23

aRou

ndtuye

re1.10

2.73

12.35

60.05

0.59

0.10

2.18

12.39

1.44

0.14

6.24

140

103

6343

533

2477

.70

MET

I23b

Rou

ndtuye

re1.31

2.60

12.26

60.21

0.60

0.15

2.36

11.97

1.43

0.15

6.17

102

9557

441

2925

82.07

MET

I-23

cRou

ndtuye

re1.15

2.81

12.28

59.24

0.55

0.09

2.22

13.11

1.40

0.15

6.22

165

103

6442

540

2076

.23

MET

I-24

Ceram

ic-

uniden

tified

1.76

2.62

11.58

59.91

0.65

0.21

2.61

12.19

1.42

0.15

6.23

5295

5642

820

1479

.67

MET

B-50a

Crucibleslag

1.80

1.51

6.10

38.36

1.21

0.24

1.61

11.15

0.89

0.22

13.28

11.62

915

2933

510

.19

0.26

96.98

MET

B-50b

Crucible

ceramic

1.36

2.60

12.57

61.78

0.39

0.10

2.10

10.73

1.45

0.16

6.03

9790

5436

630

2784

.00

MET

I-27

Iron

slag

2.67

1.86

5.98

37.58

0.62

0.06

1.36

19.41

0.81

0.08

26.63

108

4434

433

17bd

l91

.56

MET

I-28

Iron

slag

3.06

1.70

5.82

36.25

0.56

0.04

0.83

18.27

0.73

0.08

29.43

125

bdl

3638

017

bdl

92.06

MET

I-35

Iron

slag

0.98

0.75

1.93

12.97

0.47

0.02

1.07

8.14

0.19

0.02

66.24

7115

1311

720

bdl

107.13

MET

I-45

Iron

slag

0.71

6.44

2.2

14.76

0.43

0.12

0.95

23.85

0.27

0.03

45.46

7912

bdl

205

21bd

l98

.67

MET

I-46

Iron

slag

0.79

1.16

2.05

14.03

0.47

0.04

1.26

9.53

0.22

0.03

63.59

8117

1513

420

bdl

106.62

0

50

100

150

200

250

0 5 10 15 20 25

Cu

[ppm

]

Pb [ppm]

Square tuyères Round tuyères Unidentified Crucible

Fig. 7. Concentration of copper and lead measured by XRF from the ceramic bodies ofsquare and round in cross-section tuyères, the crucible and one ‘unidentified’ ceramicfragment. The standard deviation obtained by sampling three different parts of thesame tuyère is given for one tuyère from each group.

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267 263

Based on their visual appearance, these features are referred to asthe Orange Pit and the Black Depression. It appears that eachfeature was used for a different activity.

The Black Depression was filled with ashy sediment and micro-charcoal fragments, andwas dominated by large and small hammerscales, small slag pieces and slag prills. As this debris was restrictedto the depression and hence in situ, we infer that this featurefunctioned as a smithing hearth where forging activities took place.Note that smithing slag-cakes, typically related to such an activity(e.g. Veldhuijzen and Rehren, 2007), were absent, as were ironobjects. The sediments in the Black Depressionwere not affected bytemperatures exceeding 400 �C, which is consistent with a localheat source needed for such an activity.

The Orange Pit differs significantly from the Black Depression.Here, not a single piece of charcoal was found and the magneticfraction was considerably less than in the Black Depression. Wehave shown that the pit was intentionally lined with calcite-richclay material. It was then used for an activity that clearlyinvolved very high temperatures (800 �C and more), as indicatedby FTIR analysis. The fact that the two tuyère fragments werevitrified to the extent that they were fused together and thepresence of the molten slag are further indications of the hightemperatures involved. Based on the adherence of the slag to thelining from the edge of the pit towards its centre, we suggest thatthe slag was molten and produced in situ and therefore reflectsthe activity that was carried out in the pit. From analysis of itsmicrostructure and chemical composition, it is clear that the slagis related to bloomery iron working. However, defining the exactstage under which it was formed, i.e. whether smelting, bloomrefining (primary smithing) or secondary smithing, is somewhatmore difficult.

Visually, the slag does not have the smooth flowing structurecharacteristic of a tap slag or the concaveeconvex shape ofa smithing slag. Thus this slag neither resembles a tapping smeltingslag nor a slag cake formed at the forge base during primary orsecondary smithing. However, the mineralogical and chemicalcompositions are very similar to some of the tapped slag found atTell el-Hammeh az-Zarqa (Veldhuijzen, 2005). The Hammeh tapslag is relatively poor in iron and rich in lime as is the slag from Safi,in contrast to the chemical composition of smelting slag from otherparts of theworlds such as Great Britain and Africa (Humphris et al.,2009; Paynter, 2006). This brings us to suggest that this is

Fig. 8. Back scattering SEM images showing the microstructure of the crucible slag. (a) The upper part of the image shows a homogenous glassy matrix. The lower part is moreheterogeneous. (b) Higher magnification of the area marked in (a). In the centre two copper inclusions are shown as well as tin oxide rhombohedra and globule (bright white),malayaite crystals (light grey) and rich FeeSneCu minerals appearing as grey lathes. (c) An area closer to the surface, where tin oxide crystals (bright white) and magnetite crystals(light grey) can be observed. (d) A corroded bronze prill.

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267264

a smelting slag formed in a furnace with a sunken hearth/pit.Sunken hearth/pit smelting slags were found in some Iron Age toEarly Romano-British sites (Paynter, 2006). This explanationcorrelates well with our conclusions regarding the formation of the

Fig. 9. Back scattering SEM images obtained from the iron slag. (a) A representative area wmagnifications of (a) showing the glassy phase (dark grey) from which olivine lathes in the(d) An area closer to the upper surface of the slag in which the formation of magnetite (w

Orange Pit, and may explain the presence of the ‘unidentified’ceramic fragment found within the pit, as a furnace wall fragment.

The above suggests that smelting took place at this locality. Thistype of activity is generally not thought to take place within

ith both primary and secondary wüstite surrounded by a glass phase (b and c). Higherform of kirschestenite precipitated (mid grey) together with wüstite dendrites (white).hite) is seen.

Table 3Results of EDS analyses given as oxide wt% (* except for Spc 3 and Spc 8) and normalised.

Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P2O5 K2O CaO TiO2 MnO FeO CuO Cu SnO2 Sn PbO Sum

Bronze crucible (Fig. 8)Spc 1 Glassy phase 2.4 2.2 14.3 59.7 7.9 6.6 1.0 4.6 1.3 100.0Spc 2 Glassy phase 3.1 0.5 9.5 46.8 5.4 14.5 6.4 6.9 6.9 100.0Spc 3 Cu inclusion * 100.0 100.0Spc 4 Tin oxide e lathe 1.0 99.0 100.0

Tin oxide e globule 2.3 0.8 96.9 100.0Spc 5 Malayaite 1.6 27.6 19.2 0.7 1.4 1.4 48.2 100.0Spc 6 CueFeeSn 2.0 2.9 10.6 3.4 0.4 28.2 42.4 10.1 100.0Spc 7 Magnetite 0.5 2.1 2.6 1.1 0.6 1.2 85.1 0.9 7.8 100.0Spc 8 Bronze prill* 95.5 4.5 100.0

Iron slag (Fig. 9)Spc 1 Glassy phase 3.1 12.6 40.8 1.5 10.9 8.3 22.9 100.0Spc 2 Kirschsteinite 2.2 31.4 24.5 41.9 100.0Spc 3 Magnetite 4.0 1.0 95.0 100.0Spc 4 Wüstite 0.8 99.2 100.0

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267 265

a settlement site and far from any known deposits of iron ore. Forcomparison, at nearby Beth Shemesh evidence points to secondaryiron smithing and forging, rather than actual production of ironfrom its ores (Veldhuijzen, 2005).

The occurrence of slag and hammer scales clearly attests to iron-related metallurgical activity. In addition, a number of roundedstone pounders, found scattered in and around the workshop area,were possibly used in forging. The most direct evidence for theproduction of copper/bronze is represented by the crucible found inthe debris above the Orange Pit. Bronze was clearly producedwithin the crucible. The lack of metallurgical debris pertaining tocopper/bronze production in the pit or its surroundings, includingcopper/bronze prills, droplets or any type of copper-containingslag, suggests that the actual melting activity was performedelsewhere, outside the very limited excavated area of the work-shop. The reason why this crucible was discarded on top of theOrange Pit is unknown. Evidence of copper-related metallurgicalactivity is encountered only at the microscopic level, in the form ofcontamination of the sediments recovered from the two features,with the Black Depression having higher copper concentrationsthan the Orange Pit. Hence, even though iron forging appears to bethe main metallurgical activity that took place in the Black

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

K

K

K

KK KKK

KK

P

K

K

K

K

Q

Q

Q

PP

P PPP

P

P P

P

P

P

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

W

METI-28

Rel

ativ

e In

tens

ity

2 Theta

METI-35

W

W

W

Fig. 10. XRD diffraction pattern obtained from two slag samples, (METI-28 and MATI-35), confirming the formation of wüstite (¼W), magnetite (¼M), kirschsteinite (¼K)and a pyroxene phase (¼P).

Depression, we hypothesise that copper/bronze objects were alsoworked there, through cycles of hammering and annealing.

Tuyères would have been required for all the operations dis-cussed above, and tuyère fragments were in fact found in both pits.All these fragments have an elongated and tapering internal cavitywith round cross-section, but externally are either round or squarein cross-section. Tuyères with round cross-section are associatedwith Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I bronze working (YahalomMack, 2009), while tuyères with square cross-section were foundin association with iron working in the Iron Age IIA Tel Beth She-mesh and Tell el-Hammeh az-Zarqa, as well as in several latercontexts (Veldhuijzen 2005, pp. 151e163). Since no Iron Age IItuyères were found in associationwith copper/bronze industry, it isunknown whether the tuyères with square cross-section replacedthe ones with round section and were now used for both iron andbronze production. Therefore, in the current state of research, thistype of tuyère cannot be used as a chronological indicator. Alter-natively, it is possible that tuyères with square cross-section wereused specifically in iron working, while tuyères with round cross-section retained their role in copper/bronze production. Note thatthere does not seem to be a straightforward technological/func-tional explanation for the use of tuyères with square rather thanround section in iron production. Veldhuijzen (2005, pp. 151e163)suggested that the shapemerely represents a ‘technological choice’.

The occurrence of both tuyère types in the Tell es-Safi/Gathworkshop, in conjunction with evidence for the production ofboth iron and bronze, may be an indication that each tuyère typewas used in relation to a specific metal. Moreover, we have shownthat fragments of tuyères with round cross-section have highercopper concentrations than the tuyères with square cross-section(Fig. 6). This can be related either to the use of tuyères withround cross-sections in copper-based activities or alternatively, totheir contamination by copper in the Black Depression where theywere found. The fact that the tuyères with round cross-section haveconcentrations of copper similar to that in the ceramic cruciblestrengthens the first option, i.e. their relation to copper production.

The crucible found in the workshop is of importance, since it isthe only one currently known from Iron Age IIA sites in Israel. Thisobject has rounded walls and a thick base, similar to cruciblesknown fromthe IronAge I (YahalomMack, 2009). Chemical analysesof the crucible body and the slag layer showed that the slag isenriched in Cu, Sn and Pb, as expected for bronze. The slag also hada higher Fe content than the ceramic body, which, like the othermetals, must have originated from themelt. Microstructure analysisof the slag showed the formation of malayaite and magnetite,together with copper and bronze prills. It was suggested that excess

Table 414C ages are given as BP (before present¼ 1950) and calibrated ages in calendar years are given to �1s and �2s. d13C value for fractionation correction is also given.

RTK Type 14C age� 1syear BP

Calibrated Calibrated Context d13C & PDB

1s range (BCE) 2s range (BCE)

6253 Olive pit 2865� 50 1120e975 (64.5%) 1210e908 (95.40%) L131021, �21.6955e945 (3.7%) Below metallurgical

features6254 Grape pips 2710� 45 900e820 (68.2%) 970e960 (2%) L131014, �22.6

935e800 (93.4%) Early IRIIA, BlackDepression

A. Eliyahu-Behar et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 39 (2012) 255e267266

Fe in the crucible slag and/or the formation of malayaite are clearindications of co-smelting of copper and tin in theirmineral form, orthe cementation of mineral tin with metallic copper (e.g. Murillo-Barroso et al., 2010; Rovira, 2007). However, in our case this expla-nation is unlikely, since the use of tin inmineral form is unknown inthe Levant. During the Late Bronze Age, tinwas traded in ingot form,and, in fact, several ingots were found in marine excavations off thecoast of northern Israel. Ingots of tin andothermetals are rareduringthe Iron Age (four copper ingots from Tel Kinnerot, possibly of IronAge I date, see Stepanski, 2000). The possibility of using mineralcopper is even less likely, since smelting activity within settlementsites has not been reported in Israel after the Chalcolithic period(Levi and Shalev, 1989). The industrial-scale mining and smeltingoperations at Faynan, which are contemporary with the Tell es-Safi/Gath smithy (Levy et al., 2008), also render the possibility thatcopper was traded in mineral form highly unlikely. A possibleexplanation is that incompletely purified copper ingots containingseveral percent of iron (Hauptmann et al., 2002; Hauptmann, 2007;Roman, 1997), were alloyed with metallic tin to produce bronze.Excess amounts of iron in the slag, as demonstrated in this study,may be the outcome of such a procedure. If scrap metal alone hadbeen remelted within the crucible then excess iron in the slag isgenerally unexpected. Nevertheless, the question of identifyingintentional alloying versus scrap remelting requires further study.

The results presented here demonstrate the importance of usinga “microarchaeological” approach for excavating specific archaeo-logical contexts (Weiner, 2010). By analysing the sediments wewere able to identify and analyse the in situ activity of metalproduction, which otherwise would have gone undetected. Usingtraditional archaeological methods, and considering that all theevidencewas presentwithin a sediment layer less than 20 cm thick,most of the information would have been lost with several pickstrikes. Both bronze and iron working technologies apparentlyrequired little infrastructure (installations, complicated equipmentetc.), and thus leave few remains. In the absence of macroscopicevidence which may be transported away for reuse or refuse, thereis little chance for an archaeologist to identify iron working activitywith standard excavation methods. The situation is slightly betterwith bronze working, which often results in the easily identifiableaccumulation of some greenish debris composed of tiny prills andchunks (as opposed to the iron working residues that are dull incolour and easily remain undetected). This explains, perhaps, whysuch a small number of Iron Age iron production sites have beenreported to date. We suggest that archaeologists working in IronAge and later sites should at least add a magnet to their tool kit, inorder to be able to identify (though not to excavate) an iron smithy.

6. Concluding comments

The area excavated revealed in situ metallurgical activities, inwhich both copper/bronze and iron were worked. Analysis ofsediments for their metal contamination as excavation proceedsenabled us to locate and correlate artefacts and activities. We

identified the Black Depression as a forging hearth by the presenceof hammerscales, slag prills and by copper contamination in itssediments. Analysis of the Orange Pit sediments enabled us toconclude that the pit was lined with a specially made mixture fora specific function which involved elevated temperatures. The slagadhering to the pit sediments was identified as a bloomery ironsmelting slag formed in situ. This is a unique observation, generallynot expected for settlement sites of the period.

These results, in particular the evidence for iron smelting andforging alongside copper/bronze production andworking at Tell es-Safi/Gath during the early Iron Age IIA in 900e820 BCE (�1s);935e800 BCE (�2s), contribute hitherto unavailable informationon metallurgical practices in Philistia. Finally, these observationsadd important information regarding a period in which anincreasing number of iron artefacts is evidenced; howeverproduction activities are very scarcely represented in the archae-ological record.

This study, although of a small and limited area, served asaunique example for the importance of using a ‘microarchaeological’approach for excavating metallurgy-related contexts. The fact thatsuch a complex and important activity may leave only 20 cm ofaccumulated debris is intriguing and raises the possibility thatsimilar existing evidence was lost using traditional methods inpast excavations.

Acknowledgements

Wewould like to thank Dr. Yishai Feldman for helpwith the XRDanalysis, and Dr. Lior Regev from the Kimmel Center for Archaeo-logical Science for help with the interpretation of calcite grindingcurves. This study was undertaken under the auspices of theEuropean Research Council under the European Community’sSeventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007e2013)/ERC grantagreement no 229418. Laboratory work was undertaken in theKimmel Center for Archaeological Science, Weizmann Institute ofScience.

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