Notes

Introduction: Virginity and Patrilinear Legitimacy

1. Boswell, volume III, 406.2. Pregnancy makes sex more verifiable than celibacy but it does not

necessarily reveal paternity.3. Bruce Boehrer has an important essay on this topic, in which he

argues that an ideal “wedded chastity” emerges as a strategy forpromoting marriage and procreation in a society that has traditionallyidealized celibacy and virginity; “indeed,” he continues, “at heartthe concept of wedded chastity is little more than the willful destabi-lizing of an inconvenient signifier, calculated to serve the procreativedemands of an emergent political economy” (557).

4. For an important discussion of divine right of kings, see Figgis,137–177, and for an analysis of the different strands of patriarchalistthought, see Schochet, 1–18.

5. See Boehrer for a discussion of Elizabeth’s legitimacy issues, which heuses as a context for reading Spencer. He argues that a “Legend ofChastity” functions as a displacement of the anxiety of legitimacy(566). On Elizabeth’s virginity, see also Hackett; and John King. Onearly modern virginity generally, see Jankowski; Kathleen CoyneKelly; Loughlin; Scholz; and Schwarz.

6. Marie Loughlin argues for the relationship between Stuart politicalprojects and virginity. James I had a habit of visiting married couplesafter the wedding night because, according to Loughlin, in themoment when the virgin daughter becomes the chaste bride “James’sconfiguration of the patriarchal state and his various political projectsare materialized” (1996), 847.

7. For more on this, see McKeon (1987), 209.8. Since the determination of firstborn son was not clear, firstborn ille-

gitimate children often held some stake to the birth-right of the heir.Locke is interesting regarding these “Questions of Legitimation,” ask-ing rhetorically: “and what in Nature is the difference betwixt a Wifeand a Concubine?” (1967), 231.

9. To the extent that “birth” can confer virtue, it is through the matrilinealinheritance. The mother’s virtue (exemplified by her protracted virginityand her steadfast chastity) confers on the child an inheritance of virtue.

Virginity, then, is more a sign than a material reality, and the Protestantvirgin, at least in theory, much less embodied than her Catholic ancestor.

10. Thomas Sprat argues that the Royal Society and the Anglican Church“both may lay equal claim to the word Reformation” (part 3, section 23,page 371). Elizabeth Eisenstein argues for the relationship betweenthe Reformation and the new science via exploitation of printing(697, 701); Ernst Cassirer examines the process whereby the “truth ofnature” became much more reliable than the “word of God” (43). Onthis topic, see also Keith Thomas; and Shapin and Schaffer.

11. On the epistemology of the novel and its relation to science, see, mostfamously, Watt; and McKeon (1987), both of whom consider the topic ofvirginity and the epistemological strategies of science crucial to the novel,but they do not link these topics. John Bender analyzes the oppositionbetween fiction and science. Ann Van Sant’s discussion of the empirical“testing” of Clarissa by Lovelace links the epistemology of the novel andscience in the manner I am suggesting, but she does not explore theimplications of the fact that what are being tested are virginity and virtue.April Alliston does link virginity to the epistemological strategies of thenovel, saying “the truth about female sexual conduct . . . remains the ulti-mate truth for fiction in France and England” (19).

Chapter 1 Blessed Virgins:Anti-Catholic Propaganda

and Convent Fantasies1. First published as Five Love-Letters from a Nun to a Cavalier (1678)

by Gabriel Joseph de Lavergne Guilleragues. Authorship is still a mat-ter of debate.

2. See, in particular, his discussion of truth and virtue (1987), 265–272.3. The English Short Title Catalogue (ESTC) lists over twenty versions

between 1678 and 1777.4. 1 Corinthians 7:34.5. Calvin exhorted that priestly celibacy is the product of an “impious

tyranny not only against God’s word but against all equity” (1250)IV.12.23.

6. Freeman, 25.7. Hobbes, part 4, chapter 44, 337. See Thomas for more on the

Reformation, Catholicism, and magic.8. Council of Trent, session XXIV, canto 10.9. H. C. Lea and Eric Josef Carlson argue that clerical marriage in

England was far more contested than in other countries that adoptedReformation ideals, though Helen Parish finds less ambivalence aboutcelibacy in England than they do.

10. Lawrence Stone’s argument has been criticized by Patrick Collinsonand Susan Dwyer Amussen, but recently defended by Anthony

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Fletcher. I do not dispute the emergence of a new companionate(Protestant) view of marriage, but I question whether it gave womenmore options: they might marry whomever they chose, but marrythey must, if social prestige and spiritual development were desired.

11. Rogers, “The Enclosure of Virginity,” shows how the doctrine ofpassive resistance demonstrates nostalgia for the possibility of retirementas fertile and argues that it was imagined to be a way (for men) aroundactive (military) engagement, but I think that such a passive, asceticroute to religiosity is usually gendered female under Catholicism,since women’s only religious role is passive.

12. For other examples of beliefs in special powers of virginity, see KeithThomas, 215, 268–269.

13. Shuger (1997) argues, against the traditional reading, that the Lady isimmobilized due to her sexuality, not empowered due to her chastity.In any case, she rather miraculously escapes rape.

14. Dolan makes a similar point but locates the origin slightly earlier,arguing, “by 1680, it was almost impossible to defend a Catholicwoman publicly and credibly” (13).

15. There was a heated debate amongst Protestants over whether monas-teries were a part of the ancient church or were a corruption to bereformed. English defenders of (ancient) monasteries often emphasizedthem as centers of learning and of valuable property. Tanner, e.g.,documented the history of English monasteries because they were apart of “the glory of our English Nation” (2).

16. Cavendish’s text does not explicitly assign religion to either side, butit does counterpose a convent with male political interests, and onemale character deems Lady Happy’s plan as “heretic.”

17. Cited in The Catholic Encyclopedia, volume XV, 459.18. The author is listed as L. Sherling but both OCLC/World Cat and the

Huntington Library identify L. Sherling as a pseudonym for Daniel Pratt.19. This is not to ignore the sexualized Catholic representation of the nun

as “bride of Christ,” nor the spiritual aspects of chaste sexuality, butrather to argue that the connection between sex and religion is in thiscase deployed to de-spiritualize the nun.

20. See Wharton.21. I do not mean to suggest that Catholicism coincides with better treat-

ment for women, or that Protestantism disallowed insubordinationmore than Catholicism. Throughout this chapter, I analyze and inter-rogate the Protestant perspective on Catholicism, but I certainly donot mean to take sides.

22. The text is infamous due to its censorship and role in obscenitylegislation. See Foxon; and Pettit. The 1683 edition, to which I refer,consists of three dialogues. Later versions expanded to six dialogues.

23. See also Turner, who argues, like Pettit, that the anti-Catholic satire isa pretext for pornography. Turner does argue that the Reformationrhetoric becomes increasingly crucial in later versions: “Venus’ erotic

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naturalism always had an evangelistic tinge, establishing the equivalenceof sexual awakening, ‘primitive’ innocence, direct access to Scripture,and Cartesian understanding of physical nature. But now the sexualtenor becomes the vehicle, the pretext for Protestant discipline andholy matrimony” (2003, 353). But I am working with the first editionof Venus and argue that even here the pornography is not separablefrom the Protestant agenda. Wagner has asserted that pornography isoften a “vehicle for revolutionary thought” (17).

24. One very simple support for my point is the fact that most anti-Catholic propaganda is not pornographic, but most pornography isanti-Catholic. Lynn Hunt argues that early pornography is “almostalways an adjunct to something else” (10).

25. Kate Chedgzoy argues that in a number of seventeenth-century texts,a woman’s desire for the life of a female community is seen as a with-drawal from the circuit of exchange and reproduction that guaranteesthe future of the patriarchal family (58).

26. See Bowden.27. Cited in Dolan, 34.28. See, e.g., George Duckett, who argues that the Pretender will return

the wealth of the monasteries to the papacy. His concerns were notwithout foundation. William Dugdale (a well-known royalist) andRoger Dodsworth and his (William Dugdale’s) successors had been,since the 1640s, documenting the history and wealth of monasteriesfor the royalist/Catholic cause.

29. Boccaccio’s Decameron, e.g., has stories of lascivious priests. The earlyReformation in England also had its examples in John Foxe and JohnBale, and later John Donne would invoke this trope.

30. This text is attributed, like Venus in the Cloister, to Barrin (1678), 24.31. The Dictionary if National Biography (DNB) relies on Gavin’s own

self-representation, which I find specious.32. This story appears in volume three. All page references are to that

volume.33. Venus in the Cloister similarly suggests that Catholic religious houses

have “remedies” against pregnancy by the priests, Barrin (1683), 83.34. Barrin (1678), 93.35. Infallibility is interesting here: it seems to be a sarcastic reference to

the pope’s infallibility, but ironically the remedy, in this case, doesprove miraculously efficacious.

36. Sedgwick famously argues that in much literature, the relationsbetween men are mediated by the exchange of women and thatwomen are frequently an alibi for a circuit of desire between men.

37. Quotes are from the “Epistle to the Reader” in Romes Glory by Burnet(1673), A1.

38. See, e.g., Broughton; also see Stephens.39. The first comprehensive discussion of this Protestant point of view

was in 1588. For more on the history of this argument, see Elm.

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40. Joseph Mede similarly claims a metaphorical virginity for Protestantism.41. For a contemporary account of the importance of the will to the

monastic, see Stephens.42. Behn’s relationship to libertinism is complicated. While feminists

(e.g., Laurie Finke) tend to argue that Behn’s feminism is incompati-ble with libertinism, some critics (e.g., Stapleton) see her as a rela-tively self satisfied libertine. Todd argues simultaneously that “theRestoration accepted that the sexual act ended a woman’s power overa libertine” and that libertinism is defined at least as much by class asby gender (341). She suggests that Behn had female libertine inclina-tions that were perhaps thwarted by her class.

43. Evidence for Behn’s Catholicism is discussed by Gerald Duchovnay.44. Such allegorical readings are produced by an effort to split off sex from

politics. Ballaster’s reading of Behn is that woman is always a metaphorfor man. Similarly, Toni Bowers accounts for the gender politics of Toryseduction narratives by locating the representation of ambiguous sexualagency in the floundering of the Tory cause. Catherine Gallagher makesthe opposite move: taking feminism as a motivational force, she arguesthat models of monarchy provide the basis for imagining (both in ama-tory fiction and in political philosophy) an autonomous subjectivity forwomen. In this way, politics is merely the imaginative vehicle for femi-nism. All of these readings privilege either sex or politics at the expense(via metaphorization) of the other. Weil makes a compelling case for theTory feminism of Astell (142–161).

45. The case for Burnet’s intervention rests on a report by George Ballardover 50 years later. For this reason, I hesitate to take it at face value.

46. Cited in Wojciehowski, 91. See this text also for discussion of thehumanist “unbounded” will.

47. See Rivers for a thorough treatment of the history of these debates.48. For interesting analyses of the historical relationship between the

physical heart, whose circulatory functions were just being accepted,and the emotional heart, an important locus for the cult of sensibility,see Robert Erickson (1997); and Scott Manning Stevens.

49. Nicolas Malebranche is an important influence on this theory.50. Astell’s argument in the second part is not wholly new, for she talks

about the love of God in the first part also. It is rather a matter ofemphasis: in the first she emphasizes reason and in the second the loveof God.

Chapter 2 The Hymen and Its Discontents: Medical

Discourses on Virginity1. See the Hippocratic text The Diseases of Young Girls for an early

instance. As this treatise does not appear in the Loeb edition of

NOTES 183

Hippocrates, I recommend Emile Littré’s French edition. See HelenKing (1998) for information about this text.

2. See Schiebinger (1993), 93–94 for a fascinating discussion of thehymen’s role in determining the relationships between plants, animals,and humans.

3. The decreased cost of printing clearly influenced this phenomenon. Butthe seventeenth century also experienced a need for information aboutsexual difference in particular, since medical and scientific advances werequestioning the old ways of thinking about the relationship betweenthe sexes.Throughout this chapter, I refer to the dates of first (English)editions, in order to give the reader a sense of print history, thoughI sometimes cite later editions, as referenced in the bibliography.

4. For a publication history of this text, see Porter (1985). Porter estimatesat least 43 editions of Aristotle’s Master-Piece between 1684 and 1800.Also see Eccles, 12.

5. Aristotle’s description is far from original, as originality of neitherideas nor language was a standard. For example, the “rose-bud halfblown” simile appears earlier in Helkiah Crooke’s text. Much earlierstill, Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus) invoked much of the samelanguage as Aristotle—of the “proven signs” of virginity. And many ofthe metaphors and language usages of Aristotle recur in later texts. Ina strange example, the English translation of the French medicalwriter, Mauriceau, uses virtually identical descriptions of the femalereproductive anatomy. I am not sure if the translator or Mauriceau isthe “plagiarist” here.

6. Venette is part of what Lesley Hall and Roy Porter call the “secondwave” of midwife manuals in England, which came mostly via Frenchtranslations and which evidenced influence from the new science. Formore on the publication history, see Hall and Porter (81–90); andBlackman.

7. Both William Harvey (1963); and Robert Burton, two of the mostimportant medical writers of the early seventeenth century warn of thedangers of greensickness. Harvey recounts a case in which a girl is“cured” of greensickness by being sent to a brothel. For more seeBurton, 250–253.

8. A translation from German of Michael Ettmüller’s Practice of Physic.9. For more about Jane Sharp see Hobby (1999 and 2001); and Fife.

10. See Amy Erickson, 48.11. For general histories of greensickness, see Helen King; and Loudon

(1984).12. Greensickness was still a common disease, but it no longer signaled a

pathological virginity and in some cases was no longer exclusivelyassociated with virginity.

13. While modern medicine has developed more “accurate” ways to look atthe hymen (see, e.g., the studies by P. A. Pugno and A. B. Berenson et al.,

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which deal mainly with the hymen as evidence for sexual abuse), someof the same cultural questions about medicine’s legitimacy with regardto the hymen persist. See, e.g., the article by F. A. Goodyear-Smithand T. M. Laidlaw. For the status of the hymen in ancient Greece, seeSissa. For a discussion of these issues in medieval writers, seeSchulenburg; and Jacquart and Thomasset.

14. Literary examples occur in Middleton’s and Rowley’s The Changeling(1958) and in Gay’s and Smith’s Three Hours After Marriage (1717)(discussed in chapter 5). For examples of patristic and medieval textsthat discuss virginity tests, see Kathleen Coyne Kelly. Modern debateson the hymen should possibly be excepted here. Though the proce-dures are extremely controversial, there are currently protocols formeasuring the hymen and determining whether penetration has hap-pened. Today, the knowledge is used primarily in cases of rape. Thereare still such secretive “virginity tests” performed on prospectivebrides, such as the much rumored physical exam of Princess Dianabefore her marriage, but the medical literature does not share the basisfor such tests.

15. The propriety of conducting such procedures has long been debated.Etmüllerus simply states how to do it. Other texts seem to suggestthat it should not or cannot be done successfully. Today, the debate isstill quite controversial and perhaps more prevalent than one mightthink. Samuel Janus and Cynthia Janus claim that in the United Statesthere was a revival of such surgery, wherein a “lover’s knot” is con-structed by stitching the labia together, from the 1920s to the 1950s. Ina 1998 edition of the British Medical Journal, doctors debated theethics of performing such surgeries, the requests for which are appar-ently increasing among female immigrants, including ones who arestill virgins. The medical profession is thus still mediating sexual andmarital relations through its knowledge of the hymen.

16. I am grateful to Ann Jessie Van Sant for noticing this text. The authoris not explicitly referring to the hymen, but its implication is obvious.Jerome’s words read something more explicitly like “He cannot raiseup a virgin after she has fallen.” This elision between “virginity” and“chastity” in this text has serious implications for notions of physicalityand the importance of virginity. Since virginity becomes a predictor ofmarried chastity, the physical implications of virginity must be ignored(except for the notion that prolonged physical virginity is harmful).My point is that this author’s translation of Jerome’s direct referenceto virginity into a reference to chastity is signaling some very impor-tant changes, both in thinking about virginity and in thinking aboutbodily determinism.

17. The provenance of these texts is unclear. The first version was probably(according to Hall and Porter) written in 1684. Some of the editionshave introductions by the editors, who were also anonymous, thatclaim they are translations from Aristotle. As Hall and Porter have

NOTES 185

shown, it is clear that the editors and publishers made major revisions onsome versions. In The Facts of Life they separate these versions into threemajor categories. The versions I am using correspond to the earliest andlatest of the categories.

18. See Hobby for an analysis of Sharp’s tone and purpose with regard togender and authority in the field of midwifery (1999), 185–187.

19. Sharp’s text testifies to the oversimplicity of the dichotomy of“ancient” versus “modern” authority. This is, after all, the emergenceof the “neoclassical age.” Ancient authors were far from discarded,but the reader’s ability to select and appropriately contextualizeancient sources became key. Thus, it is the discrimination of the readerof the sources that helps to authorize them.

20. T. Hugh Crawford explains the importance of objectivity and the“exposure of physical detail” to anatomy (66–79, 67). See also Shapinand Schaffer. Dorothy Kelly argues that the male scientist’s desire forobjectivity is motivated by a desire to master femininity/maternity(231–246).

21. This trend in anatomy is reflected in the “second wave” of midwifemanuals that arrive from France. For example, Venette constitutes hisauthority by citing his academic and professional credentials, not hisfamiliarity with ancient authority. He laments the fact that ancientauthorities have not been preserved, but concedes “tho’ we are desti-tute of such Tracts, yet methinks our Experience, in Conjunction withthat of our Friends, may furnish us a sufficient share of knowledge”(A2). But he also explains that Nature “is nothing but God himself,”suggesting that by studying nature one can discern God’s plan (ratherthan invoking scripture to explain nature) (A2).

22. Luke Wilson also explains the importance of the “visible” to anatomy.23. On the politics of dissection, see Ruth Richardson.24. Thomas Sprat’s famous statements on this include the following:

“[the Royal Society has] been most rigorous in putting in execution,the only Remedy, that can be found for this extravagance: and that hasbeen, a constant Resolution, to reject all the amplifications, digres-sions, and swellings of style; to return back to the primitive purity, andshortness, when men deliver’d so many things, almost in an equalnumber of words” (113).

25. Ernelle Fife argues that women writers on midwifery used a moremetaphorical style than male writers. She links professionalization,male midwifery, and “linear discourse” (185).

26. Bernard de Mandeville argues, rather like Venette, that some womenare more chaste than others, based perhaps on the “formation ofnerves” or “velocity of blood.” Mandeville uses this view of differen-tial corporeal-based virtue to support his argument for prostitution(41–42).

27. Venette claims that the “caruncles, joyn’d together by small membranes”are frequently taken to be a hymen, but he disagrees with this (14).

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28. Of course this split does continue, as most midwives continue to bewomen. But those who write about midwifery (mainly men) now havealso to practice it.

29. Sarah Stone claims to have learned midwifery by assisting her mother,the typical way that practicing female midwives would have gainedauthority, according to Doreen Evendon. So in a way, the “newstandards” are really just the old ones applied to writing as well as topractice. The English text by John Maubray is an exception to thistrend. As Eccles points out, though, the text is heavily indebted toHendrik van Deventer’s text, written in Latin, of 1701 (16).

30. Robert Erickson (1982); Jean Donnison; and Adrian Wilson have allsuggested that around the 1720s–1730s, male midwives made greatinroads into medical care for women. For general histories of thechange to male midwifery, see Cody; Cressy; Donegan; Donnison;Smith; and Spencer.

31. Patricia Crawford cites evidence that midwives masturbated patientsto remove seed. See also Paré, 942; and Eccles, 82–83.

32. Jackson counters the assumption that midwives were mistrusted andgenerally argues for their influence and respectability, but he nonethelessconcludes that their influence in legal cases diminished duringthe eighteenth century due to the “expanding role of male medicalpractitioners” (71). Rebecca J. Tannenbaum makes a similar case forthe American context.

33. See The Cases of Impotency and Virginity Fully Discusse’d by CatherineElizabeth Weld.

34. See also Venette who argues, “Matrons, by custom, render’d Arbitersof Virgins Maidenheads, and Women’s Chastity have but weak insightinto those Matters, to be the only Persons to trust to a Decision. Oneought to be better instructed in Anatomy, than they are, to make justand true Reports” (50).

35. As noted earlier, by the middle of the eighteenth century, midwifemanuals focused almost exclusively on procreation, while anatomytexts paid only minimal attention to the hymen and virginity. Neithergeneralized about female nature or gave marital advice, as earliermidwife manuals had. General medical texts (like James’s MedicinalDictionary), still discussed virginity and virgin’s disease, but in non-controversial and nonanatomical ways.

36. See the Dictionary of National Biography, volume V, 388–389.37. Cowper’s introduction evidences his interest in the “usefulness” of

anatomy, a point crucial to my argument: “Without a due Knowledgeof the Animal Mechanism, I doubt all our Attempts to Explain theMultiform Appearance of Animal Bodies, will be Vain and Ineffectual,and our Ideas of the Causes of Diseases and their Symptoms, asExtravagant as Absurd as those of the Chinese and Indians; nay I amafraid the whole Art of Physick will be little better than Empirical.”The hymen presents both empirical (anatomical, in our modern

NOTES 187

sense) and conceptual (physiological, or associated with functioning)problems.

38. Cowper, fifty-first table, figure 3.39. Cowper, fifty-first table, figure 3.40. Luke Wilson explains the function of anatomy drawings as being to

represent an ideal: “This visualization of all aspects of anatomy upset thetraditional relation between body and text by inserting between thecorporeal and particular and the disembodied and ideal a mode of accessto the body capable of fleshing out the universal in its particularinstances” (69). My point is that the hymen resists such positivist gener-alizations. T. Hugh Crawford discusses the standard of “reproduciblerepresentations”—i.e., the text (including words and images) must accu-rately reproduce the experiment (70). All of these standards are missingin this situation.

41. Cowper, fifty-first table, figure 3.42. The Chamberlens were a famous French midwife dynasty, who discov-

ered the forceps and kept the secret within the family for generations.For discussions of the Chamberlen family, see Adrian Wilson; Donegan;and Eccles.

43. Shapin and Schaffer talk about disinterestedness (69). See also T. HughCrawford, who discusses the implications of objectivity for anatomy.

44. Narratives do not completely disappear from medical texts, but theybecome contained as “case studies” and do not serve as evidence. Foran interesting account of the complex relationship between medicineand narrative, see Epstein (1995). John Bender shows that eighteenth-century science had a fraught relationship with narrative because, heclaims, “narration bears with it the infection of fictionality” (12).

45. The ability to repeat an experiment and achieve the same result is a foun-dation of modern science. Shapin argues that at least the plausibility ofrepeatability (based on trust in the experimental situation) must exist andthat plausibility comes from the authority of the social space (20–79).

46. The truth status of the unusual or marvelous is complicated. TheRoyal Society discredited “monstrous” stories by aligning them withthe ancients (see Sprat, 90–91). But according to both Shapin andMcKeon, such stories could also attain truth status in the new science(Shapin, 193–242; McKeon [1987], 45–47). For an extended treat-ment of stories of “wonder,” see Daston and Park who argue thataccess to and possession of wonders ceased to have cultural capitalduring the eighteenth century. In this case the “strange but true” nar-rative works to establish a fragile kind of evidence, but one that issuperior to that available in the standard description. Because the“experiment” cannot be repeated under controlled circumstances, theanatomist’s claims cannot be corroborated by other scientists, butneither can they be challenged. Given the standards of scientific method,this “strange but true” case offers only fragile, indirect evidence ofstandard virgin anatomy.

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47. This is Ivan Bloch’s term.48. Alliston also links virginity to the epistemological strategies of the

novel, saying “the truth about female sexual conduct . . . remains theultimate truth for fiction in France and England” (19).

49. I am thinking of Richard Kroll’s important argument that post-Restoration intellectual inquiry was premised on skeptical empiricismand on a commitment to notions of contingency and the inescapabil-ity of linguistic mediation (10–16).

Chapter 3 Hymen Humor: Ballads and the Matter of Virginity

1. Although most ballads were anonymous, scholars surmise that themajority were written by men. Natascha Würzbach, e.g., seems toassume a male writer, and reports that in the few cases where author-ship is known, those authors are men (21–22). Würzbach also makesthe case that the ballad writers experienced very different work condi-tions from other kinds of literary writers because they were outside thepatronage system. Holloway and Black make the case for femalesingers. Eric Josef Carlson argues that women made up a substantialportion of the audience for ballads. Deborah Symonds argues that oralculture was more dominated by women than written ballads, thoughSandra Clark is not so sure that this assumption can be made, eventhough she admits that there is no evidence that any women wroteballads (224–226, 103–104). Given their content, I would be not sur-prised if scholars eventually find much more female involvement thanis currently assumed or authenticated.

2. Würzbach identifies the years 1550–1650 as the time of the rise ofstreet ballads. The mid-eighteenth century begins the “ballad revival,”a time when people had a keen interest in looking at ballads from thepast. Würzbach would thus see the time period of this study as one ofdecline, though other critics would disagree. In their introduction toThe Common Muse, Vivian de Sola Pinto and Allan Edwin Rodwayargue that the reign of Queen Anne was a great age of balladry,though this claim is based primarily on the fact that the greatest writ-ers and wits of the age also wrote ballads, 24. Hyder Edward Rollins(1929), in the preface to The Pepys Ballads, volume VII (covering1693–1702) says, “Thanks largely to the newspapers, at the close ofthe seventeenth century the importance of the ballad practicallycomes to an end; but it would be a grave mistake to believe that bal-ladry actually died out at this time.” He explains that while there weremany fewer historical and political ballads, there were many moreabout love and love problems. This would support my observationthat they are an important source of discourse on sex and that they aredominated by sexual topics in the late seventeenth century.

NOTES 189

3. Technically broadside indicates one sheet of paper printed on one side,while broadsheet refers to a single sheet printed on two sides. I do notdistinguish these two, and throughout refer to both kinds as “broad-sides,” something that other critics also do. Broadsides are distin-guished both from folk, or oral, ballads, and the literary ballads thatwould become popular in the later eighteenth century.

4. This argument is speculative and rests, to some extent on the study byPamela Brown, which focuses on marital strife as key to a culture offemale jesting.

5. The notable exception to this diversity is the lack of single women inballads, unless their commitment to that state is being challenged.

6. I have not been able to date this ballad, taken from The Common Muse,no. CXC (ballad number), pp. 365–368. Because ballads were designedas an almost disposable form, most have not survived. In this chapter,I am trying to look only at ballads that were printed and sung on thestreets of London during 1685–1750, though dating them exactly isdifficult. Printed ballads generally did not have the dates on them,though they did usually have the publisher, and occasionally the licenser.Where possible, I have used original sources (like Cyprian Blagden,James Lydovic Lindsay Crawford, and Holloway and Black) about whenpublishers and licensers worked in order to date the ballads myself. Forexample, according to John Holloway (in his introduction to the EuingCollection) Richard Pococke succeeded Sir Roger L’Estrange in 1685 asLicenser of the Press. In 1688, he was replaced by J. Fraser. If they wereproperly licensed (and the penalty for not doing so was quite high), thewoodcuts usually have the inscription “This may be printed” followedby the initials of the licenser, so the date may be narrowed down in thisway. Some work has also been done on tracking down when certainprinters were in business. The printers’ names almost invariably appearon the woodcuts and thus can be used to date the ballads. Blagden’sarticle is quite helpful in identifying when certain printers and printingpartnerships were in business. Most of the nineteenth-century editorstried to date their ballads and, where necessary, I relied on these dates.If no date is indicated, I could not limit the date.

7. The earliest OED citation for greensickness is 1593. The earliest balladthat I found dealing with this pattern, though it does not mention green-sickness specifically, is “The Maid’s Comfort” (ROX, volume II (supple-mentary volume), 1–5 [1620–1642]), in which the maid laments, “Whywas I borne to live and die a Maid?” and her suitor replies, “A medicinefor thy griefe I can procure.” The earliest specific mention of greensick-ness that I found in a ballad is “The Green-sickness grief ” (EuingNo. 125), which Rollins (1929) dates as 1629, though Blagden’s analysisof printers would put this at 1663–1674. By the mid-eighteenth century,there are very few greensickness ballads, and the ones that do survive aremuch changed. A poem from 1735 (in The Bath, Bristol, and EpsomMiscellanies and analyzed by Barbara Benedict) is driven by the thesis thatit is London (rather than a condition inherent to protracted virginity)

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that perverts the virgin’s desires. Lending further support for thischronology, an OED citation from 1746 seems to suggest that symp-toms of greensickness (eating chalk) are instead the cause of theailment; as such it is no longer virginity itself that is pathological.

8. This version is from Farmer, volume II, 108–111 (1685–1688). Thereis also a copy in the Roxburghe Ballads (ROX, part XI: [volume IV,part 2], 418).

9. This is true even though “thing” could have sexual connotations, asCarolyn Williams argues.

10. There are economic metaphors (like spending seed) for male sexuality,but they do not appear in the ballads and they do not treat the penisitself as a commodity.

11. Bagford, division I, 75 (1702).12. Claude Lévi-Strauss famously argues that “the woman figures only as

one of the objects of exchange, not as one of the partners” (115). Thisclaim has been further interrogated by many feminist scholars, mostfamously Gayle Rubin and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick.

13. Farmer, volume I, 194 (from Pills to Purge Melancholy, 1707).14. A woman’s genitals were frequently euphemized as “nothing” (in com-

parison to the man’s “thing”). Thus, this woman’s insistence on herpossession of her “thing” suggests appropriation of a masculine formof value. I thank Susan Lamb for pointing this out to me.

15. This is not to say that there is not satire in these ballads, but rather thatvirginity acts as a vehicle for the satire, rather than as an object of satire.

16. ROX, part VIII: [volume VII, part 1], 42 (1636).17. ROX, part XVII: [volume VI, part 2], 253 (several versions at least one

after 1694); Euing No. 196 (1658–1664); and ROX (1674–1679).18. Euing No. 70 (1672).19. See, e.g., “The Deceiver deceived or the virgin’s revenge.” ROX,

part X: [volume IV, part 1], 34 and Pepys, III.83.20. Roger de V. Renwick’s structural analysis of courtship ballads in his

chapter “The Semiotics of Sexual Liasons” is quite interesting. Hefigures out a number of “rules” for courtship, and his “precept #6” is asfollows: if a man “engages in a sexual liaison with a maid who has themasculine ability to be innovative [a strategic act or verbal dexterity],then you will have a tragic experience” (77). Renwick analyzes oral bal-lads of another time; the men in the broadside ballads I read maybecome an object of satire, but they are not victims in the sense that weare to feel sorry for them or even to learn from their mistakes. I also thinkthat the success of a woman’s wittiness is historically determined, a pointI will also get to later. The evaluation of the verbal dexterity and wit ofpotential mates has a long history in popular literature. Francis JamesChild categorized a whole genre of (oral) ballads that he calls “RiddlesWisely Expounded,” in which both men and women pose complicatedriddles to each other in order to determine whether they are appropriatemarriage partners. While Child lists several versions from the period thatI am studying, much more common in the street literature are the

NOTES 191

ballads where the verbal dexterity has material consequences moreimmediate than marriage: pregnancy, impoverishment, imprisonment,and so on. These consequences, of course, are not the same for bothgenders. In the “Riddles” ballads, the tricky words are like an objectivethird party to the courtship, and they are remarkable for their equality oftreatment between the males and females, who seem equally to pose theriddles and to successfully answer them. When sex is introduced to theequation, however, the terms of comparison and the range of potentialoutcomes become more complicated, and the competition becomesmore of one between the sexes at large, rather than a test of an individ-ual man or woman. It is these ballads that I discuss here because they aremuch more common in the street literature of Augustan England.

21. Farmer, volume II, 210–211.22. ROX, part XXI: [voume VII, part 2], 475 (1690–1694).23. Euing No. 215.24. ROX, part VII: [volume III, part 1], 47 (1631).25. Euing No. 179 “The Loving Chamber-Maid.”26. For a rare exception to this anonymity, see “The Buxome Virgin” and its

“Answer.” ROX, part VIII: [volume III, part 2], 364–368 (1672–1695).27. Farmer, volume III, 144–150.28. Discussed in Bagford, division I, 462–468 (1680–1690).29. Rollins’s “Index” lists several: 1603, 1624, and 1675. James

Crawford lists a version from 1790 to 1800. Chapell claims that it wasprobably published well into the nineteenth century. I looked at threeversions, one from 1624 (ROX, part I: [volume I, part 1], 185–189),one from 1663–1674 (Euing No. 21), one that is probably (accordingto Blagden) from 1694 to 1706 (Euing No. 22). Except for spelling andminor corruptions, the versions do not change.

30. Other ballads also invoke the phrase “a maiden and a wife,” and arestructured around the possibility of a married woman dying beforeconsummation of the marriage. See, e.g., Euing No. 271(1663–1674) in which two men fight over a woman, her husband iskilled, and she dies “a maiden and a wife.”

31. This was a very popular ballad with many versions. A virgin is seducedbefore the wedding and then abandoned. She dies in childbed. Theadmonition is for women to beware of flattering words.

32. In ballad culture more broadly, as Child has shown, blood is frequentlyused as evidence of a crime, but blood is, of course, an especially salientsymbol of virginity loss.

33. From Hales and Furnivall, volume IV: “Loose and HumorousSongs,” 96. The date appears to be about 1650.

34. See Conran.35. The first reference that I found is in Rollins, which lists a broadside

title from 1638. Child includes a nineteenth-century Scottish version(volume II, 372–375). For more on this ballad, especially the problemof infanticide, see Symonds.

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36. I have been reading these “life and death” texts as vestiges of aCatholic ideal of virginity, but there are also very real “life anddeath” consequences to sex for women and children. The incidenceof childbirth death and infant mortality was quite high, and the rateof infanticide was probably rising during this time period. “TheCruel Mother” may have emerged as a result of rising infant mortal-ity rates, though those rising rates may also have been an effect ofchanging attitudes toward sex and virginity to which the balladtestifies.

37. This ballad is also discussed by Child. This version is from a lateseventeenth-century broadside (entitled “Fair Margaret’s misfortune”[1685]) and printed in Percy (1869), volume 3, book 2, 124. Inanother version, from 1775, it is the bride who sees the bloody vision.This also happens in “Fair Annie,” a ballad written down by Childfrom oral performance in the early nineteenth century, in which thenew bride discovers the treachery in time. These ballads also have sim-ilarities with the Bluebeard fairytale, and the general narrative patternseems to have been very popular in the nineteenth century (the exam-ple of Jane Eyre comes to mind).

38. Even in cases where no sex has happened, the pattern of a bloodywoman accusing a man appears. Betrayal of vows can lead toconsequences as bad as seduction. See ROX, part VIII: [volumeIII, part 2], 459 (1684–1686). See also “Margaret’s Ghost,” a1724 adaptation of the “Fair Margaret” in Percy, volume 3,book 3, no. 16.

39. There are a number of ballads that invoke the image of a bleedingwoman or the ghost of a dead woman. The typical scenario is one inwhich a woman has been seduced and abandoned. She dies or (fre-quently) kills herself, and her ghost then goes on to haunt her seducer,who is often penitent and frequently dies himself. One of the moststriking things about these ballads is their often vivid description ofthe woman’s maimed and bloody body.

Chapter 4 Virgin Idols and Verbal Devices: Pope’s Belinda and

the Virgin Mary

Epigraph. Young criticizes Pope for idolatrously worshipping writers say-ing, “His taste partook the error of his Religion” (67). I will argue, con-versely, that The Rape of the Lock is anti-idolatrous.

1. See, e.g., Pollak and Wasserman.2. Crehan argues that critics misread the poem when they assume an idea

of virginity that was not yet current. Part of my point in this chapter is

NOTES 193

to situate a discourse on virginity in the historically specific context ofCatholic-Protestant debates over idolatry.

3. Oxford English Dictionary (OED) shows that both meanings wouldhave been in use at this time.

4. Quote is from the anonymous Amours of Messalina, Late Queen ofAlbion, an anti-Catholic allegory of the incident (59).

5. For background and astute analysis of the warming pan scandal seeWeil, 86–104.

6. Pope to Atterbury, November 20, 1717, quoted in Mack, 826, note 31.7. For a discussion of the Baron as fetishist, see Myers, 71–76.8. Ronald Paulson points out Belinda’s dual role as idol and idolater, and

he sees Pope as part of a Georgian “remaking” that follow the moreiconoclastic poetry of Jonathan Swift, but I am arguing that Pope ismore radically iconoclastic even than Swift.

9. Carnall suggests that she may actually use the pages of the Bible tomake the curl, since curls were made with paper, 130–138.

10. For a discussion of this aspect of marionism, see Freeman, 8–9.11. Augustine says that “it is servile to follow the letter and take signs for

the things they signify” (87).12. 1 Corinthians:7.13. In an interesting twist, though, both Mary and Belinda’s bodies lie in

ways exactly opposite to one that men worry about. Theresa Collettiargues that the representational and epistemological crisis aroundMary derives from the fact that, though quintessentially virginal, herpregnancy makes her “appear” to no longer be a virgin. In Mary’scase, visual “evidence” does not reliably point to the truth: a pregnantvirgin, but the fallout from that deception will be borne by thewoman, rather than by a man who may be deceived by her. There isno suggestion that Belinda’s locks are a deceptive representation of hervirginity, but once they are cut, she, like Mary, comes to have a bodythat signals lack of virginity despite the “truth.” Thus the virginal bod-ies of both Belinda and Mary do seem to lie about the status of theirvirginity, though in ways that disavow the male anxiety that this possi-bility presents.

14. For examples of the treatment of Mary’s body, see Lewis; Hickes; andMaster.

15. The connections between the heart (as physical and emotional) andvirginity (as physical and moral) are interesting. Both are parts of thebody undergoing radical rethinking and both are strongly implicatedin the emergent standard of sensibility. For more, see Robert Erickson(1997); and Stevens.

16. Tracy finds these symbolic synecdoches quite evocative, suggestingthat “we know all we need to know” about Sir Plume through hisobjects (xxiv). I agree in principle but disagree over what it is that weactually know. I do not find the objects as significant as the fact that

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Plume is investing them with symbolic power. To the extent thatTracy and other critics also invest these objects with symbolic power,I argue that they miss the point of the poem’s skepticism about thepossibility of interpretation.

17. See also Crehan.18. For more on the logic of Pope’s rhymes, see Kenner.19. Moshe Halbertal and Avishai Margalit explain that the historical reason

that images and not language are potentially idolatrous is that “withpictorial representations there is always the fear that the representingobject will at some stage be transformed into the permanent dwellingplace of God . . . whereas language does not create an object that canundergo such a transformation” (52). My point is that Pope’s poem,though an object that can undergo transformation, resists idolatry byresisting meaning.

20. While the resistance to stable meaning opposes idolatry, the beautyand technical perfection of Pope’s poem, which are so often remarkedupon, threaten to turn his secular poem into an idolatrous object (inAugustine’s terms, something not useful but merely enjoyable).

21. Pope parodies the Protestant notion that the Bible could be used as aninterpretive key to all human events.

22. On this topic, see Wallace; and Crehan.23. Both sides are thus trying to align themselves on the side of spirituality

and faith, against a more objective, scientific approach to knowledge,and both are trying to claim jurisdiction over knowledge that must beinterpreted. Thus, while they argue with each other, both sets of reli-gious writers are also clearly staking out a critique of the eighteenth-century scientific revolution.

24. Ruth Vanita argues that when the literal becomes symbolic or sugges-tive, its radical potential surfaces.

25. For an example of this common rhetorical usage, see the CatholicChurch’s Primer, 79.

Chapter 5 Faking It: Virtue,Satire, and Pamela’s Virginity

1. From Three Hours After Marriage, commonly attributed to Gay andSmith (31–32). The play was written with the help of fellow ScribleriansPope and Arbuthnot. Peter Lewis and Nigel Wood describe this play asthe only “genuinely Scriblerian” theatrical work, but they credit Gayas the “prime mover and principal contributor” (127).

2. The blush usually signifies virginity but in this case the test produces ablush on the unchaste woman. For more on the blush as a compli-cated sign, see Yeazell.

3. Fossile misses the jokes and double entendre, and his diagnostic andtherapeutic efficacy as a doctor is manifestly ludicrous: all his patients

NOTES 195

get the same treatment, even one who seems to be clearly manifestingthe signs of greensickness, or virgin’s disease.

4. As Brandford Mudge argues, Mr. B. is converted from a belief in onekind of femininity to another (188–193).

5. For more on the epistemological issues in Pamela, see Stevenson;Pierce; Armstrong (108–134); and McKeon (1987), 357–380. Forthese issues in novels more generally, see Van Sant; and Alliston.

6. Ian Watt; McKeon (1987); and Bender analyze the relationshipbetween fiction and science.

7. For a description of “the Pamela vogue” see Eaves and Kimpel(1971), 119–153. For reprints and contextualization of many of theresponses to Pamela, see Keymer and Sabor. More recent scholarshipon the Pamela craze is summarized in Turner (1994).

8. His lack of interest in her physical virginity is probably linked to herclass status and his related assumption that he will not marry her.

9. Patricia Meyer Spacks, in discussing the novels of Richardson andHenry Fielding, argues that trickery is the source of female power,thus offering an explanation for the motivation to avoid or disguiseone’s investment in female virginity (1990), 55–57.

10. Mr. B. is the only character who uses the word “virgin.” In fact, evenwhen it is clearly Pamela’s physical virginity is at stake, “virginity” israrely used. For instance, in the first edition (searchable as an e-textthrough LION) “virtue” appears over 130 times, while “virginity”makes only about a dozen appearances. The causal connections betweenPamela’s euphemistic style and her lack of authority to speak about herbody are, of course, more complicated than I can explore here.

11. For the procedures of the Royal Society, see Sprat.12. See Pocock (1985), 253 for a discussion on the feminization of virtue.

He also discusses “the cognition of things as they really are,” seePocock, 457.

13. Nancy Armstrong makes this point. For a discussion of the importanceof benevolence to emergent ideas of virtue, see also Morse, 1–23.

14. Clarissa’s will accomplishes a similar thing. It allows her virtue to tran-scend death, as Pamela’s transcends marriage. In this way, marriageand death are not the “end” of these stories at all.

15. According to Lawrence Stone, early modern England had a long-standing pattern of delaying marriage for quite a while after sexualmaturity, but the amount of time increases significantly in the lateseventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. In the mid-sixteenth century,the average age of marriage for girls was 20. By the late eighteenthcentury, it had, according to Stone, risen to 23 (46–54). E. A. Wrigleyand R. S. Schoefield argue something different; they say that averageage of marriage peaks in 1650–1699, and it begins to fall in thesecond half of the eighteenth century (257–263).

16. Interest in female virginity routinely indicates a crisis of male authority.My point is that this crisis took a particular form in the early eighteenthcentury.

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17. Margaret Anne Doody argues that it is significant that HenryFielding’s protagonist is not a virgin because this allows Shamela tomaintain the link between virginity and “real” virtue, since it is not asif a real virgin is falsely claiming virtue (72).

Chapter 6 Novel Virgins:Libertine and Literary Pleasures in MEMOIRS OF A WOMAN OF PLEASURE

1. This was a point of contention among philosophers. John Locke(1975) argued that humans have the capacity for abstract ideas, a pointthat was challenged/revised by Berkeley’s theory of the association ofideas and Hume’s development of this in his theory of abstract ideas.

2. Sigmund Freud’s whole argument about virginity is that women neverforgive the men for inflicting pain on defloration (1957a). But theemphasis on female pain at defloration is far from a dominant idea inthis period. Venette, though he does describe defloration as painful,claims that women are so indebted to their first lover that “if by somegreat consideration, they are oblig’d to be ally’d to others, they stillpreserve some Tenderness in their Heart for him that had the Flowerof their Virginity” (161). Maubray calls the pain of defloration “tri-fling” (193). Aristotle’s Midwife (1711) explains that the caruncles(which are held together by the hymen) will be “pressed and bruised”by intercourse but also that one of their main purposes is to “increasethe mutual pleasure of intercourse” (10–11). In his Master-Piece(1741), the hymen is “fractured and dissipated by violence” (88). Inthese cases, there is violence, but not pain, and it is the hymen itself—not the woman—that experiences it. Jane Sharp, the dissenting mid-wife in several respects, does discuss pain on defloration but focuseson it as a sign, for the male, rather than something that the femalemust suffer: “some maids suffer not so much pain to lose theMaidenhead as others do,” she avers, by way of accounting for femaledifference, not female pain (49). In short, the most distinguishing fea-ture of the sex and the narrative structure in Memoirs of a Woman ofPleasure—the trajectory of female pain and pleasure—is founded onthe notion that defloration is painful to women, a belief that we takefor granted nowadays but that was not commonly represented in theearly eighteenth century and that Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasuremay, in fact, have had a role in popularizing pain.

3. Perry points out that many women writers, including Mary Astell,connect sexuality to danger (143–144). Randolph Trumbach (1988)criticizes Memoirs of a Women of Pleasure for its lack of realism in por-traying prostitution, although Lena Olsson disagrees.

4. Amatory fiction, even where the ending is happy, typically presents thetrajectory of pleasure and pain as opposite or cyclical; usually

NOTES 197

beginning with pleasure, a vacillation between pleasure and pain isinevitable. For example, as Melliora says to her seducer in ElizaHaywood’s Love in Excess “think what ‘tis that you would do, nor fora moment’s joy, hazard your peace forever” (1994), 128; andMonsieur Frankville’s story typically finds that a “scene of happinesschanged to the blackest despair” (due, interestingly, to a misunder-standing about virginity) (1994), 220. Where pain is invoked, itssource is emotional. So Melliora’s “painful pleasure” is occasioned byher knowledge that adultery is wrong. The narrator sums up this dif-ferent attitude toward the relationship of pleasure and pain in love:“That passion which chiefly aims at enjoyment in enjoyment ends, thef leeting pleasure is no more remembred [sic], but all the stings of guiltand shame remain” (1994), 250.

5. Patricia Meyers Spacks calls the lack of consequences “conventionalpornographic sentimentality” (1987), 274. Rosemary Graham says“that Fanny Hill ends in marriage is another of its absurdities” (582).See also Shinagel; and Simmons.

6. John Benyon and Lisa Moore (49–74) argue against this reading.7. Antje Schaum Anderson has argued both that female sexuality is

unique in its linking of pleasure and pain and that, in Memoirs, all sex-ual acts are measured against defloration in terms of “novelty andpain” (117). See also Flynn.

8. J. Hillis Miller would call this idea of repetition “Platonic,” or“grounded in a solid archetypical model which is untouched by theeffects of repetition” (6). My point about the relationship between therepetition of the defloration narrative and the way that the deflorationplot repeats the marriage plot concurs with Miller’s argument aboutthe relationship between Platonic and Neitzschean (the “opaque simi-larity” of things) repetition: i.e., both types of repetition are alwayspresent (8).

9. See Deleuze (1991).10. Ragussis describes this problem as a conflict between novelistic narrative

and erotic classification (190–198).11. Here I disagree somewhat with Jody Greene, whose essay on taste

argues that the episodes with Norbert, Barville, and the sodomites aredifferent in kind from the rest of the sex.

12. Wagner, e.g., argues that Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure is a novelthoroughly dominated by eighteenth-century bourgeois thought(243). Bernard Ruth Yeazell and Randolph Trumbach (1988) followa similar line. Braudy sees the novel as a polemical attack againstRichardsonian ideals of moral and sexual nature. More recently, criticssee the sexual politics as complicated. Mengay, e.g., says “Fanny Hillis not the straightforward celebration of the code of bourgeoisheterosexuality that most critics claim it to be” (197).

13. Peter Sabor puts the “edited” in quotes, since the English versionamends some “certain needful remarks by the English Editor.” See his

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chronology in his edition of Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure. But bothHans Galfelder and Clorinda Donato have said (in private conversa-tions) that the English version is a pretty strict translation of theItalian. One key difference, for my purposes, is that the long title ofthe Italian emphasizes the cross-dressing aspect of the story whereasthe English title puts much more emphasis on the hymen. My impli-cation is that the English version produced by Cleland is, in fact, anEnglish text and belies the peculiarly English obsession with virginity.My project focuses, however, only on England, and I have throughoutthis book been making claims about England’s unique politicaland religious situation. My assumption is that virginity would beviewed differently in other countries (e.g., in Catholic Italy), but it isfar beyond the scope of this project to suggest what those differencesmight be.

14. The idea of the hymen as a telescope also suggests that the hymenpoints to something beyond itself, allowing the viewer to “see” some-thing else that is presumably more important than the hymen. Thetelescope did have its critics. See McKeon (1987), 71– 72.

15. The anti-Catholicism would have obvious appeal to an Englishaudience.

16. The idea of a “collection” of hymens indicates both that hymens areunique in some ways and that there is some “essence” to the hymenthat can be understood only by looking at a number of them. So theauthor’s contention that he can leave some behind is evidence of rep-etition significant enough to establish his authority.

17. Ivan Bloch calls this fad, which he identifies as a peculiarly Englishobsession, “defloration mania.” He identifies the causes as Englishdesire to have “only the best” and to sadism (635).

18. See Wagner’s “Introduction,” 12.19. I do not disagree with critics, such as Nancy K. Miller, Carmen

McFarlane, and Simmons, who find the female masquerade a way ofinterpolating female desire into male desire. Miller says the text is “aself-congratulatory and self-addressed performance destined to be cel-ebrated by other men” (150). But in locating a subversive element toCleland’s masquerade and in suggesting that it is male sexuality andsubjectivity that are being scrutinized and satirized, I am trying tocomplicate the view of the male desire that is authorized by the text.

Conclusion: Clarissa’s Exceptional Infertility

1. See Eaves and Kimpel (1971), 205–212 and 236–238.2. Quoted from his “Hints of Prefaces” in Eaves and Kimpel (1971), 236.3. In a letter to Elizabeth Carter. Quoted in Eaves and Kimbel (1971),

236, 30.

NOTES 199

4. See Lawrence Stone for demographics on marriage age, 46–54.5. This is Paul Ricoeur’s term, From Time and Narrative, volume 3.6. Rachel Weil has convincingly shown that an older model of patriarchy,

in which virtue is determined by obedience to authority, does notdepend as heavily on familial bonds as the patriarchal form emergentin the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when standards of patri-linear legitimacy, individuality, and moral heterosexuality begin to pre-dominate over notions of passive obedience to authority (230–235).Weil locates the emergence of this “Whig” view of sexuality and virtuein the period prior to 1688. I have been showing that between 1688and 1750, this position becomes so solidified that it can be claimed, inClarissa, as traditional.

7. Margaret Doody argues that Lovelace sees Clarissa as an otherwordlybeing but nonetheless wants her as a mother—he wants to be perpet-ually loved and forgiven by her. This figures Clarissa as a divine parent,which concurs with my reading of the attractions of virginity.

8. See also McCrea for more on the pregnancy and speculations about it,as well as for an important reading of familial relations in Clarissa.McCrea argues that because the patriarchy is weak, “fictive” relation-ships take over. I am revising this argument by questioning the cause.

9. See Robert Erickson (1997) for more on the significance of Clarissa’sheart.

10. For example, see Ann Radcliffe’s The Italian and Matthew GregoryLewis’s The Monk, among other gothic novels.

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Index

allegorybiblical, 115, 127criticism of, 41, 56, 127political, 25, 40–1, 45–6

Alliston, April, 83amatory fiction, 13, 17–18, 40,

44–5, 51see Behn, AphraCatholic influences, 17–18formal aspects of, 46–7see The Portuguese Letters, Five

Love-Letters Written by aCavalier

as political allegory, 40Anatomy, see body; scienceAnatomy texts, see medical

discourse, anatomy textsAnderton, Lawrence

The English Nunne, 32Anne, Queen, 49anti-Catholicism, see Protestantism,

anti-Catholic propagandaappearance and reality, 9, 37–8,

119, 122–3, 144–5see deception,good versus evil, 37see mimesis, 19, 28, 55, 65, 70,

111–12, 116, 149, 152,155–6, 161

Aristotle’s Master-Piece, 67–71seventeenth-century text versus

eighteenth-century text,63–66

Aristotle’s Midwife, 61–2asceticism, see celibacyAstell, Mary, 13, 39, 47–57

as an Anglican, 47, 56benefits of the proposal, 48–9, 54on Catholicism versus

Protestantism, 47on desire, morality, and Reason,

54–5on female education, 48, 51–4as a feminist, 47–8, 56Letters Concerning the Love of

God, 51and Locke, John, 48, 51–3misinterpreted, 55and Norris, John, 51as a Rationalist, 48, 53on Reason, 47–49, 51, 53Reason versus Catholic

spirituality, 48–9Reason versus corporeal desire,

48, 51–3Reason and spirituality, 51, 53–4A Serious Proposal to the Ladies,

part I, 47–49, 51A Serious Proposal to the Ladies,

part II, 49, 51–5Some Reflections Upon Marriage,

51, 54Wheler, George on, 55

authorityand Aristotle, 71–2, 79of the author, 71–2competing patriarchal, 32–33, 37,

67–71destabilized by virginity, 12–14,

28, 32–3, 72–3, 77–8, 83,141–2

and divine right, 5–7, 41

authority––continuedof the narrative, 137–8, 155–9political, 5–6, 9, 17see also patriarchyof the reader, 72, 134–5, 138,

142, 145scientific, 9, 13, 59–60, 72–84,

132, 142, 158–9of the virgin/nun, 23–4, 27–8,

32–3, 35, 37, 56the virgin’s lack of, 137, 145see virtueof the wife, 55, 97

ballads, 13, 85–109audience, 85authorship, 85The Bleeding Lover, 108The Bride’s Burial, 104–5In Chloe’s Chamber, 96–7commodity fetish, 94–5The Country-Maiden’s

Lamentation, 98The Country man Outwitted: or,

the City Coquet’s policy, 102Dick the Plow-Man, 88–90, 107disappearance of, 5economic exchange, 85–93,

97–100fictionality, 97–9The Fair Maid of the West, who

sold her Maidenhead for ahigh-crown’d Hat, 87

Fair Margaret and Sweet William,107–8

The Ladies Fall, 105The Lass of Lynn’s New Joy, 101Lillumwham, 106–7The Maid and the Palmer, 105–7The Merry Hay Makers, 99multiplicity of, 86The Musical Miscellany, 96My Thing is my Own, 92–3A New Ballad Upon A Wedding,

100–1The New Irish Christmas Box, 91

see also popular cultureThe Richmond Maidenhead,

98–9seduction, 95–100wit, 86, 92The Witty Western Lass, 99–100

Ballaster, Rosalind, 29, 41Bahktin, Mikhail,Barker, Jane, 15Barrin, Jean, 24, 30, 34

The Monk Unvail’d, 34Venus in the Cloister, 24, 30–2

beauty, 62–3, 105, 199, 144Behn, Aphra, 13–14, 17, 24, 39–47,

49, 51, 55–7absent object of desire, 43–4and Catholicism, 40–1, 46criticism, 40–1, 47The Fair Jilt, 40, 47formal aspects of, 41, 45–7, 55The Feign’d Curtezans, 40The History of the Nun,

42–7inadequate objects of female

desire, 41–6and Libertinism, 40Love Letters Between a Nobleman

and his Sister, 40–1, 46male desire versus female

desire, 46moral ambiguity, 45–6and Restoration politics, 44, 47and Rochester, Earl of, 40The Rover, 40social crimes, 45–6spiritual love versus worldly love,

43–4The Town-Fopp, 17virginity and stability, 45–6see vows

Bernini, Giovanni, 20Bianchi, Giovanni, 157

The Case of Catherine Vizzani,157–9

bisociation, 103Black, John, 102

224 INDEX

bloodcirculation of, 70–1and disease, 61–2menstrual, 60as signifier of defloration, 66–9,

75, 106, 108, 138, 151as signifier of scientific success,

79–81, 152as signifier of sexual success,

152–3and wronged virgins, 107–8

bodyaccess to, 167, 176see bloodcadaver, 73, 76, 108caruncles, 61, 67, 78cervix, 67, 73and character, 18, 67, 107,

122–3, 126–7, 136, 144–5and childbirth, 149classical versus grotesque, 60, 152corrective to abstraction, 90debased, 19and gender, 60, 89, 154, 162hair, 111–12, 116–18, 120–1,

123–4, 126–7, 176heart, 50, 123–4see humoural medicinesee hymenversus language, 86–8, 94–5, 112,

135–6, 138, 145male versus female, 60, 162and mind, 18versus mind, 48penis, 89–90, 94, 154, 160, 162see pleasureregeneration of, 147vagina, 61, 67, 80, 158womb, 67, 74, 114

Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne, Bishop ofMeaux, 119–120

A pastoral letter from the LordBishop, 120

Bourdieu, Pierre, 92Braudy, Leo, 162Bronfen, Elizabeth, 108

Brown, Laura, 124–5Brown, Peter, 37Burnet, Gilbert, 49

First Part of the History of theReformation of the Church ofEngland, 38

Burton, Richard,Bynum, Caroline Walker, 60

Calvin, John, 19Carnall, Geoffrey, 117carpe diem poems, 96–7Catholicism

and abortion, 35anti-Catholicism, see

Protestantism, anti-Catholicpropaganda

see celibacysee conventsCouncil of Trent, 20Counter-Reformation, 20good works, 50see idolatry,infallibility, 23, 36and the monarchy, 5–6, 12–13,

18, 22, 33–4, 114miracles, 20, 23, 35–8, 114mysticism, 10, 20–3, 29–30,

35–8, 48nostalgia for, 17, 30, 37, 46, 56, 108see Pope, Alexandersee Protestantismproof of sanctification, 20versus reason, 20, 22–3, 36–8, 47see religionand seduction, 25–7, 36and sexual depravity, 22, 24,

30–1, 34, 37, 39spiritual rapture versus sexual

rapture, 28–30, 43–4symbolic capital, 18, 34, 39, 92traitorous, 33–4transubstantiation, 23, 112, 116,

126, 128see virginitysee virtue

INDEX 225

Cavendish, Margaret, 26–8, 42The Convent of Pleasure, 26–8, 32

celibacyasceticism, 3, 18–20, 23–4, 28,

30, 34, 40, 42see Catholicismsee conventsconnection between mind and

body, 18de-sanctified, 6, 19, 23, 27,

34–9, 42see free willand idolatrous, 19male versus female, 19–20, 34nuns, 13, 17, 25–57versus patriarchy, 23–4, 27–8,

32–4, 37, 56versus procreation, 3, 19, 25–8,

32, 35see Protestantism, anti-Catholic

propagandaProtestant critiques of, 19purpose of, 18as repressive, 24–5, 30–1, 39,

42, 44sexual depravity, 19, 34, 37spinsterhood, 63, 170symbolic capital of, 18, 39see virginity, Virgin Mary

Chaber, Lois, 76Chamberlen, 184 n.5Chapman, Alexander, 33Chapman, Edward, 75–6Charles I, 33Charles II, 5–6, 22, 33, 40chastity

see conversionfaith as a foundation for,

28–30, 32idealized, 4, 6, 13and inheritance, 1, 7, 10–11male versus female, 1, 7and reason, 30–1, 38and virginity, 1, 3–4, 8, 11, 115versus virginity, 3–4, 12,

28–30, 82

see virginityand virtue, 8–10

Cheselden, William, 77Clagett, William, 122–3class

aspirations, 13, 91, 143and ballads, 85–6, 91–3middle-class ideals, 10–11, 13,

15, 93mobility/hypergamy, 11,

134, 143,Cleland, John

The Case of Catherine Vizzani,157–9

chronology of pleasure and pain,criticism, 150, 154, 156, 162–5and Empiricism, 147–8,

154–5,157–9knowledge and pleasure, 157–9,

163–5Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure;

2, 5, 14, 73, 147–165, 167,169

novelty in language, 147, 153–5novelty in sex, 155–7see pleasureand repetition, 147, 152–9,

164–5and the reader, 164satire and pleasure, 160–5see timingThe Way to Things by Words, and

to Words by Things, 154Cody, Lisa Forman, 76coffeehouses, 86Colley, Linda, 21Collinson, Patrick, 21comedy

as critique, 93–4versus pornography, 163see satireversus satire, 94and virginity, 98, 102–3, 132–3

commoditycollecting, 157–9, 176see economic exchange

226 INDEX

Connon, Derek, 96Conran, Tony, 107convents, 13, 24

see Astell, Marysee Barrin, Jeansee Behn, Aphrasee Cavendish, Margaret,

The Convent of PleasureDefoe, Daniel, 34, 48fascination with, 17–18and female libertinism, 26–8,

30–1, 39, 24–7, 37, 42–3see Gavin, Antonioand inheritance, 28List of Monasterys, Nunnerys, and

Colleges Belonging to theEnglish Papists in several

Popish Countries beyond the Sea, 33

see Marvell, Andrew, UponAppleton House

and male desire, 27–8versus monasteries, 20see patriarchyand patriotism, 24–7, 33and pleasure, 27–8, 32, 39political aspects, 23–7, 32–5, 37,

39, 56see pornographyand property, 33see The Portuguese Letterssee Pratt, Daniel, The Life of

Blessed St. Agnes, Virgin andMartyr

as repressive, 24, 26, 30as sites of libertine intrigue, 18,

24–5, 28, 30, 35–7social benefits of, 21–2, 27, 48and transcendence, 27, 48–9

conversionof the libertine, 140of nuns into chaste wives, 13,

23–39, 47, 57see also religion, the Reformation

Coterill, Anne, 25Council of Trent, 20

Cowper, William, 152The Anatomy of Human Bodies,

78–83Crawford, Hugh T., 72Crawford, Patricia, 60Crehan, Stewart, 127Culpeper, Nicholas, A Directory for

Midwives, 61, 67

Davis, Mary, 15death

in ballads, 86, 104–8see body, cadaverin Clarissa, 169, 174, 176–7see inheritance, posterityand religious certainty, 45–6and virginity, 104–8, 141, 149

deceptionas a Catholic stereotype, 35and female conspiracy, 35–6, 87,

101–2, 161about gender, 158male susceptibility to, 158, 162,

164male versus female, 98, 100–2and seduction, 17, 95–9versus sincerity, 102, 142about virginity, 35–6, 66–8, 86,

88, 95, 98–100, 106–7,142–5, 161

deflorationand good sex, 152male investment in, 100–1, 160in medical discourse, 69, 79, 149narrative of, 14, 81–3, 141,

148–50, 152–5, 157, 163–5

pain, 149–52, 155–6performance of, 161–3see pornographyas a standard for pleasure, 148,

152–3, 155–6timing of, 64and virtue, 141

Defoe, Daniel, 34An Essay Upon Projects, 48

INDEX 227

Dekker, Thomas and PhillipMassinger

The Virgin Martyr, 21–2Deleuze, Gilles, 148, 154–5desire

absent object of, 29, 43–4as an education, 30–1female, 26–57, 78and free will, 23, 27, 49–53versus the moral sense, 52–4see idolatryinadequate objects of, 41–6, 49–56moderate versus extremes, 30–1Norris, John on, 51for the nun, 27–32versus political duty, 24–7repressed, 52, 54 see also celibacy,

as repressiveself-destructive/irrational, 28–30,

39, 42–3self-interested/rational, 24–7, 37,

42–3shift from God to male object,

23–4, 28–30, 39, 43, 54–5and social instability, 24, 45–7,

51–7spiritual versus sexual, 23–5,

28–30, 44, 51–5Deutsch, Helen, 126Diana, Princess, 11Dionis, Pierre, The Anatomy of

Humane Bodies improv’d, 72–5, 77

disease, 98–9,147–9see greensickness

divine right, 6–7, 41, 55divorce case of Catherine and

Edward Weld, 77Dolan, Frances, 30Dryden, John, 7

Absalom and Achitophel, 7

Eaves, T.C. and Ben D. Kimpel, 135Ebsworth, Joseph Woodfall, 101–2Eccles, Audrey, 60, 184 n. 4Eco, Umberto, 128

economic exchangesee inheritancemarket, 86–8, 90–5, 99–100,

107, 143, 149, 160–3marriage, 42, 91–2, 98–100, 140

Elizabeth I, 6, 21, 114Eloisa and Abelard, 44Elm, Susanna, 18Empiricism

see Astell, MaryDeleuze, Gilles, 148, 154–5epistemology, 59, 72, 74, 82, 86,

105, 119generalities and particularities,

147–8, 154–7Hobbes, ThomasHume, Davidand legitimacy, 9see Locke, Johnversus mysticism, 22see sciencesee scientific methodand subjectivity, 84, 135–6and virtue, 144–5

Enlightenmentsee Empiricismsee knowledgeand the particular and the general,

147–8, 154–7Engels, Frederick, 2enthusiasm, 29–30, 49Epstein, Julia, 163Erickson, Robert, 76Etmullerus Abridg’d, 62Ettmuller, Michael, Practice of

Physic, 68Exclusion crisis, 5exemplarity

and Clarissa/Clarissa, 14, 167–9,176–8

versus exceptionality, 147–8, 176,see also novelty, and repetition

ideal femininity, 12, 20, 27–8, 35,37, 45, 134

see noveltyVirgin Mary, 12, 20, 113, 174

228 INDEX

faithand free will, 49–51see also idolatry; religion

familydynasty formation, 25–6, 33, 35,

39, 52, 171–8exogamous/endogamous, 2, 32see inheritancematernity, 33, 122nuclear, 2–3, 55paternity, 4, 20, 171–2, 175,

176–7farce, see comedyfeminism

Astell, Mary, 24, 40, 48, 54–6Behn, Aphra, 24, 40, 41, 56and Clarissa, 169, 175–8versus conservative politics,

56–7critique of ideologies of romantic

love, 24see idolatry, secularconditions of women in the

eighteenth century, 48, 53, 56

see patriarchyon patrilinear legitimacy model,

3–5women as objects of exchange,

90–2Wollstonecraft, Mary, 52

Ferguson, Margaret, 33Fermor, Arabella, 112fictionality,Fielding, Henry, 135

Shamela, 2, 142–4Fielding, Sarah

Remarks on Clarissa, 168–9Filmer, Sir Robert, 6, 41

Patriarcha, 33free will, 23–4, 41–2, 44–5,

49–55, 177see desireversus God’s will, 23–4, 28, 33,

37, 39, 49–50Freud, Sigmund, 94

Galen, 72Galenic medicine see humoural

medicineGavin, Antonio, 34–8

on Catholic miracles, 35A Short History of Monastical

Orders, 35The Frauds of Romish Monks and

Priests, 34Master-Key to Popery, 35–8

Gay, John and John HarringtonSmith

Three Hours After Marriage,131–4, 164

genresee amatory fictionballads, 2, 5, 13, 85–109, 162see Richardson, Samueldrama/theater, 2, 5, 18, 86, 133formal innovations, 5–6, 13,

41–6, 135–8, 141–2, 148see novelpoetry, 2, 18, 40, 100, 105,

115–16, 121,128,see pornographyrise of the novel, 2, 5, 104

Gibson, Thomas, Anatomy ofHumane Bodies, 72–4

Giffard, William, 76Glanvill, Joseph, 50Gother, John, 119greensickness, 60, 62–6, 76, 86,

88–9, 107, 169Gregory of Nyssa, 18Gross, Kenneth, 127Guilhamet, Leon, 94Gwilliam, Tassie, 168

Hall, Lesley, 184 n. 6Hascard, Gregory

Discourse About the Charge ofNovelty, 38

Harvey, William, 70–1, 184 n.7Haywood, Eliza

Anti-Pamela, 2, 144heart, 50, 123–4

INDEX 229

health, 60–4, see greensicknessHeister, Lorenz, 77Henrietta Maria, Queen, 20Henry VIII, 6, 20–1, 60Hill, Bridget, 48Hobbes, Thomas, 17, 19, 41, 50–2Holloway, John, 102Hume, David, 154–5

Treatise of Human Nature, 155humoural medicine, 60–74, 108

versus anatomy, 70–1ancient authority of, 71–2and Bakhtin, Mikhail, 60see also greensicknessand the hymen, 60, 69, 71–4,

140paradox of female body, 60and Reformist sexual ideology,

60–1see science, history

hymen,as an ahistorical concept, 66–7availability of, 68–9, 72–4, 83,

132, 157–9and beauty, 62–3and the case study, 79–82collection, 157–9, 176as a commodity, 90–1see Cowper, Williamdisappearance of, 77, 83as an epistemological problem, 4,

9, 14, 59–60, 66–75, 78,83–4, 98, 100, 132

existence of, 9, 72–4, 77fetishized, 94–5, 160, 162, 176function of, 72, 74,140immaterial, 85–98imperforate, 62, 79–83irrecoverable, 28, 70in the marketplace, 87–8, 90–5,

98–9and masturbation, 150see medical discourseunder narrative authority, 79–84as an obstruction, 59, 88, 150–2,

161 see also greensickness

and rape, 67–8, 116–17,123,as a reliable sign of virginity, 67–8as a signifier of virginity, 4, 9,

66–7, 73–4, 93, 111,127,143

see also science, failure ofsymbolic capital of, 92social, 161and sexual pleasure, 150, see also

deflorationvalue of, 87, 91–3

iconoclasm, 14, 40, 116, 121–9see also Pope, Alexander

idolatryBossuet, Jacque Bénigne,

119–120Catholic, 13, 19, 36, 48, 111–16and poetic devices, 124–5Protestant, 14, 112–13, 119–20in The Rape of the Lock, 111,

116–29see religion, mariolatrysecular, 23, 41–7, 119–23,

126–9, 160–2individuality

see convents; free willinheritance

see authority, and divine rightbiological, 6–9birth and/versus worth, 1, 6–11dynasty formation, 25–6, 31, 33,

35, 39, 52, 171–8foundling tale, 1, 8material, 6–8, 11–12, 143, 169monarchical succession, 5–8, 28,

34, 114and obsession with virginity, 2–4,

7, 8, 9, 93and patrilinear legitimacy, 1,

4, 6, 7–11, 32, 34, 169,171–8

primogeniture, 7–8, 171–2and virginity as dowry, 92–3

interiorityand ballads, 86

230 INDEX

and the displacement ofepistemological anxieties, 10,12, 134–6, 139–40, 142,145, 148, 158

and empirical investigation, 14,83, 135–6, 138–40

in the novel, 10–14, 134–45and The Rape of the Lock, 123–4,

127and reason, 53see Richardson, Samuelself-knowledge, 139, 142and virtue, 134–45, 148

Jackson, Mark, 76Jacobite uprisings, 5, 7,

114, 116James II, 5–6, 114Jankowski, Theodora, 21Johnson, Samuel, 1–2, 6, 8, 11Jordanova, Ludmilla J., 73

Keill, James, 77Kelly, Kathleen Coyne, 83Kierkegaard, Soren, 157, 165Knatchbull, Mary, 33knowledge

see authorityversus Catholic mysticism, 36and chastity, 18of chastity, 4, 115, 142see Empiricismversus the female body, 10,

74–5of God, 3, 18, 23, 27–8, 49see hymen, as an epistemological

problemlimits of, 18, 22, 37, 52, 68, 70,

78, 127–8, 176see pleasureversus satire, 93see science, failure of; scientific

methodand seduction, 96, 99of self, see interiorityuseless, 132–3

of virginity, 4, 9, 10–14, 35–6, 66, 82–4, 131–4, 151, 164

of virtue, 134–45Koestler, 103Kramnick, Jonathan Brody, 52Krieger, Murray, 119

Laqueur, Thomas, 150The Legend of the Holy Grail, 18,

160legitimacy

see authority, inheritance;monarchy; patriarchy

Lerner, Gerda, 4Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 2–3Lewalski, Barbara, 115–16libertinism

see Behn, Aphrasee deflorationand delay, 170–4see desirefemale, 18, 144, 147, 150see pleasure,versus procreation, 172–4and the restoration rake,

140, 168and Rochester, Earl of, 40and satire, 133, 161–5and storytelling, 149, 163–5and the Stuart monarchy, 22

A List of Monasterys, Nunnerys, andColleges Belonging to the EnglishPapists in Several Countriesbeyond the Sea, 33

Locke, JohnEmpiricism, 51An Essay Concerning Human

Understanding, 52–4Moral sense, 52, 54see also sensationalismTwo Treatises on Government, 7,

33, 41–2Lord Petre, 112Lowe, Soloman, 24Luther, Martin, 19, 50

INDEX 231

Mackay, Louis, 165Maid of Kent, 38Mandeville, Bernard de, 1, 4Markley, Robert, 47, 93marriage

and class, 91–2, 134, 143companionate, 41–2, 51, 92, 140divorce, 21, 25, 76–7to God, 113idolatry in, 41–7naturalized, 30–1and patriotism, 25–6, 33and social networks, 2–3surplus of women, 47

Marvell, Andrew, 24, 42, 96, 106Upon Appleton House, 25–7, 31–2

Mary Magdalene, 106Mary of Modena, 5, 114Marx, Karl, 89Masham, Damaris, 49Master, Thomas, 113–14masturbation, 65, 76Maubray, John, 63, 67–70Mauriceau, François, 67, 184 n.5McKeon, Michael, 8, 17medical discourse, 59–84

anatomy texts, 72–83, 157–8Aristotle’s Master-Piece, 61–7,

69, 71Aristotle texts, 61–74see Bianchi, Giovannisee Cowper, WilliamThe Case of Catherine Vizzani,

157–9case study, 79–82Dionis, Pierre, The Anatomy of

Humane Bodies improv’d,72–5, 77

Etmullerus Abridg’d, 62Ettmuller, Michael, Practice of

Physic, 68and Galen, 72Gibson, Thomas, Anatomy of

Humane Bodies, 72–4history, 59–63, 70–7see humoural medicine

and greensickness, 60, 62–6, 76Maubray, John, 63, 67–70medical ballads, 106midwife manuals, 59–78, 81see novelon pain of first intercourse, 150poetic language, 61–2, 79, 83scientific language, 64–5,

73–4, 131and the scientific revolution,

59–60, 71–8see signifiers of virginitySmellie, William, A Set of

Anatomical Tables withExplanations, 77

see Sharp, JaneStone, Sarah, A Complete Practice

of Midwifery, 75–6A Treatise Concerning Adultery

and Divorce, 70Venette, Nicolas, 62, 73–4

Mengay, Donald, 157midwives

authority of, 36, 67–77history, 10, 60–1, 75–7see hymenmale, 10, 69, 75–6see medical discourse; science

Miller, J. Hillis, 165mimesis, 19, 28, 55, 65, 70,

111–12, 116, 149, 152, 155–6, 161

Milton, John, 21–2Comus, A Maske Presented at

Ludlow Castle, 21monarchy

divine right of kings, 6–7history, 5–7, 20–1, 47legitimacy of, 5, 6, 34and parliament, 5, 11and religion, 5–6, 20–1, 114and virginity, 6, 21, 114weakening of, 5–7, 11, 22,

44, 47Monasticism, see celibacyMonmouth, Duke of, 34

232 INDEX

moralityand criminality, 45–7and desire, 53–5versus desire, 52, 54female, 10–11human nature, 50–5and reason, 52–4and social stability, 45–7, 50–6see also virtue

More, Henry, 50Mudge, Brandford, 160Mulso, Hester, 168

narrative, formal aspects ofstock characters, 12, 147, 168see also genre; interiority;

noveltyoriginality, 167–9plot development, 169–70poetic devices, 61–2, 79, 83, 123–4sentimental versus pornographic,

147–9subject matter, 168–9writing to the moment, 174

Norris, Johnconflation of sacred and secular

objects of desire, 51The Theory and Regulation of

Love, 51–55novel

criticism, 135, 141–5, 150, 156,162–5, 167–9, 175–8, see also history

gothic, 8, 18, 177history, 1–2, 5–6, 9–18, 104see medical discoursesee narrativepornographic, 5, 14, see Cleland,

Johnsee Richardson, Samueland science, 9–10, 13–14, 60,

66, 134–5, 147–8, 154–5, 162

see satiresentimental, 5, 10, 14, 18, 51,

60, 66, 109, 134, 139

and virginity, 1–6, 10–11, 14–15,78, 83, 135, 167

and virtue, 10–3, see alsointeriority

noveltyof Clarissa/Clarissa, 167–9, 172,

175–8see also exemplaritylinguistic, 147, 153–5and repetition, 98, 148–57, 164–5sexual, 155–6,160

Ortner, Sherry, 4originality, see novelty

Paster, Gail Kern, 60Pateman, Carole, 4patriarchy

in Clarissa, 169, 175–8divine right and the monarchy,

6–7, 41feminist models of, 4–5and the identity of the patriarch, 41see inheritancemen as agents of God, 41and the nuclear family, 55shift from patriarchalism to

modern patriarchy, 8, 11nun’s resistance to, 23–4, 27–8,

32–3, 35, 37, 56performance

and anatomy theaters, 71–2and ballads, 85–6see Libertinismand pornography, 163–4and prostitution, 162–3of self, see interiorityand theater, 5, 86, 133and virtue, 44–5, 56, 142–5and virginity, 69, 160–3

Perry, Ruth, 47, 49, 149Pettit, Alexander, 31Philips, Con, 15pleasure

and conception, 150see convents

INDEX 233

pleasure––continuedsee deflorationsee desireepistemological versus sexual,

131–4, 148, 159and false consciousness, 160–3see Libertinismmoderate, 30–1, 49narrative, 98, 159–65, 167–71and novelty, 152–6, 167–9obstacles to, 150, 152, 161and pain, 14, 149–52, 155–7sacrificed, 24–7, 32, 52, 54in satire, 163–5spiritual versus sexual, 28–30, 43–4see timing

Pocock, J.G.A., 139politics

and female sexuality, 1, 4, 7–8, 11, 30, 33–4, 61, 65,68, 107

Liberalism, 6–8, 11, 42, 56, 178see monarchyparliament and monarchy, 5, 6, 11philosophy, 6–7and property, 1, 5–8and religion, 5, 6

Pollack, Ellen, 124–5Pope, Alexander, 44, 111–29

as Catholic, 115critique of consumerism, 124critique of symbolic practices,

111–16, 121, 126–7An Essay on Man, 128fetishization, 111, 117–18,

123–4, 126formal devices, 117–18, 124–5, 128iconoclasm, 116, 121, 124–27idolatry and words, 119–20A Key to the Lock, 127and the mock-epic, 111, 121, 127The Rape of the Lock, 13–14,

111–12, 115–21; 123–9Reading The Rape of the Lock,

127–8subjectivity versus objectivity, 123

Popular culture, 13, 85, 93, 96, 97, 112

Porter, Roy, 184 n. 4, 6The Portuguese Letters, 17–18, 24,

28–30, 32, 44reception of, 17, 28

pornographyanti-Catholic, 12, 18, 23–4,

30–2, 34, 44Barrin, Jean, Venus in the Cloister,

24, 30–2see also Cleland, John, Memoirs

of a Woman of Pleasure; The Case of CatherineVizzani

conventions of, 2, 18, 24, 30–2, 68, 73, 150, 152,162–3, 169

and gender, 154history, 5, 34, 162obsession with defloration, 2, 83,

148–9and performance, 163–4see also novel, pornographicand repetition, 98, 148–57,

164–5and prostitution, 27, 147,

149–50, 162and satire, 14, 157, 160–5see sexualitytensions within, 159visual versus literary, 163

posterity, see inheritance; timingPratt, Daniel, 27–8

The Life of the Blessed St. Agnes,Virgin and Martyr, 27–8, 32

Prendergrast, John S., 128property

see inheritanceof monasteries in England, 33private, 1–13, 42, 93, 169,

171–7Prostitution, see pornographyProtestantism

anti-Catholic propaganda, 12–13,18, 22–3, 32–9, 111–16

234 INDEX

and British national identity, 21, 33

see chastityversus Catholicism, 18–23,

36–8, 50see conversionand Henry VIII, 6, 20–1see idolatrysee Marvell, Andrewpredestination, 19premarital virginity, 20see religionthe Reformation in England, 5–6,

10, 12, 18–22, 25, 60–1, 86,112–16, 178

Revolution (1688–9), 5Sherlock, William, 23and the Word of God, 14,

112–13, 119–20

Ragussis, Michael, 154rape, 22, 67–9, 112, 117, 123–4,

134–7, 150, 167, 174see also satire, and rape;

libertinism, and rapeRationalism

see Astell, Mary, 48–9versus Empiricism, 48–9, 53see free willsee Locke, Johnand religion, 22, 43–4, 48–9

religionAnglican orthodoxy, 22, 50antinomianism, 50see Catholicismearly Christianity, 22, 38enthusiasm, 22, 29–30, 49history of Catholic–Protestant

conflict in England, 18–23,33, 38, 50, 114

and human nature, 50see idolatrylatitudinarianism, 49–51mariolatry, 112–16, 118, 122–3see monarchysee Protestantism

the Reformation, 5, 6, 10, 12, 18,20–2

rosicrucianism, 21repetition

see Cleland, John; Empiricism,novelty

Restoration comedy, 94, 102–3,133, see also comedy; satire

Restoration rake, 168, see alsolibertinism; narrative, formalaspects of, characters

Richardson, Samuel, 2, 8, 32, 150

aesthetic of, 137–8, 141,148,168–9, 174

Clarissa, 2, 5, 14, 137, 141, 164,167–78: and criticism,167–9, 175–7; and length,168–9, 174

Pamela, 2, 14, 102, 129, 134–45,160, 164, 167–8: controversysurrounding, 135–6; editorin, 137; formal aspects of,137–8, 148; versus medicaltexts, 138–142

and the reader, 135–7writing to the moment, 174see also satire; novel, sentimental;

timing; virginity; virtueRichetti, John, 47Rochester, Earl of, 40Rogers, John, 21, 26rosicrucianism, 21Ross, Malcom, 115–16, 126Rothenberg, Molly, 47The Royal Society, 7, 73, 78–9,

86, 138

Sabran, Lewis, 119St. Agnes, 28St. Augustine, 120St. Dorothea, 28St. Jerome, 70St. Methodius, 18St. Paul, 19, 50, 122–3St. Teresa, 20

INDEX 235

satireand allegory, 127anti-Pamelas, 2, 135–6, 142–5,

147, 164, 168see Cleland, John, Memoirs of a

Woman of Pleasuresee also comedylibertine, 132men as objects of, 82, 84, 87, 98,

131–4, 142–3, 160narrative pleasure in, 163–5see pornographyand rape, 116–17, 167–8versus repetition, 155, 164–5and scientific knowledge, 84, 93,

131–4, 142Scriblerus Club, 131of sex, 152, 155as a critique of symbolic practices,

119–21, 123–7, see Pope,Alexander

women as objects of, 87, 91,142–5, 157

and virginity, 82, 93, 121, 136,160, 175–6

and virtue, 135, 142–5science

anatomical, 10, 59, 71–84, 136, 140

anatomy theaters, 71–2dissection, 72–8, 82, 138, 157, 167versus divine right, 9see Empiricismfailure with regard to virginity, 10,

13, 14, 59–84, 97, 131,135–6, 145, 158

Galen, 72Harvey, William, 70–1history, 4–5, 9–10, 13, 59–60,

70–6see humoural medicine;

knowledge; medicaldiscourse; midwives

new science, 9, 10, 13–14, 59,70–6, 80–5, 132, 142

see novel

The Royal Society, 9, 73, 78–9, 86see satireVesalius, 72

scientific method, 5, 9–10, 14,59–60, 131–6

see science, dissectionobjectification, 59, 70–7, 84,

103, 151objectivity/disinterestedness,

13, 72, 60, 80, 125, 131–2,138, 145

repeatability, 10, 82, 132, 138, 148visual evidence, 10, 13, 66–7,

72–3, 75–6, 81–2, 133,157–9, 162

see also medical discourse,scientific language

secularitysee idolatry, secular

seductionsee Catholicism, and seductionversus male violence, 26rhetoric, 25, 27, 95–100

sensationalism, 44, 50see Locke, John

Sermon, William, The LadiesCompanion, or The EnglishMidwife, 61

sexualityadultery, 45, 131–4cross-dressing, 157–9see desireflagellation, 150, 155–7heterosexuality and morality, 24, 47lesbianism, 25, 152masturbation, 65, 76, 150of nuns and priests, 19, 34, 37promiscuity, 11repressed, see celibacy, as

repressivesodomy, 156–7of Stuart monarchy, 22and the subordination of women,

4–5voyeurism, 163Whig, 8

236 INDEX

Shaftesbury, Anthony AshleyCooper, Third Earl of

Characteristics of Men, Manners,Opinions, Times, 29–30

see religion, enthusiasmSharp, Jane, 61, 63, 67–9, 72

Aristotle’s Master-Piece, 61The Midwives Book, 61, 63

Sherlock, William, 23,122Shuger, Debora Kuller, 44signifiers of virginity

anatomical, see bodysee bloodblushing, 62, 132clothing, 161hair, 112, 118see hymeninterpretation of, 67–8, 160–1and pregnancy, 35reliability of, 67–9, 74, 77,

see virginity, testsocial hymen, 161

Sitter, John, 52, 89Smellie, William, A Set of

Anatomical Tables withExplanations, 77

Sodomy, 156–7Springborg, Patricia, 49Stallybrass, Peter, 60Stanton, Donna, 31–2Staves, Susan, 41, 44, 168Stone, Lawrence, 21Stone, Sarah, A Complete Practice of

Midwifery, 75–6

Thompson, Roger, 68timing

anachronism in Clarissa, 169,172–5, 177

anxieties about, 169carpe diem poems, 96–7in Clarissa versus Memoirs of a

Woman of Pleasure, 169chronology of pleasure and pain,

14, 149–52, 155–7of defloration, 63–4, 100, 141

delay, 81, 100, 131, 141, 169–74see greensickness,and the libertine plot, 170–4and the marriage plot, 169–70,

172narrative interest, 170and patience, 157, 170–2stages of a woman’s life, 65–6and transcendence, 104–5,

169, 177and the virgin martyr plot, 141

Tracy, Clarence, 124transcendence, 14, 27, 48–9, 121,

124, 126, 169transubstantiation, 112, 116,

126, 128A Treatise Concerning Adultery and

Divorce, 70two seeds theory, 150

usefulnessof the hymen, 69, 74, 77, 140of the penis, 90of virginity, 2, 27, 48–9, 54,

140–1, 160, 173of virtue, 134, 140, 171

Venette, Nicolas, 62, 73–4Vesalius, 72virginity

aestheticization of, 103–5Catholic model of, 3, 10, 12, 14,

18, 20, 23, 28–9, 39, 140–1see celibacyversus chastity, 3–4as a cipher, 113–14see deceptiondemystified, 27–30, 59, 126–7de-pathologized, 63–6, 88devalued, 13, 19, 87, 91, 100,

111–14, 118, 121–3, 140–1,148–9, 171

displacement of anxieties about,10, 12, 83, 134–40, 142,145, 148, 158

see economic exchange

INDEX 237

virginity––continuedfaked, see deception, about

virginityand female conspiracy, 35–6,

101–2, 161and female responsibility, 65, 102,

107, 136, 142and greensickness, 60, 62–6, 76,

86, 88–9, 107, 169as a heuristic, 6, 86, 103, 147,

165, 177see hymenincest prohibition model, 2–3idolized/fetishized, 3, 19, 45,

94–5, 122–3, 160–3, see alsoidolatry

as a locus of stability, 45–6and magic, 19–21, 27, 106–8male versus female, 19–20, 34male responsibility, 36–7, 45, 107and marriageability, 8–9, 12, 20,

28, 32, 76, 91–2, 100–1,122–3, 173

metaphorization of, 5–6, 8–9, 12,90–1, 123, 134–40, 145

obsession with, 1–6, 9–15, 45, 78,83, 102, 131–4, 167, 176–7

and parental responsibility, 63–4pathologized, 10, 59–66, 68,

79–81, 84, 88and patriarchy, 1–4, 11patrilinear legitimacy model, 2–3,

11, 177as a predictor of chastity, 3–4, 8,

20, 32, 82permanent, see also Virgin Maryand political efficacy, 21, 23–4,

27–8, 32–5, 37, 47, 56queer, 21and reputation, 3restored, 28, 68, 70, 87–8, 106secularized, 21as a signifier of virtue, 5–6, 8–11,

28, 45, 63, 74–5, 176, seemetaphorization

as a stage in a woman’s life, 65–6, 103

symbolic capital of, 18, 20–1,23–4, 38–9, 114

temporary, 12, 20, 61–2 test, 68, 77, 82, 101, 131–2,

138, 161usefulness, 2, 27, 48–9, 54,

140–1, 160, 173see virtue

virgin martyr, 12,19, 23–4, 30virgin martyr story, 28, 140–1Virgin Mary, 12, 13, 20, 22, 28, 35,

111–16, 123, 174Virgin Queen, 6, 114, see also

Elizabeth Ivirtue

foundations for, 28–9in bourgeois ideology, 11, 13, 93innate, 50–1see Clarissaand class, 10–11, 13, 93, 134see desirefaked, 35, 135, 142–5female obsession with, 11–12,

136, 142and interiority, 134–45, 148and love, 51see Pamelaand rights, 11and the scientific method, 14, 83,

135–6, 138–40and the sentimental novel, 51,

59–60, 134–45and the single life, 170synonymous with virginity, 8–9,

20, 137, 148test of, 141, 145usefulness of, 134, 140, 171versus virginity, 8, 12, 14, 141–2,

171, 176vows, 41–6

female subject versus male object, 41see also idolatry

voyeurism, 156–7, 163

238 INDEX

Wagner, Peter, 163Weber, Samuel, 94Weil, Rachel, 8Wheler, George, 55

The Protestant Monastery, 55Wilkins, John, 50William III, 5, 34Williams, Carolyn, 154Wilson, Adrian, 76Wilt, Judith, 176Wimsatt, W.K., 125

Wollstonecraft, Mary, 53Woodman, Thomas, 128words

idolized, 112, 119–20linguistic novelty, 147,

153–5reliability of, 99, 135–45see body, versus language; virtue,

and the scientific methodWycherley, William

The Country-Wife, 99

INDEX 239