1

Contents

List of Figures 4

Preface 7

Chapter One: The Historic Backgrounds of the Architectural and Urban

Conservation Movement

11

The historic origins of the conservation movement on the international level 14

The origins of the conservation movement in the United Kingdom 16

The historic roots of the French conservation movement 18

The historic origins of the conservation movement in Italy 20

The historic roots of the historic preservation movement in the United States of

America

21

The historic roots of the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban

conservation

22

Chapter Two: Arguments for and Against Architectural and Urban

Conservation

25

The motives that have stimulated the conservation movement in Europe 26

The social factor: the reaction against comprehensive development 27

The environmental motive 28

The motives that stimulate further practice of urban conservation in Egypt 30

The economic motive 30

The architectural motive 37

The management of World Heritage Sites, as a motive for conservation 39

The didactic and cultural motives 43

Chapter Three: The Legislative Framework Involved with Architectural

and Urban Conservation

44

The international framework 44

2

The legislative framework in the United Kingdom 45

The French legislative framework 49

The legislative frameworks in Italy and the Netherlands 50

The American legislative framework concerned with conservation practice 51

The Irish and the Maltese legislative frameworks 53

The legislative framework in Egypt 54

Chapter Four: The Definitions and Classifications of the Cultural and

Natural Heritage

62

The definitions of the various patterns of heritage resources 63

The lingual definitions of heritage 63

The various definitions of heritage resources adopted by the international

charters and conventions

64

The definitions adopted in the United Kingdom 66

The definitions adopted in the United States of America 67

The definitions adopted in Ireland, Malta and Egypt 68

The classification of the various patterns of heritage resources 69

The classification of heritage resources on the international level 69

The classification of heritage resources in the United Kingdom 70

The French approach to classify the protected heritage resources 76

The classification of heritage resources in Malta and Egypt 77

Chapter Five: Conservation Protective and Intervening Measures 81

The lingual definitions of the various conservation interventions 83

The international framework 84

The definitions officially adopted in the United Kingdom 89

The official definitions adopted in the United States of America 92

3

The Egyptian officially adopted definitions 94

Chapter Six: Basic Architectural and Urban Conservation Concepts:

Analysis of Heritage Values, and Authenticity and Integrity Evaluation

96

The notion and definitions of heritage values 99

Value typologies 101

The implications of heritage values 103

The attributes of heritage values 110

The evaluation of the level of significance of heritage values 112

The notions and definitions of authenticity and Integrity 114

The evaluation of authenticity and integrity 119

Appendix One 124

Appendix Two 131

Appendix Three 137

Glossary 141

References 144

4

List of Figures

Figure 1 Glasgow, in Scotland in the United Kingdom, is one of the

cities that witnessed a massive destruction of the urban

environment and the replacement of its historic

environment by modern patterns of urban development,

such as the modern development in the photograph.

13

Figure 2 opolis the Pyramid Fields from

Heritage Sites, which has been inscribed on the World

Heritage List in 1979 (Memphis and its Necropolis the

Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur - UNESCO World

Heritage Centre 2012).

17

Figure 3 SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York, which has

been designated in 1973 (maps_manh.shtml 2012).

24

Figure 4 Rosetta, in Egypt, is one of many cities that has suffered a

severe decline in its historic urban core.

31

Figure 5 The Temple of Karnak, in Luxor in Egypt, is still one of the

major tourism destinations.

35

Figure 6 The mosque in New Gourna Village, in Luxor in Egypt. 38

Figure 7 The clock tower in Montazah Palace, in Alexandria in

Egypt, which is an example of the recent heritage in Egypt.

40

Figure 8 The courtyard of al-Suhaymi House, which is an example

Heritage Site in Egypt.

42

5

Figure 9 Edinburgh Castle, in Edinburgh in Scotland, is one of the

most outstanding properties that has been listed as a listed

building (Historic Scotland Data Website - Listed Buildings

2012) and scheduled as a monument (Historic Scotland

2010).

49

Figure 10

the many archaeological sites in Alexandria in Egypt.

55

Figure 11 The Royal Jewelry Museum, which is originally the

Princess Fatma al-Zahraa Palace, in Alexandria in Egypt.

The museum is one of the properties that have been granted

a statutory protection by means of the Act No. 144 (The

Egyptian Presidency 2008) and have also been scheduled as

an antiquity under the Act No. 117 (Department of the

Legislative Affairs 2009a).

57

Figure 12 Historic Cairo is one of the early areas in Egypt that have

been designated as areas enjoying a distinctive value (

2012).

59

Figure 13 Abu al-Abbas Square, in Alexandria in Egypt, which is an

example of the designated streets and areas of restricted

building regulations (Department of the Legislative Affairs

2008).

61

Figure 14 Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn World Heritage Site,

in Tallinn in Estonia, which represents the historic towns

and groups of buildings category of cultural World

Heritage Sites.

71

Figure 15 Montrose Conservation Area, in Montrose in Scotland, is

an example of the many conservation areas designated in

the United Kingdom.

73

6

Figure 16 Morgan Tower, in Dundee in Scotland, which is an A listed

building (Historic Scotland Data Website - Listed Buildings

2012), is an example of the many listed buildings listed in

the United Kingdom.

75

Figure 17 Valletta Urban Conservation Area, in Valletta in Malta, is

an example of the Maltese designated urban conservation

areas.

78

Figure 18 Gardyne's Land, which is a complex of five historic

buildings in Dundee in Scotland, has been re-used as a

youth hostel (gardynes 2012).

85

Figure 19 98

Figure 20 Arbroath Abbey, in Arbroath in Scotland. 100

Figure 21 The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican is an

example of the buildings that enjoy an exceptional religious

value.

104

Figure 22 Paimio Hospital, in Paimio in Finland, is an example of the

recent heritage that enjoys a clear newness value because of

its representation of the modernism architectural

movement. The hospital has been d

most renowned architect Alvar Aalto.

106

Figure 23 Al-Azhar Mosque in Historic Cairo World Heritage Site in

Egypt.

118

7

Preface

that justify the significance of urban conservation practice. Those challenges are not

well. The very fast rate at which urban environments grow and change and the

association of this growth with a continuous introduction of modern developments

unique historic identity. The conservation of the historic environment is an efficient

way to sustain and empha

the inscribed and the potential World Heritage Sites is another challenge that justifies

the further development of the national experiences in urban conservation. The

inscription of any property on the World Heritage List is contingent upon the ability

of the nominating State Party in demonstrating the availability of a successful

regulatory framework concerned with architectural and urban conservation. The

successful management of the already inscribed World Heritage Sites is also

dependent on the availability of such regulatory frameworks. Achieving a sustainable

life and sustainable cities is another challenge that is closely associated with the

arguments on the significance of urban conservation practice.

The challenges encountering third world cities, such as those in Egypt, are

greater and more sever. The growth in the size of cities, in relation to the size of their

populations, fueled by the rural-urban immi

quality of life. Most of the major cities in the developing world suffer from the

prevalence of large rundown squatting areas. Rapid population growth in third world

cities and the dominance of squatting areas r

already dilapidated infrastructure. The prevalence of poverty in most of the areas in

those cities is another serious challenge. Most of the historic urban quarters in third

world cities are inhabited by low income residents who cannot afford the high costs

to maintain the historic buildings where they reside. The prevalence of low quality

8

modern architecture and visual chaos throughout most third world cities is another

serious challenge.

All the previous challenges seem to justify the significance of urban

conservation practice as one of the efficient means by which the quality of life in

conservation seem to be capable of addressing the severe challenges facing third

world cities, such as poverty and the prevalence of low quality modern developments.

Architectural and urban conservation practice has always been associated with the re-

discovery of traditional architectural and construction ideas. By adopting these

traditional architectural and construction technologies it will be possible to introduce

new developments that enjoy high architectural and visual qualities and are more

affordable to low income citizens who reside in third world cities. Traditional

architecture can also provide more sustainable answers to present-day sever urban

challenges. Those traditional architectural ideas have been developed through the

successive generations and have passed the test of time successfully compared with

modern architectural technologies that still have not passed similar lengthy tests of

time. Conservation of historic urban quarters has always been associated with another

economic activity, which is cultural tourism. Tourism can contribute to the creation

of new jobs, which in turn can contribute to the economic development of the low-

income local communities residing those preserved historic quarters.

Urban conservation practice will always be a significant tool to enhance the

quality of life in our cities. Because of such significance, this book has been

dedicated to discuss some of the key subjects associated with architectural and urban

conservation practice. Those subjects involve the various perceptions of heritage

resources and the various approaches to classify those resources, the key conservation

intervention measures, the various arguments for and against urban conservation in

Egypt, and the various concepts of architectural and urban conservation. Because of

the variations among the various national experiences in architectural and urban

conservation, this book has tried to preview the corresponding conservation concepts

as they have been perceived by the various cultures and within their diverse national

9

experiences in urban conservation. This book has focused mainly on the European

and the American experiences in urban conservation, as well the Egyptian

experience. Finally, this book, which is an introduction to the concepts of

architectural and urb

experience and his few visits to some European countries as well as the United States

of America.

Ayman Abdel Tawab

Alexandria, Egypt

May 2013

10

11

Chapter One

TThhee HHiissttoorriicc BBaacckkggrroouunnddss ooff tthhee AArrcchhiitteeccttuurraall aanndd UUrrbbaann

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn MMoovveemmeenntt

Some intellectuals attribute the emergence of the architectural and urban conservation

movement to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries largely as a response to the

writings of Ruskin, Le-Duc, Scott, Pugin, William Morris and others (the British

Standards 1998). Larkham (1996) cites the early writings of Pugin, Ruskin and

Eugene Emmanuel Viollet Le-Duc as a significant stage in the modern conservation

movement

not consider it as the early historic point when the conservation movement has first

emerged.

Some other writers refer to a certain historic period characterised by dramatic

patterns of urban development; such as Tiesdell, Taner and Heath (1998), Appleyard

(1981), and Jokilehto (1998). This historic period is the interwar, post war and the oil

crisis of 1973 period. This period has been characterised largely by the dominance of

comprehensive large scale development trends (Jokilehto 1998). The huge

destruction that many European cities underwent during World War I and World War

II might have been the main reason why the people had such an overwhelming desire

to achieve a new, much better life that entirely contradicts with the war memories of

massive destruction. Jokilehto (1998) cites the views of modernist architects, such as

Le Corbusier, which reflect a great opposition against any trial to mimic the past. He

points out that the post war period has also been characterised by the dominance of

modern planning and construction trends, which as he

literarily describes them. The examples of these modern trends might involve the

large scale reconstruction works that took place in Warsaw and London (Jokilehto

1998). The conservation movement has been seen as a reaction against these modern

12

planning and reconstruction trends. Jokilehto (1998) attributes the emergence of the

modern conservation movement during the interwar period to the early writings of

Ruskin, Morris and others. While Appleyard (1981) attributes the emergence of the

modern conservation movement during this period to the public protest against the

massive destruction of the urban environment and the replacement of the historic

environment by modern patterns of urban development (Figure 1). He also

emphasizes that the conservation movement has flourished because of these urban

outrages. Tiesdell et al (1998) cite another factor that has stimulated the emergence

of the modern conservation movement, which is the impact of the oil crisis of 1973.

The oil crisis of the 1970s has been a consequence of the Arab Israeli conflict, which

was the key stimulus of the European Architectural Heritage Year, EAHY, in 1975.

Other intellectuals attribute the emergence of the conservation movement to

other historic periods. Earl (1997) attributes the emergence of the conservation

movement to the year 1802 when Canova was appointed as an inspector of antiquities

and fine arts for the Papal States. Other intellectuals attribute the emergence of this

movement to much earlier times, particularly to the times when the Greek and the

Roman preserved some of their honoured monuments. Larkham (1996) attributes the

early origins of the conservation movement to the Greek time when the Greek

preserved the Hellenic monuments motivated by the respect towards these

monuments. He also attributes the emergence of this movement to the Roman time as

well. He points out that some Roman emperors, such as Hadrian and Theodoric of

Rome, preserved some monuments of the ancient city of Rome.

Jokilehto (1999b) inspects the hypothesis that religions, such as Islam, have

had a strong influence on the emergence of the conservation movement and its ethics.

He indicates that history as a discipline has emerged during the early Islamic era

largely influenced by the ethics of Islam. According to these ethics, Moslems were

keen to keep a genuine record of the words and deeds of the profit. These records

to develop such new

look towards history as a discipline. The Moslems' holy book, t also

13

Figure 1. Glasgow, in Scotland in the United Kingdom, is one of thecities that witnessed a massive destruction of the urban environment andthe replacement of its historic environment by modern patterns of urbandevelopment, such as the modern development in the photograph.

13

14

contributed towards the emergence and establishment of history, as a well established

discipline. been involved with two types of historical contexts, the

first of which is related to the creation and end of the world, while the other is

concerned with human life on earth. The Arabic word that stands for history is

which has not been used in . Other words have been used instead

of this word, which are qasas (to follow up, to be in search of reality), hadith (a

new statement, innovation), and nabaa (news that is free from lies). One of the

most famous historians in the Islamic era is Ibn Khaldun. Ibn Khaldun has been

famous for his social analytic approach to history. One of the most famous books that

he wrote is entitled the

. Authenticity, one of the key conservation ethics, has been adopted by

Islam as one of its key principles

verification and can be considered as an evidence of

the adoption of the concept of

key evidence of adopting the concept of authenticity in Islam is the prohibition of the

into other languages, to guarantee the authenticity of its

texts.

The historic origins of the conservation movement on the international level

On the international level, the key international organization concerned with the

conservation of the cultural and natural heritage is the UNESCO; United Nations

Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The UNESCO has been founded

following World War II (Jokilehto 1999a). The official establishing documents of the

UNESCO were signed in London on 16 November 1945 by thirty seven countries

and came into force on 4 November 1946. The main function of the organization is to

contribute towards peace and security by promoting collaboration among nations

through education, science and culture. The UNESCO has succeeded other earlier

international organizations that played a role almost similar to that of the UNESCO.

These earlier organizations were the International Committee of Intellectual Co-

15

operation (CICI), which was located in Geneva and functioned during the period

1922-1946; the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation (IICI) that was

located in Paris and functioned during the period 1925-1946; and the International

Bureau of Education (IBE), which was located in Geneva and functioned during the

period 1925-1968. The latter has become a part of the UNESCO since 1969

(UNESCO 1945-2000/ Background 2002).

The ICOMOS, the International Council on Monuments and Sites, is another

international organization concerned with conservation. The ICOMOS has been

founded in 1965 as a UNESCO subsidiary organization (About the International

Council of Monuments and Sites 2002). The ICCROM, the International Centre for

the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, is also another

international organization concerned with conservation. The ICCROM was founded

in Rome in 1959. The organization long name has been the reason why it has been

briefly called . The

previous two brief names of the organization have been the source of its new official

abbreviation ICCROM , which has been officially adopted in 1978 (ICCROM-Brief

History of ICCROM 2002). The other international organization concerned with

conservation is the International Council of Museums, which is known briefly as

ICOM founded in 1946 (about ICOM 2002), has

replaced an earlier international organization known as the Museum Office (Jokilehto

1999a).

The World Heritage Committee and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre

represent other significant international bodies concerned with the conservation of the

cultural and natural heritage. The World Heritage Committee has been founded as a

response to

Natur adopted

in 1972 (CONVENTION [navdoc.HTM] 2002). The UNESCO World Heritage

Centre has been founded in 1992. The first meeting of the World Heritage committee

has been held in 1972. The first session of the general assembly of states has been

held in 1976 in Nairobi. In 1977 and 1978, two other meetings were held. In 1979

16

two other meetings were held in Egypt, in Cairo and Luxor. During those two

meetings, Egypt inscribed its first five World Heritage Sites (Figure 2) (Welcome to

World Heritage Centre 2002).

As a consequence of the international activities concerned with the

conservation of the cultural and natural heritage, the first international conservation

charter (Appendix 1), has been adopted in 1931. The

has been adopted by the First International Congress of Architects

and Technicians of Historic Monuments (Earl 1997). The charter is mainly

concerned with the restoration of historic monuments. Later, the ICOMOS adopted

other charters concerned with the conservation of wider urban areas, such as the

Charter on the Conservation of Historic Towns , which is known as the

(Appendix 3), in 1987 (Charter on the Conservation of the Historic Towns

2002). The International activities concerned with the conservation of the cultural

heritage, led by the UNESCO, have taken the shape of technical missions aiming at

helping member states to the UNESCO in their efforts to safeguard their cultural

heritage. Later, these activities took the shape of campaigns for the safeguarding of

endangered heritage areas. Examples of these campaigns might involve the campaign

that took place in Egypt in 1960, the campaign that took place in Venice in 1966 and

the campaign that took place in Moenjodaro in 1974 (Jokilehto 1999a).

The origins of the conservation movement in the United Kingdom

The conservation movement in the United Kingdom might be one of the earliest and

one of the richest conservation movements in Europe. The British conservation

architectural and urban conservation. Some references attribute the emergence of the

British conservation movement to the nineteenth century as a response to the writings

of intellectuals such as Scott, Ruskin and Morris (The British Standards 1998). Other

references attribute the historic origins of the British conservation movement to the

year 1865 when the Commons Preservation Society was first founded (Earl 1997).

17

Figure 2. the Pyramid Fields from Giza t

Heritage List in 1979 (Memphis and its Necropolis the Pyramid Fields from Giza toDahshur - UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2012).

17

18

The earliest date that seems to represent the historic origin in the United

Kingdom is the year HE

(Ruskin 1989). Jokilehto (1999b) cites a

British society called the Cambridge-Camden Society which had a great influence

on the debate about the principles of the treatment of historic structures. This society

has had a profound influence on the conservation movement in the United Kingdom.

- was founded by John Mason Neale and Benjamin

Webb in 1839

. Later, - dissolved in

another society called the Ecclesiological Society , which was founded in 1845

(Jokilehto 1999b). Amongst the most influential British intellectuals whose writings

have had a profound influence on the conservation movement in the United Kingdom

was William Morris. a

significant mark in the British conservation movement. William Morris also founded

the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings SPAB, in 1877. SPAB is also

considered one of the key conservation bodies in the United Kingdom (Earl 1997).

The first British conservation legislation is the Ancient Monuments Protection

Act 1882 . The previous act has been developed based on the many Bills developed

by Sir John Lubbock MP since 1873 (Larkham 1996). The establishment of the

be considered one of the significant stages in the British conservation movement

(Earl 1997).

The historic roots of the French conservation movement

The historic roots of the French conservation movement seem to enjoy some

similarities with those of the British conservation movement. Both conservation

movements have been influenced by the writings of enlightened intellectuals.

Amongst the most influential French writers was François René Vicomte de

Chateaubriand, . The

19

heritage of the Middle Ages (Jokilehto 1999b). Madame de Staël was another French

writer, who has contributed towards articulating the early origins of the French

conservation movement. She has published an influential book entitled

ench writers worldwide, who had

his own influence on conservation in France, was Victor Hugo. book

- has had profound

impacts on the bases of architectural evaluation of historic buildings. Victor Hugo,

who was influenced by the English writer Sir Walter Scott, has had strong beliefs and

personal ideas concerning the conservation and restoration of the cultural heritage.

He has expressed those ideas through his appeal of 1825 that has been entitled

Guerre aux Démolisseurs war against destroyers

previous appeal has been expanded in the Revue des Deux Mondes in 1832.

Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc is another French intellectual whose works and

writings had great influences not only on the French conservation movement but also

worldwide. He was the chief inspector of monuments. In 1846, he was nominated as

the chief of

in English as the Office of Historic Monuments Le-Duc has published a great

Archéologiques . During the period

1854-

Some references attribute the early origins of the conservation movement in

France to the French revolution. Inspired by the American revolution in 1776, the

French revolution out broke when the French stormed the Bastille on 14 July 1789.

The French revolution has contributed towards establishing new fundamental

concepts. These concepts involved the notion of the monuments that enjoy a historic

value, as well as the notion that considers science and art as a form of cultural

heritage. These new concepts also involved the responsibility of the nation to

safeguard their diverse cultural heritage. There are also a number of other dates that

represent significant historic stages, which marked the evolution of the French

20

experience in architectural and urban conservation. These historic stages involve the

delegation of the Commission des Monuments for the care of art and the

preparation of inventories in 1790, the foundation of the Instruction

Publique in 1791 to become responsible for the protection of monuments, and the

replacement of the Commission des Monuments by the new Commission des

Arts in 1793 later called Commission

Temporaire des Arts (Jokilehto 1999b). Other references attribute the early

emergence of the French conservation movement to the year 1830 when France

appointed a General Inspector of Ancient Monuments . Some other dates have

represented other significant historic stages in the evolution of the French

conservation movement, such as the year 1837 when France set up Commission

for Historical Monuments , and the year 1852 when the French Commission

introduced measures to protect great vistas and monumental perspectives (Earl 1997).

The historic origins of the conservation movement in Italy

The renaissance and the French withdrawal from Italy, and the subsequent unity of

Italy in 1870, can be considered as the most significant historic stages in the

evolution of the Italian conservation movement (Jokilehto 1999b). Jokilehto (1999b)

also attributes the early emergence of the Italian conservation movement to the year

1801 when Carlo Fea, a lawyer and an archaeologist, was nominated as the

Commissario delle Antichità . On the other hand, Earl (1997) attributes the early

emergence of the Italian conservation movement to the year 1802 when Canova was

appointed as the Inspector of Antiquities and Fine Arts for the Papal States .

Jokilehto (1999b) also cites other significant historic stages that marked the

evolution of the Italian conservation movement, such as the appointment of

Camporesi as a responsible for the inspection of ancient monuments in 1803. These

historic stages also involve the introduction of the first law concerned with the

protection of the cultural heritage in 1802, and its subsequent revision in 1820.

Amongst these historic stages is the establishment of the first

21

General Directorate

, by the Ministry of Education in 1872. These stages

also involve adopting a national conservation legislation in 1902 after the

presentation of several bills in the 1870s. The early restoration works in the Italian

conservation experience involve the restoration of the Christian Basilica of San

Paolo, which started in 1831 by Pasquale Belli and completed in 1869 by Luigi

Poletti; and the restoration of the town hall of Cremona that was restored in 1840

(Jokilehto 1999b).

The historic roots of the historic preservation movement in the United States of

America

Murtagh (1997) points out that the earliest known restoration work in the United

States of America was the preservation of the Touro Synagogue in Rhode Island

undertaken by an amateur architect named Peter Harrison. The previous restoration

work was undertaken during the period of 1827 till 1828. He also indicates that one

of the most famous and inspiring figures in the history of the American conservation

movement was Ann Pamela Cunningham of South Carolina. In 1853 Ann Pamela

Cunningham organized a patriotic group of women, who canvassed all the country

for support of the conservation movement. The earliest preservation legislation in

America is the Antiquities Act enacted in 1906. There are other significant historic

stages that have marked the historic preservation movement in the United States of

America. These historic stages include the establishment of the National Park Service

in 1916; the commencement of the restoration work in Williamsburg, founded by

John D. Rockefeller, in 1927; and the inauguration of a graduate course in historic

preservation in Columbia University, which is the first academic course in historic

preservation in the United States of America, in 1964 (Murtagh 1997).

The historic origins of the American experience in historic preservation have

been influenced by the writings of intellectuals, such as Jane Jacobs. The writings of

Jane Jacobs have had a profound influence on the modern conservation movement

22

not only in the United States of America, but also worldwide. The most influential

1961 (Jacobs 1994).

The American experience in urban conservation is a very rich experience. The

American experience is characterised by its early success in providing a statutory

protection to entire urban areas. Despite that the European experience in the same

filed has had the reputation as a very early and mature experience; the American

experience seems to have preceded the European experience. The earliest European

attempt to adopt a statutory tool that allows a European government the right to

provide a statutory protection to an entire urban area seems to be the Dutch

experience. The historic origin of the Dutch experience in that filed goes back to the

year 1961 when the Dutch officially adopted the statutory designation of what is

known as protected town and village views (Larkham 1996). In the United States of

America, the similar trials go back to earlier dates. The similar American statutory

designation is the designation as what is known as historic districts (Figure 3). The

previous designation has been adopted in Charleston, South Carolina since 1931,

when the relevant legislation has been adopted (Anon. 1992).

The historic roots of the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban

conservation

The early roots of the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban conservation

might be attributed to the establishment of ,

in 1859.

The previous service was converted into the Egyptian Antiquities Organization ,

EAO, in 1971, which was converted again into the Supreme Council of Antiquities

in 1994 (The Supreme Council of Antiquities 2002). The other relevant institution

that is involved with the management of the cultural heritage in Egypt is the

Endowments. The Endowments has been first founded in 1844 (al-Hadidi 2007). The

23

historic origin of the Egyptian legislation involved with architectural and urban

conservation is relatively very recent. The main act concerned with conservation,

which is the Egyptian Act No. 117 (1983) on Safeguarding Antiquities , was

enacted in 1983 (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a). The other early act

that was relevant to the conservation of urban areas and the control of new

development was the Egyptian Act No. 106 (1976) on the Control of Building

Works , which was enacted in 1976 (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008).

The previous act has been repealed by the coming into force of a new act that is

called has been

enacted in 2008 (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b). One of the key early

restoration projects in Egypt is the international project that aimed at safeguarding the

Nubian monuments in 1960 (Jokilehto 1999a).

24

Figure 3. SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York, which has beendesignated in 1973 (maps_manh.shtml 2012).

24

25

Chapter Two

AArrgguummeennttss ffoorr aanndd AAggaaiinnsstt AArrcchhiitteeccttuurraall aanndd UUrrbbaann

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn

Despite that the conservation movement has emerged a long time ago, ongoing

arguments, for and against conservation, were and still represent a distinctive feature

of this movement. The arguments for conservation, stimulated as a response to the

anti-conservation arguments, underscore the motives of architectural and urban

conservation. The motives that have stimulated the conservation movement represent

a very significant concern that should be addressed carefully within the context of the

debates about architectural and urban conservation. The motives that have stimulated

the conservation movement vary from one country, or region, to the other. The

motives and arguments for conservation in Europe are entirely different from those

that stimulate the need for further conservation practice in Egypt. Irrelevancy of the

motives and arguments for conservation in Europe and those in Egypt does not imply

that the European experience in architectural and urban conservation, as principles

and ideas, is not applicable in Egypt.

Skea (2001a) discusses the various arguments for and against conservation, as

well as the various aspects of these arguments; such as the economic, the social, the

artistic and the historic aspects. Larkham (1996) also discusses the various arguments

for conservation. He addresses other aspects; which are the psychological, the

didactic, the economic, the artistic and the historic aspects. These arguments can be

considered general arguments and may be relevant to many countries, such as Egypt.

Nonetheless, in Egypt, these arguments might be considered as secondary arguments

if they are seen from a wider perspective that covers other relevant arguments. The

most relevant and significant anti-conservation argument is the architectural

26

-

conservation argument, as well as the other anti-conservation arguments relevant to

Egypt, will be further discussed within the context of this chapter.

Generally speaking, the motives that further stimulate the architectural and

urban conservation experiences are diverse. These motives might involve the didactic

and cultural motives (Drury 1996, Larkham 1996), the economic and tourism motives

(Drury 1996, Ross 1991, Larkham 1996, and Skea 2001a), and the artistic motive

(Ross 1991, Larkham 1996, and Skea 2001a). The social motive is another motive

that contributes towards stimulating the architectural and urban conservation

experiences (Ross 1991, and Skea 2001a). Ross (1991) points out that the

conservation movement has emerged as a reaction against the comprehensive

development waves that overwhelmed Europe during the post-war era. The

psychological and the historic motives are also considered some of the significant

motives that have stimulated the emergence of the conservation movement (Larkham

1996, and Skea 2001a). Ross (1991) addresses the archaeological motive as another

significant factor that has stimulated the architectural and urban conservation

experiences. All the previous motives can be considered as a broad group of motives

that might be relevant to any country. The motives that might be relevant to the

European countries might not conform to those that might further stimulate the

architectural and urban conservation experience in Egypt.

The motives that have stimulated the conservation movement in Europe

There is a wide range of motives that have contributed towards stimulating the

conservation movement in Europe, such as the previously addressed relevant

motives. Nevertheless, it seems that there have been mainly two key motives that

have had the greatest influences on the evolution of the European architectural and

urban conservation experiences. The first motive is the reaction against the profound

waves of demolition and comprehensive development that took place during the

27

inter-war and the post-war eras. The second is the environmental motive, which led to

the emergence of the sustainability movement later.

The social factor: the reaction against comprehensive development

Ross (1991) points out that the social factor, which is one of the many factors that

have contributed towards stimulating the conservation movement, is about a feeling

of denial of change and holding on to what is familiar. He adds that this change,

which was the subject of this denial, was the change witnessed during the post-war

era. Such change has been represented by the destruction of many city centres, and

the subsequent comprehensive development of these demolished areas. According to

considered a form of a social factor.

The living conditions, as well as the intellectual and emotional climate, in

Europe during the post-war era might explain the significance of adopting a

comprehensive approach to development, then the later shift towards a more

conservative approach. Burns (1979) cites the harsh living conditions in Britain

during the post-war era. Most of the British city centres suffered from severe

devastation by war bombing. He also points out that many people were living in very

bad residential conditions. City centres were also surrounded by vast slum areas.

These harsh living conditions, caused by the war, created this persistent demand for

achieving better living condition, and a more efficient approach to development.

Consequently, these demands have led to the adoption of the comprehensive

approach to development (Burns 1979). Jokilehto (1998) attributes the adoption of

the comprehensive approach to development to the influence of another factor, which

is the evolution of the modernism movement during the inter-war era. Accompanied

by modern technological and construction methods, the modernism movement

became even more influential. These modern construction methods have had their

profound impacts on the building and construction industry. Most modernism

28

architects insisted on the deliberate break with the past opposing any kind of

imitation (Jokilehto 1998).

Tiesdell et al (1998) discuss the reasons for the reaction against this

comprehensive approach to development. The reaction against comprehensive

development was motivated by public protest inspired by the writings of intellectuals.

Those influential intellectuals involve Jane Jacob, who published her book entitled

which has been written by Herbert Gans. Throughout their writings, those

intellectuals have addressed many relevant subjects, such as the need for small-scale

building blocks and the beauty of the existing neighbourhood plan (Tiesdell et al

1998). Jokilehto (1998) points out that the massive destruction of the European cities

that took place during World War II provoked strong feelings towards the past.

Despite that many examples of the post-war developments reflected the

comprehensive approach to development, there were other examples that represented

a more sympathetic approach towards traditional urban patterns. The latter examples

characteristics of the historic environment while designing new infill architecture

(Jokilehto 1998).

The environmental motive

The environmental motive represents another significant factor that had a profound

influence on the emergence of the conservation movement in Europe. The growing

concern in energy conservation has reflected the influences of this environmental

factor. Tiesdell et al (1998) point out that the oil crisis, in 1973, was the key factor

that influenced the change of the European perception towards the cautious and

efficient use of the non-renewable sources of energy. Larkham (1996) also

the efficient use of the non-renewable sources of energy. The oil crisis seems to have

29

also influenced the green arguments and the emergence of the concept of the

-using or recycling historic buildings is expected to consume

less energy than demolishing them and building anew (Larkham 1996).

The other significant factor that had a great influence on the conservation

movement is the sustainability concept that stemmed from the prevalent

environmental concerns. According to the definition adopted by the Brundtland

Commission in 1987, the notion of sustainability implies meeting the needs of the

present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own

needs (Drakakis-Smith 1995). According to the chronology that he has quoted,

Barton (1996) attributes the origins of the sustainability movement to the works of

which has been carried out in the early 1900s. Amongst the most important stages in

the evolution of the sustainability movement were the United Nations Conference on

the Human Environment, held in 1972; the United Nations Peoples Habitat

Conference, held in 1976; and the Brandt Commission activities, which took place in

1980 (Barton 1996). The sustainability movement has had profound impacts on

architectural and urban conservation since the principles of sustainability apply to all

an element of the environmental stock, involves five aspects; which are buildings,

infrastructure, open spaces, aesthetic quality and cultural heritage aspects. The

objectives of sustainable development for any of the previous aspects might be

different from the objectives related to another aspect. For buildings, the objectives

might involve the renewal of the built environment. For the cultural heritage, the

objective might include safeguarding archaeological remains, protecting historic

monuments, providing good architecture, and providing attractive townscape and

landscape elements (Barton 1996). English Heritage adopted conservation policies

seem to reflect the obvious influences of sustainability on the conservation

historic environm

30

According to its new policies adopted in the previous publication, English Heritage

indicates that its goals will no longer seek the static preservation, and that it sees

sustainability as a process as well as a goal. English Heritage also states that

sustainability of the historic environment depends on comprehensive and integrated

stainability is about the continuous process of

1997, p6).

The motives that stimulate further practice of urban conservation in Egypt

All the previously discussed motives, which have stimulated the conservation

movement in Europe, can be considered relevant motives that can stimulate further

urban conservation practice in Egypt. Similar to the European experience in urban

conservation that had its own stimulus motives, the Egyptian experience has its

unique motives that can stimulate the further urban conservation practice in Egypt.

These motives might involve the economic motive, which involves the tourism

economy as an implicit motive; the architectural motive, and the educational and

cultural motives. The motives that stimulate the further urban conservation practice in

Egypt might also involve the severe decline of the historic urban cores of many

Egyptian cities (Figure 4), as well as the need for an efficient management of the

Egyptian inscribed World Heritage Sites.

The economic motive

The poor living conditions in which most of the residents in the historic urban areas

in Egypt live, as well as the very limited GNI and GNP per capita in Egypt (The

World Bank Group 2002), seem to embody the declining economic situation that

Egypt suffers from. The declining economic situation in Egypt has stimulated the

arguments about the relevance of adopting urban conservation as a new economic

32

tool, on the national level, which might contribute towards moderating such severe

economic challenges. To examine the potential economic influences of urban

conservation in Egypt, it is significant first to have a look at its economic impacts

worldwide. It seems that the debate on the economic feasibility of urban conservation

has enjoyed some controversy. Ross (1991) argues that to restore a building is

cheaper than demolishing it and building anew. Therefore, he considers conservation

as an economically feasible practice. Larkham (1996) argues that conservation can be

profitable in some aspects. He adds that the listing as a listed building has a

contradicting impact on building values since it might increase or decrease this value.

Vindicating the anti-conservation economic argument, implying the economic

the rich, change

-

conservation economic argument. Skea (2001a) also addresses the economic

arguments of urban conservation. He indicates that urban conservation practice is

expected to increase real estate values, therefore it could be considered as a field for

investment and making financial profits. He adds that this increase in building values

and rents, as a consequence of urban conservation practice, is responsible for a

phenomenon as a natural return to the original wealthy character of these historic

areas rather than a social change. Burman, Pickard and Taylor (1995) argue that

designating less affluent residential areas as conservation areas is more likely to lead

to the gentrification of these areas. They also argue that the listing of an individual

building, as a listed building, is expected to reduce its value, while designating an

area as a conservation area is more likely to increase the value of the listed buildings

located inside this conservation area.

The other potential economic value of urban conservation practice is its

contribution towards tourism as a key aspect of the national economy of many

countries (Drury 1996). Following World War II, tourism has witnessed an

33

outstanding prosperity. The diverse tourism destinations might involve costal areas,

rural areas, archaeological sites and urban areas such as historic city centres. Historic

city centres usually suffer from the prevalence of economic, social and environmental

decline (English Tourist Board 1981). Tourism and urban conservation usually have

mutual impacts on each other. Tourism has its own impacts on the economy, on the

historic city centre and on conservation. The impacts of tourism on the economy are

represented by the job opportunities that tourism contributes towards creating. These

job opportunities are usually taken by local residents. Tourism also has profound

impacts on historic city centres since it can bring investments and additional income

to these historic areas and contribute towards their economic prosperity (Department

of the Environment 1990). Tourism can also help in revitalising historic city centres

by restoring historic buildings and bringing museums to the area. Consequently,

Board 1981). Tourism has positive impacts on conservation since it ensures the

restoration of the historic buildings. Tourism also ensures the provision of uses to

these historic buildings, and decreases the number of empty historic buildings.

Nevertheless, urban conservation still has some negative impacts on historic city

centres. These negative impacts might involve gentrification, local alienation and

change of the use of urban spaces. Conservation and tourism seem to have become so

integrated that conservation can be seen as a product of tourism. This integration has

resulted in a hasty approach towards investing in history, façadism and pastiche

creation, and over-sanitization of history and life in these historic city centres. The

major challenges that conservation, taking place inside the historic city centres that

represent key tourist destinations, might face in the developing countries involve the

lack of sufficient funds and the lack of commitment to conservation. These

value of the historic area (Orbasli 2000).

In Egypt, tourism represents one of the major sources of income. The major

sources of income in Egypt are the Suez Canal and tourism, both of which constitute

the largest share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This share has amounted to

34

around 55% of the Gross Domestic Product in 1995/1996 (EGYPTIAN

contributes towards the total foreign exchange income in Egypt, by providing 25% of

this income. Recently, tourism in Egypt has witnessed a huge growth as a result of

the government policy on the diversification of tourism products. The increase in the

number of tourists from 3.4 millions in 1997/1998 to 5.3 millions in 1999 emphasizes

the huge growth in tourism in Egypt (The Egyptian State Information Service 2002).

The growth in tourism in Egypt seems to have taken place in the new tourism

destinations along the Red Sea, in Sinai and along the Mediterranean coast. The

previous list of new tourism destinations seems to indicate the gover

neglect of historic urban areas as key tourism destinations. Furthermore, the adopted

objectives concerned with the tourism sector in Egypt involve the encouragement of

investments in tourism destinations; such as the Red Sea, southern coasts of Sinai,

Siwa Oasis, an-Natroun Valley and the New Valley (The Egyptian State Information

Service 2002). The previous tourism objectives seem to indicate that historic city

centres, as key tourism destinations, are entirely missing from the tourism future

plans. It seems that the complicated planning challenges associated with historic

urban areas are the key reasons of this official neglect. The limitation of the

advertised and marketed tourism destinations in Egypt to the major archaeological

sites, such as the Giza Plateau and Ancient Thebes (Figure 5), seems to indicate the

historic city centres.

The other economic factor that can be considered as a stimulus for further

urban conservation practice in Egypt is the residential problem. The residential

problem seems to have emerged as a consequence of the declining economic situation

in Egypt. The residential problems in Egypt seem to have profound negative impacts

on urban conservation practice. The residential function of the majority of the historic

buildings located inside historic urban areas in Egypt seems to support the previous

hypothesis. The various factors that have contributed towards aggravating the

residential problems in Egypt might involve the concentration of the population in

35

Figure 5. The Temple of Karnak, in Luxor in Egypt, is still one ofthe major tourism destinations.

35

36

Egypt in the Nile Valley. About 98% of the population live in the Nile Valley, which

enormous pressures on the residential units and services inside urban areas. The

previous situation has also resulted in the prevalence of the overcrowded urban areas

over the entire city patterns. The population density in Cairo that has reached 120,000

inhabitants per square kilometre seems to support the previous argument. Migration

from rural areas to urban areas is another crucial factor that has contributed towards

the residential problems in Egypt. Such a migration has resulted in the creation of

squatting areas in and around the major Egyptian cities. The shortage of housing in

Egypt represents another factor that has contributed towards the residential problems.

The shortage of housing in 1975 was 1524000 units in urban areas and 110000 units

in rural areas (University of Newcastle upon Tyne, School of Architecture 1984). The

legislative and social aspects of the residential problem in Egypt made the problem

even more complicated. Responding to stringent social demands, the housing

legislation in Egypt has frozen the rental values of the rented residential unites at a

very low rate, and have prohibited the evacuation and the expropriation of the rented

residential units as well. The previous situation has led to a severe stagnation in the

real estate market. Although a new legislation involved with renting residential units

has been enacted, the impacts of this new legislation are still limited and the real

estate market still suffers from stagnation. Furthermore, the economic impacts of

conservation can be felt as a change in the value of the historic buildings or a change

in their rental values. The previous economic impacts of urban conservation can be

described as the mobility of the real estate market (Burman et al 1995). As long as

the real estate market in Egypt still suffers from severe stagnation, it is almost

impossible to feel the economic impacts of urban conservation, whether they are

positive or negative impacts. The positive economic impacts of urban conservation in

Egypt should take the shape of the reduction of the impacts of the residential

problems by providing cheaper residential units. The previous positive economic

impact can be achieved by using the cheap traditional construction techniques that

have been used in the construction of the historic buildings located inside historic

37

considered a relevant example. The provision of more affordable and cheaper

residential units should be considered as a very significant economic motive that can

stimulate further urban conservation practice in Egypt.

The architectural motive

The negative influences of the modernism movement, which detracted from the

traditional character of many European cities during the post-war era, might be

considered of some relevance to what has happened in Egypt. The key difference is

that the role that the very early public protest played in Europe to stop the horrible

consequences of the modernism movement and its negative influences on the

traditional character of the European cities, was completely missing in Egypt. This

missing role of public awareness and public protest in Egypt has led to an ongoing

process of alienation, and an ongoing spiral of decline of the traditional character of

the Egyptian cities. The historic origins of this ongoing process of alienation seem to

go back to the Khedive Ismail reign, when the Haussmann plan for Cairo was first

developed. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that this process started during the

French campaign, whi

immediate needs (Hassan 2000). Since that time and till now the alienation process

has been going on led by contemporary architects, who seem to be utterly unaware of

the significance of the Egyptian traditional architecture. Consequently, contemporary

architecture in Egypt seems to suffer from its very poor quality. The poor quality of

the contemporary architecture in Egypt seems to motivate the arguments concerning

the significance of the further practice of urban conservation in Egypt.

The most relevant argument against architectural and urban conservation in

Egypt indicates that these waves of alienation were so strong that few heritage

resources survived to be preserved. The argument might be correct if it was seen in

the European context, where public protest against modernisation started earlier and

in the right time. This anti-conservation argument can be refuted if the official

38

Figure 6. The mosque in New Gourna Village, in Luxor in Egypt.

38

39

perspective of heritage resources is widened so that it incorporates other patterns of

cultural heritage that are still unrecognized in Egypt. These patterns of cultural

heritage might involve industrial heritage, modern heritage (Figure 7), cultural

landscapes, natural heritage and battlefields.

The need to develop a national architectural style, which reflects the genuine

Egyptian identity, is another architectural motive that stimulates further architectural

and urban conservation practice in Egypt. The traditional architectural styles can be

adopted as the major source to coin this new contemporary architectural style. In this

trials to coin such a national architectural style that represents the Egyptian identity

and culture. To develop this genuine architectural style, Hassan Fathy referred to

earlier traditional architectural styles in Egypt; such as the architectural style of the

cultural heritage

vocabularies that Hassan Fathy developed have been influenced by similar elements

her architectural elements (Steel 1988).

The management of World Heritage Sites, as a motive for conservation

Until 2011, Egypt has inscribed only seven properties as World Heritage Sites. Six of

these properties are classified as cultural heritage, while only one property is

classified as natural heritage. Five of these properties have been inscribed in 1979.

the Pyramid Fields from Giza to

Another property

. The last inscribed

Wadi Al-Hitan (Whale

(Egypt - UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2011). The only World Heritage

40

Figure 7. The clock tower in Montazah Palace, in Alexandria inEgypt, which is an example of the recent heritage in Egypt.

40

41

Site, of the previous seven properties, which represents a historic town located inside

The criteria that justify the inscription of the nominated properties on the

World Heritage List seem to represent a significant motive that stimulates further

architectural and urban conservation practice in Egypt. To qualify for the World

Heritage Site status, nominated properties have to satisfy at least one of a list of ten

criteria. They should also satisfy two conditions, which are the conditions of

authenticity and the conditions of integrity. States Parties, to the World Heritage

Convention, should also obtain adequate protection system that guarantees the

efficient protection of the nominated properties (UNESCO 2008). To satisfy the

conditions of authenticity and integrity, States Parties should first adopt the various

statutory tools that allow them to secure and sustain the authenticity and the integrity

of entire urban areas. These statutory tools should be concerned with the conservation

of entire urban areas and with the control of the quality of new urban development

introduced inside historic districts. Until a very recent time, many of such statutory

tools have not been adopted yet. One of the most significant tools of such statutory

tools is the designation as areas enjoying a distinctive value. The designation as areas

he Egyptian Act No. 119

(2

Legislative Affairs 2009b). Because of the lateness of adopting the statutory tools that

allow the government the right to provide a statutory protection to entire urban areas,

and the right to control the quality of new urban development inside these designated

declined dramatically. These statutory tools still suffer from many weaknesses and

still require further development to improve their efficiency. The previous arguments

seem to emphasize the need to further develop the Egyptian experience in

architectural and urban conservation so as to improve the management of the

inscribed World Heritage Sites, as well as the other potential sites. The previous

arguments might also explain the limited success in the management of inscribed

42

Figure 8. The courtyard of al-Suhaymi House, which is an

Heritage Site in Egypt.

42

43

The didactic and cultural motives

The motives that can stimulate further architectural and urban conservation practice

in Egypt might also involve didactic and cultural motives. Material cultural heritage

represents a rich resource that can provide access to history. Therefore, the

conservation of such significant resources will help in unveiling the historic

documents that this cultural heritage bears (Drury 1996). The previous role of

architectural and urban conservation emphasises the significance of the didactic and

cultural motives that can stimulate further architectural and urban conservation

practice, and the relevance of these motives for any country. The arguments

concerned with globalization might also be relevant to the debates on the cultural

motives that can stimulate urban conservation practice in developing countries, such

as Egypt. The debates on globalization, which have been aroused in Egypt during the

last few years, have addressed the fears of the detrimental impacts of globalization on

the national cultural identity. Architectural and urban conservation can be considered

as one of the means by which human societies can retain and emphasize their cultural

identity. Therefore, it is possible to consider urban conservation as one of the means

that can be adopted to confront the detrimental cultural impacts of globalization.

There are many other motives that can stimulate the further practice of

architectural and urban conservation in Egypt. These motives might involve the role

that urban conservation can play in revitalizing the declining historic urban cores in

most of the Egyptian cities. Nevertheless, it seems that the most significant motive

that can stimulate further urban conservation practice in Egypt is the economic

motive. The economic motive can guarantee the public support for urban

conservation practice in Egypt.

44

Chapter Three

TThhee LLeeggiissllaattiivvee FFrraammeewwoorrkk IInnvvoollvveedd wwiitthh AArrcchhiitteeccttuurraall aanndd

UUrrbbaann CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn

There are many factors that can guarantee the prosperity of any architectural or urban

conservation experience. The most significant two factors seem to be the legislative

and the economic factors. Achieving an efficient legislative context is an essential

basis for architectural and urban conservation practice. Successful experiences in

architectural and urban conservation seem to be the product of governmental

institutions efforts. Such an efficient governmental management of urban

conservation practice cannot be achieved unless an efficient legislative framework is

initially adopted. The legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation

might involve environmental laws, cultural laws, town planning laws and

archaeological laws. Achieving a successful conservation practice has always been

attributed to the integration of conservation within town planning practice. Despite

the previous fact, it seems that adopting a discrete conservation legislation is an

indicator of a mature conservation experience.

The international framework

In addition to the national legislation concerned with architectural and urban

conservation practice adopted by the various governments, there is a large array of

international charters and conventions. Governments that officially approved these

charters have to adapt their legislative frameworks so that they conform to these

charters (Earl 1997). There are many international bodies concerned with

conservation practice on the international level; such as the UNESCO, the ICOMOS,

45

the ICCROM, and the ICOM. One of the most significant organisations involved

with architectural and urban conservation is the ICOMOS. The ICOMOS has adopted

a group of international charters and conventions. The first charter adopted by the

has been adopted in 1931 (Appendix 1). The early ICOMOS charters have been

mainly concerned with the restoration of monuments, such as the Athens Charter

rnational

been adopted in 1964, has also been concerned with restoration; nevertheless it has

involved other sections concerned with conservation, historic sites, and the sites of

the monuments. The previous charter has been called the Venice Charter (Appendix

2) (ICOMOS ___). Later, the ICOMOS adopted other charters and resolutions

on the Conse

1975, represent the earliest of such resolutions. The previous resolutions have been

called the Bruge Resolutions (Conservation of Smaller Historic Towns 2011). In

1987, the ICOMOS adopted another charter concerned with historic urban areas,

previous charter has been called the Washington Charter (Appendix 3) (ICOMOS

___).

The legislative framework in the United Kingdom

The legislative framework concerned with architectural and urban conservation

practice in the United Kingdom involves a number of laws and other subsidiary

Buil

the previous regulations and orders, the legislative tools concerned with architectural

and urban conservation in the United Kingdom involve circulars and planning policy

46

guidance notes, PPGs. The most relevant PPGs are PPG1, concerned with general

policy and principles; PPG6, concerned with town centres and retail developments;

PPG7, concerned with the countryside and rural economy; PPG13, concerned with

transport; PPG12, concerned with development plans and regional planning

guidance; PPG15, concerned with planning and the historic environment and adopted

in 1994; PPG16, concerned with archaeology and planning and adopted in 1990; and

PPG19, concerned with outdoor advertisement control (English Heritage 1995).

Article 4 Directions can also be considered another legislative tool used to control

new development in conservation areas (The Royal Town Planning Institute 1992).

point in the British legislation concerned with heritage conservation, since it

strengthened the concept of listing buildings and adopted the concept of designating

areas for conservation purposes. Despite the previous fact, there have been other

earlier legislation that officially adopted the concept of listing buildings. Those

effective in protecting listed buildings and led to the loss of many of them. The

has been enacted (Anon. 1967). The key heritage legislation concerned with listed

buildings an

legislation might be considered archaeological laws. These legislation might involve

ric Buildings and Ancient

onal

Heritage Policies : European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du Patrimoine a

2011). There are also other town planning legislation that are involved with urban

47

(National Heritage Policies : European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du

ge Policies : European Heritage Network -

Réseau Européen du Patrimoine a 2011). These Scottish town planning legislation

addition to the previous

legislation, there is a group of environmental laws that might be involved with

the

European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du Patrimoine b 2011).

has been involved with providing a statutory protection to monuments by scheduling

nning (Listed Buildings and Conservation

buildings. Most of the properties that have been protected by the scheduling as

monuments have been either archaeological sites or ruined buildings. On the other

hand, most of the properties that have been protected by the listing as listed buildings

have been occupied properties. One of the key criteria that can be used to determine

whether to protect a heritage resource by scheduling it as a monument or by listing it

as a listed building is the level of significance of the concerned heritage resource.

Scheduled monuments should be of national importance (Historic Scotland 1998).

The previous preview seems to indicate the significance of another criterion that can

be used to determine whether to protect a heritage resource by either scheduling it as

a monument, or listing it as a listed building, which is the use value of the heritage

resource. Properties that enjoy a use value, or the properties that enjoy the potentials

48

that allow their adaptive reuse, are usually protected by the listing as listed buildings.

On the other hand, ruins of historic buildings that do not enjoy a use value or that do

not enjoy the potentials that allow for their rehabilitation for contemporary uses are

usually protected by scheduling them as monuments. The archaeological value of the

heritage resource is another decisive criterion. Properties that enjoy an archaeological

value are usually protected by scheduling them as monuments. The historic value of

the heritage resource is another criterion that can be used to determine the appropriate

statutory protection status for the heritage resource. Properties that represent modern

heritage, in the United Kingdom, have been protected by the listing as listed

buildings. The final criterion that can be adopted to determine the appropriate

protection status for the concerned heritage resource is the age value of the heritage

resource. Properties that enjoy an age value, represented largely by their

incompleteness or by their clear lack of integrity, such as ruins, are usually protected

by scheduling them as monuments, provided that the age value is considered one of

the key values that contribute towards their overall significance.

Many of the properties representing modern heritage in the United Kingdom

have been granted a statutory protection by listing them as listed buildings.

Nevertheless, some of these properties have been listed as listed buildings, and have

also been scheduled as monuments. The previous few properties represent the overlap

operties that represent this overlap might

involve uninhabited castles and early industrial structures that are no longer in use

(Historic Scotland 1998). One of the most outstanding properties that has been listed

as a listed building and scheduled as a monument is Edinburgh Castel, in Scotland

(Figure 9). Many elements inside Edinburgh Castel have been listed as listed

sted in 1970, has been

classified as a category A listed building (Listed Building Report 2011). Edinburgh

49

Castle has also been scheduled as a scheduled monument in 1993 (PASTMAP -

Report Page 2011).

The French legislative framework

The French experience in enacting effective heritage legislation concerned with

architectural and urban conservation has been said to be one of the most innovative

European experiences. Although Kain (1982) indicates that the Malraux Act of 1962

represents the early superiority of the French experience in urban conservation, the

origins of the French experience go back to the beginning of the 19th century. Kain

(1981a) points out that the first European lists of buildings were those published in

France under the leadership of Prosper Merimee in 1840. What might also support

the argument on the French superiority in heritage legislation enactment is that the

Italian urban conservation system is said to have been influenced by the French

Malraux Act. In the United Kingdom, the English Civic Trust also studied the

1913 can be considered the earliest French legislation concerned with architectural

Figure 9. Edinburgh Castle, in Edinburgh in Scotland, is one of the most outstandingproperties that has been listed as a listed building (Historic Scotland Data Website -Listed Buildings 2012) and scheduled as a monument (Historic Scotland 2010).

49

50

and urban conservation. The previous law has established the two categories of the

French listed buildings. The law of 1913 has also established the concept of

designating protected perimeters around the French classified monuments (Kain

1982).

The Malraux Act of 1962, which has been developed under the auspices of the

then French Minister of Culture Andre Malraux, is considered the key legislation

concerned with urban conservation in France (The Royal Town Planning Institute

1992). There are other legislation concerned with the conservation of the cultural and

natural heritage in France. These legislation involve the act of 1913 on historic

monuments; the act of 1943 on the surroundings of historic monuments; the act of

1930 on the protection of natural monuments and sites of artistic, historical,

scientific, legendary or scenic interest; the act of 1983 concerned with the French

the act of 1993 on the protection and enhancement of landscapes (Ballester 1996a).

There are other French town planning legislation that are involved with urban

conservation. These legislation involve the act of 1985 on the development and

development, protection and enhancement of

(Ballester 1996a). There are also other French archaeological laws concerned with

architectural and urban conservation. These laws might involve the law of 1980 on

the protection of public collections against malicious acts, the law of 1989 on

underwater cultural property, and the law of 1989 on the use of metal detectors (Ibid).

The legislative frameworks in Italy and the Netherlands

The key Italian legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation,

which

Objects of Historic

51

amended later to involve historic centres and groups of urban and rural buildings

another heritage law that can be used to protect sites according to their specific

character (Ballester 1996b). Heritage conservation laws in Italy also include the

ation of

buildings in historic centres, such as Bologna (Bandarin 1981). These town planning

also concerned with development control in protected areas (Ballester 1996b).

In the Netherlands, one of the key and early legislation that is concerned with

and planned townscape elements (the Royal Town Planning Institute 1992). Later, the

previous law has been considered inadequate and has been replaced by another law,

The American legislative framework concerned with conservation practice

The American legislative framework concerned with architectural and urban

conservation is very developed and complicated. This legislative framework involves

an array of laws, codes of regulations, standards and guidelines, and executive

memorandums and orders. The list of the American legislation concerned with

architectural and urban conservation, or historic preservation as it is called in the

United States of America, is a huge list. The following laws are considered the most

relevant American laws involved with historic preservation. The historic origins of

the American legislation concerned with historic preservation go back to 1906 when

the earliest relevant law has been enacted. The previous law is the

52

(Murtagh 1997). In 1916, another relevant and significant law has been enacted,

enacted to establish the National Park Service in the United States of America. The

with historic preservation. The previous law is involved with the preservation of

historic American sites, buildings, objects, and antiquities of national significance

(Ibid). The American legislation concerned with historic preservation also involve the

been enacted to establish a program concerned with the preservation of additional

historic properties throughout the nation (Ibid). The other American legislation

of Policy 2011).

The other legislative tools concerned with historic preservation in the United

States of America involve regulations, standards of guidelines, and executive

memorandum and orders. The relevant regulations include, for instance, the

National Natural Landmarks

Program Protection of Archaeological Resources

(Related Regulations NPS Office of Policy 2011). The relevant guidelines include,

idelines for

--Archeology and

for

the Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines on Preserving, Rehabilitating,

Restoring and Reconstructing Historic Buildings 2011). The relevant executive

Memorandum on Government-to-

Government executive order

53

(Related Executive Orders NPS Office of Policy

2011).

The Irish and the Maltese legislative frameworks

The Republic of Ireland has always had the reputation of being one of the belated

European countries in urban conservation. Despite the previous argument, the Irish

legislation concerned with the conservation of monuments seems to have predated

many other similar European legislation. The previous Irish legislation is the

law, it involves a chapter that is concerned with urban conservation and area-based

conservation. The previous chapter, which is chapter II in part IV, is concerned with

the management of the Irish architectural conservation areas and areas of special

planning control (Planning and Development Act, 2000 2011). The previous law,

which has been developed in 1999, has come into force in 2000. The previous law

also represents the final amendment, of several earlier amendments, undertaken to the

(National Heritage Policies : European Heritage Network - Réseau Européen du

Patrimoine c 2011). The Irish town planning legislation concerned with urban

has been amended several times; in 1976, 1982, 1983, 1987, and 1999 (Ballester

1996d).

The Maltese experience in architectural and urban conservation, as well as its

town planning system, is largely based on the British experience in conservation

54

the Maltese legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation are

considered belated, to some extent. The Maltese discrete legislation concerned with

in 2002 (MEPA - Malta Environment & Planning Authority 2011). The Maltese

legislative system concerned with architectural and urban conservation involves

primary and secondary legislation. The primary legislation involve the various laws

concerned with architectural and urban conservation in Malta. The secondary

legislation, on the other hand, involve legal and governmental notices (Ibid). The

architectural and urban conservation, as mentioned earlier. The other Maltese

in 1955 and 1966 (Ballester 1996e).

Other Maltese town planning laws are involved with urban conservation practice;

1999). The

concerned with heritage conservation (Ballester 1996e).

The legislative framework in Egypt

The Egyptian legislative framework concerned with architectural and urban

conservation seems to suffer from serious drawbacks. Compared with the European

concerned with architectural and urban conservation seems to be less efficient and

very belated. The key and the oldest Egyptian legislation concerned with heritage

previous law is concerned mainly with antiquities, archaeological sites (Figure 10),

and protected perimeters designated around antiquities. Article 1 in the Act No. 117

provides the definition of antiquities. According to Article 1, antiquities might be

movable or immovable properties that have been produced by ancient civilizations.

55

Figure 10.of the many archaeological sites in Alexandria in Egypt.

55

56

These properties might enjoy archaeological or historic values, and should be at least

one hundred years old. On the other hand, Article 2 in the Act No. 117 allows the

scheduling of antiquities whose age is less than one hundred years old. Scheduling

antiquities, whose age is less than one hundred years old, can only be achieved by

means of a decree issued by the Prime Minister. The previous decree should be based

on the proposal made by the Minister of Culture. Depending on Article 2, the Act No.

117 has been employed to provide statutory protection to many properties

representing the modern heritage in Egypt. The previous law involves two articles

concerned with land expropriation and the designation of archaeological sites, which

are Articles 18 and 19 respectively (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a).

There are other Egyptian laws concerned with architectural and urban

Egyptian Act No. 144 (2006) on the Control of the

Demolition of Buildings and Stable Structures and the Conservation of the

statutory protection to a new category of heritage resources that is almost similar to

the British listed buildings. The previous law is mainly concerned with the protection

of what the law called the buildings and structures enjoying a distinctive architectural

style. To clarify what these buildings might involve, a Prime Minister decree has

been adopted in 2006. The previous decree indicates that these buildings also involve

groups of buildings and gardens. The Act No. 144 has also provided for the

establishment of conservation committees in every governorate (Department of the

Legislative Affairs 2008). The Act No. 144 has been enacted to replace a previous

presidential decree that has been issued to prohibit the overwhelming trend of

demolishing historic villas. The previous presidential decree has been proven, by the

Supreme Constitutional Court, to be unconstitutional. Therefore, the Act No. 144 has

been enacted, mainly to stop the demolition of historic villas. The previous law has

been employed to provide a statutory protection to modern heritage in Egypt. Many

of the properties that have been granted a statutory protection by means of the Act

No. 144 have also been scheduled as antiquities under the Act No. 117. These

properties represent the overlap that took place between the two laws, which are the

57

Act No. 117 and the Act No. 144 (Figure 11). The previous overlap seems to

represent a serious drawback of the Egyptian legislation concerned with architectural

and urban conservation. The previous overlap of the application of the two laws

might be attributed to the misunderstanding of the function and role of each law.

Egyptian legislation involved with urban conservation. The Act No. 119 has allowed

for the designation of entire urban areas inside which the townscape and urban values

can be provided a statutory protection. These designated urban areas are referred to,

in the Act, as areas enjoying a distinctive value (Figure 12) (Department of the

areas that are characterized by the richness of their constituting elements enjoying

heritage, architectural, urban, symbolic, aesthetic or natural values, and require to be

the Act No. 119 has been associated with the revocation of another earlier and

(1976) on the Control of Building Works" (Ibid).

Figure 11. The Royal Jewelry Museum, which is originally the Princess Fatma al-ZahraaPalace, in Alexandria in Egypt. The museum is one of the properties that have beengranted a statutory protection by means of the Act No. 144 (The Egyptian Presidency2008) and have also been scheduled as an antiquity under the Act No. 117 (Department ofthe Legislative Affairs 2009a).

57

58

The Act No. 106 was also concerned with urban conservation. The Act No.

106, and its implementing bylaw, was involved with the designation of protected

urban areas, inside which the townscape value can be provided a statutory protection.

These urban protected areas, which are almost similar to the British conservation

areas, can be called streets and areas of restricted building regulations (Figure 13).

Article 29 in the implementing bylaw of the Act No. 106 indicates that it is possible

for the Minister of Housing, depending on a request made by the relevant governor

and depending on a proposal made by the relevant local authority, by means of a

decree, to designate streets or areas where some features of the new developments

introduced inside these areas might be predetermined. These features involve, among

other things; the architectural styles, the applied finishing materials and their colors;

and the setbacks, behind the approved regulation lines, of the new developments. The

Act No. 106 has been amended by the Act No. 101 (1996). Accordingly, Article 13,

in the Act No. 106, has been amended to allow the Prime Minister the right to impose

restrictions on the maximum allowed building height in any given city or any urban

area inside this city. Based on the Act No. 106, its implementing bylaw and the

amending Act No. 101, a number of Prime Minister Decrees have been adopted to

designate a number of such protected urban areas (Department of the Legislative

Affairs 2008).

The enactment of the Act No. 119 has also been associated with the revocation

n Act No. 3

The Act

No. 3 was involved with urban conservation to some extent. Article 25 in the Act No.

3 has provided for the necessity to locate the areas that enjoy heritage values; whether

these values are architectural values, historic values, tourism or natural values; in the

detailed plans, so that they can be preserved (Department of the Legislative Affairs

1997).

There are other Egyptian laws that are involved with heritage conservation.

The previous law is concerned with the designation of what is called natural reserves

59

Figure 12. Historic Cairo is one of the early areas in Egypt that have been designated asareas enjoying a distinctive value ( ).

59

60

(Department of the Legislative Affairs ___). The designation as a natural reserve has

been used to provide a statutory protection to the cultural heritage in Siwa Oasis

(Protectorates 2008). The other Egyptian laws concerned with heritage conservation

of

the Legislative Affairs 2005).

61

Figure 13. Abu al-Abbas Square, in Alexandria in Egypt, which is anexample of the designated streets and areas of restricted buildingregulations (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008).

61

62

Chapter Four

TThhee DDeeffiinniittiioonnss aanndd CCllaassssiiffiiccaattiioonnss ooff tthhee CCuullttuurraall aanndd

NNaattuurraall HHeerriittaaggee

The arguments on the various classifications of heritage resources represent a very

significant and relevant subject. These arguments reflect a serious challenge that

faces the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban conservation. Till a very

recent time, the official Egyptian perception of heritage resources was very narrow.

Heritage resources were classified under a single group, which is called antiquities or

monuments. At that time, heritage resources, protected officially by the Egyptian

laws, did not involve a category concerned with historic urban areas, nor did they

involve a discrete category of listed buildings. The previous situation represented a

serious challenge facing the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban

Demolition of Buildings and Stable Structures and the Conservation of the

heritage resources concerned mainly with what can be called listed buildings

an Act No. 119

resources that is concerned with historic urban areas. The previous category is called

areas enjoying a distinctive value (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b). At a

certain historic time, in Europe, the situation was almost similar to that in Egypt. The

official perception of heritage resources, at that time, was also very narrow.

Nonetheless, the arguments on environmental issues and sustainability seem to have

contributed towards widening the official perception of heritage resources in Europe.

This chapter will focus, initially, on the various definitions of the various patterns of

63

heritage resources. Thereafter, this chapter will preview the various approaches to

classify the various patterns of heritage resources.

Heritage resources represent the subjects, or the assets, which are processed

during architectural and urban conservation processes. A proposed definition of

asset is] a term which is all-embracing and is used for

any artefact from painting to vintage cars to areas of ancient woodland. It is not

meant to imply a degree of significance. It is now frequently used to refer to any

component of the historic built environment from archaeological remains outwards to

GLOSSARY a 2011). Lowenthal (2000) indicates that heritage resources might

involve monuments of great moment, grand personage and unique treasures of art and

architecture. He adds that, recently, the notion of heritage has been broadened to

involve two other realms, which are the intangible culture and the environment.

Harrison (1996) indicates that heritage resources might involve a variety of aspects;

such as buildings, sites, monuments, ruins, earth works and buried remains. While

He enquires whether it should involve all the old buildings, all the interesting

buildings or all the old and interesting buildings. Roberts (1995) cites the Australian

definition of heritage. According to the previous definition, heritage resources are

f Australia, that

have aesthetic, historic, scientific or social significance or other special value for the

-50).

The definitions of the various patterns of heritage resources

The lingual definitions of heritage

inherited; any property, and especially land, which devolves by right of inheritance.

Land and similar property which devolves by law upon the heir and not on executors

64

queathing. A sum of

money, or a specific article, given to another by will: bequest. Anything handed down

ame lingual

estate or endowment of a church or religious body. The fact of inheriting from an

L

to mean the things that are associated with our parents or ancestors in general. The

French word seems also to focus on the meaning of respecting history, and the things

focus on the meaning of devolving possessions from an older generation to their

descendants. Therefore, the English word seems to focus on the notion of the

responsibility of each generation towards the protection of their heritage (Lopez

2004).

The various definitions of heritage resources adopted by the international

charters and conventions

On

adopted a number of definitions of the architectural heritage. The previous charter

diversit

p1). The charter has also adopted another definition of architectural heritage, which

65

understand

(European Charter of the Architectural Heritage 2011, p2). The previous charter has

adopted a wider perception of architectural heritage. This perception involves

patterns of architectural heritage, such as groups of lesser buildings and man-made

settings (European Charter of the Architectural Heritage 2011).

of nature and man, in their entirety, that make up the environment in which we live in

space and time. Heritage is a reality, a possession of the community, and a rich

inheritance that may be passed on, which invites our recognition and our

adopted a wider notion of heritage that involves three major entities. These three key

entities are the material culture, or what can be called the cultural properties, the

geographic environment and the human environment. Cultural properties might

involve all forms of material evidence; such as archaeological and ethnographical

objects, written archives, furniture, art objects and the whole of the material

environment in which all human beings live (ICOMOS Canada Documents 2011).

The Venice Charter (Appendix 2) has addressed the meaning of a single

pattern of heritage resources, which is referred to as historic monuments. Article 1 in

the previous charter indicates that historic monuments not only involve the single

architectural work but also its urban and rural setting (ICOMOS ___). The World

Heritage Convention is concerned mainly with two groups of heritage resources,

which are the cultural heritage and the natural heritage. Article 1 of the previous

convention indicates that cultural heritage might involve three subsidiary patterns of

heritage resources; which are monuments, groups of buildings and sites. Article 1

also provides the definition of each pattern of the previous three patterns of cultural

heritage. Article 2 of the previous convention indicates that natural heritage might

also involve three subsidiary patterns of heritage resources. These three subsidiary

66

patterns involve natural features, geological and physiographical formations and

natural sites. Article 2 also provides the definition of each subsidiary pattern of the

previous three patterns of the natural heritage (UNESCO 2005a).

The definitions adopted in the United Kingdom

The key British legislation concerned with heritage conservation seem to lack a clear

definitions for the various patterns of heritage resources that are protected by means

tried to provide a definition, or description, of what is meant by scheduled

monuments. Article 1 in the previous law provides an explanation of what is meant

HER

d Buildings

special architectural or historic interest the character or appearance of which it is

,

p42).

Despite that the British legislation concerned with architectural and urban

Heritage has tried to provide a definition of the assets that represent the subjects of

generations of people made o

common wealth. Most of our towns and cities, and all of our countryside, are made

67

up of layer upon layer of human activity. Each generation has made its mark. And

each makes its decisions about th

environmental capital and the tradable historic environmental capital.

The definitions adopted in the United States of America

been largely used to describe the subjects of the historic preservation process. The

definitio

building, site, structure, object, or district evaluated as having significance in

historic resource means any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, or

object included in, or eligible for inclusion on the National Register, including

States Code: Title 16,470w. Definitions | LII / Legal Information Institute 2011, p1).

The National Register Bulletin, published by the National Park Service, has adopted

perty is an] area of land containing a single historic resource or

a group of resources, and constituting a single entry in the National Register of

definition of resource r

68

The definitions adopted in Ireland, Malta and Egypt

y) and

eir

settings and attendant grounds, fixtures and fittings, groups of such structures and

buildings, and sites which are of architectural, historical, archaeological, artistic,

ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE (NATIONAL INVENTORY) AND HISTORIC

MONUMENTS (MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS) ACT, 1999 2011, p2).

tural

heritage means movable or immovable objects of artistic, architectural, historical,

archaeological, ethnographic, palaeontological and geological importance and

includes information or data relative to cultural heritage pertaining to Malta or to any

other country. This includes archaeological, palaeontological or geological sites and

deposits, landscapes, groups of buildings, as well as scientific collections, collections

of arts objects, manuscripts, books, published material, archives, audio-visual

material and reproductions of any of the preceding, or collections of historical value,

as well as intangible cultural assets comprising arts, traditions, customs and skills

employed in the performing arts, in applied arts and in crafts and other intangible

Ministry for Justice

and Home Affairs 2002, p2). In Egypt, t

definition is any real-estate or movable object produced by the

various civilizations or evolved by fine arts, science, arts and religions from the pre-

historic era and through the consecutive historic eras till prior to one hundred years

ago, as long as it enjoys an outstanding archaeological or historical importance, as a

feature of the various civilizations resided on the Egyptian land, or as an evidence of

69

a historic relationship with these civilizations, and also the remains of human strains

o Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a,

p3).

The classification of the various patterns of heritage resources

The classification of heritage resources on the international level

Some of the international conservation charters have tried to address some patterns of

heritage resources. The Athens Charter addresses some patterns of heritage resources,

which are historic monuments and groups of monuments (Athens Charter for the

Restoration of Historic Monuments 2002). The Venice Charter addresses some

patterns of heritage resources, which are historic monuments and historic sites

(ICOMOS ___).

Resolutions of the International Symposium on the Conservation of

ication of historic towns, as a

pattern of heritage resources. The resolutions indicate that historic towns can be

classified according to their common challenges and according to some common

features. These common features might involve size, cultural context and economic

function (Conservation of Smaller Historic Towns 2011). The Washington Charter,

which is concerned with the conservation of historic towns, has also tried to provide a

classification of heritage resources. The previous charter has classified urban

communities as either communities developed gradually over time or communities

that have been created deliberately. The charter classifies historic urban areas by size

into either large or small historic urban areas. The charter also classifies historic

urban areas into cities, towns, and historic centres or quarters. It also classifies the

environment of these historic urban areas into either natural environments or man-

made environments (ICOMOS ___).

The World Heritage Convention classifies heritage resources into a group of

categories. The key categories involve cultural sites, natural sites, and another new

70

in 1993. Cultural sites also involve

ley 1998). Historic

towns, in turn, can be classified into a group of other subsidiary categories. These

,

toric towns, which

represent one of the previous three categories, involve other subsidiary categories,

which are

evolved along characteristic lines and have preserved spatial arrangements and

UNESCO 2008).

The classification of heritage resources in the United Kingdom

Protected heritage resources in the United Kingdom seem to be classified into two

broad groups. These two broad groups are protected areas and protected individual

resources. Protected areas might involve areas designated as conservation areas

(Figure 15), while the protected individual heritage resources might involve historic

buildings listed as listed buildings (Figure 16). In addition to conservation areas,

protected areas might involve other designated areas; such as archaeological areas or

areas of archaeological importance, registered battlefields, and historic parks and

gardens (Mynors 1995). There are other patterns of protected urban areas; such as

areas of archaeological interest, areas of great landscape value, and areas of

outstanding natural beauty (THE CONSERVATION GLOSSARY Home Page 2011).

Protected individual heritage resources can also be classified into two

categories, which are listed buildings and scheduled monuments. Listed buildings

might be defined as buildings of special architectural or historic interest (English

Heritage 2001). Both Mynors (1995) and Ross (1991) discuss the controversy of the

71

Figure 14. Historic Centre (Old Town) of Tallinn World Heritage Site, inTallinn in Estonia, which represents the historic towns and groups ofbuildings category of cultural World Heritage Sites.

71

72

definition of listed buildings. The previous controversy is mainly associated with the

expre

and any part of a building, as so defined, but does not include plant or machinery

comprised

something that is artificial, the construction of man, put together of bricks and mortar,

and used

... includes a structure, and therefore things which would not ordinarily be called

buildings a

The previous controversy might be the reason why many landscape elements have

been listed as listed buildings. The process of preparing inventories of listed buildings

buildings that enjoy an architectural or historical interest carried out within the area

of each planning authority. The prepared list of listed buildings is usually divided into

smaller units. These smaller units involve districts, parishes and burghs (Historic

Scotland ___). The address of any property listed as a listed building is the statutory

element in the list. The list of listed buildings includes, in addition to the statutory

addresses of the listed buildings, the grades or the categories of the listed buildings, a

category map reference, the name of the architect who designed the listed building, a

brief description of the listed building, and any relevant references. In addition to the

official list of listed buildings, there is another list prepared by English Heritage in

e considered seriously

vulnerable.

Listed buildings are also classified into three grades. Neither the classification

of listed buildings into three grades nor the grades themselves are statutory. Despite

the previous fact, it is very crucial to assign every listed building a grade of these

73

Figure 15. Montrose Conservation Area, in Montrose in Scotland, is anexample of the many conservation areas designated in the United Kingdom.

73

74

three grades to determine its priority for grant aids (Ross 1991). The three grades of

listed buildings in England are grade I, grade II* and grade II. Grade I listed buildings

are those buildings that enjoy an exceptional interest. Grade II* listed buildings are

those important buildings that enjoy more than a special interest. Finally, the grade II

listed buildings are the buildings that enjoy a special interest (English Heritage 2001).

In Scotland, the grades are called categories and are different from those in England.

The three categories in Scotland are category A, category B and category C(s).

Category A is assigned to the listed buildings that enjoy a national or international

importance. Category B is assigned to the listed buildings that enjoy a regional or

more than a local importance. Finally, category C (s) is assigned to the listed

buildings that enjoy a local importance (Historic Scotland ___).

The selection of properties for listing as listed buildings is usually carried out

depending on a set of criteria. The selection criteria adopted by PPG15 involve the

architectural interest, the historic interest, the close historical association and the

group value (Mynors 1995). On the other hand, Larkham (1996) cites another more

detailed group of criteria, which are usually briefed as an acronym, which is B

nds for

and the letter S stands

Protected individual heritage resources involve another category concerned

with scheduled monuments. The definition of monuments, which has been adopted

monument is] any building, structure or work, whether above or below the surface of

also involve] any site comprising the remains of any such building, structure or work

or of any cave or excavation; and any site comprising, or comprising the remain of,

any vehicle, vessel, aircrafts, or other movable structure or part thereof which neither

75

Figure 16. Morgan Tower, in Dundee in Scotland, which is an A listed building(Historic Scotland Data Website - Listed Buildings 2012), is an example of themany listed buildings listed in the United Kingdom.

75

76

constitutes nor forms part of any work which is a monument [according to the former

ich are

in the opinion of the Secretary of State of public interest by reason of the historic,

1991, p139). Similar to listed buildings, scheduled monuments are compiled in

inventories in a process similar to that of listed buildings except that it is called

Ross (1991) has adopted a classification of scheduled monuments in the United

Kingdom. The previous classification has been based on the historic era to which

scheduled monuments belong. According to the previous classification, scheduled

monuments might be classified as either prehistoric, Roman, early medieval,

medieval, and post-medieval scheduled monuments. Ross (1991) has also listed a

group of criteria based on which scheduled monuments can be selected for

scheduling. These criteria involve the survival and the condition, the period, the

rarity, the fragility and the vulnerability, the diversity, the availability of

documentation records, the group value, and the potentiality of the potential

scheduled monuments.

The French approach to classify the protected heritage resources

Heritage resources in France can also be classified into the same two broad categories

that are relevant to the British experience. These two categories are the protected

areas and the protected individual heritage resources. Protected urban areas in France

involve various models, such as secteur sauvegardés (Kain 1981) and zones de

protection du patrimoine architectural, urbain et paysager (Ballester 1996a). The

French approach to classify the various protected individual heritage resources seems

to be entirely different from the British approach. In the United Kingdom, protected

individual heritage resources are classified as either listed buildings or scheduled

77

monuments. Unlike the British experience, the French approach to classify the

protected individual heritage resources tends to compile all these individual resources

under the single category of monuments. Monuments, in turn, are classified into three

subsidiary categories. The criterion based on which monuments are classified is the

level of significance of these monuments. The level of significance of some

monuments might be limited to the regional level, while, for other monuments, the

level of significance might reach the national level (Skea 2002). Rodwell (1975)

points out that the French monuments were first classified into two categories, later a

third category has been added to these two categories. The two early categories are

monument classés, or what can be called classified monuments, and monument

inscrits, or what can be called listed monuments (Skea 2002). Monument classés,

which are considered as national monuments (Ibid) and as works of major

architectural importance, might involve cathedrals, palaces, the most important

churches, châteaux and hôtels (Rodwell 1975). On the other hand, monument inscrits,

whose level of significance does not exceed the regional level (Skea 2002), are less

important than monument classés (Rodwell 1975). The third category that has been

recently added to the previous two categories is called agreed monuments.

Monuments belonging to the previous third category are not eligible for grant aids

(Ibid).

The classification of heritage resources in Malta and Egypt

In Malta, heritage resources can be classified into the previous two categories, which

are either protected urban areas or protected individual heritage resources. The

Maltese protected areas involve a number of models of conservation areas, such as

the Maltese urban conservation areas (Figure 17), areas of ecological importance,

sites of scientific importance, areas of archaeological importance and sites of

archaeological importance (Buchanan and the Planning Services Division in the

Government of Malta 1990). Individual heritage resources in Malta, particularly

buildings, are provided an official protection by listing them as listed buildings. The

78

Figure 17. Valletta Urban Conservation Area, in Valletta inMalta, is an example of the Maltese designated urbanconservation areas.

78

79

Maltese listed buildings are classified into three groups. Each group is given a grade

of three grades. The three grades are grade 1 listed buildings, grade 2 listed buildings

and grade 3 listed buildings. The criterion based on which listed buildings are

classified into any of the previous three groups is the provided level of protection.

Grade 1 listed buildings are the buildings that enjoy an outstanding architectural or

historical value. These buildings will be preserved in their entirety. Internal

alterations to grade 1 listed buildings might be exceptionally consented if these

alterations were found essential to keep the building in an active use. Grade 2 listed

buildings are those buildings that enjoy some architectural or historical interest, or

those buildings that contribute to the visual image of urban conservation areas.

Applications to demolish grade 2 listed buildings will not be normally consented.

Internal alterations to these buildings might be consented if it was found that they do

not affect the character and the architectural homogeneity of the concerned listed

building. Finally, grade 3 listed buildings are the buildings that do not enjoy any

historical value and enjoy a minor architectural value. Demolition of these buildings

might be consented as long as the new building that will replace the demolished one

is in harmony with its surroundings (Ibid).

The previous preview seems to emphasize a common approach to classify the

various heritage resources. According to this common approach, heritage resources

can be classified into two broad groups. These two broad groups are either the

protected urban areas or the protected individual heritage resources. The previous

approach seems to be relevant to all the previously previewed experiences in

architectural and urban conservation; such as the British, the French and the Maltese

experiences. Till 2008, the Egyptian experience in architectural and urban

conservation has lacked such an approach towards the classification of heritage

resources. Till that time, heritage resources in Egypt were classified under a single

category, which can be called protected individual heritage resources. The previous

category involved, in addition to antiquities, the properties that have been listed as

buildings and structures enjoying a distinctive architectural style. The last category,

which is buildings and structures enjoying a distinctive architectural style, has been

80

introduced under the "Egyptian Act No. 144 (2006) on the Control of the Demolition

of Buildings and Stable Structures and the Conservation of the Architectural

Heritage" (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008). On the other hand, properties

are selected for scheduling as antiquities based on a group of criteria. The key

criterion, of these criteria, is the age of the property, or what can be called its historic

value. The age of the selected property should be at least one hundred years old. The

selected property should also enjoy other values, such as the archaeological value.

Article 1 in the

addresses the various criteria based on which properties might be selected for

scheduling as antiquities. While Article 2, in the same law, allows the scheduling of

some properties as antiquities despite that their age is less than one hundred years old

as long as they enjoy some values, such as the archaeological value and the historic

value (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009a). The Supreme Council of

Antiquities has adopted a classification of the scheduled Egyptian antiquities that is

based on the era to which antiquities belong. According to this classification,

antiquities might be classified as either Egyptian, Greco-Roman, Coptic or Islamic

antiquities (Eternal Egypt 2011).

In 2008, a new category of heritage resources has been adopted in Egypt for

the first time. This new category is the previously discussed category that can be

called protected urban areas. Adopting a statutory model of conservation areas,

almost similar to the British conservation areas, in Egypt has led to the introduction

of this second category of heritage resources in Egypt. The Egyptian model of

conservation areas has been called areas enjoying a distinctive value. The previous

(Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b).

81

Chapter Five

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn PPrrootteeccttiivvee aanndd IInntteerrvveenniinngg MMeeaassuurreess

One of the key challenges facing architectural and urban conservation practice

worldwide is the lack of a common conception of the various conservation protective

and intervening measures. Murtagh (1997) addresses the previous challenge, which is

recognized on the national level in the United States of America. Murtagh indicates

that the conception of the various conservation protective and intervening measures

varies among conservation practitioners according to their professional backgrounds,

and according to the disciplines to which they belong. These varying conceptions

might take place among practitioners belonging to different disciplines; such as

museum curators, historians and planners. Such varying conceptions might result in a

confusion of the connotations of the various lingual expressions describing the

various conservation protective measures. The previous problem seems to extend

beyond the limited national level to the international level. The previous problem

might also be attributed to the lack of an agreed-upon international glossary of the

various conservation protective measures (Murtagh 1997). The previous problem

might also be attributed to other cultural and lingual factors. The notions of the key

conservation principles, such as authenticity and integrity, might vary from one

culture to the other. The notion of authenticity adopted by eastern cultures is different

from that adopted by western cultures (Cumming 2002). The notion of integrity

officially adopted in the United States of America is similar to that of authenticity

adopted elsewhere.

the various conservation protective and intervening measures. The acronym

alterations, subtraction, addition and control. Grieve has adopted a definition of the

ll as definitions of the other conservation protective and

82

CONSERVATION GLOSSARY b 2011).

nt by the word

resolving the ambiguity concerning the boundaries between the two expressions,

ther

conservation protective measures; such as restoration, preservation and

buildings structure or fabric to return it to the state or condition it was in at a

particul

GLOSSARY d 2011, p1). Finally, recons

limited to the reproduction of fabric, the original form of which is known and

CONSERVATION GLOSSARY e 2011, p1).

Kain (1981b) points out that conservation is a global expression that involves a

wide range of subsidiary notions associated with the various disciplines interested in

conservation. His definition of conservation states that:

ons and can

describe a variety of philosophical stances in relation to the natural and

built environments. Its ethic can be invoked from motives as hard-headed

and materialistic as cost minimization by those concerned, for example,

with energy conservation and the efficient use of scarce resources. Its

umbrella is also wide enough to shelter those who subscribe to the tenet

that the rich collage of time expressed in the fabric of historic cities on the

83

hand, and the rudeness of nature in the wildness on the other hand, are

-being and can add to the quality of

The lingual definitions of the various conservation interventions

The differences between the various lingual definitions describing the various

conservation interventions also reflect the problem of the lack of an internationally

approved set of definitions of conservation interventions. Oxford Dictionary (Oxford

University 1971) provides lingual meanings and descriptions of some conservation

interventions; such as conservation, salvage, preservation, restoration, rehabilitation,

refurbishment, reconstitution, reconstruction, replication, renovation and remodelling.

Those definitions seem to be overlapping and so vague that it is very hard to find

conserving; preservation from destructive influences, natural decay, or waste;

The previous definition of conservation, which describes conservation as a process to

preserve heritage resources, seems to be confusing, since it does not clarify the

differences between the two processes, which are conservation and preservation. The

lingual definition of restoration also reflects the same problem. Restoration is defined

previous definition seems to be very confusing; since carrying out alterations to

heritage resources, or generally renovating them, does not seem to conform to the

notion of restoring them to their original condition. The lingual definition of

rehabilitat

replacing a thing in, or restoring it to, a previous condition or status. Restoration to a

since the concept of rehabilitating heritage resources might not conform to the notion

of restoring them to a previous condition. The process of the rehabilitation of disused

84

historic buildings has always been known as a process that allows reusing such

buildings either by putting them to new uses or by sustaining their original uses

(Figure 18). The lingual definition of reconstruction is also ambiguous.

ference between the demolition of the remnants of

historic buildings and rebuilding them anew and the restoration of existing historic

fabrics seems to be unclear, according to the previous definition. Renovation is

the condition of having been renovated;

The previous definition explains the process of the renovation of historic buildings as

if it is a restoration process. The concept of renovation seems to contradict with the

concept of restoration, which is a process concerned with the reinstatement of

heritage resources to a particular historic condition. The explanation of the process of

renovation as a restoration work might n

of other conservation interventions:

p2630)

ion: The action of preserving or keeping from injury or

destruction; the act of being preserved. The state or condition of being

468)

p2496)

The international framework

On the international level, the ICOMOS charters are considered the official

international documents that control conservation practice worldwide. Most of those

85

Figure 18. Gardyne's Land, which is a complex of five historicbuildings in Dundee in Scotland, has been re-used as a youthhostel (gardynes 2012).

85

86

charters tend to use general language and mostly include recommendations

concerning the various aspects of conservation practice. It seems that those charters

tend to leave the introduction of specific definitions of conservation interventions for

every country that is expected to adopt its own official list of definitions. Only the

national charters might include detailed lists of definitions of the various conservation

interventions. The Athens Charter (Appendix 1) includes a number of

recommendations concerning the various conservation interventions; such as

restoration, reuse and preservation. However, the charter does not seem to include

any concrete definitions. For instance, in relation to restoration, the charter states that

recommends that the historic and artistic work of the past should be respected,

Restoration of Historic Monuments - 1931 - International Council on Monuments and

Sites 2012, p1). The charter also points out that, for restoration or consolidation

works, the cautious use of modern materials in ancient monuments is accepted as

long as it is concealed (Ibid). In relation to preservation, the Athens Charter states

opinion that the removal of works of art from the surroundings for which they were

designed is, in principle, to be discouraged. The charter recommends, by way of

precaution, the preservation of original models whenever these still exist or if this

occupation of historic buildings so as to ensure the continuity of their lives, and

The Venice Charter (Appendix 2) has been the first charter to adopt a definition of

one of these conservation interventions, which has been the definition of restoration.

of restoration is a highly specialised operation. Its aim is to preserve and reveal the

aesthetic and historic value of the monument and is based on respect for original

87

(Earl 1997, p96). The charter also includes a number of recommendations concerned

with the use and reuse of monuments, and the conservation and restoration of historic

sites (Earl 1997).

The Burra Carter, adopted in 1981 (Ibid), can be considered one of the earliest

charters to adopt a comprehensive list of definitions of the various conservation

interventions. This list of definitions includes definitions of conservation

interventions; such as conservation, maintenance, preservation, restoration,

reconstruction and adaptation (Ibid). The definitions of the previous conservation

interventions are:

retain its cultural significance. It includes maintenance and may according

to circumstance include preservation, restoration, reconstruction and

adaptation and will be commonly a combination of more than one of these.

Maintenance means the continuous protective care of the fabric, contents

and setting of a place, and is to be distinguished from repair. Repair

involves restoration or reconstruction and it should be treated accordingly.

Preservation means maintaining the fabric of a place in its existing state

and retarding deterioration.

Restoration means returning the existing fabric of a place to a known

earlier state by removing accretions or by reassembling existing

components without the introduction of new material.

Reconstruction means returning a place as nearly as possible to a known

earlier state and is distinguished by the introduction of materials (new or

old) into the fabric. This is not to be confused with either re-creation or

conjectural reconstruction, which are outside the scope of this charter.

(Ibid, p100)

88

The code of ethics, developed by the International Institute for Conservation in

Ottawa, includes some definitions of some conservation interventions; such as

conservation, preservation, reconstruction and restoration (Ibid). Those definitions

are completely different from the previous definitions adopted by the Burra Charter.

Although the definitions are different, they do not contradict with each other. It is

even possible to find some similarities among corresponding definitions, such as the

definition of preservation. The definition of preservation in the Burra Charter implies

retaining the fabric in its state and carrying out all necessary remedial works. In the

Canadian code the definition of preservation implies stopping the damage and

deterioration by all possible means, and also implies the possibility to maintain the

current condition of the fabric. It is also possible to find such similarities between the

definitions of restoration in both charters, since both definitions imply the

reinstatement of the heritage resource to an early state. The definitions of the

conservation interventions adopted by the Canadian code are:

for the future. Its purpose is to study, record, retain and restore the

culturally significant qualities of the object with the least possible

intervention.

Preservation: All actions taken to retard deterioration of or prevent damage

to cultural property, it involves controlling the environment and conditions

of use, and may include treatment in order to maintain a cultural property,

as nearly as possible, in an unchanging state.

Reconstruction: All actions taken to recreate, in whole or in part, a cultural

property, based upon historical, literary, graphic, pictorial, archaeological

and scientific evidence. Its aim is to provide an understanding of a cultural

property, and is based on little or no original material but clear evidence of

a former state.

Restoration: All actions taken to modify the existing materials and structure

of a cultural property to represent a known earlier state. Its aim is to

89

preserve and reveal the aesthetic and historic value of a cultural property

and it is based on respect for remaining original material and clear evidence

d, p111)

The problem of the inconsistency among the definitions of the various conservation

interventions can also be found in the official definitions adopted by a number of

different countries. The lingual differences between the English and the American

dialects can be considered the reason for the inconsistency between the corresponding

vocabularies describing the various conservation interventions that are adopted by

both countries. In England, conservation is used as the umbrella expression sheltering

all the other subsidiary conservation interventions. On the other hand, in the United

States of America, the equivalent expression is historic preservation.

The definitions officially adopted in the United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the key legislation concerned with architectural and urban

Act 1997" in Scotland. Both acts include definitions of some conservation

vocabularies; such as the definition of a building, the definition of listed buildings,

and the meaning of listed building consent. They also include a supplement in Part

IV, which includes explanations of what is meant by some conservation expressions;

such as conservation area, conservation area consent and listed building. However, it

seems that both acts have not adopted any official definitions of the various

conservation interventions (The Stationery Office 1990, Planning (Listed Buildings

and Conservation Areas) (Scotland) Act 1997 2012).

The MEMORANDUM OF GUIDANCE on listed buildings and conservation

areas (Historic Scotland 1998) includes a number of recommendations concerned

with the various undertakings affecting the built heritage; such as the demolition of

old buildings, the adaptive re-use of historic buildings, and the change of use of old

90

buildings. Article 2.10 in the sub-

r of the memorandum includes

with regard to the demolition of listed buildings is that no worthwhile building should

be lost to our environment unless it is demonstrated beyond reasonable doubt that

(Ibid, p14). The memorandum also includes few definitions, such as the definition of

the demolition of listed buildings adopted in section 7.0.0

whole building. Demolition of a lesser part of the building should usually be regarded

as an alteration to it and applications for such work handl

p175). Except for the previous definition, the memorandum does not seem to include

any other definitions of any of the conservation interventions.

The British Standards include a separate standard concerned with conservation

practice, which has adopted a list of the definitions of the various conservation

interventions (The British Standards 1998). The British standard number 7913: 1998,

Historic Bu

This British standard has adopted a list of definitions of conservation interventions;

such as alteration, conservation, conversion, design, intervention, maintenance,

preservation, protection, rebuilding, reconstruction, repair, replication, restoration and

reversibility. The definitions that this standard has adopted are:

function of a building or artefact or to modify its appearance.

Conservation: Action to secure the survival or preservation of buildings,

cultural artefacts, natural resources, energy or any other thing of

acknowledged value for the future.

Conversion: Alteration, the object of which is a change of use of a building

or artefact, from one use or type to another.

91

Design: Abstract concept of a building or artefact. It can exist in the mind

or on paper and if realized, it can be represented in the building or artefact

itself.

Intervention: Any action which has a physical effect on the fabric of a

building or artefact.

Maintenance: Routine work necessary to keep the fabric of a building, the

moving parts of machinery, grounds, gardens or any other artefact, in good

order.

Preservation: State of survival of building or artefact, whether by historical

accident or through a combination of protection and active conservation.

Protection: Provision of legal restraints or controls on the destruction or

damage of buildings or artefacts, natural features, systems, sites, areas or

other things of acknowledged value, with a view to their survival or

preservation for the future.

Rebuilding: Remaking, on the basis of a recorded or reconstructed design, a

building or part of a building or artefact which has been irretrievably

damaged or destroyed.

Reconstruction: Re-establishment of what occurred or what existed in the

past, on the basis of documentary or physical evidence.

Repair: Work beyond the scope of regular maintenance to remedy defects,

significant decay or damage caused deliberately or by accident, neglect,

normal weathering or wear and tear, the object of which is to retain the

building or artefact to good order, without alteration or restoration.

Replication: Making an exact copy or copies of a building or artefact.

Restoration: Alteration of a building, part of a building or artefact which

has decayed, been lost or damaged or is thought to have been

inappropriately repaired or altered in the past, the objective of which is to

make it conform again to its design or appearance at a previous date.

92

Reversibility: Concept of work to a building, part of a building or artefact

being carried out in such a way that it can be reversed at some future time,

-3)

The previous British standard includes other definitions and explanations of other

relevant conservation vocabularies. The Stirling Charter (Historic Scotland 2000) has

definitions to the previous list.

The official definitions adopted in the United States of America

In the United States of America, the key federal legislation concerned with historic

act has

not adopted any official list of definitions of the various conservation interventions.

Nevertheless, one of the relevant historic preservation guidelines; which is the

guidelines for preserving, rehabilitating, restoring, and reconstructing historic

buildings; has adopted a separate list of the definitions of these measures. The

previous guidelines include definitions of a number of conservation interventions;

which are preservation, rehabilitation, restoration and reconstruction (Weeks 1995).

Murtagh (1997) provides a glossary of the definitions of the various conservation

vocabularies, which also includes definitions of some conservation interventions.

Although this glossary is based on the National Park Service and the National Trust

for Histori

reflect these inconsistencies. The definition that the guidelines for preserving,

rehabilitating, restoring, and reconstructing historic buildings have adopted for

preservation is:

93

necessary to sustain the existing form, integrity, and materials of an historic

property. Work, including preliminary measures to protect and stabilize the

property, generally focuses upon the ongoing maintenance and repair of

historic materials and features rather than extensive replacement and new

Historic Buildings: Home Page 2012, p1)

glossary, is:

or process of applying measures to sustain the

existing form, integrity, and material of a building or structure and the

existing form and vegetative cover of a site. It may include initial

stabilization work, where necessary, as well as ongoing maintenance of the

explaining some conservation interventions; such as adaptive use, demolition,

destruction, preservation, reconstruction, rehabilitation, relocation, renovation,

restoration, rural preservation and stabilization. The following are the definitions

officially adopted by the guidelines for preserving, rehabilitating, restoring, and

reconstructing historic buildings of the conservation interventions; which are

rehabilitation, restoration and reconstruction:

compatible use for a property through repair, alterations, and additions

while preserving those portions or features which convey its historical,

Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings: Home Page 2012, p1)

94

depicting the

form, features, and character of a property, as it appeared at a particular

period of time by means of the removal of features from other periods in its

history and reconstruction of missing features from the restoration period.

The limited and sensitive upgrading of mechanical, electrical, and

plumbing systems and other code-required work to make properties

Restoration and Guidelines for Restoring Historic Buildings 2012, p1)

new construction, the form, features, and detailing of a non-surviving site,

landscape, building, structure, or object for the purpose of replicating its

appearance at a specif

(Standards for Reconstruction and Guidelines for Reconstructing Historic

Buildings 2012, p1)

The Egyptian officially adopted definitions

definitions of any of conservation interventions. Article 13 in the previous act

addresses some procedures concerned with undertaking alterations to antiquities,

while article 30 addresses other procedures concerned with the restoration and

preservation of antiquities. Nevertheless, none of these articles has included any

definitions of these conservation interventions (Department of the Legislative Affairs

vocabularies used in the act. Nevertheless, it did not involve any definitions of any

conservation interventions (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2008). The

95

can be considered the main legislation concerned with architectural and urban

conservation in Egypt. The previous act has adopted some definitions of some

relevant conservation vocabularies, such as the definitions of the buildings enjoying a

distinctive value and the areas enjoying a distinctive value. Nevertheless, the previous

act does not seem to have adopted any definitions of any conservation interventions

(Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b).

96

Chapter Six

BBaassiicc AArrcchhiitteeccttuurraall aanndd UUrrbbaann CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn CCoonncceeppttss::

AAnnaallyyssiiss ooff HHeerriittaaggee VVaalluueess,, aanndd AAuutthheennttiicciittyy aanndd IInntteeggrriittyy

EEvvaalluuaattiioonn

The architectural and urban conservation of the various heritage resources is expected

to involve material intervention influencing the heritage resources concerned.

Undertaking such material interventions should be based on clear conservation

strategy and philosophy. In some cases, the material conservation intervention in

heritage resources has been limited to the preservation of the relics of such heritage

resources, despite the availability of elaborate and accurate historic documents of the

original design of such relics. In other cases, the material intervention might take the

form of re-building the dilapidated historic buildings and adapting them to new uses.

The previous two examples seem to highlight one of the most significant

controversies associated with architectural and urban conservation practice.

To address the previous conservation controversy, many arguments have been

put forward. One of the arguments resorted to the historic era, to which the heritage

resource belongs, as a crucial factor that guides the conservation philosophy of such a

heritage resource. Common conservation practices seem to indicate that the

conservation of ancient monuments belonging to ancient eras, such as ancient

Egyptian or Roman eras, has always avoided the reconstruction of the missing

features of such monuments. The conservation of such monuments has also avoided

adapting them to alternative uses. On the other hand, the conservation of many

historic buildings, belonging either to the medieval or to the modern eras, has

succeeded in giving them alternative uses. Despite that the previous argument seems

to be sound, it might be weakened by other instances when the conservation of

ancient monuments successfully adapted them to modern uses. The successful

97

Markets, in Rome (Figure 19), is an example of such conservation practices. Some

other instances might even aggravate the previous controversy. The conservation

approach to some monuments, such as the Arbroath Abbey in Scotland (Figure 20),

seems to conform to the conservation approach adopted at ancient sites, such as the

Egyptian and Roman ancient sites. The missing parts of the abbey have not been

reconstructed, nor has it been given an alternative function. The abbey, which has

been founded in 1178 (Mackie and Cruden 1998), can be considered relatively very

modern if compared with the much older ancient Egyptian or Roman monuments.

Another argument has attributed the adopted conservation strategy of any site

to the influences of the heritage legislation or the international conservation charters.

In the United Kingdom, some historic sites are scheduled as ancient monuments,

while other historic sites are listed as listed buildings. The crucial criterion according

to which the historic site might be either scheduled or listed is the potentials of the

site and whether it can accommodate a new function or not. Some properties in the

United Kingdom are scheduled as ancient monuments and listed as listed buildings.

Edinburgh castle in Scotland is an example of such properties. The heritage

legislation that is involved with the management of ancient monuments is totally

different from the legislation that is concerned with the management of listed

buildings. The allowed physical conservation interventions in each case are expected

to differ according to the relevant legislation.

The previous two arguments are relevant, to some extent, despite that they miss

some points. It seems that the crucial factor, according to which the conservation

strategy of any historic site can be coined, is the potentials and qualities of the

heritage resource concerned. These qualities are usually referred to as the heritage

values satisfied by the heritage resource. Before adopting any conservation strategy,

and before making and decisions concerned with the conservation of any heritage

resource, conservationists should firstly understand and analyze the various values

satisfied by the heritage resource concerned. Feilden (2003) points out that the main

objective of architectural and urban conservation should be to preserve, and if

98

Figure 19. Tra

98

99

possible to enhance the values of the heritage resource. Therefore, conservationists

should first identify the values satisfied by the heritage resource concerned. They also

should decide on the values that should be preserved and enhanced. Regarding that

the enhancement of some values might be associated with the decline in other values.

The previous argument, which considers value analysis as the crucial factor that

should guide conservation strategies, seems to support the other argument that

attributes conservation strategies to the influences of heritage legislation in the United

Kingdom. It is obvious that the criterion according to which historic sites, in the

United Kingdom, can be either scheduled as scheduled monuments or listed as listed

buildings is the use value. Conservation strategies should also be developed based on

thorough evaluation of the authenticity and integrity of the heritage resource. Value

analysis and authenticity and integrity evaluation are considered as the basic concepts

of architectural and urban conservation.

The notion and definitions of heritage values

Jokilehto defines heritage value, in relation to cultural heritage, as "a social

association of qualities to things" (Jokilehto 2006, p2). He also indicates that values

evolve through cultural-social processes, and that learning and awareness experiences

influence the development of heritage values. Value can also be defined as "a socially

constructed phenomenon" (Throsby 2000, p27). The establishment of a heritage value

is a process closely associated with its social context (Ibid). Mason (2002)

emphasizes that heritage values evolve as a result of the interaction of the artifact and

its context. He adds that heritage values do not evolve from the absolute qualities of

the artifacts. Heritage values can also be defined as "those qualities regarded by a

person, group or community as important and desirable" (Carter and Bramley 2002,

p178). Heritage values can be classified as intrinsic or extrinsic values. Intrinsic

values are those values that are inherently existent in the heritage resource and do not

need manipulation so that they can be realized. On the other hand, extrinsic values

are those values that depend on the human perception of the heritage resource and

100

Figure 20. Arbroath Abbey, in Arbroath in Scotland.

100

101

always need to be experienced so that such values can be appreciated (Ibid). The

previously emphasized association of heritage values to their context seems to

indicate that values enjoy a relative nature. The values held by one generation might

differ from those held by other generations (Spennemann 2006).

Value typologies

Values are usually classified and grouped in subsidiary sets under what can be called

typologies of values. The Burra Charter is the most prominent international document

that has adopted a clear typology of values. The charter has adopted a typology of

According to the Burra Charter, the aesthetic value involves aspects of the cultural

heritage that can be experienced by means of the human senses. The sensory

perception of the aesthetic value involves aspects of the cultural heritage; such as

form, scale, colour, texture and material of the fabric, the smells and the sounds

associated with the place of the concerned heritage resource, and its use. The historic

value of the heritage resource is concerned with the historic associations of the

heritage resource with events or people in the past. The scientific value of the

heritage resource is involved with the educational and research values of the property.

Finally, the social value of the heritage resource is concerned with the qualities of the

heritage resource that have contributed towards making the heritage resource the

focus of a spiritual, political, national, or other cultural sentiment to a particular

cultural group (Australia ICOMOS 1999).

One of the earliest typologies of values is the typology developed by Alois

Riegl in the book that he published, and which is entitled "The modern cult of

monuments: its character and its origin". Riegl classifies heritage values into two

-

the intended

-

102

the art value, the newness value and the relative art value (Jokilehto 1999b). Feilden

(2003) has developed another typology of heritage values. He classifies heritage

values into three broad groups; which are the emotional values, the cultural values

values; such as the wonder value, the identity value, the continuity value, the respect

and veneration values, and the symbolic and spiritual values. The cultural values

involve values; such as the documentary value, the historic value, the archaeological

and the age values, the aesthetic and the architectural values, the townscape value, the

landscape and the ecological values, and the technological and scientific values.

Finally, the use values include values; such as the functional value, the economic

value, the social value, the educational value, and the political value.

English Heritage has also developed a typology of values, which has been

detailed in its publication entitled "Sustaining the historic environment: new

perspectives on the future" (English Heritage 1997). English Heritage has classified

heritage values into six groups; which are the cultural values, the educational and

academic values, the economic values, the resource values, the recreational values,

and the aesthetic values. Compared with other typologies, the previous typology is

very distinctive because of its concerns about the sustainability dimension in

conservation. Adopting a new value that has been called the resource value manifests

r-lived buildings usually make better

use of the energy and resources that were used during their construction, and reuse is

usually more economic than demolition and redevelopment. Conservation is

08, English Heritage has

adopted another more developed typology of values, which has been detailed in the

publication entitled "CONSERVATION PRINCIPLES, POLICIES AND

GUIDANCE FOR THE SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF THE HISTORIC

ENVIRONMENT" (English Heritage 2008). The previous typology has classified the

103

In addition to the previous officially adopted typologies of heritage values,

other scholars have developed their typologies of values. Mason (2002) has proposed

a typology of heritage values that involves two groups of values. These two groups

are the sociocultural values and the economic values. The sociocultural values

include the historical value, the cultural/symbolic value, the social value, the

spiritual/religious value and the aesthetic value. On the other hand, the economic

values include the use (market) value, the none use (nonmarket) value, the existence

value, the option value and the bequest value.

The Egyptian legislation concerned with architectural and urban conservation,

on the Control of the Demolition of

Buildings and Stable Structures and the Con

, have also been involved

with particular values. The Act No. 144 is involved with values; such as the

architectural value, the historic value and the economic value (Department of the

Legislative Affairs 2008). On the other hand, the Act No. 119 is involved with

values; such as the architectural value, the historic value, the artistic value, the

functional value, the townscape value, the aesthetic value, and the landscape and the

ecological values (Department of the Legislative Affairs 2009b).

The implications of heritage values

The conservation of any heritage resource should be based on a clear understanding

of the various values satisfied by the concerned heritage resource. Therefore, the

conservation of any heritage resource should be preceded by a thorough analysis of

the various values that are satisfied by the concerned heritage resource. This initial

analysis should focus on identifying the various values satisfied by the heritage

resource, as well as on evaluating the level of significance of each value and of the

resource as a whole. Prior to undertaking the initial value analysis process,

conservationists should first define the implications and meanings of each heritage

value. These heritage values are diverse and can be classified and grouped according

104

a large number of value typologies. One of the key groups of heritage values, which

might be incorporated within many value typologies, can be called the emotional

values. Emotional values might involve other subsidiary values, such as the wonder

value, the identity value, the spiritual/religious value, and the respect and veneration

values. The wonder value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its ability

in stimulating secular emotions, such as wonder. The identity value of the heritage

resource can be revealed by its capability in stimulating the nation or the

ue of

the heritage resource might be manifested by its ability in stimulating the religious

emotions associated with the beliefs of the various religions (Mason 2002). The

spiritual/religious value of the heritage resource might also be manifested by its

retention of physical elements that embody its spiritual/religious value, such as

religious buildings (Figure 21) or its relics like spires or minarets (Feilden 2003).

Finally, the respect and veneration values of the heritage resource, which are similar

to the spiritual/religious value, can be manifested by its ability to stimulate the

Figure 21. The Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican is anexample of the buildings that enjoy an exceptional religious value.

104

105

that are historically associated with the concerned heritage resource.

The cultural values represent another well-established subsidiary group of

many value typologies. Cultural values might involve values, such as the historic

value, the age value, the archaeological value, the newness value, the aesthetic value,

the artistic value, the architectural value, the townscape and urban values, the

landscape and ecological values, and the scientific value. The historic value of the

heritage resource might be manifested by its retention of its original style and

condition (Jokilehto 1999b). The age of the heritage resource might also indicate its

historic value. The historic value of the heritage resource can also be expressed by its

historic association with events or people in the past, or by its association with an

outstanding designer or architect. The technological qualities of the heritage resource

might also indicate its historic value (Mason 2002). The age value is another value

that might be classified as a cultural value. The age value of the heritage resource

might be expressed by its retention of evidences of weathering and use over time, and

by its retention of patina of age and evidences of lack of integrity (Jokilehto 1999b).

The cultural values also involve the archaeological value. The archaeological value of

the heritage resource might be manifested by its archaeological qualities and

potentials. The cultural values might also involve another value that is called the

newness value. The newness value of the heritage resource might be manifested by

its representation of a contemporary architectural or artistic school of design (Figure

22).

The aesthetic value is another value that can be classified as a cultural value.

The aesthetic value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its unique and

exceptional visual qualities, and by its ability to offer exceptional sensual experiences

(Mason 2002). The cultural values involve other values, such as the artistic value.

The artistic value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its retention of

exceptional works of art.

106

Figure 22. Paimio Hospital, in Paimio in Finland, is an example of the recentheritage that enjoys a clear newness value because of its representation of themodernism architectural movement. The hospital has been designed by

var Aalto.

106

107

The architectural value is another significance value that can be classified

under the cultural values group. Evaluating the architectural value of the heritage

resource is still b

on three key aspects; which are durability, convenience and beauty. In the third

chapter of the first book, in the previous publication, Vitruvius discusses the various

departments of architecture. While discussing the various departments of architecture,

Vitruvius addresses the previous three aspects of architecture, which reflect his

architecture: the art of building, the making of time-pieces, and the construction of

machinery. Building is, in its turn, divided into two parts, of which the first is the

construction of fortified towns and of works for general use in public places, and the

second is the putting up of structures for private individuals. There are three classes

of public buildings: the first for defensive, the second for religious, and the third for

utilitarian purposes. Under defence comes the planning of walls, towers, and gates,

with due reference to durability -17).

three aspects of architecture: commodity, firmness and delight. Based on the previous

definitions and arguments, the architectural value of the heritage resource might be

n. The delight aspects of the

architectural value of the heritage resource might involve the relationship of the built

elements to the site of the heritage resource, the massing and silhouette of the

resource, the proportions of the elements that constitute the heritage resource, the size

of the various elements constituting the resource and its relationship to the human

ornaments. The firmness aspects of the architectural value might be manifested by the

108

structure system of the built elements of the heritage resource, its resistance to all

kinds of loads, and its durability. Finally, the commodity aspects of the architectural

value of the heritage resource might be manifested by the usefulness of the built

elements of the resource, and its ability to meet a variety of functions (Feilden 2003).

The architectural value of the heritage resource might also involve another subsidiary

aspect that can be called the sustainability, or environmental aspects of the

architectural value. The sustainability qualities of the heritage resource might be

manifested by its efficient use of energy and the natural resources that were used in

the construction of the built elements of the heritage resource (English Heritage

1997).

The cultural values might also involve another significant value that is

associated with historic urban areas, as a form of heritage resources, which can be

called the townscape and urban values. The townscape value of the heritage resource

might be manifested by the visual association and the unity of groups of buildings, as

well as the urban spaces encompassed among these buildings, which occupy the site

of the historic urban area. The townscape value of the heritage resource might be

indicated by the treatment of the street and pavement surfaces of the urban spaces in

the historic urban area. The inward and outward views of the historic urban area, as

well as its reference points and vistas might also indicate its townscape value (Feilden

2003). The landmark qualities of the historic urban area might also indicate its

exceptional townscape value. The unity of the urban environment attributed to the

application of local materials to the various elements constituting the urban setting of

the heritage resource might indicate its urban value (Feilden 2003).

The landscape value of the heritage resource is another value that can be

classified as a cultural value. The landscape value of the heritage resource might be

manifested by the quality of the various landscape elements associated with the

heritage resource. The cultural values might also involve another significant value,

which is the scientific value. The scientific value of the heritage resource might be

indicated by its ability to provide answers to scientific dilemmas, and by its retention

of natural features that are capable of providing such answers.

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Some of the values satisfied by heritage resources might be grouped under

another subsidiary group of values that can be called the use values. The use values

might involve values, such as the functional value. The functional value of the

heritage resource might be indicated by its being in use (Jokilehto 1999b). The

functional value might also be manifested by the retention of the heritage resource of

its original use, or by its potentials that enable it to accommodate alternative

functions. The use values involve another significant value, which is the economic

value. The economic value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its ability

to make a significant contribution towards the economic development of the

communities immediately attached to it by encouraging tourism (English Heritage

1997).

The use values involve other significant values, such as the social value. The

social value of the heritage resource might be manifested by its use for social

gatherings; such as celebrations, markets, picnics or ball games. The ability of the

heritage resource to facilitate social connections and networks might also indicate its

social value (Mason 2002). The educational value is another value that can be

classified under the use values. The educational value of the heritage resource might

be manifested by its ability to provide educational opportunities (Feilden 2003). The

ability of the heritage resource to provide a means for new generations to understand

the past and understand their own culture might also indicate its educational value

(English Heritage 1997). The existence of educational institution inside the historic

urban area, which represents the concerned heritage resource, might also indicate its

educational value. The use values might also involve another value, which is the

political value. The political value of the heritage resource might be indicated by its

re-establish the political identity of the nation (Feilden 2003). The political value of

the heritage resource might also be indicated by its ability to establish and maintain

civil relations and governmental legitimacy, and by its ability to stimulate a positive

political performance that helps in building the civil society (Mason 2002).

110

The attributes of heritage values

Heritage values are usually expressed and conveyed by a group of attributes

representing the various aspects of the heritage resource. These attributes are

addressed by the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World

Heritage Convention, which is the official document concerned with the management

of World Heritage Sites. There are 14 versions of the Operational Guidelines. These

14 versions represent the continuous development undertaken to the Operational

Guidelines. The first 12 versions of the Operational Guidelines represent the first

stage of this development process. The Operational Guidelines of 2005 represent the

second stage of the development process. Until the adoption of the version of 2005,

the Operational Guidelines addressed only four attributes of heritage values. These

four attributes are design, materials, workmanship and setting (UNESCO 1999). The

version of 2005 of the Operational Guidelines has adopted a more elaborate list of

heritage attributes; which involve form and design; materials and substance; use and

function; traditions, techniques and management systems; location and setting;

language, and other forms of intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal

and external factors (UNESCO 2005b). The last version of the Operational

Guidelines, which is the version of 2008, has not adopted any changes concerning the

previous list of attributes (UNESCO 2008).

The first attribute, which is form and design, is concerned with the appearance

of the heritage resource as well as its design (Petzet 1995). Cleere (1995) indicates

that the materials of the heritage resource, which represents the second attribute,

might be concerned with the materials used for the new developments inside historic

towns, as a pattern of heritage resources. Cleere adds that the function of the heritage

resource, which is the third attribute, involves the uses of the concerned property, as

well as the new alternative uses that might be adopted in the case of reusing the

heritage resource. Such a change of use might result in physical changes to the

heritage resource, particularly in the case of reusing properties representing industrial

heritage that might result in removing the equipment of the property. The fourth

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attribute adopted by the Operational Guidelines of 2005 is called "traditions,

techniques and management systems". The previous attribute was adopted in the

previous versions of the Operational Guidelines under another name, which was

resource involves the techniques adopted to construct it, as well as the tools adopted

for this task. Cleere also indicates that the setting of the heritage resource, which is

the fifth attribute, involves the urban fabrics immediately surrounding the concerned

heritage resource. The sixth attribute, which is "spirit and feeling", is concerned with

the character, or sense of place, of the cultural property (UNESCO 2005b). The item

in the list of attributes adopted by the Operational Guidelines of 2005, which involves

what is meant by these internal and external factors. The Operational Guidelines have

not tried to provide an explanation of what is meant by these factors.

"Spirit and feeling", which has been adopted as one of the attributes of heritage

values for the first time in the Operational Guidelines of 2005, is a problematic

heritage resource (UNESCO 2005b). Jivén and Larkham (2003) emphasize the

complexity of the notion of the "sense of place" of the heritage resource, or what

might be referred to as "genius loci". They elaborate on the various urban models,

which have tried to address the fea

of the heritage resource. One of the key urban models is the model developed by

Norber-Schulz. Norber-Schulz model has addressed the contribution of four thematic

levels towards the genius loci of historic urban areas, as a form of heritage resources.

These four levels are the earth's topography, the cosmological light conditions and the

sky, the buildings, and the symbolic and existential meanings in the cultural

landscape (Jivén and Larkham 2003, p70). People, whether they occupy a particular

integrating the characteristics of the various features that form the overall structure of

the urban environment in this area, through their value systems. What emphasizes the

112

values and attitudes held by individuals change over time (Jivén and Larkham 2003).

The previous arguments seem to indicate that the feeling of any urban area is

expected to vary according to the individuals developing this feeling and whether

they occupy or merely use this area. Warren (1998) also emphasizes the change of

environment over time. Warren

discusses some factors that influence the perception of new developments introduced

Amelioration, as a factor, is concerned with the growing acceptability of the new

development over time. The change of attitude towards new developments introduced

inside historic urban areas might be ascribed to two factors, the first of which is what

can be called the "getting used to it" factor, while the other is the "evolution of

generations". The generations growing up inside a particular urban area develop

innate affection, and a positive sense of place, towards this area, even if the quality of

its constituent features is very poor (Warren 1998). The previous argument seems to

indicate that the perception and "sense of place" of historic areas vary among various

individuals, whether they are occupiers or visitors of these areas, and according to

their cultural backgrounds as well.

The evaluation of the level of significance of heritage values

The conservation of any heritage resource should be based on thorough

understanding and analysis of the heritage values satisfied by the heritage resource

concerned. Therefore, the values satisfied by the concerned heritage resources should

first be identified. The level of significance of these values should also be evaluated.

Mason (2002) points out that the assessment of the values of heritage resources

involves three subsidiary processes, which are the identification of all the values of

the heritage resource, the description and analysis of these values, and the ranking of

these values. He adds that the level of significance of each value should be evaluated.

Aplin (2002) points out that the process of evaluating the significance of heritage

resources involves three main dimensions, the first of which is determining the scale

113

of the heritage resource or what can be called the level of significance. This scale

ranges from the local level to the global level. The second dimension is concerned

with evaluating the importance of the heritage resource at the appropriate scale. The

third dimension is concerned with evaluating the uniqueness and representativeness

of the heritage resource. Carter and Bramley (2002) also emphasize the significance

of determining the level of significance of heritage resources. This level of

significance might be the personal and/or familial level, the local level, the regional

level, the provincial level, the national level, or the international level, where the

heritage resource is considered of significance to people of more than one nation.

The values satisfied by heritage resources nominated for inscription on the

World Heritage List should enjoy a level of significance that extends beyond the

national level to reach the international level. The values enjoying such a level of

significance are usually referred to as outstanding universal values. For the heritage

resources nominated for inscription on the World Heritage List to enjoy an

outstanding universal value, they should meet one or more of a list of ten criteria.

These criteria are listed in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the

World Heritage Convention. The second criterion of this list attributes the

outstanding universal value of the nominated heritage resources to the interchange of

the values satisfied by these heritage resources. Such interchange of values takes

place either within a cultural area or over a span of time (UNESCO 2008). Jokilehto

(2006) adopts another significant criterion that justifies the international level of

significance of heritage resources, which is whether the value of the resource is a true

and authentic expression of the culture that the resource represents, or not.

Mason (2002) addresses another significant criterion that indicates the level of

significance of the concerned heritage resource, which is the stakeholders. The

stakeholders represent the different sources of heritage values. They are involved

with the valuing of the heritage resource. Stakeholders might be the local community,

any cultural group, the state, property owners and ordinary citizens (Mason 2002).

The stakeholders of the properties inscribed on the World Heritage List, or nominated

for inscription, might also involve the World Heritage Centre, the international

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community and other international organizations. Therefore, the stakeholders of a

heritage resource can indicate the level at which the values of the resource are

experienced and appreciated. They can also indicate whether this level of significance

can extend to the international level or not.

The notions and definitions of authenticity and Integrity

"authentikòs". He adds that the

which goes back to the year 1849, reads "[what is called authentic is what can be

described as] sufficient to itself

hath credit and authority from itself" (Jokilehto 1995, p19). Another definition of the

authenticity of a work of art reads "the authenticity of a work of art is a measure of

truthfulness of the internal unity of the creative process and the physical realization of

the work and the effects of its passage through historic time" (Jokilehto 1999b, p296).

During the deliberations concerning the Nara Document, another definition of

authenticity has been adopted, which reads "[authenticity is a] measure of the degree

to which the values of a heritage property may be understood to be truthfully,

genuinely and credibly, expressed by the attributes carrying the values" (Stovel 2007,

p23). The previous definition has been construed, with few alterations, in Article 9 of

the Nara Document on Authenticity, which reads:

"Conservation of cultural heritage in all its forms and historical periods is

rooted in the values attributed to the heritage. Our ability to understand

these values depends, in part, on the degree to which information sources

about these values may be understood as credible or truthful. Knowledge

and understanding of these sources of information, in relation to original

and subsequent characteristics of the cultural heritage, and their meaning, is

115

a requisite basis for assessing all aspects of authenticity." (UNESCO 1994,

p4)

On the other hand, integrity refers to an intact undivided state, and is about material

wholeness and completeness (Jokilehto 1999b). The Operational Guidelines of 2005

has adopted a definition of integrity, which reads "integrity is a measure of the

wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or cultural heritage and its attributes"

(UNESCO 2005b, p22). Mitchell (1995) indicates that the term integrity is used in

the United States of America to stand for what is meant by authenticity elsewhere.

The American definition of integrity reads "[integrity means] the ability of a property

to convey its significance" (Mitchell 1995, p376).

The notion of authenticity seems to enjoy a relative and variable nature. The

perception of authenticity varies among the various relevant professions; such as

archaeology, architecture and urban design. The notion of authenticity has also

transformed over time. The historic development of conservation practice has been

accompanied by changes in the notion of authenticity. The notion of authenticity

might also change from one culture to the other, and might also change according to

the pattern of the concerned heritage resource.

Ouf (2001) emphasizes the conflicting interests between archaeologists and

urban designers. While archaeologists are interested in detailed restoration and

complete authenticity, urban designers are interested in the conservation of the spirit

of the past even if the details of their designs have never existed. The conflicting

interests between archaeologists and urban designers seem to confirm their different

perception of the notion of authenticity. The notion of authenticity might differ from

one culture to the other. Larsen (1995) emphasizes the fact that some cultures might

not possess any terminology that expresses the western notion of "authenticity".

The notion of authenticity has also changed over time. Heynen (2006) has

emphasized the shift in the perception of the notion of authenticity from one historic

stage to the other. Lowenthal (1995) discusses the shifts in the notion of authenticity

over time, in further details. In the 14th century, the lingual meaning of authenticity

116

has combined the two ideas of "authoritative" and "original". At that time, the

expression "authoritative" was associated with what was entitled to credence. Hence,

the expression "authoritative" combined the notions of respect and obedience. By the

15th century, what was considered authentic was granted a cachet of legal validity.

The meaning of authenticity in this sense was totally different from what was meant

by "true". The meaning of "authentic" in the 18th century has changed to mean

"veridical", or the antonym of "forged" or "apocryphal". This change in the meaning

of authenticity might be ascribed to the development in book printing. The notion of

authenticity in the 19th century seems to have changed. By that time, authenticity was

perceived as a natural attribute rather than being contrived (Lowenthal 1995).

The development in conservation practice has also reflected inconsistent

perceptions of the notion of authenticity. Earl (1997) identifies two distinctive and

contradicting approaches to conservation that reflect different perceptions of

authenticity. These two approaches are the "scrape" and the "anti-scrape" approaches

to architectural conservation. The "scrape" approach has been associated with

architects, such as James Wyatt. According to James Wyatt's principles, architectural

conservation should focus on enhancing the imperfections of the concerned built

heritage resource by carrying out all the necessary alteration and demolition works.

Viollet-le-Duc is another architect whose conservation philosophy seems to agree

with the "scrape" approach. Viollet-le-

-establish it

in a state of completion which may never have existed at any given moment in the

past" (Earl 1997, p38). On the other hand, the "anti-scrape" approach has been

associated with architects, such as William Morris. William Morris is renowned as

. The

principles of the "anti-scrape" approach to conservation supported the protection of

historic buildings against the restoration, the synonym of scrapping buildings, which

resulted in the dramatic alteration and deformation of the built heritage (Earl 1997).

William Morris's, and the SPAB's, principles seem to conform to the former John

Ruskin's ideas, expressed in his book "THE SEVEN LAMPS OF

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ARCHITECTURE". The principles of the "anti-scrape" approach to conservation

seem to express a mature perception of authenticity that respects all the significant

historic layers of accretions. Modern conservation practices, which respect the variety

of significant historic layers of accretions, seem to agree with the principles of the

- servation. The conservation of many monuments

located inside Historic Cairo World Heritage Site seems to truthfully reflect such

principles. Al-Azhar Mosque, and its minarets, is an example of such monuments

(Figure 23).

The notion of authenticity might also differ according to the pattern and

context of the concerned heritage resource. Modern heritage is one of the patterns of

cultural heritage that is associated with a unique notion of authenticity. The

modernists' perception of authenticity does not seem to agree with the

movement architecture. The key feature of modernism is the architects' interest in

using the up to date building materials and techniques. Therefore, authenticity of

modern heritage means using new building materials and techniques, and means that

the building represents a straightforward response to the ethics of modernism. In the

case of evaluating the restoration works undertaken to modern heritage, restoration is

considered authentic if its architectural quality conforms to that of the old building

(Heynen 2006).

The notion of authenticity might differ in some special cases, such as the post-

conflict reconstructed historic towns. Thomson (2008) suggests three categories of

authenticity that can be adopted in such properties. Each category represents a

different notion of authenticity. "Authenticity of connection" is the first category. In

this case, authenticity means a full conformity of the reconstructed property with its

original condition. The second category is the "authenticity of renewal". This

category applies to totally wiped sites. In this case, authenticity might be understood

to mean the genuineness of the somber message that the reconstruction of the

property conveys, in relation to the traumatic events that led to the destruction of the

property. The third category is the "authenticity of experience". In this case,

118

Figure 23. Al-Azhar Mosque in Historic Cairo World Heritage Site in Egypt.

118

119

authenticity means the success in reflecting the experience of the conflict that led to

the damage of the concerned building.

The evaluation of authenticity and integrity

The evaluation of the authenticity of the concerned heritage resource seems to be

very challenging. Emphasizing the challenges associated with the evaluation of

authenticity, Laenen (1995) indicates that it might be impossible to devise a

mathematical formula that enables conservationists to measure the authenticity of

cultural heritage. Heynen (2006) emphasizes the vagueness of authenticity as a

quality that is hard to define, in spite of the Nara Document's trial to introduce such a

definition. Lowenthal (2008) also emphasizes the complexity to evaluate the

authenticity of cultural heritage since the evaluation process will be based on current

views about how yesterday was planned to inform today.

Some of the conservation charters are involved with the evaluation of

authenticity and integrity. The most relevant charters and documents are the Venice

Charter (Appendix 2), adopted in 1964; the Nara Document on Authenticity, adopted

in 1994; and the Riga Charter on Authenticity and Historical Reconstruction in

Relation to Cultural Heritage, adopted in 2000. The first paragraph of the Venice

em [the

Petzet (1995) points out that this sentence implies that the meaning of authenticity

adopted by the Venice Charter exceeds the aspects of authenticity that have been

adopted by the World Heritage Convention. The aspects of authenticity, adopted by

the World Heritage Convention, include material, design, workmanship and setting.

Article 9 of the Venice Charter demands the adherence of any restoration work to the

original materials and the authentic documents, in association with the concerned

monument. Article 11, in the previous charter, demands the respect of all the historic

accretions of the monuments while undertaking any restoration works to them, since

the unity of style should not be the objective of restoration (ICOMOS ___). The latter

120

article seems to reflect the charter's perception of authenticity, which agrees with the

ethics of the "anti-scrape" approach to architectural conservation, and with the

SPAB's Manifesto, in particular.

The Nara Document on Authenticity might be the most relevant international

document to the evaluation of authenticity. The document provides the bases for the

evaluation of authenticity and identifies the various aspects of authenticity. These

aspects involve form and design, materials and substance, use and function, traditions

and techniques, location and setting, spirit and feeling, and other internal and external

factors (UNESCO 1994). The Riga Charter is also concerned with the evaluation of

authenticity of the cultural heritage. The charter addresses the reconstruction of

cultural heritage; focusing mainly on two patterns of cultural heritage, which are the

ainst

reconstruction, the charter clarifies the few instances when reconstruction might be

accepted. These instances include the loss of cultural heritage during disasters,

provided that a detailed historical documentation or survey of the lost cultural

heritage is available (English Heritage 2001). Nevertheless, the charter does not seem

towns, which is a practice need not the literal reconstruction of lost buildings.

The World Heritage Committee has adopted a methodology concerned with the

evaluation of the authenticity and integrity of the properties nominated for the

inscription on the World Heritage List. The Operational Guidelines for the

Implementation of the World Heritage Convention is the official document through

which the World Heritage Committee outlines this methodology. The Operational

Guidelines have undergone a continuous development process. This development

process has led to the adoption of several versions of the Operational Guidelines.

Fourteen versions of the Operational Guidelines have been adopted since the

implementation of the Convention. These versions are those of 1977, 1978, 1980,

1983, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2005 and 2008. The

evaluation methodology has also undergone another development process that

coincided with the development of the Operational Guidelines. The first 12 versions

121

of the Operational Guidelines represent the first stage of this development, while the

Operational Guidelines of 2005 and 2008 represent the second stage. The key feature

of the evaluation methodology that has been influenced by this development process

is concerned mainly with the attributes of authenticity. During the first stage of the

development process, cultural properties had to meet the test of authenticity in

design, materials, workmanship or setting, while fulfilling the conditions of integrity

was a prerequisite for natural properties only to qualify for the World Heritage Site

status. Following the adoption of the Operational Guidelines of 2005, nominated

cultural properties had to meet the conditions of authenticity and satisfy the

conditions of integrity so that they qualify for the World Heritage Site status. The

attributes of authenticity have also been developed to involve form and design;

materials and substance; use and function; traditions, techniques and management

systems; location and setting; language, and other forms of intangible heritage; spirit

and feeling; and other internal and external factors (UNESCO 1999, UNESCO

2005b, UNESCO 2008).

The Operational Guidelines of 2008 outline a methodology concerned with the

evaluation of the authenticity of the nominated cultural properties. According to this

methodology, nominated cultural properties are considered to meet the conditions of

authenticity if their relevant attributes of authenticity truthfully and credibly express

the satisfied heritage values. The attributes of authenticity that the Operational

Guidelines of 2008 adopt are form and design; materials and substance; use and

function; traditions, techniques and management systems; location and setting;

language, and other forms of intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal

and external factors. The new

with the character, and the sense of place, of the nominated cultural properties. While

preparing nomination documents, States Parties, to the World Heritage Convention,

should first determine which are the most relevant attributes of authenticity.

Subsequently, they have to develop a statement of authenticity that evaluates the

extent to which each attribute expresses the heritage values satisfied by the

122

nominated property. The previous methodology has been developed based on the

Nara Document's notion of authenticity evaluation (UNESCO 2008).

The Operational Guidelines of 2008 adopt another methodology concerned

with the evaluation of the integrity of the properties nominated for the inscription on

the World Heritage List. According to this methodology, integrity is considered as a

measure of the wholeness and intactness of the evaluated property. Therefore, the

methodology focuses on evaluating the limit to which the evaluated property

maintains all the elements that reflect its outstanding value, and on evaluating the

adequacy of the size of these elements. The methodology also evaluates the quality of

these elements and how far they are damaged by factors; such as uncontrolled new

urban development, or neglect. Each State Party has to develop a statement of

integrity attesting the integrity of the nominated property (UNESCO 2008).

The methodology adopted by the Operational Guidelines of 2008, which is

concerned with the evaluation of the authenticity and integrity of the properties

nominated for the inscription of the World Heritage List, has been influenced by

earlier national experiences in historic preservation. Stovel (2007) points out that the

test of authenticity has been influenced by the Americ

1953 to evaluate nominations to the American Register of Historic Places. The

American definition of integrity seems to reveal the similarity between the

to the Operational Guidelines concerning the application of the conditions of integrity

for cultural properties, as well as the concept of integrity evaluation, have mirrored

similar practices in Canada. In the early 1990s, Parks Canada adopted a policy that

re

t

is used to evaluate the health and wholeness of the elements that express the

123

significance of the cultural property concerned (Stovel 2007). The previous

properties, seems to resemble the methodology adopted to evaluate the integrity of

the properties nominated for the inscription on the World Heritage List.

124

Appendix One

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn CChhaarrtteerrss aanndd CCoonnvveennttiioonnss,, tthhee AAtthheennss CChhaarrtteerr,,

11993311

The Athens Charter for the Restoration of Historic Monuments

Adopted at the First International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic

Monuments, Athens 1931

At the Congress in Athens the following seven main resolutions were made and called "Carta del

Restauro":

1. International organizations for Restoration on operational and advisory levels are to be

established.

2. Proposed Restoration projects are to be subjected to knowledgeable criticism to prevent mistakes

which will cause loss of character and historical values to the structures.

3. Problems of preservation of historic sites are to be solved by legislation at national level for all

countries.

4. Excavated sites which are not subject to immediate restoration should be reburied for protection.

5. Modern techniques and materials may be used in restoration work.

6. Historical sites are to be given strict custodial protection.

7. Attention should be given to the protection of areas surrounding historic sites.

125

General Conclusions of the Athens Conference

I. DOCTRINES, GENERAL PRINCIPLES

The Conference heard the statement of the general principles and doctrines relating to the protection

of monuments.

Whatever may be the variety of concrete cases, each of which are open to a different solution, the

Conference noted that there predominates in the different countries represented a general tendency

to abandon restorations in toto and to avoid the attendant dangers by initiating a system of regular

and permanent maintenance calculated to ensure the preservation of the buildings.

When, as the result of decay or destruction, restoration appears to be indispensable, it recommends

that the historic and artistic work of the past should be respected, without excluding the style of any

given period.

The Conference recommends that the occupation of buildings, which ensures the continuity of their

life, should be maintained but that they should be used for a purpose which respects their historic or

artistic character.

II. ADMINISTRATIVE AND LEGISLATIVE MEASURES REGARDING HISTORICAL

MONUMENTS

The Conference heard the statement of legislative measures devised to protect monuments of

artistic, historic or scientific interest and belonging to the different countries.

It unanimously approved the general tendency which, in this connection, recognises a certain right

of the community in regard to private ownership.

It noted that the differences existing between these legislative measures were due to the difficulty of

reconciling public law with the rights of individuals.

Consequently, while approving the general tendency of these measures, the Conference is of

opinion that they should be in keeping with local circumstances and with the trend of public

126

opinion, so that the least possible opposition may be encountered, due allowance being made for the

sacrifices which the owners of property may be called upon to make in the general interest.

It recommends that the public authorities in each country be empowered to take conservatory

measures in cases of emergency.

It earnestly hopes that the International Museums Office will publish a repertory and a comparative

table of the legislative measures in force in the different countries and that this information will be

kept up to date.

III. AESTHETIC ENHANCEMENT OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS

The Conference recommends that, in the construction of buildings, the character and external aspect

of the cities in which they are to be erected should be respected, especially in the neighbourhood of

ancient monuments, where the surroundings should be given special consideration. Even certain

groupings and certain particularly picturesque perspective treatment should be preserved.

A study should also be made of the ornamental vegetation most suited to certain monuments or

groups of monuments from the point of view of preserving their ancient character. It specially

recommends the suppression of all forms of publicity, of the erection of unsightly telegraph poles

and the exclusion of all noisy factories and even of tall shafts in the neighbourhood of artistic and

historic monuments.

IV. RESTORATION OF MONUMENTS

The experts heard various communications concerning the use of modern materials for the

consolidation of ancient monuments. They approved the judicious use of all the resources at the

disposal of modern technique and more especially of reinforced concrete.

They specified that this work of consolidation should whenever possible be concealed in order that

the aspect and character of the restored monument may be preserved.

They recommended their adoption more particularly in cases where their use makes it possible to

avoid the dangers of dismantling and reinstating the portions to be preserved.

127

V. THE DETERIORATION OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS

The Conference noted that, in the conditions of present day life, monuments throughout the world

were being threatened to an ever-increasing degree by atmospheric agents.

Apart from the customary precautions and the methods successfully applied in the preservation of

monumental statuary in current practice, it was impossible, in view of the complexity of cases and

with the knowledge at present available, to formulate any general rules.

The Conference recommends:

1- That, in each country, the architects and curators of monuments should collaborate with

specialists in the physical, chemical, and natural sciences with a view to determining the methods to

be adopted in specific cases;

2- That the International Museums Office should keep itself informed of the work being done in

each country in this field and that mention should be made thereof in the publications of the Office.

With regard to the preservation of monumental sculpture, the Conference is of opinion that the

removal of works of art from the surroundings for which they were designed is, in principle, to be

discouraged. It recommends, by way of precaution, the preservation of original models whenever

these still exist or if this proves impossible, the taking of casts.

VI. THE TECHNIQUE of CONSERVATION

The Conference is gratified to note that the principles and technical considerations set forth in the

different detailed communications are inspired by the same idea, namely:

In the case of ruins, scrupulous conservation is necessary, and steps should be taken to reinstate any

original fragments that may be recovered (anastylosis), whenever this is possible; the new materials

used for this purpose should in all cases be recognisable. When the preservation of ruins brought to

light in the course of excavations is found to be impossible, the Conference recommends that they

be buried, accurate records being of course taken before filling-in operations are undertaken.

128

It should be unnecessary to mention that the technical work undertaken in connection with the

excavation and preservation of ancient monuments calls for close collaboration between the

archaeologist and the architect.

With regard to other monuments, the experts unanimously agreed that, before any consolidation or

partial restoration is undertaken, a thorough analysis should be made of the defects and the nature of

the decay of these monuments. They recognised that each case needed to be treated individually.

VII. THE CONSERVATION OF MONUMENTS AND INTERNATIONAL

COLLABORATION

a) Technical and moral co-operation.

The Conference, convinced that the question of the conservation of the artistic and archaeological

property of mankind is one that interests the community of the States, which are wardens of

civilisation,

Hopes that the States, acting in the spirit of the Covenant of the League of Nations, will collaborate

with each other on an ever-increasing scale and in a more concrete manner with a view to furthering

the preservation of artistic and historic monuments;

Considers it highly desirable that qualified institutions and associations should, without in any

manner whatsoever prejudicing international public law, be given an opportunity of manifesting

their interest in the protection of works of art in which civilisation has been expressed to the highest

degree and which would seem to be threatened with destruction;

Expresses the wish that requests to attain this end, submitted to the Intellectual Co-operation

Organisation of the League of Nations, be recommended to the earnest attention of the States.

It will be for the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation, after an enquiry conducted

by the International Museums Office and after having collected all relevant information, more

particularly from the National Committee on Intellectual Co-operation concerned, to express an

opinion on the expediency of the steps to be taken and on the procedure to be followed in each

individual case.

129

The members of the Conference, after having visited in the course of their deliberations and during

the study cruise which they were able to make on this occasion, a number of excavation sites and

ancient Greek monuments, unanimously paid a tribute to the Greek Government, which, for many

years past, has been itself responsible for extensive works and, at the same time, has accepted the

collaboration of archaeologists and experts from every country.

The members of the Conference there saw an example of activity which can but contribute to the

realisation of the aims of intellectual co-operation, the need for which manifested itself during their

work.

b) The role of education in the respect of monuments.

The Conference, firmly convinced that the best guarantee in the matter of the preservation of

monuments and works of art derives from the respect and attachment of the peoples themselves;

Considering that these feelings can very largely be promoted by appropriate action on the part of

public authorities;

Recommends that educators should urge children and young people to abstain from disfiguring

monuments of every description and that they should teach them to take a greater and more general

interest in the protection of these concrete testimonies of all ages of civilisation.

c) Value of international documentation.

The Conference expresses the wish that:

1- Each country, or the institutions created or recognised competent for this purpose, publish an

inventory of ancient monuments, with photographs and explanatory notes;

2- Each country constitute official records which shall contain all documents relating to its historic

monuments;

3- Each country deposit copies of its publications on artistic and historic monuments with the

International Museums Office;

130

4- The Office devote a portion of its publications to articles on the general processes and methods

employed in the preservation of historic monuments;

5- The Office study the best means of utilising the information so centralised.

References

The British Standards (1998): Guide to the principles of the conservation of historic buildings, BS

7913: 1998 [CD ROM]. Available from: Dundee central library, commerce and

technology department.

131

Appendix Two

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn CChhaarrtteerrss aanndd CCoonnvveennttiioonnss,, tthhee VVeenniiccee CChhaarrtteerr,,

11996644

INTERNATIONAL CHARTER FOR THE CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF

MONUMENTS AND SITES (The Venice Charter- 1964)

IInd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments, Venice,

1964.

Adopted by ICOMOS in 1965

Imbued with a message from the past, the historic monuments of generations of people remain to

the present day as living witnesses of their age-old traditions. People are becoming more and more

conscious of the unity of human values and regard ancient monuments as a common heritage. The

common responsibility to safeguard them for future generations is recognized. It is our duty to hand

them on in the full richness of their authenticity.

It is essential that the principles guiding the preservation and restoration of ancient buildings should

be agreed and be laid down on an international basis, with each country being responsible for

applying the plan within the framework of its own culture and traditions.

By defining these basic principles for the first time, the Athens Charter of 1931 contributed towards

the development of an extensive international movement which has assumed concrete form in

national documents, in the work of ICOM and UNESCO and in the establishment by the latter of

the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property.

Increasing awareness and critical study have been brought to bear on problems which have

continually become more complex and varied; now the time has come to examine the Charter afresh

in order to make a thorough study of the principles involved and to enlarge its scope in a new

document.

132

Accordingly, the IInd International Congress of Architects and Technicians of Historic Monuments,

which met in Venice from May 25th to 31st 1964, approved the following text:

DEFINITIONS

Article 1.

The concept of a historic monument embraces not only the single architectural work but also the

urban or rural setting in which is found the evidence of a particular civilization, a significant

development or a historic event. This applies not only to great works of art but also to more modest

works of the past which have acquired cultural significance with the passing of time.

Article 2.

The conservation and restoration of monuments must have recourse to all the sciences and

techniques which can contribute to the study and safeguarding of the architectural heritage.

Article 3.

The intention in conserving and restoring monuments is to safeguard them no less as works of art

than as historical evidence.

CONSERVATION

It is essential to the conservation of monuments that they be maintained on a permanent basis.

Article 5.

The conservation of monuments is always facilitated by making use of them for some socially

useful purpose. Such use is therefore desirable but it must not change the lay-out or decoration of

the building. It is within these limits only that modifications demanded by a change of function

should be envisaged and may be permitted.

133

Article 6.

The conservation of a monument implies preserving a setting which is not out of scale. Wherever

the traditional setting exists, it must be kept. No new construction, demolition or modification

which would alter the relations of mass and colour must be allowed.

Article 7.

A monument is inseparable from the history to which it bears witness and from the setting in which

it occurs. The moving of all or part of a monument cannot be allowed except where the

safeguarding of that monument demands it or where it is justified by national or international

interest of paramount importance.

Article 8.

Items of sculpture, painting or decoration which form an integral part of a monument may only be

removed from it if this is the sole means of ensuring their preservation.

RESTORATION

Article 9.

The process of restoration is a highly specialized operation. Its aim is to preserve and reveal the

aesthetic and historic value of the monument and is based on respect for original material and

authentic documents. It must stop at the point where conjecture begins, and in this case moreover

any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composition and must

bear a contemporary stamp. The restoration in any case must be preceded and followed by an

archaeological and historical study of the monument.

Article 10.

Where traditional techniques prove inadequate, the consolidation of a monument can be achieved

by the use of any modern technique for conservation and construction, the efficacy of which has

been shown by scientific data and proved by experience.

134

Article 11.

The valid contributions of all periods to the building of a monument must be respected, since unity

of style is not the aim of a restoration. When a building includes the superimposed work of different

periods, the revealing of the underlying state can only be justified in exceptional circumstances and

when what is removed is of little interest and the material which is brought to light is of great

historical, archaeological or aesthetic value, and its state of preservation good enough to justify the

action. Evaluation of the importance of the elements involved and the decision as to what may be

destroyed cannot rest solely on the individual in charge of the work.

Article 12.

Replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole, but at the same time

must be distinguishable from the original so that restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic

evidence.

Article 13.

Additions cannot be allowed except in so far as they do not detract from the interesting parts of the

building, its traditional setting, the balance of its composition and its relation with its surroundings.

HISTORIC SITES

Article 14.

The sites of monuments must be the object of special care in order to safeguard their integrity and

ensure that they are cleared and presented in a seemly manner. The work of conservation and

restoration carried out in such places should be inspired by the principles set forth in the foregoing

articles.

135

EXCAVATIONS

Article 15.

Excavations should be carried out in accordance with scientific standards and the recommendation

defining international principles to be applied in the case of archaeological excavation adopted by

UNESCO in 1956

Ruins must be maintained and measures necessary for the permanent conservation and protection of

architectural features and of objects discovered must be taken. Furthermore, every means must be

taken to facilitate the understanding of the monument and to reveal it without ever distorting its

meaning.

All reconstruction work should however be ruled out "a priori". Only anastylosis, that is to say, the

reassembling of existing but dismembered parts can be permitted. The material used for integration

should always be recognizable and its use should be the least that will ensure the conservation of a

monument and the reinstatement of its form.

PUBLICATION

Article 16.

In all works of preservation, restoration or excavation, there should always be precise

documentation in the form of analytical and critical reports, illustrated with drawings and

photographs. Every stage of the work of clearing, consolidation, rearrangement and integration, as

well as technical and formal features identified during the course of the work, should be included.

This record should be placed in the archives of a public institution and made available to research

workers. It is recommended that the report should be published.

The following persons took part in the work of the Committee for drafting the International Charter

for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments:

- Piero Gazzola (Italy), Chairman

- Raymond Lemaire (Belgium), Reporter

- José Bassegoda-Nonell (Spain)

136

- Luis Benavente (Portugal)

- Djurdje Boskovic (Yugoslavia)

- Hiroshi Daifuku (UNESCO)

- P.L. de Vrieze (Netherlands)

- Harald Langberg (Denmark)

- Mario Matteucci (Italy)

- Jean Merlet (France)

- Carlos Flores Marini (Mexico)

- Roberto Pane (Italy)

- S.C.J. Pavel (Czechoslovakia)

- Paul Philippot (ICCROM)

- Victor Pimentel (Peru)

- Harold Plenderleith (ICCROM)

- Deoclecio Redig de Campos (Vatican)

- Jean Sonnier (France)

- Francois Sorlin (France)

- Eustathios Stikas (Greece)

- Gertrud Tripp (Austria)

- Jan Zachwatovicz (Poland)

- Mustafa S. Zbiss (Tunisia)

References

ICOMOS (___): INTERNATIONAL CHARTERS FOR CONSERVATION AND

RESTORATION. Paris: International Council on Monuments and Sites.

137

Appendix Three

CCoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn CChhaarrtteerrss aanndd CCoonnvveennttiioonnss,, tthhee WWaasshhiinnggttoonn

CChhaarrtteerr,, 11998877

CHARTER FOR THE CONSERVATION OF HISTORIC TOWNS AND URBAN AREAS

(Washington Charter - 1987)

Adopted by ICOMOS General Assembly in Washington D.C., October 1987

PREAMBLE AND DEFINITIONS

All urban communities, whether they have developed gradually over time or have been created

deliberately, are an expression of the diversity of societies throughout history.

This charter concerns historic urban areas, large and small, including cities, towns and historic

centres or quarters, together with their natural and man-made environments. Beyond their role as

historical documents, these areas embody the values of traditional urban cultures. Today many such

areas are being threatened, physically degraded, damaged or even destroyed, by the impact of the

urban development that follows industrialisation in societies everywhere.

Faced with this dramatic situation, which often leads to irreversible cultural, social and even

economic losses, the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) deems it necessary

to draw up an international charter for historic towns and urban areas that will complement the

"International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites," usually

referred to as "The Venice Charter." This new text defines the principles, objectives, and methods

necessary for the conservation of historic towns and urban areas. It also seeks to promote the

harmony of both private and community life in these areas and to encourage the preservation of

those cultural properties, however modest in scale, that constitute the memory of mankind.

As set out in the UNESCO "Recommendation Concerning the Safeguarding and Contemporary

Role of Historic Areas" (Warsaw - Nairobi, 1976), and also in various other international

138

instruments, "the conservation of historic towns and urban areas" is understood to mean those steps

necessary for the protection, conservation and restoration of such towns and areas as well as their

development and harmonious adaptation to contemporary life.

PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES

1. In order to be most effective, the conservation of historic towns and other historic urban areas

should be an integral part of coherent policies of economic and social development and of urban

and regional planning at every level.

2. Qualities to be preserved include the historic character of the town or urban area and all those

material and spiritual elements that express this character, especially:

a) Urban patterns as defined by lots and streets;

b) Relationships between buildings and green and open spaces;

c) The formal appearance, interior and exterior, of buildings as defined by scale, size, style,

construction, materials, colour and decoration;

d) The relationship between the town or urban area and its surrounding setting, both natural and

man-made; and

e) The various functions that the town or urban area has acquired over time

Any threat to these qualities would compromise the authenticity of the historic town or urban area.

3. The participation and the involvement of the residents are essential for the success of the

conservation programme and should be encouraged. The conservation of historic towns and urban

areas concerns their residents first of all.

4. Conservation in a historic town or urban area demands prudence, a systematic approach and

discipline. Rigidity should be avoided since individual cases may present specific problems.

139

METHODS AND INSTRUMENTS

5. Planning for the conservation of historic towns and urban areas should be preceded by

multidisciplinary studies.

Conservation plans must address all relevant factors including archaeology, history, architecture,

techniques, sociology and economics.

The principal objectives of the conservation plan should be clearly stated as should the legal,

administrative and financial measures necessary to attain them.

The conservation plan should aim at ensuring a harmonious relationship between the historic urban

areas and the town as a whole.

The conservation plan should determine which buildings must be preserved, which should be

preserved under certain circumstances and which, under quite exceptional circumstances, might be

expendable.

Before any intervention, existing conditions in the area should be thoroughly documented.

The conservation plan should be supported by the residents of the historic area.

6. Until a conservation plan has been adopted, any necessary conservation activity should be carried

out in accordance with the principles and the aims of this Charter and the Venice Charter.

7. Continuing maintenance is crucial to the effective conservation of a historic town or urban area.

8. New functions and activities should be compatible with the character of the historic town or

urban area.

Adaptation of these areas to contemporary life requires the careful installation or improvement of

public service facilities.

9. The improvement of housing should be one of the basic objectives of conservation.

140

10. When it is necessary to construct new buildings or adapt existing ones, the existing spatial

layout should be respected, especially in terms of scale and lot size.

The introduction of contemporary elements in harmony with the surroundings should not be

discouraged since such features can contribute to the enrichment of an area.

11. Knowledge of the history of a historic town or urban area should be expanded through

archaeological investigation and appropriate preservation of archaeological findings.

12. Traffic inside a historic town or urban area must be controlled and parking areas must be

planned so that they do not damage the historic fabric or its environment.

13. When urban or regional planning provides for the construction of major motorways, they must

not penetrate a historic town or urban area, but they should improve access to them.

14. Historic towns should be protected against natural disasters and nuisances such as pollution and

vibrations in order to safeguard the heritage and for the security and well-being of the residents.

Whatever the nature of a disaster affecting a historic town or urban area, preventative and repair

measures must be adapted to the specific character of the properties concerned.

15. In order to encourage their participation and involvement, a general information programme

should be set up for all residents, beginning with children of school age.

16. Specialised training should be provided for all those professions concerned with conservation.

References

ICOMOS (___): INTERNATIONAL CHARTERS FOR CONSERVATION AND

RESTORATION. Paris: International Council on Monuments and Sites.

141

Glossary

Authenticity In relation to the World Heritage Convention, properties nominated for

inscription on the World Heritage List under criteria (i) to (vi) must meet the

conditions of authenticity.

properties may be understood to meet the conditions of authenticity if their

cultural values (as recognized in the nomination criteria proposed) are truthfully

and credibly expressed through a variety of attributes including form and design;

materials and substance; use and function; traditions, techniques and

management systems; location and setting; language, and other forms of

intangible heritage; spirit and feeling; and other internal and external factors.

(UNESCO 2008, pp 21-22)

Conservation

area

An area designated by a local authority as an area of special architectural or

historic interest, the character of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance.

(THE CONSERVATION GLOSSARY Home Page 2012)

Gentrification Gentrification is a dynamic that emerges in poor urban areas when residential

shifts, urban planning, and other phenomena affect the composition of a

neighborhood. Urban gentrification often involves population migration as poor

residents of a neighborhood are displaced. In a community undergoing

gentrification, the average income increases and average family size decreases.

This generally results in the displacement of the poorer, pre-gentrification

residents, who are unable to pay increased rents, and property taxes, or afford real

estate. Often old industrial buildings are converted to residences and shops. New

businesses, which can afford increased commercial rent, cater to a more affluent

base of consumers further increasing the appeal to higher income migrants and

decreasing the accessibility to the poor. Often, resident owners unable to pay the

taxes are forced to sell their residences and move to a cheaper community.

(Gentrification - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 2012)

142

Hassan Fathy An Egyptian architect who was born in Alexandria in 1900. Hassan Fahty has

studied architecture in Cairo University and graduated in 1926. He has designed a

large number of projects in Egypt and outside Egypt. The most renowned

New Gourna

Village and New Baris Village. Hassan Fathy has passed away in 1989.

(Steele 1997).

Integrity In relation to the World Heritage Convention, all properties nominated for

inscription on the World Heritage List shall satisfy the conditions of integrity.

Integrity is a measure of the wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or

cultural heritage and its attributes.

(UNESCO 2008, pp 22-23)

Listed

building

A building included on a list of buildings of architectural or historic interest,

compiled by the secretary of state. Listing covers any structure or erection or any

part of a building, or any building or structure falling within the curtilage of a

listed building and dating prior to 1948. Listed buildings are divided into three

categories, A, B and C(s), (1 11* 11 in England).

(THE CONSERVATION GLOSSARY Home Page 2012)

(Steele 1997, p206)

Mashrabiya Screen or grille of turned wood.

(Steele 1997, p206)

s, usually reserved

solely for male guests.

(Steele 1997, p206).

143

States Parties States Parties are those Member States of UNESCO who have ratified, accepted

or acceded to the World Heritage Convention. There were 152 States Parties to

the Convention as of November 1997 (UNESCO 28 October 1997).

(UNESCO 1997)

World

Heritage

Convention

The Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural

heritage was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO at its seventeenth

session in Paris on 16 November 1972 (UNESCO 1972). The Convention, with

152 signatory States Parties as of November 1997, is the most successful

international cultural and natural heritage conservation instrument in the world.

The Convention responds to the increasing threats to cultural heritage and natural

heritage caused by poverty in many countries, neglect, and in some countries, by

unconsidered economic growth and development and seeks to encourage States

Parties to identify, protect, preserve and present cultural heritage and natural

heritage for future generations in a spirit of international cooperation.

(UNESCO 1997)

World

Heritage Site

Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List.

The World Heritage Convention refers to properties as being component parts of

the cultural and/or natural heritage. The term property is used interchangeably

with site in the Operational Guidelines (UNESCO February 1997).

(UNESCO 1997)

144

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