human remains from the tumuli at mughaira

441

Seven tumuli graves with preserved human remains were explored at the Mughaira burial field in the course of four excavation seasons (2007–2010). The minimum number of individuals buried in these graves was 26 [see Table 6-1] and the number of individuals per grave ranged from one (SMQ 33, SMQ 35B, SMQ 38, SMQ 45) through two (SMQ 30) and four (SMQ 35A) to 16 (SMQ 49). Most skeletons were very fragmented and affected by various taphonomical agents.

The human remains from the graves were studied during two excavation seasons, in 2008 and 2011, at the dig house of the Kuwaiti–Polish Archaeological Mission to Al-Subiyah in Jahrah, Kuwait. The results were published in two preliminary reports (Sołtysiak 2008; 2012). The present chapter includes a description of skeletons excerpted from these reports as well as selected measurements and observations together with results of some analyses, if the state of preservation of bones and teeth enabled at least superficial conclusions. Measurements taken on bones affected by taphonomic agents are marked with asterisk; approximated measurements are marked by two asterisks. As a rule bilateral measurements were taken on the left side.

Material

SMQ 30: Strongly eroded remains of at least two adult individuals. Several gracile bones (e.g., cranium, hu-merus, two sets of ulnae and radii, vertebrae, ribs, tibia, possibly a femur and fibula, and many tooth fragments). Minimum number of individuals (MNI) assessed by the number of right occipital condyles, individuals dif-ferentiated also by dental wear degree; one of them likely a female (sharp upper orbital margin, overall gracility of bones).

SMQ 33: Strongly eroded and incomplete bones of one gracile individual, including fragments of a femur, hu-merus, os coxae, small cranial fragments, broken LM3. Adult individual, most likely female (sex determination based solely on measurements of the clavicular midshaft).

SMQ 35A: Remains of at least four individuals (MNI based on the number of left femora and cranial frag-ments), including two well-preserved, partly articulated skeletons. The two most complete skeletons most likely belonged to females, the older of the two had the best preserved skull in the entire sample (age estimate based on cranial sutures and dental wear, sex determination based on cranial morphology and diaphyseal measurements; left and right femoral midshaft circumferences 78 mm and 81 mm respectively). There were also a few partly articulated bones of an adult male (sex determination based on pelvic and diaphyseal measurements, femoral midshaft circumference 93 mm) and one older child or adolescent (a few bones with unfused epiphyses, femoral midshaft circumference *80 mm). Partial articulation of the skeletons suggests that the burial was reopened after soft tissue decomposition.

SMQ 35B: About 70 very small and strongly eroded fragments of bone, representing all areas of the skeleton (from atlas to fibula). Adult individual.

SMQ 38: Four very small fragments of bone, including a possible fibular midshaft. Adolescent or adult indi-vidual.

SMQ 45: About 30 very small and strongly eroded fragments of bone, only a tibia and possibly a femur were present together with LM3. Young adult.

Arkadiusz Sołtysiak

HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE TUMULI IN MUGHAIRA

CHAPTER 6


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SMQ 49: Multiple burial with an equid skeleton and as many as 18 stratigraphical units containing human remains, both articulated complete or incomplete skeletons and assemblages of disarticulated bones. The two skeletons at the deepest level, directly on bedrock, were almost intact. One of them (Tag 21), although in poor condition, was fairly complete and belonged to a young female, most epiphyses were already completely fused, but the third molar had not erupted. Westwards, a skeleton of a 4/5-year-old child was recovered (Tag 23); the skull was in poor condition and the upper part of the body was more eroded than the lower part.

Above the two skeletons were some extremely eroded bones, still articulated, but strongly damaged by trampling already in antiquity (Tag 16). The lower limb was relatively better preserved and the skull was represented by small fragments. No sex or more precise age-at-death assessment was possible in this case. Eastwards, both upper limbs of another adult individual were found (Tag 17), as well as the two parallel feet and lower parts of tibiae and fibulae belonging to two other individuals (Tag 18). Thus, there was one almost complete skeleton and at least two incomplete skeletons at this level; one perhaps belonging to a male, as suggested by the robustness of the ulna and one set of metatarsals. A few bones, possibly from this individual, were gathered together with a deposit of animal bones (Tag 9), which was located above. One of these incomplete skeletal parts may have belonged to individual 13 found above individual 16. It was likely female, with a maximum femoral head diameter of 42.5 mm. On the same level, another incomplete skeleton was found (Tag 12), identified as an 8/9-year-old child. Surprisingly, a skull located above the thorax of this individual belonged to a mature adult of unknown sex.

Table 6-1. Sex, age-at-death and completeness

Grave Tag Sex Age Completeness Remarks

SMQ 30 A F?? adult several fragments MNI based on the number of right occipital condyles

SMQ 30 B ? adult several fragmentsSMQ 33 F?? adult several fragmentsSMQ 35A A F? adult partly articulated MNI based on the number of

femora and cranial fragmentsSMQ 35A B F? adult partly articulatedSMQ 35A C M? adult partly articulatedSMQ 35A D – late subadult partly articulatedSMQ 35B ? adult some fragmentsSMQ 38 ? ? some fragmentsSMQ 45 ? young adult some fragmentsSMQ 49 21 F young adult articulated skeletonSMQ 49 23 – 4/5 years old articulated skeletonSMQ 49 16 ? adult articulated skeleton + some bones from Tag 9SMQ 49 17 M? adult partly articulated + some bones from Tags 14, 18bSMQ 49 13 F?? adult partly articulated + some bones from Tag 18aSMQ 49 12 – 8/9 years old partly articulatedSMQ 49 11 – 3–7 years old several fragmentsSMQ 49 7 M?? adult several fragments + some bones from Tag 11;

MNI based on the number of femora

SMQ 49 7 M?? adult several fragmentsSMQ 49 7 F?? adult several fragmentsSMQ 49 7 ? adult several fragmentsSMQ 49 7 ? adult several fragmentsSMQ 49 4 F?? young adult several fragments + some bones from Tags 2, 3;

MNI based on the number of crania

SMQ 49 4 F?? mature adult several fragmentsSMQ 49 4 M?? adult several fragmentsSMQ 49 4 – adolescent several fragments

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Human remains from the tumuli in Mughaira Chapter 6

Human bones in the upper strata of this grave chamber were mostly disarticulated and scattered in large intrusive pits. The deepest of such pits (Tag 14) was located just close to individual 13 and it is possible that it contained remains of only one male individual (femoral head diameter 48.5 mm), maybe the same as robust partial skeletons 17 and 18 found just below this pit. These remains, taken together, constituted a more or less complete skeleton lacking only the skull. The only stratigraphical problem is the relationship between pits 9 and 14, both containing robust skeletal elements, but differing in diameters of the retrieved femoral heads, 51 mm in the case of pit 9. If one of them belonged to skeleton 16, this would not change the MNI.

At the lower level, the articulated skeletons of at least six individuals could be identified: two adult females (13+18a and 21), one adult male (14?+17+18b+skull 12?), one adult of unknown sex (9?+16), and two children of differing ages (12 and 23). In addition, small quantities of human remains, most likely belonging to these individuals, were found in three other contexts (Tags 15, 19, 24).

The uppermost strata in the grave chamber had been disturbed by a large pit in the center and human remains were found scattered all around. The northern scatter (Tag 11) contained the remains of at least four individuals, including three adults (based on the number of mandibles) and one child 3−7 years old, not the same as individual 23. Several spiral fractures were observed in this set and in a small assemblage gathered during sieving of soil in this area (Tag 10), which suggests that the bones were fragmented when the collagen content was still relatively high.

A larger percentage of bone fragments was found in the southern scatter (Tag 7), with a larger proportion of long bone shafts, especially from femora and tibiae. The minimum number of individuals is five, including two males and one female. This time no subadult elements were noted. No mandibles were included in this assemblage and only a few femoral fragments were noted in assemblage 11. Thus, if these two scatters are related to one another, the total minimum number of individuals is six, including five adults and one subadult individual. No anatomical relationships were present and several bones, mainly femora, exhibited chop marks close to their metaphyses. Since femora, tibiae, and humeri constituted most of the assemblage and they were broken in antiquity, it is possible that at least part of this bone scatter was a secondary burial, moved from elsewhere, without retrieval of smaller skeletal elements from the primary context. Bone scatter 7 contained the cranium of an adult woman, again with possible chop marks on the vault.

Above bone scatters 7 and 11, at the top of the grave chamber, other assemblages of disarticulated human bones were excavated. They were clearly separated from the previous ones by a stratum of stones. The northern scatter (Tags 2, 3) contained strongly eroded fragments of bone representing all parts of the skeleton of at least two individuals (MNI after the number of glabellae) with evident trampling damage and root etching. The southern scatter (Tag 4) was again richer in human remains than the northern one, similarly as in the deeper stratum. Elements from at least three individuals were found here, including three crania of a young (Tag 5) and a mature (Tag 6) female, as well as of an adolescent individual ~15 years old. A single tooth of a child, ~4/5 years old, was also recovered; with no other accompanying bones, it could be linked to the child from bone scatter 11. There was also one robust femur, 92* mm in midshaft circumference, as well as several other robust skeletal elements. In total, this stratum contained the remains of at least five individuals, including two females, one male and one adolescent.

MethodsEach element was described separately and the list of observations included taphonomical factors (see Lyman 1994), morphological features used for sex and age-at-death estimation, metric measurements, some non-metric traits and morphological variants (as lateral fossa and third trochanter in proximal femur, popliteal line, size and shape and squatting facet in tibia, supracondylar ridge in humerus etc.), palaeopathological conditions (degenerative joint disease, inflammations, trauma etc.), stress markers (enamel hypoplasia, porosities), dental wear and dental measurements. The protocol was based on Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), but with several modifications imposed by the quality of available material.

As most reliable sex assessment methods based on morphology of the pubic bone and greater sciatic notch (Phenice 1969; Walker 2005) were usually not applicable, and skull morphology exhibited considerable inter-population variability (Baab et al. 2010), sex assessment was based mainly on metric measurements of postcranial bones, with use of discriminant functions obtained for northern Mesopotamia (Sołtysiak 2010: Table 22). For subadult individuals, age-at-death was estimated using dental development sequence (AlQahtani, Hector, and Liversidge 2010); for adults it was degree of molar wear, scored using Scott’s method (1979). Adults were differentiated from adolescents using degree of epiphyseal union and the morphology of major muscular attachments as linea aspera, popliteal line or deltoid tuberosity.


444

TUMULI GRAVES

Fig. 6-1. Black staining in two hamates (SMQ 49 Tag 9) Fig. 6-2. Healed fracture of a toe phalanx (SMQ 49 Tag 4)

Fig. 6-3. Ancient damage in femoral shaft (SMQ 49 Tag 7)

Fig. 6-4. Fused ribs (SMQ 49 Tag 13)

Degenerative joint disease, periostitis, cranial porosities (cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis) and enamel hypoplasia were scored using the Global History of Health project protocols (Steckel et al. 2006). In addition, the distance of hypoplastic lines from the cemento-enamel junction was measured with accuracy 0.1 mm using a sliding caliper. Carious lesions were not noted in the entire Mughaira assemblage. Non-carious ante mortem lesions were scored separately for eight tooth sides (buccal, lingual, distal, medial and intermediate sides); they were defined by margins rounded by abrasion and distinguished from sharp-margin post mortem damage.

445


Table 6-2. Sex assessment

ID VA SC IRR GSN PS NC MP SM Gl ME

L R L R L R L R L R L R L RSMQ 30.16a 1SMQ 35A.7 4SMQ 35A.8b.5 4 4SMQ 35A.8.18 M MSMQ 35A 4*SMQ 35A.5a 3*SMQ 35A.5ii 2*SMQ 35A.cran 2SMQ 49.2 2- 1* 1SMQ 49.4 2-SMQ 49.7.28 1SMQ 49.7.19 2SMQ 49.3 2* 1*SMQ 49.7 1 1 1 1 1SMQ 49.5 2 2 1 3SMQ 49.6 2* 1 1 1SMQ 49.13 2*SMQ 49.15 F** F F*SMQ 49.21 F F 1 4 1 1 1

VA – ventral arc, SC – subpubic concavity, IRR – ischiopubic ramus ridge, GSN – greater sciatic notch, PS – preauricular sulcus, NC – nuchal crest, MP – mastoid process, SM – supraorbital margin, Gl – glabella, ME – mental eminence, L – left side, R – right side

ResultsThe human remains from the Mughaira graves were strongly affected by various taphonomic agents. In some graves, the degree of weathering was so high that only a few fragments of bone remained. Bones were relatively well preserved in only two graves (SMQ 35A and SMQ 49). More reliable sex assessment and age-at-death estimates were possible in only a few cases [Tables 6-2, 6-3], and some surplus of females may be an artefact of methods based

Table 6-3. Age-at-death assessment

ID Todd SB External Palate Int

L L M L O S B C I A T S

SMQ 30.11 3SMQ 35A.8.18 6+ 4+SMQ 35A.5a 1*SMQ 35A.maxil 3 2SMQ 35A.cran 3 3 3 3SMQ 49.4.36 3SMQ 49.7 1 1 0SMQ 49.5 0 0 0 0 0 2 0SMQ 49.6 3 3 3 3SMQ 49.12b 3 3SMQ 49.21 0* 2 0

Todd, SB – Todd and Suchey-Brooks methods of age assessment (left side only), External – degree of external suture obliteration, Palate – degree of palatal suture obliteration, Int – degree of internal suture obliteration, M – midlamboid, L – lambda, O – obelion, S – midsagittal, B – bregma, C – midcoronoid, I – incisive, A – anterior palatal, T – transverse palatal


446

TUMULI GRAVES

Table 6-4. Adult metric measurements

6-4.1. Skull

ID MCL MCB MAB BBR UFB PCh NBL

SMQ 35A.cran **185 *134SMQ 49.7 **186 **150.5 **117 **126SMQ 49.5 97 116 104SMQ 49.6 **91

MCL – maximum cranial length, MCB – maximum cranial breadth, MAB – biauricular breadth, BBR – basion–bregma length, UFB – upper frontal breadth, PCh – parietal chord, NBL – nasion–basion length

6-4.2. Upper limb

ID Humerus Radius Ulna Clavicle

ML EB VD ML APD MLD ML APD MLD PL MC AP SI

SMQ 30.20 *13SMQ 33.13 *r10 *r9.5SMQ 35A.2 *8 *10SMQ 35A.8.24 *r8 *r7SMQ 35A.8a.32 *r13.5 *r11SMQ 35A.8a.31 15.5 12.5 *9 *10SMQ 35A.8a.31 r28SMQ 35A.8b.44 **16.5 **15SMQ 35A.8a.44 *16 *13SMQ 35A.8.43 r*16 r*14 r34.5SMQ 49.2 *13 *9SMQ 49.7.20 *18 *14SMQ 49.7.21 *12.5 *11SMQ 49.9.8 16 11.5SMQ 49.10.10 16 13SMQ 49.10.14 19SMQ 49.17 rl18 rl16 *252 *43.5SMQ 49.13 227 rl15 rl10 rl*247 rl*15 rl*13.5 rl219 *31.5 r*12 r*9SMQ 49.14 13 *14.5SMQ 49.16 14 11 r14 r13.5SMQ 49.21 123 r*54 r39 14 10 r12.5 rl33 7.5 10

ML – maximum length, EB – epicondylar breadth, VD – vertical head diameter, APD – antero–posterior shaft diameter at the maximum development of the crest, MLD – medial-lateral diameter at the maximum development of the crest, PL – physiological length, MC – minimum shaft circumference, AP – antero–posterior diameter at midshaft, SI – superior–inferior diameter at midshaft, r – measurement on the right side

447


6-4.3. Mandible

ID HMB BMB MRB XRB MRH MA

SMQ 35A.8.m *30.5SMQ 35A.5ii 33SMQ 49.4 *35 14SMQ 49.11.35 r35SMQ 49.13 r30 r13.5SMQ 49.21 r31 r46.5 r52 r126

HMB – height of the mandibular body, BMB – breadth of the mandibular body, MRB – minimum ramus breadth, XRB – maximum ramus breadth, MRH – maximum ramus height, MA – mandibular angle, r – measurement on the right side

6-4.4. Lower limb

ID Femur Tibia

FH AS MS AM MM MC AD MD C

SMQ 35A.3 **86SMQ 35A.4 *27.5 *22.5 **81SMQ 35A.8.13 21 33 *23 *26.5 *80SMQ 35A.8.11 r*21 r*34 r23 r26 r78SMQ 35A.8.4 r*43 r20 r29 r26.5 r24 r78SMQ 35A.7ii 24.5 32 *27.5 *24 *80 **31 **21SMQ 35A.8.18 >43 31.5 27.5 93 **35 **20 **86.5SMQ 35A.8.18 27 26 81SMQ 35A.8.18 r**35 r**20SMQ 49.3 r*40 r*26 r*107SMQ 49.4 *26 *22.5 *76SMQ 49.4 r**21 r*28SMQ 49.7.2 r23 r32SMQ 49.7.8 r*39 r*23 r*101SMQ 49.7.9 29.5 21.5 78.5SMQ 49.7.A **30 41 **29 **34SMQ 49.7.A r27.5 r36.5SMQ 49.7.B 34 31 26 91SMQ 49.9.1 52SMQ 49.3.1 r*30.5 r*27.5 r*92SMQ 49.13 r42.5 r*24.5 r*33SMQ 49.14 48.5SMQ 49.16 r*29 r*26 r*82SMQ 49.16 *27.5 *26 *82.5SMQ 49.21 r40 r*24.5 r*28.5

FH – maximum diameter of the femoral head, AS – antero–posterior subtrochanteric diameter, MS – medial–lateral subtrochanteric diameter, AM – antero–posterior midshaft diameter, MM – medial–lateral midshaft diameter, MC – midshaft diameter, AD – antero–posterior diameter at the nutrient foramen, MD – minimum diameter at the nutrient foramen, C – circumference at the nutrient foramen, r – measurement on the right side


448

TUMULI GRAVES

6-4.5. Other bones

ID Atlas Axis Patella Talus Calcaneus

B L TH CH B L H B L ArS L B

SMQ 35A.7ii *42SMQ 35A.5a r>45SMQ 35A.5ii 40 25SMQ 49.7.26 *37.5SMQ 49.7.30 *51 34SMQ 49.9.3 >44.5SMQ 49.10.2 r44 r51SMQ 49.11.13 77 43SMQ 49.11.23 *57.5 39SMQ 49.11.24 r*59 r*39SMQ 49.13 38 22 47SMQ 49.16 45SMQ 49.21 35 20.5 52 42.5 36 *48 33

B – breadth, L – length, H – height, TH – total height, CH – height without dens, ArS – upper articular facet length, r – measurement on the right side

Table 6-5. Adult non-metric traits

6-5.1. Face and neurocranium

ID MS SON SOF ZFF PF IB DHC SS

L R L R L R L R L R

SMQ 30.16a 1SMQ 30.11 2/4 0*SMQ 30.19a 0SMQ 35A.2 2*SMQ 35A.5ii 0 1SMQ 35A.8a.37 0 0SMQ 35A.cran 0 0 0* 0* 2*SMQ 49.2a 0SMQ 49.2b 1 0SMQ 49.7.19 0 2SMQ 49.3 0 1 1 0 1*SMQ 49.7 2 1 1 0 0 6 0 1 0 0*SMQ 49.5 0 2 1 0 0 0 0SMQ 49.6 0 0 0 0 1SMQ 49.16a 0SMQ 49.21 0 1 0 0* 0 1 0*

MS – metopic suture, SON – supraorbital notch, SOF – supraorbital foramen, ZFF – zygomatico-facial foramina, PF – parietal foramen, IB – Inca bone, DHC – divided hypoglassal canal, SS – flexure of superior sagittal sulcus

449


6-5.2. Cranial base

ID FOI FSI PSB PAB AE MFL MFN

L R L R L R L R L R L R L R

SMQ 49.3 0 0-1SMQ 49.7 0 0 1 1 1 1SMQ 49.5 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 1SMQ 49.21 0*

FOI – foramen ovale incomplete, FSI – foramen spinosum incomplete, PSB – pterygo-spinous bridge, PAB – pterygo-alar bridge, AE – auditory exostosis, MFL – mastoid foramen location, MFN – mastoid foramen number

6-5.3. Sutural bones

ID CSO BB SO AB LSO ASB OMS PNB

L R L R L R L R L R

SMQ 35A.2 1*SMQ 49.3.1 0 0 0 0 0SMQ 49.7 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1SMQ 49.21 1 1 0 0 1

CSO – coronal ossicle, BB – bregmatic bone, SO – sagittal ossicle, AB – apical bone, LSO – lambdoid ossicle, ASB – asterionic bone, OMS – ossicle in occipito-mastoid suture, PNB – parietal notch bone

6-5.4. Mandible and postcranial bones

ID MF MT MBL MBD ABL ABP ATF SA TAS TT

L R R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R L R

SMQ 30.20 1-2SMQ 35A.8.17 2SMQ 35A.8a.m *1SMQ 35A.8.13 1SMQ 35A.8a.41 1SMQ 35A.5a 0 0SMQ 49.4 1 0SMQ 49.7.14 2SMQ 49.7.33 0 0SMQ 49.7.B 0SMQ 49.11.13 0 0 1 1SMQ 49.11.35 1 3 1+SMQ 49.13 1 1 0 0 0 0 0* 1SMQ 49.14 0SMQ 49.16 0SMQ 49.16a 0 0SMQ 49.21 1 0* 0 0 0 0 2 0 0*

MF – mental foramen, MT – mandibular torus, MBL – mylohyoid bridge location, MBD – mylohyoid bridge degree, ABL – lateral atlas bridging, ABP – posterior atlas bridging, ATF – accessory transverse foramina in C7, SA – septal aperture, TAS – talar articular surfaces in calcaneus, TT – third trochanter


450

TUMULI GRAVES

6-5.5. Accessory transverse foramina in cervical vertebrae

ID C3 C4 C5 C6

L R L R L R L R

SMQ 49.13 0 0 0SMQ 49.21 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 2

Table 6-6. Permanent tooth measurements

6-6.1. Maxilla, mesiodistal diameters

ID Left Right

I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3

SMQ 30.13a 7.2SMQ 45 7.5SMQ 35A.9 9.0SMQ 35A.2 10.1SMQ 35A.8a.m 6.4 **6.7 10.1SMQ 35A.5a 9.2SMQ 35A.5ii 6.5SMQ 35A.8a.37

7.0 6.5

SMQ 35A.maxil

7.7 *6.2 9.9 8.0 10.4 10.2 9.5

SMQ 49.4.36 *9.5SMQ 49.3 *9.5 *7.7SMQ 49.10.30 6.7SMQ 49.11.37 9.3 6.8SMQ 49.11.12 9.7 9.3SMQ 49.15 8.1SMQ 49.24 7.1SMQ 49.21 8.7 6.8 7.0 7.2 10.8 10.0 8.0 6.8 7.0 6.9 10.5 10.1 6.6

6-6.2. Maxilla, buccolingual diameters

ID Left Right


SMQ 30.11 *8.6SMQ 45 8.7SMQ 35A.9 10.9SMQ 35A.2 *11.7SMQ 35A.8a.m 8.8 11.3SMQ 35A.5a 9.8SMQ 35A.5ii 6.2SMQ 35A.8a.37 8.5 8.7 11.9SMQ 35A.maxil *6.0 8.7 7.9 11.4 8.9 11.8 11.3 10.8SMQ 49.4.36 *10.9SMQ 49.3 *10.3 *8.8SMQ 49.10.30 9.2SMQ 49.11.37 6.9 9.3SMQ 49.11.12 11.5 10.9SMQ 49.15 8.2SMQ 49.21 7.0 6.3 9.1 9.4 11.5 11.0 8.6 7.1 6.3 8.3 9.2 9.3 11.5 11.1 7.7

451


6-6.3. Mandible, mesiodistal diameters

ID Left Right


SMQ 35A.2 7.4SMQ 35A.8a.m *6.7 6.7 6.9SMQ 35A.5ii *6.4 10.5 10.9 4.6 6.5SMQ 49.7.20 7.6SMQ 49.7 11.9SMQ 49.10.30 6.7SMQ 49.12a 7.1 *10.9 6.0 6.2 7.2 10.6SMQ 49.13 7.8 10.6 10.6 7.1 10.9 10.5 10.2SMQ 49.14 11.6SMQ 49.21 5.9 7.0 7.7 10.8 9.3 7.0 6.9 7.6 11.0 10.9 9.9

6-6.4. Mandible, buccolingual diameters

ID Left Right


SMQ 35A.2 8.2SMQ 35A.8a.m *7.7 7.7 8.3SMQ 35A.5ii *6.9 9.8 *5.9 7.7SMQ 49.7.20 8.4SMQ 49.7 **11SMQ 49.11.34 *10.9SMQ 49.12a 5.6 *7.7 *9.5 5.8 7.0 8.0 9.3SMQ 49.13 8.2 10.0 10.3 8.0 10.2 10.0 10.1SMQ 49.14 10.5SMQ 49.21 6.4 8.0 8.7 8.9 7.4 8.0 8.7 10.9 9.6 9.4

on gracile/robust discrimination, which may be affected both by inter-population variability and by taphonomic processes. An evident under-representation of infants and children could be related to a generally high degree of weathering, which probably affected more heavily the less mineralized subadult bones. Many tumuli at Al-Subiyah contained no human remains, so it is possible that weathering, especially in the case of skeletons which were not covered by deep layers of soil, led to a complete loss of bone.

Some other taphonomic agents were widespread as well. Root etching affected many bones from all contexts and in some cases root remains were abundant in trabecular bone. Several insect tunnels crossed bones and soil in the grave; variability of size and shape of this damage suggests that several taxa were involved. Some bones from SMQ 49 exhibited black staining, which was probably produced by fungi [Fig. 6-1]. The distribution of this feature was not uniform as it was observed especially in contexts 7, 9 and 11 in the upper part of the grave. On the other hand, rodent tooth marks were very rare and no clear scavenging activity has been observed.

Some graves (especially SMQ 35A and SMQ 49) seem to have been used for several consecutive burials. Only a few skeletons were complete and articulated, in some others only partial articulations were preserved and likely they were disturbed by continued human activity. Possible secondary burials were found in SMQ 49, without any articulations preserved and with ancient damage that affected especially the ends of the long bones [Fig. 6-3].

Few metric measurements could be taken owing to the poor state of preservation [Table 6-4] and many were approximate due to weathering. In most cases, they were suitable only for sex determination. Non-metric traits were scored only for a few individuals [Table 6-5] and no reliable analysis of their frequency is possible.

Teeth were less affected on average by taphonomic factors and in many cases it was possible to measure their mesiodistal and buccolingual diameters [Table 6-6] and to assess the degree of dental wear [Table 6-7] that could be used in age-at-death estimation. It was not possible to observe antemortem tooth loss, periodontal disease or dental abscesses, as alveoli were too fragmented and weathered. The rate of linear enamel hypoplasia was rather low [Table 6-8], although this is a fairly superficial observation based on a very limited sample size. The only


452

TUMULI GRAVES

Table 6-7. Permanent tooth wear

6-7.1. Maxilla

ID Left Right

M3 M2 M1 P2 P1 C I2 I1 I1 I2 C P1 P2 M1 M2 M3

SMQ 33.5 3/4SMQ 30.11 *4/5 PM 4 PM *4 2-4SMQ 30.19a 4/5 *7/8SMQ 30.13a 4SMQ 30.20 *3/4SMQ 45 1/2SMQ 35A.9 1SMQ 35A.2 1SMQ 35A.8.8 *5SMQ 35A.8 3/5SMQ 35A.8a.m 1 4/6 *4 4/5SMQ 35A.5a 3SMQ 35A.5ii *5 4 *4 *4SMQ 35A.8a.37 4/5 4 4 5 4/8SMQ 35A.maxil 2/3 3/5 4/8 *3/4 *3/4 4/5 3/4 4 3/4 *2/3 *5 4SMQ 49.2 PM + PM + PM +SMQ 49.4.36 PM PM PM PM PM PM 1121SMQ 49.4.37 PM +SMQ 49.4.8 *3SMQ 49.7.29 2/3SMQ 49.7.20 G8SMQ 49.3 G11 + + + + + + 5445 1111SMQ 49.7 PM PM PM + + + + +SMQ 49.5 PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM PM + PM PMSMQ 49.6 PM PM PMSMQ 49.10.30 3 5/6SMQ 49.11.37 5 3/4SMQ 49.11.12 1111 1111SMQ 49.12b 6*SMQ 49.15 G4 G7SMQ 49.21 G10 1111 3333 1/2 1/2 + 2 2 2 1 2* 1 1 3333 1111 G10

AM – antemortem tooth loss, PM – postmortem tooth loss, G – germ, + – fragments only. Molars: buccal and lingual quadrants, clockwise

453


6-7.2. Mandible

ID Left Right


SMQ 30.20a 4*SMQ 35A.2 1SMQ 35A.8a.m NE 5/7 3/4 3 4SMQ 35A.5ii 2/3 PM 2/6 3/4 2 4* 5 2/3 PM 1 PMSMQ 35A.8a.37 2* 2* 4SMQ 49.4 PM PM PM PM PM PM PMSMQ 49.4.35 PM PM PM PMSMQ 49.7.20 1/2SMQ 49.7 533?SMQ 49.10.30 G13SMQ 49.10.30 2/3SMQ 49.11.34 + + + + + + ?233 +SMQ 49.11.35 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +SMQ 49.11.37 1* 2/3* 1*SMQ 49.11.44 + +SMQ 49.12a G + G7 G8 G12 G12 G8 G8 G7 G12 G7SMQ 49.12b 6*SMQ 49.13 2211 4423 X 3/4 + + PM PM PM + 3/4 + 3 5554 5433 3211SMQ 49.14 1122SMQ 49.15 G4SMQ 49.24 G7SMQ 49.16a G4 PMSMQ 49.21 G10 11?? 3??? 1 1 PM 1/2 PM PM PM 2 1 1 5433 2211 G

AM – antemortem tooth loss, PM – postmortem tooth loss, G – germ, + – fragments only. Molars: buccal and lingual quadrants, clockwise


454

TUMULI GRAVES

Table 6-8. Enamel hypoplasia

6-8.1. Maxilla

ID Left Right


SMQ 30.11 0 0*SMQ 30.19a 0SMQ 30.13a 0*SMQ 35A.9 0SMQ 35A.2 0*SMQ 35A.8.8 0*SMQ 35A.8 0*SMQ 35A.8a.m 0* 0*SMQ 35A.5ii 0SMQ 35A.8a.37 0* 2 1 0 0*SMQ 35A.maxil 0 0 0 0 0SMQ 49.4.36 0SMQ 49.7.20 0SMQ 49.3 0 0SMQ 49.10.30 0SMQ 49.11.37 0SMQ 49.11.12 0 0SMQ 49.15 0SMQ 49.21 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 – no hypoplastic lines, 1 – one or more tiny lines, 2 – one clear hypoplastic line, 3 – two or more clear hypoplastic lines

6-8.2. Mandible

ID Left Right


SMQ 35A.2 2SMQ 35A.8a.m 0* 0*SMQ 35A.5ii 0 0 0 0 0SMQ 35A.8a.37

2*

SMQ 49.7.20 0SMQ 49.7 0SMQ 49.10.30 2SMQ 49.11.34 0SMQ 49.12a 0 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 0SMQ 49.13 0 0 0 3 0* 0 0* 0SMQ 49.14 0SMQ 49.24 0SMQ 49.21 1 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 0

0 – no hypoplastic lines, 1 – one or more tiny lines, 2 – one clear hypoplastic line, 3 – two or more clear hypoplastic lines

455


Table 6-9. Dental caries in permanent teeth

6-9.1. Maxilla

ID Left Right


SMQ 33.5 0SMQ 30.11 0 0*SMQ 30.19a 0*SMQ 30.13a 0*SMQ 45 0SMQ 35A.9 0SMQ 35A.2 0SMQ 35A.8.8 0*SMQ 35A.8 0SMQ 35A.8a.m 0 0* 0*SMQ 35A.5a 0SMQ 35A.5ii 0SMQ 35A.8a.37

0* 0 0 0*

SMQ 35A.maxil

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

SMQ 49.4.36 0SMQ 49.3.1 0 0SMQ 49.10.30 0SMQ 49.11.37 0 0SMQ 49.11.12 0SMQ 49.21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6-9.2. Mandible

ID Left Right


SMQ 35A.2 0SMQ 35A.8a.m 0 0 0 0SMQ 35A.5ii 0 0 0 0 0SMQ 35A.8a.37

0

SMQ 49.7.20 0SMQ 49.7 0SMQ49.11.34 0SMQ49.13 0 0 0 0* 0 0 0 0SMQ49.14 0SMQ49.21 0* 0* 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


456

TUMULI GRAVES

Table 6-10. Cribra orbitalia

ID Cribra orbitalia Comments

R L

SMQ 49.4 0* Small lateral fragment onlySMQ 49.7.19 0SMQ 49.3 0* Lateral fragment onlySMQ 49.7 0 0SMQ 49.5 0*SMQ 49.6 0

Table 6-11. Degenerative joint disease in adults

6-11.1. Vertebrae and ribs

ID Atlas Axis Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Ribs

Up Lo Up 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2

SMQ 35b.2 0SMQ 30.11 0 0 1SMQ 30.13a 1SMQ 30.20 1SMQ 35A.8a.23 1SMQ 35A.2 0 4 1SMQ 35A.8.2 1 1SMQ 35A.8a.30 *2SMQ 35A.8a.X *2SMQ 35A 7SMQ 35A.5a 0 0 1 2SMQ 35A.5ii 0 7 12 3SMQ 35A.sv 1SMQ 35A.maxil 2SMQ 35A.12.47 *2SMQ 49.2 0* 1 1SMQ 49.4 0 4SMQ 49.4.12 0* 0* 2 1 1SMQ 49.4.7 1 1SMQ 49.7.13 2 2SMQ 49.7.8 1SMQ 49.9.16 2SMQ 49.10.22 4 1SMQ 49.11.8+ 0 0 4 11 1 1SMQ 49.12b 6SMQ 49.13 0 8 13 7 7 3SMQ 49.14 3 14 1 8SMQ 49.15 7SMQ 49.16 3 1SMQ 49.21 0 0 0 20 39 13 21 1

Up – upper articular surfaces, Lo – lower articular surfaces, 0 – no osteoarthritis, 1 – osteophytes, 2 – porosity and/or eburnation (count per preserved articular surfaces)

457


6-11.2. Upper limb

ID Clavicle Scapula Humerus Ulna Radius

LM RM LL RL LA RA LG RG LP RP LD RD LP RP LD RD LP RP LD RD

SMQ 35A.8.8 0 0*SMQ 35A.8a.40

0

SMQ 49.17 0 0 0SMQ 49.13 0* 0* 0 0 0 0 0* 0 0SMQ 49.15 0SMQ 49.23 0* 0SMQ 49.21 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

M – medial, L – lateral, A – acromion, G – glenoid, D – distal, P – proximal, 0 – no osteoarthritis

6-11.3. Hand bones

ID Carpals Metacarpals P Metacarpals D Phalanges P Phalanges D

0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2

SMQ 35A.3 1SMQ 35A.8.9 1 1SMQ 49.2 1SMQ 49.4 1 1 1 1SMQ 49.4.25 1 1 1SMQ 49.4.14 3 1SMQ 49.4.6 1SMQ 49.7.38 1 1SMQ 49.7.18 1 3 2 1 2SMQ 49.7.8 2 3SMQ 49.10.28 3 1SMQ 49.17 6 3 2 10 10SMQ 49.18 1 1SMQ 49.11.20 1 1 9 6SMQ 49.11.30 1SMQ 49.11.6 1SMQ 49.12b 4 2 1 5 3SMQ 49.13 15 9SMQ 49.14 1 1 3 2SMQ 49.15 4 4SMQ 49.19 2 1SMQ 49.24 2SMQ 49.23 4 2 1SMQ 49.21 5 2 6 9 3

D – distal, P – proximal, 0 – no osteoarthritis, 1 – osteophytes, 2 – porosity and/or eburnation (count per preserved articular surfaces)


458

TUMULI GRAVES

6-11.4. Lower limb

ID Os coxae Femur Tibia Fibula Patella

LL RL LP RP LD RD LP RP LD RD L R

SMQ 35A.8b.5 0* 0*SMQ 35A 0*SMQ 49.7.23 0SMQ 49.7.8 0SMQ 49.9.1 0*SMQ 49.9.3 0SMQ 49.10.2 0SMQ 49.18 0SMQ 49.1 0SMQ 49.14 0*SMQ 49.21 0 0* 0 0* 0 0SMQ 49.21b 0*

M – medial, L – lateral, D – distal, P – proximal, 0 – no osteoarthritis

6-11.5. Foot bones

ID Tarsals Metatarsals P Metatarsals D Phalanges P Phalanges D

0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2

SMQ 35A.8.18 2SMQ 49.2 1SMQ 49.4 1 2SMQ 49.4.23 4 3SMQ 49.4.11 1SMQ 49.7.33 2SMQ 49.7.19 1 1SMQ 49.7.8 1SMQ 49.9.11 1 1 1SMQ 49.6 1SMQ 49.18a 3 3 3 2SMQ 49.18b 2 3 3 3 2SMQ 49.11.23 7SMQ 49.12b 1 1SMQ 49.14 1 2 2SMQ 49.15 2 1SMQ 49.24 4 4SMQ 49.23 1SMQ 49.16 1 1 1SMQ 49.21 6 1 3 7 7

D – distal, P – proximal, 0 – no osteoarthritis, 1 – osteophytes, 2 – porosity and/or eburnation (count per preserved articular surfaces)

459


6-11.6. Spondylosis of vertebral bodies

ID Cervical Thoracic Lumbar

0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2

SMQ 30.20 1SMQ 35A.maxil 1*SMQ 49.9.16 1*SMQ 49.11.17 2*SMQ 49.13 4 3 2SMQ 49.14 1 1SMQ 49.21 5 9 5

0 – no spondylosis, 1 – small/medium osteophytes and/or Schmörl nodes, 2 – large osteophytes, compression (count per preserved vertebral bodies)

Table 6-12. Morphological features of long bones (adults)

ID ASP-S ASP-R POPLIT HUM-D F-LAT

R L R L R L R L R L

SMQ 30.20 0SMQ 35A.3 2SMQ 35A.2 0SMQ 35A.8.11 0 0* 0 0*SMQ 35A.8.4 2 0 2SMQ 35A.7ii 2 0 0* 2SMQ 35A.8.18 2 2SMQ 35A.8.18 2 0 2SMQ 49.2 1* 1* 0SMQ 49.4.2 2SMQ 49.4.3 1*SMQ 49.4.6 1* 0*SMQ 49.4.6 2*SMQ 49.7.2 1SMQ 49.7.4 2SMQ 49.7.6 1* 0*SMQ 49.7.8 2SMQ 49.7.10 2SMQ 49.7.A 1 0 0SMQ 49.7.A 1 0 2SMQ 49.7.B 1 0SMQ 49.7.B 2 2 0SMQ 49.3.1 2 2SMQ 49.10.5 2*SMQ 49.13 1SMQ 49.16 0 0 0 0SMQ 49.21 0 0 0 0 0 0

ASP-S – size of linea aspera, ASP-R – morphology of linea aspera, POPLIT – tibia, popliteal line, HUM-D – humerus, deltoid tuberosity, F-LAT – femur, lateral fossa, 0 – low expression degree, 1 – middle expression degree, 2 – high expression degree


460

TUMULI GRAVES

Table 6-13. Measurements of subadult remains

ID Measurements

SMQ 49.11.38 humerus: proximal metaphysis 29, maximum midshaft diameter *13, minimum midshaft diam-eter *11

SMQ 49.12a maximum ramus breadth r33, maximum ramus height 44; humerus: proximal metaphysis r29; mental foramen R 1; lateral atlas bridging L 0, posterior atlas bridging L 1; deciduous tooth diameters: upper c MD 5.2, BL 5.6, lower m2 MD *9.5 BL *9.0; deciduous tooth wear: upper c 6, lower m1 ?86?, lower m2 6554; dental caries: lower m1 0, lower m2 0

SMQ 49.15 humerus: proximal epiphysis 11; tibia: proximal epiphysis 23SMQ 49.23 radius: AP shaft diameter 10, ML shaft diameter 7; femur: distal metaphysis **45, proximal

metaphysis r25, subtrochanteric diameters AP 17 ML 21, midshaft diameters AP r*14 ML r*15, midshaft circumference r*45

significant feature of the sample of teeth from Mughaira is the complete lack of dental caries, both in teeth that were recognized [Table 6-9] and in more than a hundred unrecognized tooth fragments. This observation may be interpreted as the result of a low amount of fermentable carbohydrates in the diet of the local human population. Only in two cases it was possible to score antemortem mechanical enamel damage, once in SMQ 35A and once in SMQ 49.

Some other stress markers were occasionally scored apart from linear enamel hypoplasia. Not a single case of cribra orbitalia was recorded [Table 6-10], nor was there porotic hyperostosis, although a high rate of weathering may have strongly affected both these features. Degenerative joint disease was also minimal [Table 6-11] and again this observation may be biased by the post-depositional history of bones. Several morphological features were scored for long bones [Table 6-12], but again the sample size was too small to analyze patterns.

Subadult remains could be measured only exceptionally, this being the consequence of the generally poor state of preservation and the small number of individuals [Table 6-13].

In a few cases some minor injuries were noted, such as possible healed fractures of toe phalanges in SMQ 49 Tag 4 [Fig. 6-2] and SMQ 49 Tag 15, a possible rib fracture in the process of healing in SMQ 49 Tag 7 and two fused ribs in SMQ 49 Tag 13 [Fig. 6-4].

Discussion and conclusionsThe sample size is very small and most of the bones were heavily affected by taphonomic agents, therefore only a very superficial, general interpretation of the collected data is possible. The evidence of ancient bone damage and disarticulation in the collective graves may be referred to specific burial customs in nomadic societies where bones of individuals who died far away from the main cemetery were buried temporarily elsewhere and then moved to the proper place (see Haverkort and Lubell 1999). It is not certain, however, that the cemetery at Mughaira in the Al-Subiyah was used by nomads.

On the other hand, the absence of dental caries suggests that the subsistence of people buried at Al-Subiyah was not based on agriculture, but rather on marine resources and/or herding. In some other populations living in the area of the Persian Gulf, a very high proportion of carious lesions has been observed and interpreted as the result of diet based on plant-related food and especially abundant in dates (Blau 2007; Nelson, Lukacs, and Yule 1999). This is obviously not the case of the Al-Subiyah.

Although taphonomic and palaeopathological lines of evidence are not strong in this case, they both suggest that people buried in the Mughaira tumuli were not agriculturalists, but their subsistence was based on animal resources. However, this was already evident as the cemetery was located in the desert and no major oases were present in the neighborhood.

human remains from the tumuli at mughaira

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