gender and climate change adaptation strategies in
TRANSCRIPT
Master of Arts in Public Planning for Sustainable Development
School of Humanities, Education and Social Sciences
Örebro University
Gender and Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in Agriculture: Lessons from Farming Communities in Ejisu Municipality, Ghana.
Submitted by Eunice Adwoa Sarpong
Supervisor: James Merricks White
Examiner: Daniel Sjödin
Date: 4th June 2021.
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ABSTRACT
Climate change poses a threat to agriculture. Ghana’s agriculture is mainly dependent on
rainfall, this makes subsistence farmers majority of whom are women more vulnerable to the
impacts of climate change. That said, the impacts of climate change are felt differently by men
and women due to their social assigned roles and responsibilities. This study examined the
dimensions along which gender matters in adaptation strategies.
The study used a case study approach, the Ejisu municipality in Ghana was selected for the
study. To understand the gender narratives and how this affects adaptation strategies 10 farmers,
and 2 agriculture extension officers were sampled. An inductive approach was used to analyze
the core themes that emerged from the data.
The findings of the study show that smallholder farmers in Ejisu municipality are changing
their agricultural practices due to the changes in climatic conditions. Female farmers were seen
to be less adaptive due to gender norms and challenges with access to productive resources.
The common adaptative measures used by both male and female farmers are crop rotation,
mixed farming, use of agrochemicals, organic fertilizers, leaving land fallow, delayed planting,
and conservative agriculture.
The study findings further show there are complexities in gender dimensions in the agricultural
process and this affects adaptation strategies. The study recommends raising public awareness
on climate change by providing adequate support to train farmers on sustainable adaptation,
strengthening institutional capacity to ensure gender-responsive initiatives in agriculture, and
create equitable access to resources to enhance adaptive capacities.
Keywords: Ejisu, gender dimensions, agriculture, climate change, Gender-Responsive National
Adaptation Plan (NAP) Processes
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To God be all the Glory.
I am thankful to the Swedish Institute for funding my master’s degree in Sweden. I express my
profound gratitude to my thesis supervisor James Merricks White for his constant support and
insightful comments throughout the process.
Again, my profound gratitude goes to all respondents for volunteering to contribute their
experiences and thoughts to make this work a success. I am also grateful to Kvinna till Kvinna
for the internship opportunity with the African unit, especially to Camilla Lagerroos I say thank
you for the invaluable lessons you thought me during my time there.
Finally, my heartfelt appreciation goes to my lovely family and friends for their support towards
this degree, I say God bless you all.
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Table of content
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 1
Acknowledgment ......................................................................................................... 2
List of Figures and Tables ............................................................................................. 5
1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 6
1.1 Organisation of the study ..................................................................... 7
1.2 Problem statement ................................................................................. 8 1.3 Purpose and research questions ............................................................ 9
2. Literature review and conceptual framework ........................................... 10
2.1 Overview of climate change ............................................................... 10
2.2 Effects of climate change .................................................................... 11 2.3 Gender dimensions of climate change ................................................ 11 2.4 Climate change adaptation ................................................................. 12 2.5 Gender and climate change adaptation ............................................... 13 2.6 Gender roles in agriculture ................................................................. 14
2.6.1 Gender division of labor .......................................................... 15 2.6.2 Gendered access to productive resources ............................... 16 2.6.3 Gender and decision making .................................................. 17
2.7 Conceptual framework of the study ................................................... 17
3. Methodology ............................................................................................ 22
3.1 Research setting .................................................................................. 22
3.2 A case study ....................................................................................... 22 3.3 Population sample .............................................................................. 23 3.4 Interviews ........................................................................................... 24 3.5 Procedure ............................................................................................ 25 3.6 Data analysis ...................................................................................... 26 3.7 Practical considerations ...................................................................... 27 3.8 Ethics .................................................................................................. 28 3.9 Reliability and validity of data ........................................................... 28
4. Results and analysis ................................................................................. 30
4.1 Description of the case study area ....................................................... 30
4.2 Demographic characteristics ............................................................... 32
4.2.1 Gender .................................................................................... 32 4.2.2 Age ......................................................................................... 33 4.2.3 Education level ....................................................................... 33 4.2.4 Family status .......................................................................... 34 4.2.5 Land ownership ....................................................................... 34
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4.3 Demographic analysis ........................................................................ 35 4.4 Farmer’s perceptions and knowledge about climate change .............. 36 4.5 Impacts of climate change on different genders in maize farming ..... 37 4.6 Differences in male and female adaptation strategy in farming ......... 38 4.7 Gender dimensions in agriculture ...................................................... 40
4.7.1 Gendered patterns of division of labor ................................... 40 4.7.2 Gendered patterns of labor division and adaptation ............... 41 4.7.3 Gendered access to resources ................................................. 43 4.7.4 Joint decision making ............................................................. 44
4.8 Adaptation needs and barriers ............................................................ 45
5. Key findings, conclusion, and recommendations ..................................... 48
5.1 Summary of key findings ................................................................... 48
5.1.1 Gendered patterns of division of labor influence adaptation . 48 5.1.2 Gendered access to resources affects the adaptive capacity ... 48 5.1.3 Joint decision making in the agricultural process ................... 49
5.2 Discussion of key findings ................................................................. 49 5.3 Conclusions ........................................................................................ 51 5.4 Recommendations .............................................................................. 52
References ...................................................................................................... 54
Appendix 1 ..................................................................................................... 63
Appendix 2 ..................................................................................................... 67
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List of Figures and Tables
Figures
Figure 1: Dimensions of the gender-responsive NAP process
Figure 2: Map of Ghana showing Ejisu-Juabeng municipality the study area
Figure 4.1.2: Age of respondents
Figure 4.1.3: Education level of respondents
Figure 4.1.4: Family status of respondents
Figure 4.1.5: Land ownership of respondents
Figure 4.4.1 Maize under conservative agriculture
Tables
Table 1: Sampled farmers and extension officers within selected towns, the total number of
questionnaires, and their gender.
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1. INTRODUCTION
The changes in weather conditions threaten agricultural productivity, which makes agriculture
the most susceptible sector to climate change directly affecting economic activity particularly
for developing countries where nearly 70% of the population depend on agriculture as their
source of livelihoods (Biteye, 2016; García et al 2013, p.63). In addition to these challenges,
most developing countries have the least capacity to deal with the impact of climate change due
to high levels of poverty, social inequalities, limited technology, etc. (Mertz et al 2009, p. 750;
IPCC, 2001).
In Ghana and elsewhere, agriculture is mainly dependent on rainfall (Agriculture Sector
Review in Ghana, 2020) rather than irrigation systems. This makes subsistence farmers, the
majority of whom are women, more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (Ghana Gender
Analysis report 2019, p. 3; Naab et al 2019, p. 26; Rafiyatu 2016, p.3). The impacts of climate
change are not gender-neutral. Thus, men and women are affected differently by climate change
due to their social assigned roles and responsibilities (Skinner and Brody, 2011). For example,
in rural communities’ women are seen as mothers and caregivers and often depend heavily on
natural resources for their livelihoods they spend more time on domestic unpaid activities while
men are owners of the lands responsible for commercial agricultural production and decision
making in the household (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa [UNECA], 2004).
Thus, in the events of extreme climatic conditions such as fires, drought, disasters, variable
rainfall, etc. women and children are the most adversely affected as they have fewer options to
diversify and survive (Nellemann et al 2011, p.6). Gender norms are deeply ingrained and
differ among cultures and societies, however, in all societies, gender influences power, and
resources for both men and women (Nelson et al 2012, p. 25), often women have lower incomes
and fewer opportunities than men, women have limited access to productive resources such as
land, labor, and capital, and are less involved in household decision-making (De Onís and
Kathleen 2012, p. 309; Women Environment Development Organisation [WEDO], 2007).
These gender norms, gender division of labor, differences in access, control, and decision-
making on productive resources threaten women’s agricultural productivity (Glazebrook et al
2020, p.7; Alston 2014, p. 288) therefore widening the gender gap and inequality in agriculture.
Gender gap refers to disparities in access to productive resources between men and women
(Nelson et al 2012, p. 26).
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Climate change is defined as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to
human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to
natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods” (United Nations Framework
Convention on climate change [UNFCC], Article 1 [1992]). Climate change adaptation
strategies are aimed at helping societies cope and adjust to the impact of climate change. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change adaptation as
“adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climate stimuli or
their effects which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities” (IPCC 2007, p. 6).
Adaptation strategies are not “one-size-fits-all” strategies. Rather, they include various local
actions, for instance in agriculture, diversifying crops, switching to drought resistance crops,
adjusting planting dates, improving technology, access to finance, etc. However, little is known
about the relationship between climate change adaptation strategies and gender dimensions in
agriculture and how adaptation strategies will differently affect men and women.
Gender does not only refer to women, rather a social interpretation of biological sex differences
that considers women’s needs and vulnerabilities as well as including women in decision-
making (Burkevica 2013, p. 18; Ogato et al 2009, p. 1). Women constitute about 43% of the
agricultural workforce in developing countries and ranging nearly 50% in Sub-Saharan Africa
(FAO 2010a). However, most research focuses on gender differences without exploring
underlying socially constructed gender roles and responsibilities that are assigned to men and
women, which leads to gender inequalities.
Hence, failure to recognize these underlying society-specific factors in adaptation strategies
may reinforce traditional gender roles and stereotypes (Burkevica 2013, p. 18). It is therefore
important to know these gender dimensions to climate change due to the disproportionate
gendered effect that climate change and its adaptation strategies will have on farmers
particularly women in developing economies.
1.1 Organization of the study
This study is presented in five chapters. The first chapter provides the introduction, problem
statement, and research questions. Chapter two reviews the literature on climate change,
adaptation, and gender dimensions in agriculture. Later, the review demonstrates how the
Gender-Responsive National Adaptation Plan (NAP) Processes (Dazé and Dekens, 2017) can
help integrate gender dimensions in climate change adaptation. Chapter three discusses the
methodology approach for the study. Chapter four comprises the results and discussions of the
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findings, it also describes the case study area. Chapter five summarises the key findings,
conclusion, and recommendation of the study.
1.2 Problem statement
Ghana’s agriculture is largely seen as underperforming (World Bank, 2007; InterAcademy
Council, 2004), partly because women have limited access to the resources and opportunities,
they need to reach their full potential and be productive (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019,
p.4; Nelson et al 2012, p.25). Women play a key role in Ghana's agriculture sector, they produce
70% of the country's subsistence crops, makeup 52% of the labor force, and contribute 46% of
the country's total GDP (FAO, 2012). But women face difficulties in accessing land, finance,
and other productive resources due to socio-economic factors that stem from prevailing cultural
norms, and legal and regulatory limitations (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019, p. 3).
SEND Ghana (2014) estimates that if women farmers were given the same access to productive
resources as their male counterparts, they would be likely to increase farm yields by 20-30%
which could increase Ghana’s overall agricultural production by 4% and reduce hunger by 17%.
Gender relation is a key aspect of cultural norms. Most societies in Ghana are deeply rooted in
patriarchal beliefs these shape expectations about men and women’s roles. Often men are seen
as leaders and husbands while women are seen as followers and wives. While gender relations
are difficult to change, as they have instant implications for both men and women (Schalkwyk
2000, p. 2), they are not static and may respond to changes due to socio-economic conditions
(Doss 2001, p. 2076).
Besides, it is not just cultural norms that reinforce gender inequalities. Glaring gaps in
government policies and implementation make it challenging for women to have equal access
and opportunities in all spheres (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019, p. 3). For example,
while there are laws that allow women access to land and ownership through marriage,
inheritance, or lineage, often these laws are not followed consistently in all parts of Ghana due
to the importance of ethnic tribes (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2020, p. 14).
Amidst these challenges in Ghana’s agricultural sector, climate change introduces numerous
uncertainties and adverse consequences. Historical data from Ghana Meteorological Agency
(GMA) 1961- 2000 show a rising temperature while annual rainfall in all ecological zones has
been decreasing (Agyemang-Bonsu et al 2008; DARE, 2011). That said, socially constructed
gender roles and responsibilities determine the different impacts of climate change on men and
women also, women are more likely to be disadvantage than men when expensive adaptation
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strategies are needed, women may not have adequate resources to address or cope with climate
change (Burkevica 2016, p. 20).
However, gender differentials in adaptation strategies and how this affects the livelihoods of
farmers have not been sufficiently investigated (Lambrecht et al 2017, p. 1), these
considerations are a good start for effective adaptation (Dazé and Dekens, 2017). That said, this
unequal gendered access to resources and decision-making prompts the question: what the
relationship between climate change adaptation strategies and gender dimensions in
agriculture?
Thus, the study will explore the different needs of men and women in adaptation strategies, and
report on empirical evidence on gender relations to climate change adaptation strategies in
agriculture using the Ejisu municipality as a case study. This study in gender dimensions will
not only promote gender equality but will also enhance agricultural development as women
constitute a significant number of the agricultural labor force in Ghana. The study may guide
other researchers and inform policymakers to develop gender-sensitive approaches and tools
for adaptation to climate change.
1.3 Purpose and research questions
The purpose of this study is to provide detailed information about the dimensions along which
gender matters in adaptation strategies. The research questions are:
How does gender relate to climate change adaptation strategies with regards to the following
themes in the case study community?
a. Division of labor
b. Access to resources
c. Decision making
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
This section first presents an overview of climate change. It further reviews related studies on
gender roles in agriculture by examining how these dimensions: gender division of labor, access
to resources, and decision making may affect climate change adaptation. The section also
presents the theoretical framework that underpins this study.
2.1 Overview of climate change
Although climate change is a global phenomenon, the impacts of climate change are unevenly
distributed. The impacts differ based on the continent, country, and gender (IPCC, 2001). These
impacts persist in developing countries and stifle agricultural growth affecting livelihoods
especially for marginalized groups, increasing inequalities in gender, access to food, and other
productive resources. Climate change poses a serious threat to Africa. The continent is among
the most vulnerable continents to climate change and is most affected by the adverse effect of
climate change mainly because of low levels of adaptive capacity due to poverty, high
dependence on the natural environment for livelihoods, institutional dimensions, sparse access
to capital markets, technology, an outbreak of diseases, instability conflicts and war (Boko et
al., 2007; The State of Climate in Africa Report 2019, p. 3).
The State of Climate in Africa Report (2019) indicates Africa was heavily affected by extreme
weather and climate conditions in 2019. There were continued warming temperatures, rise in
sea levels due to the extreme weather and climate events. These events are disturbing
particularly as agriculture is the backbone of Africa’s economy. In the quest to fight climate
change together, many African countries have ratified the Paris Agreement and receive support
for adaptation and climate mitigation needs. Also, the Nationally Determined Contributions
(NDCs) to the Paris Agreement for the achievement of set long-term goals serve as a guide to
policy responses to climate change for member countries.
Ghana’s NDC aims to reduce emissions by 15- 25% below Business as Usual (BaU) and
increase climate resilience (GH INDC, 2015, p. 3). To achieve this, 31 mitigation and
adaptation programs of actions in 7 priority economic sectors have been identified for
implementation from 2020-2030. In the agriculture and food sector, the strategic area is
sustainable land use, and the policy action is to achieve agriculture resilience building in
climate-vulnerable landscapes. Currently, various programs of action have been adopted,
including modified community-based conservation agriculture, the introduction of innovations,
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and climate-smart technologies to increase agriculture productivity by 10% in 43 administrative
regions (GH INDC 2015, p. 15).
2.2 Effects of climate change
Analyzing the impacts of climate change on agriculture production, (Arora 2019, p.95) noted
that the impacts of climate change are very comprehensive, however, its sweeping effects are
visible in the agricultural sector. Amidst a growing global population, there are increasing
demands for food hence, harmful farming practices such as increasing use of agrochemicals,
monoculture, over-tilling, livestock for meat production, and other human activities have
worsened the situation by emitting greenhouse gasses (GHG) thereby causing pollution and
rising temperatures (Arora 2019, p.95).
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report released in 2016 projects if the current
emissions of GHG and climate change continue by the year 2100, production of major cereal
crops will decline by 20-45% in maize yields, 20-30% in rice yields and 5-50% in wheat yields.
These numbers are worrying and there is a strong imperative to save our planet and ensure food
security not just for mankind but other living creatures.
2.3 Gender dimensions of climate change
The impact of climate change is not gender-neutral. Women are not inherently vulnerable to
the impacts of climate change due to their biological sex rather the “the complex, dynamic and
intersecting power relations and other structural and placed-based causes of inequality” (IPCC,
2019). That is to say, the complexities in gender roles and responsibilities of men and women
in society influence their exposure and capacity to cope or adapt to climate change.
Comparing the North and South using Sweden and India as case studies (Arora-Johnson,2011)
shows women in the North are more environmentally friendly than their male counterparts
while women in the South are more vulnerable to climate change. For instance, during the Asian
Tsunami, the largest fatalities were recorded among women and children below 15 years.
Traditionally, women are seen as mothers and carers while men are seen as owners of the lands,
fishermen, and workers. This social structure widens gender inequalities (Alston 2014, p. 289).
However, climate change adaptation solutions have not challenged these social norms,
perceptions, and roles. A study in Kenya showed gender mainstreaming in planning and
budgeting was impeded by a lack of monitoring, capacity, and institutional challenges at various
levels (Burns and Lee 2015, p. 6).
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Thus, there is a need to build the capacity of institutions to understand gender issues and to
make coherent gender policies across all sectors (Burns and Lee 2015, p. 6). Women are agents
of climate change. Their experiences and local knowledge are relevant in building climate
change resilient communities and ensuring climate peace. Hence, women should be included in
the solutions to climate change to offer alternative views and ways of solving problems.
2.4 Climate change adaptation
IPCC defines adaptation as “adjustment in ecological, social or economic systems in response
to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects of impacts. It refers to processes,
practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities
associated with climate change” (IPCC 2007, p. 6). Globally, there is a call for countries and
communities to develop local adaptation strategies and implement actions to respond to the
impacts of climate change and prepare for future impacts.
Historically, adaptation measures had solely focused on addressing extreme weather conditions
(Adger et al 2007). However, with the increasing risk of climate change in all spheres of life,
the need has arisen to address adaptation from all angles. Climate change issues are complex to
solve due to the interconnected nature of the problem. (Russel et al 2018, p. 273) asserts climate
change adaptation has characteristics of a “wicked issue”. This shows it needs to be tackled
across many areas of human activities and includes trade-offs. Wicked problems are difficult to
resolve since they are rooted in all aspects of everyday lives and will demand a radical shift not
just in policies but most importantly the way we live.
Several strategies are used in the process of adapting agriculture to climate change depending
on the context. These strategies include soil conservation, delayed planting, switching crops,
crop diversification, etc. (Deressa et al 2009). Effective adaptation requires careful
consideration of the cross-cutting issues and synergies between adaptation measures. Deressa
et al (2009) showed that a farmer’s level of education, gender, access to extensions, social
capital, and credit facilities influence the adaptation strategies a farmer will select.
Likewise, the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation analytical framework show gender
intersects with the environment. Thus, the choice of adaptation strategies for farmers intersects
with gender dimensions. The framework shows themes that influence the environment; formal
and informal constraints, division of labor, access to and control over resources. By inference,
these themes may influence climate change adaptation.
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Formal rules and laws for instance affect land rights. Land rights determine land use, this in
turn will influence the strategies that male and female farmers will select. Yet, there are more
complexities in the selection of strategies as land rights and use will intersect with informal
roles considered appropriate for males and females in each society (SIDA Green Toolbox,
2016). For example, in many developing countries women grow food crops for household
consumption while men are responsible for cash crops (Raney et al, 2011). In Senegal, food
crops are cultivated mainly in the rainy season (Maertens and Swinnen 2009), and takes less time
to grow and harvest, however, in the events of extreme weather conditions such as drought
women are more likely to be affected since their crops are seasonal.
In Ghana, male farmers are more engaged in cash crops than women, cocoa for instance is
considered a “man” crop since it requires extensive physical labor and has high returns. That
said, the dynamics are changing, now many female farmers are getting involved in cocoa
farming they employ extensive labor and use low technologies to manage their farms (Raney
et al, 2011). Labor resources put financial constraints particularly on female farmers creating
barriers for them to adapt effectively. These complexities may lead to gender differences in
adaptation needs.
Addressing gender inequalities in adaptation needs is complex. For instance, increasing
women’s access to agrochemicals such as weedicides and pesticides may create equal grounds
and bridge the gender gap in agriculture however, these solutions are a threat to the environment
(SIDA Green toolbox, 2016). Also, division of labor may influence male and female farmers'
exposure to harmful agrochemicals thus, their specific farm and household activities will
influence their vulnerability. For example, women are disproportionately exposed to smoke
from burning fuel, harmful chemicals in cleaning materials, and agrochemicals (SIDA Green
Toolbox, 2016).
2.5 Gender and climate change adaptation
Why Gender and Adaptation? As earlier established the impact of climate change is not felt
equally, an effective response to climate requires an understanding of gender dimensions as this
will consider the diverse needs of all people (Burns and Lee 2015, p. 3). For instance, climate
change-related water shortages impact women because of the burden of walking long distances
to fetch water. This affects their health, education, and economic conditions (Burns and Lee
2015, p. 4). Climate change tends to reinforce gender inequalities: women are more vulnerable
than men (Annecke 2010, p. 1), and are seen to be less adaptive to climate change than men
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due to financial and resource constraints (Jost et al 2016, p.133). Hence, providing resources
and information that addresses women’s access and control over resources is important (FAO,
2001). However, advancing women's access to resources should not be considered in a vacuum.
Sovacool and Linner (2016) show in a study how some adaptation solutions rather led to an
increased workload and reduced women's decision-making power.
Targeting gender relations in the various local settings is appropriate for an effective climate
change policy as societies are unique, showing different perspectives, roles, needs, priorities,
and interests. Simply put, gender roles and relations are vital to consider in development
initiatives (FAO, 2012, p. 12).
2.6 Gender roles in agriculture
In Ghana, women are twice as likely to be engaged in agricultural activities as a source of their
livelihoods than men (Odame et al 2001). Different types of activities and roles are often
assigned to men and women in subsistence farming and commercial farming (Contzen and
Forney, 2017; Drafor et al 2005). Women in agriculture combine farm activities and household
chores such as cleaning, maintenance of homes, cooking, fetching water, collecting firewood,
etc. (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019, p. 3; Drafor et al 2005). Despite this, the
differentiated roles in farming activities for men and women are viewed as vital and
complementary roles in agriculture (Contzen and Forney 2017, p. 27; Drafor et al 2005, p. 426).
The family unit is the basis of social organizations in Ghana. Each member within the family
has a role to play, traditionally men are responsible for providing economic support to the
family whiles women nurture the family (Appiah et al 2015, p. 8). Though society has changed
over the years, men and women still consider their primary roles as providers of the family and
nurturers respectively (Appiah et al 2015, p. 8). In farm activities, women are often engaged in
food processing, storage, hoeing, harvesting, and marketing of the farm produce (Drafor et al
2005, p. 426). However, due to the rural-urban migration of male farmers, there are labor
shortages.
Most females have assumed the traditional roles of male farmers, which has increased labor
loads for women. In situations where adaptation strategies are labor-intensive, women may have
constraints to adapt effectively as they also have limited resources to hire labor (Jost et al 2016,
p. 136). Moreover, these activities are unpaid and usually time-consuming. Women are more
likely to be impoverished than men as they have less time and fewer opportunities to participate
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in decision-making and implementation of policies (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019, p.
3).
Lambrecht et al (2018) used longitudinal data from Ghana to assess whether gender patterns
are changing over time. Their findings reveal there has been progress in closing gender gaps in
agriculture and some practices have changed over time. Gender patterns in agriculture may
differ according to a woman’s position within the household. Female-headed households have
more responsibilities to provide family support and care for the home. Also in another research,
husbands have the responsibility to “love, lead and provide” and wives must “help, manage and
love” (Lambrecht, 2016).
Thus, gender norms, perceptions, and roles influence access to resources and decision-making
within households. These gender norms may restrict men and women’s access to the market
(Lambrecht 2016, p.6). Even so, cultural norms in Ghana prevent men from getting much
involved in household chores and performing traditional female roles (Drafor et 2005, p. 426)
However, men and women who are willing to change the status quo may refrain from doing so
to prevent social consequences from their families or their existing support network (Yngstrom,
2002). In the next three subsections, I will present the themes on the division of labor, access
to resources, and decision making to agricultural process and adaptation.
2.6.1 Gender division of labor
Society and culture assign gender roles to men and women. Such categorization influences what
role is considered suitable and appropriate for each sex (Ridgeway, 2001). The United Nations
Economic and Social Commission describes gender division of labor as divided work among
men and women based on their socially constructed gender roles. Gender division of labor cuts
across all spheres from paid employment to our daily routines of life. Washbrook (2007) posits
that gender division of labor has resulted in men usually specializing in paid jobs in the labor
market while women are seen to have a speciality in unpaid jobs within the home.
In most societies, women are often responsible for household chores such as cleaning, cooking,
fetching water, and firewood, etc. while men are typically engaged in economic roles. Arthur-
Holmes (2021) shows in a study how gender division of labor shapes women's economic
opportunities and creates power distance in small-scale mining sites in Ghana. The findings
showed men engaged in the extraction process by performing activities like digging, shovelling,
and filling head pans with mineral ore for the women to carry. While the women served as
laborers for the men, performing activities such as providing water on the mineralized sand and
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transporting the mineral ore with their head pans. Also, women received lower wages as
compared to their male counterparts and were exempted from performing the 'harder' labor such
as digging due to 'gender sympathy'.
In contrast, O’Connor (2019) believes gender division of labor served an important social
purpose in the past, taking these roles completely out will disrupt society. In any given context
division of labor increases efficiency and specialization hence to enhance equality there should
be perceived fairness and pathways in these traditional divisions of labor (Contzen and Forney
2017, p. 27).
In family farming in Switzerland, Contzen and Forney (2017) concluded gender division of
labor in family farms is perceived as complementary rather than reinforcing gender inequality.
They argued that researchers studying women’s role in farming should investigate why women
accept or reject inequalities in farm roles. In Ghana, Drafor et al (2005) show division of labor
is seen as complementary and plays a vital role in farming systems. Besides, there should be
conscious efforts not to overlook these traditional divisions of labor as often it puts an additional
burden on women and limits their capacities to adapt effectively.
2.6.2 Gendered access to productive resources
Gender is an integral component in every sphere of life. In many developing countries there is
evidence of gender differences in access to productive resources such as land, information,
capital, extension services, etc. (Lambrecht 2016, p. 188). In Sub-Sahara Africa, women’s
ownership and access to land are relatively less than men's (Doss et al, 2015). Improving
women’s access to productive resources especially land is considered important to increase
agricultural output (Ankra et al 2020, p.11).
In their study in gendered access to productive resources using smallholder farmers in Ghana
as a case, (Ankra et al 2020) showed that access to resources is still gendered, however, credit
facilities, labor, and information communication technology are not gendered. Their findings
further showed socio-cultural norms and educational background influence access and control
of these productive resources. For instance, women from patrilineal ethnic groups with a low
level of education had less access to land than their male counterparts. To affirm this,
(Lambrecht 2016, p. 198) argues gendered access to productive resources is driven mainly by
socio-cultural norms and perceptions this shapes societies thinking that generally, women
should have less access and control over productive resources. However, these authors have not
fully investigated the underlying social relations that limit women’s access to resources.
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2.6.3 Gender and decision making
Decision-making is a complex process in human thinking and learning. Household decision-
making may vary across societies and cultures (Paul and Reddy, 2018). In time past, gender
disparity in decision-making was common in many developing economies, however, in farm
systems, men and women decide the allocation of family labor (Devkota 1999).
In contrast, Lambrecht (2016) asserts the decision-making power in households and
communities is influenced by the level of an individual's income. In family homes, married
couples who do not share information on the income they receive are perceived to have a weak
relationship. Conversely, in agriculture, Ngome and Angella (2003) note that women have more
power in deciding the kind of crops to grow on the farm. Despite these findings, Paul and Reddy
(2018) believe that both men and women take joint decisions in the agricultural process. For
instance, men and women were seen to decide together on the types of crops, seeds, fertilizers,
harvesting, and post-harvesting decisions. These discrepancies in their findings show that
gender dimensions are relative and dynamic and will show themselves differently in any given
context.
2.7 Conceptual framework of the study
The conceptual framework adapted for the study is based on Gender-Responsive National
Adaptation Plan (NAP) Processes (Dazé and Dekens, 2017). This framework is primarily
concerned with integrating gender dimensions in climate change adaptation. Thus,
understanding gender differences in adaptation needs and capacities is important for how
policymakers will design adaptation solutions (Burns and Lee, 2015).
The conceptual framework explains why this study is important in practice and theory. It also
shows why the inductive approach is selected to answer the research problem. Thus, it describes
how the different gender dimensions come together to inform the problem statement (Ravitch
and Riggan 2016, p.32). In this sense, the conceptual framework provides a clear understanding
of the relationships among the variables and concepts in relation to the real-world situation.
That said, the conceptual framework helped the researcher to align the analytic tools and
methods in this study to the central themes embedded in the research question (Ravitch and
Riggan 2016, p.35).
As countries make progress on climate actions, they aim to put into practice the principles
highlighted in the Paris agreement. These principles require gender considerations in national
adaptation plan processes and actions (UNFCCC, 2017). Integrating gender dimensions in
18
adaptation policies has enormous benefits, such as reducing climate change vulnerabilities,
improving livelihoods, closing the gender gap, and ensuring gender equality.
In addressing gender dimensions in adaptation policies, Roehr (2007) asserts social roles and
responsibilities assigned to men and women often hinder women's participation in adaptation
policies. However, it is acknowledged that men and women are not homogenous groups. Their
ethnic background, level of education, age, and other social categories influence their
perceptions and contribution to climate change. That said, considering a gender dimension is
a vital tool in development policies. This will help investigate men and women's social assigned
roles, responsibilities, decision-making access to, and control over resources (Dekens and Dazé,
2019).
Gender-Responsive National Adaptation Plan (NAP) Processes recognize gender roles and
dynamics and how these may influence the needs and priorities of men and women. Often, the
focus of gender integration in adaptation policies emphasizes women and the existing
disparities between men and women in the same environment. This can result in generalizing
women’s vulnerabilities without exploring the reasons for these differences which even in some
ways men may also be vulnerable (Dekens and Dazé, 2018).
Gender and climate change are complex issues. The Gender-Responsive National Adaptation
Plan (NAP) Processes offer a procedure to theorize the case in Ejisu municipality and allow an
in-depth understanding of the social phenomena under investigation. The rationale for selecting
this framework is because it explicitly addresses the gender variables in adaptation solutions.
Gender equality is a universal human right hence adaptation solutions should integrate gender
dimensions to enhance equality (UNFCCC, 2015a).
Moreover, this framework is currently being used in six African countries: Benin, Côte d’Ivoire,
Ethiopia, Guinea-Conakry, Madagascar, and Togo. Currently, there is evidence of success
stories on the use of NAP in these countries. NAP process tackles gender norms, roles, and
inequalities in societies (World Health Organization [WHO], 2009) by recognizing gender
differences in the entire process. Women are agents of change, have local knowledge and
experiences to protect the environment, and play important roles in agriculture, livelihood
security, community mobilization, and leadership. The NAP process aims to harness these
capacities and use them to address climate change issues, remove traditional barriers to
women’s access to productive resources and increase their participation in decision-making at
all levels, and ensure equality (Dazé and Deken, 2017).
19
The Gender-Responsive NAP Process addresses gender differences and ensures gender equality
by challenging biases, behaviors, and practices that lead to marginalization and inequality (Dazé
and Deken 2019, p. 10). The NAP Process gives attention to the gender dimension in the entire
process from planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation. The framework also
considers institutional arrangements, capacity development, and information sharing as vital
components that interact with gender.
Figure 1. Dimensions of the gender-responsive NAP process
Source: Adapted from Dazé and Dekens, 2017
The study considers key elements of gender and climate change adaptation strategies that
should be included in agricultural practices and policies, with a focus on farming communities
in Ejisu Municipality, Ghana. The current body of literature calls for explicit engagement with
gender relations, as well as a recognition that gender differences in agriculture and women’s
vulnerability are structural and institutional. The approach and analysis of this work are based
on a relational understanding of gender, as earlier generated from the discussions, roles and
responsibilities of men and women are a social construct and this influences their access to
productive resources. Using the conceptual framework, the study examined these three themes:
gender division of labor, access to resources, and decision making.
The dimensions of the Gender-Responsive NAP Process.
1. Recognition of gender differences in adaptation needs, opportunities, and capacities –
gender intersects with factors such as age, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation to
influence socially assigned roles and responsibilities. These shape men and women’s
needs, interests, priorities, and access to resources and therefore the extent of
marginalization in communities. These factors influence men's and women's capacity to
20
adapt to the adverse effects of climate change (Roehr, 2007). Thus, the gender dynamics
result in differing adaptation needs and capacities for different people and groups.
The impact of climate change will be different for men and women depending on the
role they play in the household or families and the capacity to cope and adapt will stem
from their needs or realities. Dazé and Dekens (2019) assert the differences in adaptation
needs stems from several factors, for instance, people's experiences of climate change
impact will be influenced by the role they play in the home and society, which often
women are engaged in subsistence farming while men are into commercial farming. In
the events of disasters, women will face food insecurities while men will be worried
about income.
2. Gender-equitable participation and influence by women and men in adaptation decision-
making processes – people have the right to participate in issues that affect them, their
families, and societies. However, many people especially women are side-lined and face
obstacles in taking part in decision-making from the household level to the national
level. At the household level, social norms and patriarchal systems hinder women’s
decision-making power and access to resources as often such traditions allocate
resources to male heads of households.
Moreover, in most households, male heads allocate resources based on what they view
as important (Beuchelt and Badstue, 2013, p. 710). Gender-equitable participation will
allow both men and women’s need to be captured to ensure inclusion and diversity in
adaptation decision-making, and it will also begin to address the traditional exclusion
of women in decision making at all spheres of public life (Dazé & Dekens, 2017; World
Bank, 2011).
3. Equitable access to financial resources and other benefits resulting from investments in
adaptation between women and men – gender gaps exist in access to education,
technology, finance, among others. These gaps exacerbate inequalities. The NAP
process acknowledges these gaps and directs investment accordingly to ensure equitable
benefits across all genders and marginalized groups. In developing countries, women
have less access to financial services and credit opportunities. A World Bank (2018)
report shows that 9% fewer women in developing countries have an account with a
financial organization.
This problem is worse for rural women (FAO, 2919b). Hence, all these constraints affect
women's ability to participate in adaptation actions. (Burkevica 2016, p. 20) affirms
women have inadequate resources to adapt to climate change, particularly if adaptation
21
strategies are expensive. Thus, it is important to address these inequities in access to
productive resources, opportunities, and financial credit to ensure overall gender
balance and benefits.
22
3. METHODOLOGY
This section presents the research methodology that was used to investigate the gender
narratives and experiences of farmers on climate change adaptation. It also justifies the reasons
for selecting these methods and their importance to the study.
3.1 Research setting
The study was undertaken in the Ejisu Municipality in Ghana. Participants, mainly maize
farmers, were chosen and extension officers from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture
(MoFA), Ejisu Municipal Assembly (EMA). A specific crop was selected because climate
change may mean different things or have different impacts on other farmers, thus it was
necessary to pose the same questions to different maize farmers to see their diverse opinions
and experiences on the issue. Also, maize farming in Ghana is largely done under rain-fed
conditions. The distribution of rainfall is an important factor affecting maize farmers. The
increasing variability of rainfall due to climate change increases risk in their farming as it
becomes difficult to foresee the future.
Social consequences of climate variability will include changes in land tenure arrangements,
social relations, division of labor, vulnerability among other constraints. Thus, it was important
to listen to the gender narrative of these farmers as they are the ones directly affected by the
impacts of climate change.
3.2 A case study
Considering the research questions and the complex nature of the issues under discussion, the
case study approach was considered appropriate for this study. A case study approach offers an
in-depth analysis of a single case (Flyvbjerg 2006, p. 219). This approach is best to investigate
complex issues in real-life situations within the context in which it occurs (Yin 2009, p. 638).
Gender relations and climate change issues are complex to solve due to the interconnected
nature of the problem. Thus, a case study offers a chance to explore and explain this social
phenomenon that is context-dependent, complex, and ambiguous (Zainal, 2007).
The study represents a case of gender relations to climate change adaption strategies and how
this affects the livelihoods of farmers, particularly female farmers. It requires an in-depth
approach to know the different needs of men and women in adaptation strategies and policies.
In this regard, a good case study represents an explanatory and in-depth analysis of empirical
evidence (Zainal, 2007; Gummesson, 2007) on gender relations to climate change. Flyvbjerg
23
(2006) emphasizes the importance of cases and theory in human learning. A case study
generates context-dependent knowledge that is proven to be necessary for people to learn from
the beginning to gain expert knowledge. In this case, the context is Ejisu municipality, and the
subjects of inquiry are farmers and extension officers in the municipality (Zainal, 2007).
The case study approach allows varieties of data to be obtained from different sources (Baxter
and Jack, 2008) to investigate and explain a social phenomenon within a specific geographical
area. It offers practical solutions that can help improve the adaptation strategies of farmers.
Also, this approach allowed the study to connect the observations and findings to theory in a
natural setting (Bryman 2016, p. 402). In practice, the case study approach takes a closer look
at the narratives in Ejisu municipality to gain a deeper understanding of the gender dynamics
and interactions within a specific context (Marshall, 2016). Hence this approach enabled the
researcher to obtain "more detail, richness, completeness, and variance that is, indepth"
(Flyvbjerg 2011, p. 301).
Since I want to examine the dimensions along which gender matters in adaptation strategies, a
case study offered detailed information. The experiences and complexities in the gender
narratives of the farmers was examined in a precise context (Simons, 2009). This particular case
does not prove any hypothesis or conceptual framework right or wrong (Gerrings, 2017), rather
it serves as a guide to the researcher to collect data in the cases (Simons, 2009).
3.3 Population sample
The population of the study initially consisted of only farmers in the municipality. To get a
balance in the narrative, 5 males and 5 females farmers were interviewed. The interviews
considered family farmers and individual farmers to assess whether these gender dimensions
identified will vary among the farmers. In this case study, farmers in Ejisu municipality shared
their experiences in gender relations and observed changes in weather patterns over the last 10
to 25 years and how this affected their farming activities.
Again, as the interviews proceeded, the study expanded the initial sample size to include two
extension officers from MoFA in Ejisu municipality. However, they were both males based on
availability. The necessity arose because farmers' stories and perspectives depicted a lack of
education on adaptation strategies, little or no awareness of government policies on adaptation,
and were even uncertain about which agencies had the responsibility to provide adaptation
support to them.
24
The study used purposive and convenience sampling. A purposive approach focuses on getting
participants that can help answer the research questions more effectively (Bryman 2016, p.
408). Two out of the five selected settlements were characterized by the Ejisu Municipal as
urban and three as rural. This selection was to enable the researcher to get diverse gender
narratives from rural and urban dwellers. Convenience sampling relies on chance thus, the
farmers in the selected settlement that were interviewed were those available to participate
(Bryman 2016, p. 408).
The inclusion criteria were subsistence farmers in maize and other crop production who had
10 years or more experience in farming. The reason for this criterion was to examine how
gender relations in farming have changed over time, their long-term observations on weather
and temperature patterns, and how this connects to climate adaptation strategies. Also, this
criterion was influenced by the Ghana Gender Analysis report (2019) and PHC (2010) as many
households in Ejisu municipality are subsistence farmers of which 90% are food crop farmers.
Table 1. Sampled farmers and extension officers within selected towns, the total number
of questionnaires, and their gender.
No. Sample Towns No. of Questionnaire Gender
1 Kwamo 2 Male and Female Urban
2 Kwaso 2 Male and Female Rural
3 Korase 2 Male and Female Rural
4 Kokobra 2 Male and Female Rural
5 Fumesua 2 Male and Female Urban
6 MoFa, Ejisu 2 Males
Total 12
3.4 Interviews
The study used semi-structured interviews to collect the data. This method enabled the
researcher to have an open mind and explore the research questions. The interviews were
designed to allow the participants to give their gender narratives and experiences on climate
change. In all, 55 questions were framed (See appendix 1 and 2) from the literature review and
conceptual framework. Some questions were predetermined for all the participants however,
the actual questions were not and did not follow a particular sequence. This is to say, the
25
researcher had the flexibility to phrase the questions spontaneously in response to the situation
and thus, delving further into the subject (Bryman, 2016, p. 247).
The flexibility in this approach encouraged new themes to emerge out of the data that were not
identified in the literature review. The interviews were conducted and recorded on Zoom for
convenience to save time, and due to the Covid-19 travel restrictions. The interviews were
conducted in the local language of the people Asante Twi. This did not pose any challenge to
the researcher as the researcher is also a native of Akan.
On average the interview sessions lasted for 32 minutes with the longest conversation being 1
hour 7 minutes and the shortest being almost 24 minutes. Though the online interviewing tool
proved helpful there were some challenges such as poor internet connection, delays in starting
the interview, and even on some occasions, the meetings had to be postponed. The findings
were structured into themes to form the basis for this study, first using codes to generate the
themes, the themes were later put into tables and major themes were highlighted. The major
themes that emerged from the interviews were supernatural beliefs on causes of climate change,
similar adaptation strategies, limited access to resources, gendered patterns of division of
labour, and joint decision making.
Bryman (2016) asserts that qualitative research allows the participants to interpret their social
relations. Considering the complex nature of the topic to be investigated, the study finds the
semi-structured in-depth interview as the most appropriate method to use. This allowed the
researcher to obtain the gender narratives and experiences of the farmers on climate change
adaptation. Bryman (2016) further suggests that if the topic has been less explored in the past,
qualitative research is most suitable as it points to the view of participants and allows new
theories to emerge in a natural setting.
3.5 Procedure
The interview guide was first sent to the thesis supervisor for corrections and inputs.
Subsequently, the researcher contacted a friend in Ghana who lives in Ejisu. From the literature
review, the settlement areas were selected, the contact person went to these settlement areas to
first make contact and build a rapport with the farmers, to gain their trust and ensure free
responses. The interview date and time were then scheduled based on the farmer’s availability.
Mostly the interviews were conducted in the evenings in their homes and on some occasions in
the afternoon while they were on their farms.
26
Participation in the interview was by choice and participants were free to stop the interview
anytime they felt the questions were demanding and intrusive. Participants were assured their
responses will be handled with complete confidentiality and were also informed that findings
from the study could be made available to them if interested. The two extension officers from
the Ejisu municipality were contacted through a referral. An introduction and the purpose of
the study were first discussed with them via WhatsApp. The interview date and time were
scheduled and later conducted via Zoom.
3.6 Data analysis
In analysing the data that has been collected using the case study method, the researcher first
created a data repository using relational understanding of the gender narratives developed from
the conceptual framework. The case study method enabled the researcher to identify the cause-
and effects-relationships among the variables being investigated (Yin, 2009, p. 143). Thus, the
researcher analyzed what aspects of the gender dimensions affects adaptation strategies. The
audio-recorded interviews were transcribed and translated into English. The next step involved
creating codes to identify the emerging themes from the data.
The researcher first sought information on the demographic characteristics of the farmers. This
enabled the researcher to get a better understanding of the farmer’s background and to give
context to the study. (Given 2008, p. 758) asserts the methods used to analyze and communicate
research have a direct impact on how it is interpreted. For ease of discussion, the researcher
used thematic analysis to identify prevalent themes and variations within the data. The thematic
approach enabled the researcher to listen to their narratives and write them with excerpts from
the interviews (Given 2008, p. 758).
An inductive approach was used to analyze the core themes that emerged from the data. As
Braun and Clarke (2006) describe, thematic analysis is done by “familiarizing with the data set,
generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes,
and reporting data”.
The researcher listened to the audio recordings several times to get familiar with the information
being given. The researcher then made sense of the information by identifying themes using the
codes for each transcript. The themes were reviewed to develop a shared interpretation that best
represented the narratives of the interviewees. The themes were named and grouped into similar
issues. After, the researcher sought to link the themes with the research questions and the
27
literature review relating to gender and climate change and with the theoretical framework that
underpins the study.
3.7 Limitations and ethical issues
Though case studies enable an intensive study of a specific context, this approach has its
limitations. First, there is the issue of generalizability however, in a qualitative study like this
one, the essence was to show an in-depth case in Ejisu municipality this add up to scientific
knowledge (Simons 2009). Also, the semi-structured interviews used in this study enabled a
wider information to be obtained. This helped put the study into context, however, it was time-
consuming to sit with the participants and conduct open-ended interviews. It was quite
challenging considering the poor internet connection.
Protecting the participant's information is important in social research (Bryman 2016, p. 126).
First, the researcher sought the consent of the participants by introducing herself, and the
purpose and importance of the study. Participants were then informed that the data obtained
will be used for solely academic purposes and will be treated with confidentiality and
anonymity. The participants also had the freedom to decide to participate and refuse
participation or not answer whenever they felt the questions were intrusive (Marshal, 2016).
Also, in reporting the findings the researcher chose to anonymize the participants, however, for
the reader to identify exact quotations by participants in the study fictitious names have been
used this is to ensure participants' identities are protected.
Also, considering this is a gender study, the researcher avoided sensitive questions that may
invade the farmers' privacy. To ensure this, respondents were prompted to choose not to respond
or quit anytime they felt the questions were demanding, intrusive, and invaded their privacy.
Also, with regards to the conversations between the researcher and the farmers, it can be argued
that the dynamics of structural power relations necessitate a more careful review of power and
ethics within the study process (Das 2010, p. 5). This consideration drove the researcher's focus
to inviting research participants, conversations, collecting and interpreting the information
obtained (Das 2010, p. 5).
Another ethical issue to consider in qualitative research is the role of the researcher. Marshall
(2016) asserts there are tendencies for being bias on the part of the researcher and this can
influence the research. He further suggests these biases may spring from one's cultural identity,
experiences and values. Thus, what researchers identify as a problem and how to design the
research can reflect personal interests. In my case, my internship with Kvinna till Kvinna a
28
Swedish foundation that supports women's rights in war and conflict areas sparked my interest
in this study.
3.8 Reliability and validity of data
The respondents were given the freedom to accept or decline to participate in the interviews.
The researcher did this to ensure that respondents in the study had a genuine interest to
participate in the study. Therefore, the first few minutes of the interviews were used to build
rapport, trust, and encourage the respondents to feel free to answer the questions. Respondents
were earlier informed that there were no right or wrong answers to the questions been asked.
Also, the researcher used probing questions to spark insights and develop meanings from their
responses.
Although one of the difficulties of qualitative research is the sample size, (Ames et al 2019, p.
1) posit large data for qualitative studies can undermine the researcher's ability to conduct an
in-depth analysis. (Bryman 2016, p. 416) asserts fewer participants are necessary if the studies
concern people sharing their experiences. In contrast, (Warren 2002, p. 99) suggests a minimum
of 20 to 30 interviews is required in a qualitative study to conclude. However, (Bryman 2016,
p. 417) gives an exception to this rule narrating a real-life situation where one or two interviews
were needed.
Crouch and Mckenzie (2006) argue samples less than 20 offer the researcher’s an opportunity
to get deeper interaction with their participants in interview-based research enabling them to
obtain important information. Bryman (2016) advises in any qualitative study it is vital to justify
thoroughly sample sizes, why it was used and why it is appropriate for the study rather than
been concerned with getting a “suitable” sample size. The researcher was able to spend enough
time analyzing the responses since the data was not too large.
In ensuring the validity of the study, a good case study show the information presented are
factual description of the narratives of the people interviewed (Flyvbjerg 2006, p. 238). Though
the case study approach is considered appropriate for this study as earlier mentioned, there were
limitations with it in terms of generalizability. However, Flybjerg (2006) argues strategic choice
of a case may contribute to the generalizability of the case study. This is to say a case study
whether on a premise of a large sample or small sample contributes to science as people gain
and accumulate knowledge (Flyvbjerg 2006, p. 241).
29
That said, flyvbjerg (2006) further argues is not always a good idea to summarize and generalise
case studies, good case studies should be read as narratives and be interpreted as such. In this
sense, though this particular case study provides a detailed information on a single case it will
be incorrect to say the findings cannot show a reliable information about a broader class
(Flvbjerg 2006, p. 220).
The researcher used descriptive statistics to give a picture of the demographic characteristics of
the respondents. (Given 2008, p. 209) suggest in qualitative research including quantitative data
enhance credibility. Further, the online interviews ensured a sense of anonymity allowing the
farmers to speak freely without constraints. However, the participants were earlier informed the
conversations will be recorded and used solely for academic purposes. Lincoln and Guba (1985)
suggests having prolonged conversations and engagements with the participants can ensure
credibility in this sense, there were some long conversations with some of the farmers via
Whatsapp after the formal interviews had ended. Also, the contact person who visited the study
area ensured there was a debrief for participants, the researcher also ensured the introduction
part of the interviews rightly informed the participant of the intentions of the study.
30
4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
This section presents the results of the study and analysis of the data. The purpose of this study
was to examine the dimensions along which gender matters in adaptation strategies. Although
the emphasis of this work is on the relationship between climate change adaptation strategies
Fand gender dimensions in agriculture, the interview questions and discussions started with
general topics to achieve the research aim. It explores; (1) farmer’s understanding of the
meaning and causes of climate change (2) the impacts of climate change on the different genders
in maize farming (3) the differences in male and female adaptation strategies for maize farming
(4) gender relation to climate change adaptation strategies (5) different needs of men and
women in adaptation strategies. Emerging themes from the discussions on (1) and (2) are
written briefly in the results. The focus is on the gender narratives that reflect the key themes
of the study.
4.1 Description of the case study area
The Ejisu municipality is located in the central part of the Ashanti Region, Ghana. Ejisu serves
as the capital of the municipality, formerly known as the Ejisu-Juaben municipality, in 2018,
Juabeng municipality was carved out of it. The local people are the Akans, they uphold
chieftaincy institutions, family systems, values, and practices the matrilineal form of
inheritance (Population and Housing Census, [PHC] 2010). Christianity is the dominant
religion in the municipality, followed by the Islamic religion, no religious affiliation, and
Traditionalist. 84.1% of the population profess Christianity, 8.1%, 6.1%, and 0.8% are
Muslims, with no religious affiliation and Traditionalist respectively (PHC, 2010).
The Akans practice the matrilineal system of inheritance, the people trace their ancestry through
the female lineage. The matrilineal system confers ownership and inheritance of property to the
maternal family, this means a man’s wife and children are not permitted to own or inherit the
land (Oppong 1981, p. 91). Though these dynamics are changing with the introduction of the
Intestate Succession Law 111, in many cases and rural settings these practices persist (Ghana
Gender Analysis Report 2020, p. 14).
Despite this matrilineal focus, traditional succession and leadership are held by men. Family
heads (men) are custodians of lands and properties, they decide over allocation of family
resources (Gedzi 2009, p. 7). Often women have secondary access to land and properties which
is further exacerbated by gender norms, division of labor, and other social constraints (WEDO,
2007). These limitations show the gaps between statutory and customary laws in Ghana, as the
31
intestate succession law guarantees equal rights to land and properties in Ghana (Ghana Gender
Analysis Report 2020, p. 14).
Ejisu is a peri-urban area. Often peri-urban regions have characteristics of both rural and urban
areas (Asabi et al 2019, p. 4). Agriculture in peri-urban areas faces unique challenges such as
vegetation dynamics, insecure land tenancy, reduction in arable lands for building purposes,
etc. (Anokye, 2019). The expansion of these areas increases climate change vulnerabilities
(Mortoja et al, 2020), however, studies on gender and agriculture have often focused on women
in rural communities (FAO, 2019; Lambrecht 2016). These concerns inform the researcher’s
decision to select Ejisu municipality as a case study, gender relations in peri-urban areas will
have a blend of rural and urban traits thus, it is interesting to explore climate change adaptation
strategies in this context.
Having established the context, most people in the municipality are engaged in agriculture,
industry, commerce, and services. Agriculture is the predominant sector employing about
62.5% of the working population, followed by commerce and services employing 31.7%, and
the remaining 6.8% are employed in the industry sector (PHC,2010). According to PHC (2010),
there are two main types of agricultural practice in Ejisu, crop farming (food and cash crops)
and animal husbandry.
The major rainy seasons start from March to July and the minor rainy seasons start in September
and end in November. December to February is dry, hot, and dusty (PHC, 2010). However, data
on rainfall amounts show that Ghana’s rainfall pattern is characterized by irregularity and
variability in terms of the starting time, duration, and total amount of rainfall (Asibey et al 2019,
p. 11). This climate variability has adverse consequences on the livelihoods of the people, for
example, food shortage, crop price fluctuations, unemployment, inequalities, etc. (Asibey et al
2019, p. 11).
32
Figure 2. Map of Ghana showing Ejisu-Juabeng municipality the study area (Adopted from EJMA-MTDP, 2010)
4.2 Demographic characteristics
The demographic background of the respondents on gender, age, education level, and marital
status. The Gender-Responsive National Adaptation Plan (NAP) Processes require the
recognition of demographic characteristics to form the basis to understand gender differences
in the community.
4.2.1 Gender
The respondents interviewed consisted of 7 males (2 extension officers) and 5 female farmers.
33
4.2.2 Age
Fig 4.2.2
From the interviews conducted, 2 females are between the ages of 30-40, 2 males are between
the ages of 40-50, 3 males and 1 female are between the ages of 50-60 and 1 female are above
60 years. The demographic of the respondents is characterized by older farmers.
4.2.3 Educational level
Fig 4.2.3 Education level
Education increases awareness and concern towards climate change adaptation strategies in
agriculture. Deressa et al (2019) assert a farmers’ educational level will affect his or her choice
of climate change adaptation strategy. From the study, 5 of the research respondents had
completed Junior High School. 3 out of the 5 completed middle school (four years) what was
then referred to as Form 4. This system ended in 1987 and it is now replaced with the three
years of Junior High School (Peil 1995, p. 289). The study examined the gender variations in
0
1
2
3
4
20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 - 60 60+
FREQ
UEN
CY O
F GE
NDE
R
Axeltitel
Age of research particiapnts
Male Female
3
0
5
2
Education
None
Primary
JHS
SHS
Tertiary
Others
34
the educational level of the farmers. 3 of the females had completed Junior High School. 2 had
no formal education. 2 of the male farmers had completed Senior High School, 1 had completed
Junior high and 1 had no formal education.
4.2.4 Family status
Fig 4.2.4 Family status
From the interviews, 8 respondents are married, 1 is widowed and 1 is divorce. Married people
constitute the majority. This data resonates with statements from Appiah et al (2015, p. 8) and
PHC (2010) that the family system is important in Ghanaian societies.
4.2.5 Land ownership
Fig 4.2.5 Land ownership
According to Fig 4.1.5, 7 out of 10 people rent the land for farming. 5 out of these 7 were
women and 2 were men. 1 male owned the land, and 1 female is farming on family land. Some
of these rented lands belonged to the community and others belonged to private individuals.
From the narration, community members could rent community lands when the said land has
not been assigned any project yet. Individual lands were rented out to farmers on an agreement
8
11
Family status
Single
Married
Divorced
Widowed
7
1
1
1
Land ownership
Rent
Owner
Family land
Other
35
basis what is popularly known in Ghana as the “Abunu” system. Abunu means to divide into
two. Hence, the farmers after harvesting divide the harvest into two and share it with the owner
of the land.
Depending on a farmers’ physical and financial ability to farm, he or she could rent small or
large land from individuals or family members. However, family lands are bigger for rent in
comparison to lands owned by individuals. This finding affirms the literature that most
subsistence farmers particularly women are not landowners and have fewer lands in comparison
to their male counterparts (De Onís and Kathleen 2012, p. 309; Women Environment
Development Organisation [WEDO], 2007).
Also, many of the farmers had been practicing farming for more than 10 years. Most of them
narrated they started farming from their childhood with their parents. Again, many of the
farmers particularly men, employed labor since they had larger farm size in comparison to the
women.
4.3 Demographic analysis
The demographic characteristics is useful to understand and draw insights from the farmers
perspectives and narratives. The study discovered that the gender of the farmer determines the
assigned role and responsibilities in the agricultural process. Also, the educational level of the
farmers influences their perceptions on the causes of climate change. Additionally, the
respondent’s family background was seen to influence their access to land and other productive
resources. However, land ownership to a large extent influenced the adaptation strategies of the
farmers. I will discuss in subsequent sections how female farmers were observed to be less
adaptive due to their limited access to land and other productive resources. The two extension
officers interviewed also confirmed many female farmers in their operation areas were seen to
not to be practising conservative agriculture due to their limited access to land.
4.4 Farmers’ perception and knowledge about climate change
In examining farmer’s understanding of the meaning and causes of climate change, all
respondents affirmed that they have observed changes in climatic conditions over the past years.
They further gave examples of changes in rainfall patterns, excessive heat, increase in pests and
diseases, etc. as the changes they have observed. For example, a respondent stated that:
“Yes, our rainfall patterns have changed a lot, we are in April, and imagine is just three days
ago that it rained…. if we had planted early with the first rains some pests and insects cannot
36
affect our maize, these pests are often visible in late planting because there is excessive heat in
the atmosphere” (Kofi, man, 8).
This assertion confirms the visible impacts of climate change the world is experiencing (Arora,
2019). In seeking to know the causes of these changes in climatic conditions, 7 of the
respondents alluded that there is a supernatural explanation to the causes of climate change. 2
of the respondents stated the cutting down of trees has led to climate change and 1 respondent
believed emissions released into the atmosphere by developed countries have led to these
changes in climatic conditions.
“Well, I cannot best tell, but I think the world is coming to an end. So, it is God’s plan, and it is
up to God to know and decide… we need to wait for the rains and trust God for it.” (Ama,
woman, 2).
Inferring from their narratives, respondents attributed the changes in climatic contributions to
a supernatural being “God” who oversees the affairs of the universe. Hence, little could be done
to affect the climate, simply, trust must be placed in this supernatural being for good climatic
conditions.
4.5 Impacts of climate change on the different genders in maize farming
From the interviews, all the respondents stated that climate change is having a significant
impact on all subsistence farmers irrespective of their gender. When the researcher probe further
to what degree of impact both males and females face, 6 of the respondents (5 males and 1
female) from their perspective saw the impact of climate change on both male and female
farmers as equal.
“Challenges of reduced rainfall, extremely warm temperatures in the atmosphere, pest and
diseases among other effects of changes in the weather affects all of us farmers equally, I say
this because the man is the head of the family who toils for the family, so if male farmers are
affected the entire family is affected” (Kofi, male, 12).
However, 4 out of the 5 females interviewed asserted there is some extent of degree in the level
of impacts on male and female farmers. They had strong opinions that gender norms and access
to productive resources influenced the level of impact of female farmers. This makes them more
affected by the adverse effects of climate change.
“Many of the women do not own the land so it affects us more, because at the end of the harvest
we often get little yields due to the changes in climatic conditions. Still, we must share the yields
37
with the owner of the land, imagine using your resources for the farm whiles the owner
contributes nothing except for the land. If there is a low harvest, we women incur losses more,
if you own the land, it is better because even with the absence of rain you can have little to feed
on with your family. But you get more worried if the land does not belong to you. The owner of
the land does not care if the weather is favorable or not” (Akua, woman, 8).
These findings on female farmer’s limited access to land corroborate with the conceptual
framework (Dazé and Dekens, 2017), which indicates social norms and family systems hinder
women’s access to resources. Thus, this affects women’s capacities to adapt effectively, the
findings do not vary much from the Ghana Gender Analysis Report (2020, p. 14), which states
that laws on the inheritance of properties are often not followed in Ghana because of the
importance placed on ethnic background and traditions. Despite this, the glaring gaps in
government policies and implementation also affect women’s equal access and opportunities in
all areas (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019, p. 3).
Similarly, the case in Kenya affirms gender issues in planning and budgeting are often impeded
by a lack of monitoring, capacity, and institutional challenges at various levels (Burns and Lee
2015, p. 6). Thus, these socio-cultural practices and gaps in policies and implementation prevent
equitable access to resources among men and women (Dazé & Dekens, 2017).
Another female respondent narrated the gendered access to resources has influenced the
selection of crops for women to grow, which in her perspective makes women more vulnerable
to the impact of climate as they get less income from these crops. This finding affirms the Raney
et al (2011) assertion that many women are more likely to select food crops for family
consumption. “I think it affects women more, some landowners are very troublesome, so if you grow certain
crops which take longer time to grow, they might demand their land, they do not have empathy
to wait for you to harvest your crops once they need their land, they take it. So, if you plant
crops that take a shorter time to grow like cassava, maize, vegetables, etc. you are safe as often
these crops take approximately 3 months to grow for you to harvest” (Ama, woman, 10).
It is observed that there is power distance between female farmers and landowners, the narration
above is consistent with Arthur-Holmes's (2021) findings that, women’s constraints on
economic opportunities create power distance. In this statement, there is no “gender sympathy”
for the female farmers who did not have their lands.
Also, the two extension officers interviewed asserted female farmers were more vulnerable and
affected by the impacts of climate change than male farmers.
38
“I think it affects the women more than the men, in my operation area most of the male farmers
have pumping machines and often when the rains delay, they use it as their irrigation system,
but the women whatever they plant let us say maize or cassava she has no resources and
capacities in terms of this equipment to adapt. So, I think it affects women more than men, most
male farmers have resources, but the women have less income to buy these types of equipment
(Extension Officer 1, 8).
These findings resonate with the Ghana Gender Analysis Report (2019) which shows female
subsistence farmers have limited access to the resources and opportunities, they need to reach
their full potential and be productive. Burkevica (2016) also affirmed women are more likely
to be disadvantaged than men when expensive adaptation strategies are needed, women may
not have adequate resources to address or cope with climate change. Yet, the narratives from
all the farmers showed they were not aware of any government policy on agriculture, some
were even uncertain on the institution to seek climate support and information from. The
Gender-Responsive NAP framework attaches importance to gender-equitable participation in
the adaptation decision-making process. These farmers were unaware of such climate policies
to even participate.
4.6 Differences in male and female adaptation strategies for maize farming
In this theme, all respondents affirmed they are changing their agricultural practices due to the
changes in climatic conditions. The farmers explained the reasons for changing their
agricultural practices, changes in rainfall patterns, reduced soil fertility, and an outbreak of pests
and diseases. The farmers stated several adaptation strategies they use to cope with the adverse
effects of climate change. The recurring themes were early land preparation, delayed planting,
mixed cropping, crop rotation, irrigation system, improved seeds, use of agrochemicals, organic
fertilizers (chicken compost) leaving the land fallow, and conservative agriculture (CA). CA is
known in their local language as “Troka”.
However, both male and female farmers maintained they did not have gender-specific
adaptation strategies, rather they are all using the same strategies to adapt. A female respondent
expressed:
“I think we all use the same strategies; I share borders with a man on my farm. The practices I
use in my farm to adapt are the same activities he does to adapt in his farm” (Akua, female, 23).
The following statement from the extension officers affirms the assertion above.
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“Well per my observation they do not have different adaptive strategies, they are all the same…
Okay, so as a department we have not sat down to draw that line okay, we treat them as equals
or the same” (Extension Officer 2, 14).
Inferring from the narratives, though the male and female farmers are aware of the same
strategies to adapt thus, all the alternatives are available to them. Yet in practice due to gender
roles and responsibilities, the female farmers were observed to be less adaptive. This affirms
Dazé and Dekens (2017) assertion that gender differences influence adaptive capacities. In this
sense, the male farmers were seen to be adopting more agricultural changes than the female
farmers. It was also observed from the narratives that male farmers who had more resources in
terms of land, better irrigation systems, and capital were adapting better. The common adaptive
measures used by the male farmers were crop rotation, leaving land fallow, improved seeds,
irrigation system, use of agrochemicals, organic fertilizers, and conservative agriculture. CA is
the predominant adaptive strategy most male farmers reported to be using. Female farmers
reported using mixed cropping, use of agrochemicals, organic fertilizers, and delayed planting.
None of the female farmers reported using CA yet. The discussion with the extension officers
showed CA is effective as it covers the topsoil from adverse environmental conditions.
“…the women feel conservation agriculture is difficult to practice for example, in a forest if you
want to practice this, women complain is difficult so they would rather prefer to burn the weeds.
They are to slash for it to go down, spray, and allow enough time before the plant (Extension
Officer 1, 16).
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Figure 4.4.1 Maize under conservative Agriculture Source: Extension Officer 2, site visit, 2020
4.7 Gender dimensions in agriculture
From the findings, there is a relationship between gender, division of labor, and access to
resources. However, decision-making in farming activities was not gendered. It will be
explained in the next subsections how gender patterns of division of labor, access to resources,
and decision-making influence adaptation strategies.
4.7.1 Gendered patterns of division of labor
From the interviews conducted, all the respondents affirmed there is a division of labor among
men and women in farm activities, and this influenced adaptation strategies, particularly for
female farmers. Also, 4 out of 10 mentioned these traditional roles in farm activities assigned
to men and women are changing (Doss 2001, p. 2076). However, they did not consider this as
gender inequality rather they saw this division of tasks and assigned roles as complementary.
As seen in the literature, Lambrecht (2016) argues gender norms shape husband’s role as
providers and wives’ role as nurturers and carers of the home. This can be inferred that male
and female farmer perform a task that is in line with their social assigned roles. Also, farmers'
religious affiliations may shape their perspectives to see these divisions as complementing as
often this is the case in Christian, Islamic and Traditional societies (PHC, 2010)
The following statements were made regarding the specific roles of male and female farmers.
“Yes, I divide labor among the males and females, some activities require more strength, for
instance, digging holes for planting, thus the males dig the holes while the females put seeds in
the holes (plant) and cover it. We have been taught by the extension officers to plant maize and
rice in rows for better yields, so the males have more ability in making these rows or lines than
the women that is why we assign those activities that require more physical efforts to the men”
(Kofi, male, 5).
This opinion shows gender norms, perceptions, and roles influence access to resources and
decision-making within households. These gender norms may restrict men and women’s access
to the market (Lambrecht 2016, p.6). Even so, cultural norms in Ghana prevent men from
getting much involved in household chores and performing traditional female roles (Drafor et
2005, p. 426). Men and women who are willing to change the status quo may refrain from doing
so to prevent social consequences from their families or their existing support network
(Yngstrom, 2002).
41
The extension officers stated there is a division of labor for farm activities. Farmers do this to
ensure all activities are done on time and effectively.
“Okay, yes, what happens is that when you are talking about crop farming previously
or even now when it comes to clearing of land it is the men that do it, so they clear and
cut down trees. So, when it is time for sowing seeds or planting of seedlings then women
come on board, when that is then, and it is time for clearing of weeds that one too is
gender-sensitive we have more doing more of those work. When it comes to the
application of fertilizers then we have maybe women coming on board. As I indicated
earlier when it is time for harvesting, we have lots of women coming on board. These
roles are deep-seated in our culture, it is work that involves lots of energy or muscles
then we have men do it than women. I think that is how it has been done since (Extension
Officer 2, 12).
However, 4 out of 10 respondents noted these traditional roles in farm activities assigned to
men and women are changing (Doss 2001, p. 2076).
“Yes, in times past (10-25 years), women were farming to support the house, they had fewer
roles so they could return home and prepare meals for the family whiles the men spent long
hours on the farm. But now men and women roles are changing, some women are also weeding
and engaging in more farm activities to earn more income (Kojo, male, 19).
These findings further confirm the Gender-Responsive NAP Process that gender intersects with
factors such as ethnicity which influence social assigned roles and responsibilities. The farmer’s
Akan ethnic background shapes their perception of what is considered a man and a woman’s
role (Raney et al, 2011). This gender division of labor will shape men and women’s needs,
interests, and priorities in the agricultural process. Simply put, men and women’s role in the
farm and household will determine the extent of vulnerability (SIDA Green toolbox, 2016), and
their ability to adapt will stem from their needs and realities based on their roles (Dazé and
Dekens, 2017).
4.7.2 Gendered patterns of labor division and adaptation
Changes in climatic conditions put additional work on women. 3 of the female respondents
reported they now have additional work to do on the farm, yet they need to balance it with
taking care of their homes. From the findings, the additional workloads on women and their
42
role to take care of the home create a barrier for them to access extension services and
information. The extension officers expressed that many of the female farmers did not attend
meetings and demonstrations organized by the agriculture extension department due to this
reason (Ankra et al, 2020).
One female farmer expressed this can be a constraint to adapt effectively especially if you do
not have the financial resources to employ labor.
“Now these weeds are growing so fast, and it is difficult to get them out with my ax or cutlass
because the land is dry. A few years ago, the government through the municipal contracted the
young men in my community to spray our farms with pesticides, it was very helpful we paid
nothing for this service. If such acts are done it will help us to adapt better, if only we could get
laborers to help us in our farms we can adapt better, and it will increase our yields. But now
we women need to pay lots of money for laborers to help us since we have less capital, we just
operate on a subsistence basis. We tend to spend a lot on labor but the men, have less labor cost
because they do most of the labor themselves. (Akua, female, 40).
Again, from the female farmer's narratives, it was observed most of them preferred to use
agrochemicals such as fertilizers, and weedicides to get rid of the weeds and improve yields
since comparably they find such chemicals cheaper than employing labor. These agrochemicals
pose threat to the environment and increase female farmers' exposure to toxic chemicals (SIDA
Green Toolbox, 2016). The application of agrochemicals is seen as not climate-friendly and
causes harmful effects on the farmers and the environment if it is done indiscriminately and
along riverbanks. Yet, from the interviews with the extension officers, most farmers particularly
women are unfamiliar with how to use these chemicals appropriately on their farms. They
further stated many of the farmers did not wear protective clothing when spraying their farms.
“I incur lots of costs when I need to weed, for example, labor cost is GHC 20 a day for weeding
and it can take several days to get the whole farm cleared. So, no I just buy chemicals and spray,
labor cost for spraying is GHC 25 it takes few days depending on the size of your farm and the
whole farm is sprayed” (Akua, woman, 14).
Dazé and Dekens (2017) opine that gender differences in adaptation needs and capacities are
influenced by the role an individual plays in society. Here, because the traditional role makes
women nurturers and cares of the home (Washbrook 2007, p.2), farm activity to weed from
their perspectives is seen as additional labor. Women require to hire labor to perform these
activities thus, their roles have shaped their needs. For instance, men’s traditional role will not
43
require them to hire labor as they see activities of weeding to be in their line of duties,
employing extra labor will only be necessary if they need to farm on a large basis, not on
subsistence farming. Simply, there is an interplay of gender roles influencing men and women’s
needs and priorities in the agricultural process and their capacities to adapt effectively.
4.7.3 Gendered access to resources
Unequal access to resources hinders agricultural growth. From the findings, differences exist in
male and female farmers' access to resources. Access to land and irrigation systems is gendered
while access to credit facilities and extension services were seen to be ungendered. Access to
land is often dependent on one’s cultural background and ethnic group. As identified in the
literature settlements in Ejisu municipality practice a matrilineal type of inheritance this means
females have the right to inherit lands. However, the gender narratives from the farmers showed
female farmers had fewer lands in comparison to the men. This limited access to land could be
attributed to gender norms and the gaps in government policies and implementation on
succession rights.
“For my community, most women rent the land than the men, the men who rent the land
are not many let us say, on a scale of 100% of people who rent the land, I can say 80%
are women and 20% are men. (Akua, female, 11)
Responding to the female farmers’ access to land, extension officer 1 had this to say.
“Most men have larger farm sizes; they give some portions to their wives or sisters to also farm.
Some women own lands but generally, men have bigger lands. The reason being that women
are not able to do big farms, even so, when they have the lands, they prefer to give to their
brothers or someone to farm on it (Extension Officer 1, 21).
This statement is consistent with the Gender-Responsive National Adaptation Plan (NAP)
Processes which emphasizes that gender norms and expectations can influence men and
women’s preferences, needs, interests, and access to resources. These factors to an extent can
create and increase marginalization in communities.
“Our agriculture here is gender-sensitive and this is what I mean, most of the land that we crop
on belongs to the family, and what they do per most culture is that they believe women do not
own lands but rather they are to give it to men to crop on those lands. So, what women do is
44
harvesting, gathering, harvesting, and petty trades. So now that we are experiencing this climate
change, I think women especially are the ones suffering” (Extension Officer, 2).
Dazé & Dekens (2017), affirm gender gaps in access to resources exacerbate inequalities. The
narratives show that land rights affect the farmer’s adaptation capacities and ability to use a
more resilient climate path, particularly for women. In the interviews, 2 of the women expressed
concerns about how land rights affected their crop selection. Most women were hesitant to
invest in the land by choosing more climate resilience paths because they did not own the land.
For example, the extension officers expressed concern because many of the women did not
practice conservative agriculture due to land rights. They prefer to burn the weeds or use
agrochemicals to reduce the time they needed to wait before planting.
4.7.4 Joint decision making
The findings show that decisions related to farm activities were jointly made. However,
individuals who were farming on their own without their spouses took sole decisions in all the
agricultural process. Decisions regarding the selection of crops to grow, application of
agrochemicals, and harvesting were decided by both husband and wife. These findings are in
harmony with Contzen and Forney (2017) who state that traditional division of labor for family
farms are taking new forms of arrangement in the Swiss context.
The literature has established that women are often excluded and underrepresented in decision-
making in households, agricultural and climate policies (De Onís and Kathleen 2012, p. 309;
Women Environment Development Organisation [WEDO], 2007). Further, the non-
involvement of women in these decision-makings was shown to be a barrier and exacerbate
women’s vulnerabilities (Dekens and Dazé, 2018; Burkevica 2013). However, the findings
showed that female farmers were increasingly being involved in household decision-making.
Many of the women were supporting their homes financially by engaging in petty trading and
selling farm produce. This confirms Doss’s (2001, p. 2076) assertion that gender dynamics are
not static and may respond to socio-economic changes.
Despite this, the narratives from the farmers showed that gender norms and roles assign selling
and engaging in petty trades as women’s work. One male farmer narrated that it was culturally
wrong for men to put head pans on their heads to sell food in the market (Yngstrom, 2002). He
explained the women do this to support the family. Thus, women’s level of income is seen as a
45
factor influencing the female farmer's participation in household decision-making (Deressa et
al 2009).
As narrated by one respondent.
“Well, some can harvest it as fresh maize. Often women sell it in the market by roasting and
boiling the corn, this is very profitable to do. My wife decides on which market she wants
to go and sell, at times she goes to the Ejisu market to sell the boiled maize, other times she
can decide to roast it in the evenings in our neighborhood. She gets a lot of returns from
this activity. We decide to do it this way because once the maize dries up the price of it
reduces, there is a huge difference when it dries up, though we have people, for example,
food vendors who come and buy it from us, roasting or boiling it to sell gets you more
income than that. (Kwabena, man, 18).
Nonetheless, one of the male farmers was of the strong opinion that, it is a man’s responsibility
to take household decisions. He asserted men are breadwinners for the family, hence they are
responsible to take decisions and work hard to fend for their families. This opinion affirms
(Schallwyk, 2000, p. 2) gender relations are difficult to change, and some people will rather
keep to known traditions rather than changing the status quo (Yngstrom, 2002). That said, the
cultural norms require women to be helpers to their husbands in every activity including
farming, this puts female farmers at a disadvantage as they cannot save enough money to invest
in their farms. Another male respondent believes that with regards to farm activities particularly
on cash crops men should make decisions on that while the women decide on the crops that are
meant to feed the family (Raney et al, 2011). He narrated that.
“Women are helpers, let me use my wife as an example, you marry them to help you so once
you decide, they follow you and help. For me, I concentrate on cash crops that bring income to
the family, so I decide on that, she focuses on crops that feed the home, so she decides on how
to manage that farm” (Kofi, man, 25).
This opinion is inconsistent with the Gender-Responsive NAP process. It can be deduced that
some farmers combine love, labor, and gender norms and do not recognize that these factors
shape needs, priorities, and the ability to adapt. The gender-equitable participation and
influence in the adaptation decision-making process mean everyone has the right to participate
in issues that affect them. When women are side-lined from taking part in decisions on cash
crops which is the case in this narration, it will affect their level of income as usually cash crops
determine a household level of income and not food crops (Maertens and Swinnen 2009).
46
The female farmers will not see a need to participate in adaptation decisions. It is not surprising
the agriculture extension officers reported that female farmers rarely take part in training and
meetings organized by the agriculture extension department. They trust their husbands to make
such decisions for them. Lambrecht (2016) argues it this way, men are to lead wives are to help.
By inference, the leader is entrusted to take all forms of decisions regarding the farm and
household. Despite this, the Gender-Responsive NAP process recognizes that gender-equitable
participation will enable women’s needs to be captured to ensure inclusion and diversity in the
adaptation decision making (Dazé & Dekens, 2017; World Bank, 2011).
4.8 Adaptation needs and barriers
To identify the different gender needs of male and female farmers in adaptation strategies, the
study first sought to know the underlying causes of vulnerabilities of climate change adaptation.
The key challenges that limit the farmers from engaging in many adaptation strategies include
land constraints, lack of credit facilities, lack of irrigational facilities, and inadequate
knowledge on modern adaptation strategies. The unequal access to land, labor, and capital is a
major challenge to female farmers from engaging actively in adaptation strategies.
One female farmer narrated that.
“I have heard of these adaptation practices, but my major problem is with the land. If I own the
land, I will be more secured to invest in it. We women require some capital to invest in the farm.
But we do not have such funds to employ laborers to weed and help us with other farms' tasks
or buy modernized seeds. We do not have much strength to do large farms so once we are
secured with the land and get some capital, we can be able to employ laborers to help us operate
our farms on a large basis” (Ama, women, 21)
Another respondent reported that.
“Capital, farming requires capital to employ laborers to help. Also, if the government can focus
more on farming because farming is the bedrock of every economy. Now rainfall patterns are
changing, and this affects food production. Farmers are willing to work but because there are
no rains, we cannot do much. I visited the North somewhere in October ending, and the rains
had stopped, farmers will be waiting till May or June before they start planting again when the
rains start. If the government can dig dams, it will be very helpful. As I mentioned in Burkina
Faso, they have fresh vegetables throughout the year, even Ghana depends on Burkina Faso for
tomatoes because of their better irrigation system. (Kojo, man, 31).
47
Some adaptation strategies are expensive to implement even though they will yield many
returns both short and long term. Yet, adaptation solutions are desirable to implement if the
returns are larger than the cost that will be incurred. Hence, developing countries need more
resources that can be dedicated particularly for the agriculture sector and adapting to climate
change vulnerabilities in the sector. Simply, the interplay of gender division of labor, access to
resources, and decision-making shape men and women’s needs in adaptation solutions as well
a create barriers in their adaptation process. Providing effective adaptation support will require
first identifying these underlying causes that prevent men and women’s adaptation capacities.
48
5. KEY FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study sought to examine the dimensions along which gender matters in adaptation
strategies in the Ejisu Municipality Ghana. The case study municipality is a peri-urban area and
gender dimensions show themselves differently. Agriculture is the predominant sector in the
municipality and many farmers are dependent on rainfed agriculture. Most of the farmers
particularly women operate on a subsistence basis.
5.1 Summary of key findings
To achieve the research aim, three questions were formulated (see section 1.3 of Chapter One).
Thus, the major findings are presented based on the specific themes that were analyzed in the
previous chapter to achieve the stated purpose of the study. The chapter concludes by proposing
recommendations to policymakers and future researchers.
5.1.2 Gendered patterns of division of labor influence adaptation
Though gender dynamics are changing and influences social constructed gender norms and
roles, there are gendered patterns of division of labor in Ejisu municipality. Changes in climatic
conditions put an additional workload on female farmers. They combine domestic work and
farm activities. These factors hinder the adaptation strategies of female farmers as they are
unable to adopt more agricultural changes in comparison to male farmers. However, gendered
patterns of division of labor are not considered as gender inequality rather it is viewed as
complementary.
5.1.3 Gendered access to resources affect adaptive capacity
Differences exist in male and female farmer’s access to resources. The findings of the study
revealed access to land and irrigation system is gendered whilst access to credit facilities and
extension services were seen to be ungendered. The study also observed additional workloads
on female farmers prevent them from accessing extension services and information. Female
farmers have less land than male farmers. This is due to cultural norms and gaps in government
policies and the implementation of succession law. Also, the social norms and expectations
about who is better able to work on the land influence some women to gift their male family
members their inherited land this, in turn, has a consequence on the women to adapt effectively.
49
This limited access to farmland influences female farmers into cultivating certain crops and
adopting farming practices that may decrease their profitability (SEND Ghana Report, 2014).
Again, because female farmers have less capital to pay for labor they get locked out of more
effective adaptation strategies. Hence, they prefer to use weedicides and fertilizers to adapt.
These chemicals pose a health threat to women and the environment as many of them did not
wear protective clothing and are unfamiliar with how to use these chemicals appropriately on
their farms (SIDA Green Toolbox, 2016), all these factors increase women’s vulnerability to
climate change in comparison to men.
5.1.4 Joint decision making in the agricultural process
It was evident in this study that, decisions related to farm activities were jointly made.
Individuals farming alone took sole decisions without consulting their spouses. Gender norms
assign the selling of farm produce in the market as a women’s job. Thus, female farmers took
sole decisions on where and how to sell, this gives them additional income. However, in some
cases, decision making was influenced by traditional perspectives of the farmers. Thus, due to
the difficulty in changing culture and gender norms, some farmers were of the opinion women
are required to be supportive of the decisions their husbands will make.
5.2 Discussion of key findings
The findings from the literature and conceptual framework affirm there are complexities in
gender dimensions, and this affects adaptation strategies. Although, male and female farmers
had reported using similar adaptation strategies there are underlying causes that hinder the
female farmers' capacities to adapt effectively (Burkevica 2013, p. 18). The three gender
dimensions that the study investigated are seen to be interrelated and influences adaptation
strategies. Changes in climatic conditions are seen to put additional labor load on the farmers
particularly female farmers (Ghana Gender Analysis Report, 2019; Drafor et al 2005).
However, the division of labor on-farm tasks means that women are expected to perform their
traditional roles on the farms in addition to their house chores (United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa [UNECA], 2004). Improving women’s access to capital will enhance
their ability to hire labor to help them on their farms, howbeit, the findings showed that many
female farmers had increased their use of fertilizers, pesticides, and other agrochemicals. This
increases female farmer’s risk of exposure to harmful chemicals and affects the environment.
50
Though the findings show that access to extension services is not gendered, additional
workloads on female farmers which include performing their farm tasks, housekeeping,
preparing daily meals, childcare, and other domestic activities prevent female farmers from
accessing extension services and information (Deressa et al 2009). The Gender-Responsive
NAP process shows gender gaps exist in climate adaptation education, giving equitable benefits
which include information on adaptation will bridge this gap. Simply, gender roles and norms
are seen to prevent female farmers from engaging actively in extension meetings,
demonstrations, and other group training for farmers.
However, it was asserted that it is culturally wrong for men to engage in traditional roles that
are assigned to women. Due to this many men leave household chores and other domestic work
for their wives. The wives are expected to combine these time-consuming domestic works with
farm activities. Thus, female farmers are more likely to be impoverished than men as they will
spend more time on these unpaid activities and will have fewer opportunities to access extension
services and information (Ghana Gender Analysis Report, 2019).
On land rights, it is seen female farmer’s limited access to farmlands is determined by
underlying socio-cultural factors and implementation gaps on land rights (Ghana Gender
Analysis Report 2019, p. 3). The Ejisu municipality practices the matrilineal form of
inheritance, this means female farmers can inherit farmlands. Yet, these underlying socio-
cultural assumptions about women’s inability to operate large farms hinder many women from
farming on a large basis. As one of the extension officers stated, many of the female farmers
even when they have access to bigger lands will prefer to pass it on to their male siblings for
them to farm on it. Ignoring these interplay of dimensions
In many situations, cultural norms are seen to override the intestate succession act that
guarantees access to properties which includes land rights. Institutions commissioned to ensure
the implementation of the law on succession are seen to be limited to implement these laws.
Yet, many female farmers do not have the financial means to purchase lands for farming to
adapt effectively to the adverse impacts of climate change (Burkevica, 2016). Gender equity in
land rights is important to enhance female farmers' adaptation strategies (Ghana Gender
Analysis Report, 2019).
When women are given equal access to resources, they are more likely to increase farm yields
by 20-30% which could increase Ghana’s overall agricultural production by 4% and reduce
hunger by 17% (SEND Ghana Report, 2014). Access to productive resources will increase
51
women’s participation in household decisions as they will be financially empowered. Again,
men and women will have the financial capacities to employ labor, buy climate resistance seeds,
fertilizers, and other farm inputs needed to enhance their agricultural productivity. This will
enhance their adaptation options to address the adverse impacts of climate change.
From the findings, the impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector are driving change
in the sector. Farmers are now intensifying the use of agrochemicals rather than sustainable
methods of weed and pest control, these complexities in addressing the problem are what Russel
(2018) terms as a wicked problem. Thus, solutions to adapt to the effects of climate change may
fail to achieve the desired outcomes unless these complexities are considered during planning
and providing adaptation support. That said, planning adaptation support to farmers will require
altering social structures and practices of social institutions to address the impacts of climate
change (Ghana Gender Analysis Report 2019, p. 3).
In prioritizing these dimensions, it is seen that female farmer’s access to productive resources
is key to enhance their adaptive capacities (Dazé and Dekens, 2017). From their gender
narratives, female farmers’ access to productive resources influences their level of participation
in decision-making and division of labor in the household. The Gender-Responsive NAP
Process recognizes social constructed roles and responsibilities that shape men and women's
needs, interests, and access to resources. Yet, it is shown that these socially constructed roles
and responsibilities reinforce vulnerabilities and the extent of marginalization in communities.
Beuchelt and Badstue (2013, p. 710) assert that male heads allocate resources based on what
they view as important. In this way, small farmlands will be allocated to women to engage in
farming as they will only be farming for household food consumption and sell the little surplus
in the market. Thus, recognizing these gender differences, ensuring equitable participation in
adaptation, and creating equitable access to financial resources and other benefits will enhance
female farmer’s adaptive capacities (Dazé and Dekens, 2017).
5.3 Conclusions
The study sought to examine the dimensions along which gender matters in climate change
adaptation strategies to inform policymakers to integrate gender dimensions in climate change
adaptation. Climate changes pose threat to agriculture, this affects livelihoods particularly in
developing countries as many of them depend on agriculture. However, most developing
52
countries have the least capacities to adapt due to high levels of poverty, social inequalities,
limited technology. The farmers had developed a perception of climate change and attributed
the changes they are experiencing in climatic conditions to supernatural reasons.
The literature shows women constitute the majority of the labor force in subsistence farming
and make a significant contribution to food production. However, the key findings of the study
revealed that socially constructed gender norms and roles influence female farmer’s adaptation
strategies. These roles put them at a disadvantage as compared to their male counterparts. It
was further revealed that division of labor, access to resources, and decision-making intersects
and influences adaptation strategies. Division of labor is gendered but considered
complementary by both male and female farmers. There was also unequal access to resources
and farmers were seen to take joint decisions in the agricultural process and adaptation.
The study findings also present strong cases on the complexities in the dimensions and how
prioritizing female farmers' access to resources particularly land, capital, extension services,
and information could enhance their ability to adapt effectively. These considerations could
help farmers reach their full potential and be productive in the agricultural sector.
The findings of the study show a relationship between gender dimensions and adaptation
strategies as earlier formulated in the problem statement. Gender roles in agriculture affects
adaptive capacities of farmers particulary women farmers in Ejisu municipality. Also the
findings confirms the knowledge gap identified in the research that most research on gender
and adaptation strategies in agriculture do not delve much into identifying underlying causes or
roots to gender inequalities in agriculture adaptation strategies and needs.
That said, the conflict here is that often the social context in which global scientific policy
prescriptions on adaptation are designed focuses on producing scientific knowledge and
cooperation at national and local levels without considering that these gender dimensions can
redistribute vulnerability across the local communities. The complexities in the local situations
will require that global scientific policy prescriptions on adaptation should be locally driven,
gender-responsive, and participatory to consider the vulnerable groups within the communities
and enhance effective adaptation.
5.4 Recommendations
Considering the findings of this study, the following recommendations are presented to inform
policymakers, practitioners, and future researchers on why gender dimensions matter in climate
53
change adaptation strategies. It may help design policies and initiatives that can enhance
subsistence farmers’ capacities to adapt effectively to the impacts of climate change and address
gender inequalities in the agricultural process.
1. Raising public awareness on climate change. There should be education and public
awareness programs on climate change. This will help people to understand and address
the impacts of climate change, it will also influence people’s attitudes and behavior
towards the environment. Extension officers should be adequately supported to train
farmers on sustainable ways to adapt to the impacts of climate change.
2. Strengthening institutional capacity. Government agencies and policies should be aimed
at strengthening institutions responsible for gender, human rights, and agriculture to
improve land rights in Ghana with a particular focus on women’s land rights. The
institutions need to be provided with adequate resources to work towards closing the
gaps in implementing these policies and laws in the various local communities. For
example, creating gender-responsive budget initiatives can ensure equity in fiscal
policies that can promote the agricultural sector and other sectors in the economy. Also,
the Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Protection can be provided with the
necessary logistics to educate women on their land rights so they can defend their rights.
3. Creating equitable access to resources. Government agencies have the role to create
enabling environment that enables citizens to gain access to financial facilities,
agricultural land, natural resources, extension services, and information technology on
an equitable basis. Investments in adaptation solutions should be targeted to reduce
inequalities in society by ensuring equitable benefits across all genders and
marginalized groups.
4. Academia, the lack of gender-disaggregated agricultural data has resulted in an
incomplete account of men's and women’s lives and the gender gaps that persist in
societies. Further research can be done to provide quantitative data on specific
characteristics and gender analysis needs that consider qualitative data on the farmer’s
lived experiences. This data should identify how gender dimensions influence the use
of services by different people and the specific resources that should be allocated to
address these differences. This will help identify key gender challenges and
opportunities that can accelerate agricultural progress in Ghana.
54
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Interview Guide for Selected Maize Farmers in Ejisu
Hello, my name is Eunice Adwoa Sarpong, I am a master student at Örebro University (Sweden), I am undertaking a study on “Gender and Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in agriculture: lessons from farming communities in Ejisu Municipality, Ghana” you have been selected as one of the participants of this study, I would appreciate if you could spend about an hour to answer questions in this study. The information collected will be solely for academic purposes and your response will be treated with confidentiality and anonymity.
Demographic questions
To get a better understanding of the farmer's background and give context to the interview.
1. Gender Male [] Female [] Other [] 2. Age ≤ 20 [] 31-40 [] 41-50 [] 51-60 [] 60+ [] 3. Education level None [] JHS [] SHS [] Diploma [] Graduate [] Post-Graduate [] 4. Marital status Single [] Married [] Divorce [] Widowed [] 5. For how long have you practiced farming? 6. Are you farming in the community you live in? Yes [] No []
If no, is the reason due to: a. The location of your farmland b. Better agricultural lands c. Climate conditions d. Cost e. Other
7. Do you own or rent the farmland? a. Owner b. Renting c. Family land d. Other
8. If you own the land how many people do you employ? a. 0 b. 1-5 c. 5-10 d. 10 or more
9. Please do you divide labor among males and females? Yes [] No [] If yes, why If no, why
10. Please are you engaged only in maize farming or other crops too? a. Maize only b. Maize and other c. Please if others specify.
Farmer’s perceptions and knowledge about climate change
To assess farmer’s understanding of the meaning and causes of climate change.
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11. Please are you aware of the term climate change? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] If yes, what do you know about climate change? Prompt: Have you seen long-term changes in weather, temperature, rainfall, wind in the last 10-25 years in your environment, farm, or community? What do you think are the causes of weather/temperature changes? Please give examples.
Farmer’s opinion on the impacts of climate change (by gender)
To examine the impacts of climate change on the different genders in maize farming
12. Have you observed any changes in weather patterns? Yes [] No [] Please give examples of the major changes you have seen in weather patterns for the last 10 -25 years.
13. Please has this affected your farming? Yes, positively [] Yes negatively [] No [] If yes how?
14. Do you think these changes affect some farmers in your family/community more than others? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] If yes, who, how? Prompt: Men, women, individual farms, family farms
15. Is your maize farming dependent on? a. Rain b. Rain with traditional irrigation c. Mechanized irrigation d. Organic fertilizer e. Inorganic fertilizer f. Others
16. Have you changed crops since you started farming? Yes [] No [] If yes, why?
To examine the differences in male and female adaptation strategies for maize farming.
Adaptation means the actions/practices we do to tackle the changes in weather/temperature or rainfall conditions to reduce vulnerability.
17. Please what were some agricultural practices you used for your maize farming 10-25 years ago? Give examples.
18. Please did men and women have different roles to plays in these practices? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] If yes how?
19. Please have you changed these practices due to climate change? Yes [] No[] Not sure [] 20. If yes, what actions/practices have you taken to address or cope with changes in
weather/temperature/rainfall conditions? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] Please if yes mention some of the actions/practices you use to deal with weather/temperature or rainfall changes. Prompt:
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What are/have you been doing to ensure changes in weather/temperature patterns do not affect your maize farming? How is it done?
21. Based on the questions above, who would be involved in carrying out the various activities?
22. Do male and female farmers in your community have different adaptation strategies to tackle climate change? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] If yes, what do men do differently? If yes, what do women do differently?
23. Please are you aware of any government policies on adaptation in farming? Prompt: Example of policies includes the district, municipal, national laws, services, campaigns, education on how people/farmers can cope or deal with weather/temperature changes.
To assess gender relation to climate change adaptation strategies
24. Please who decides on the adaptation strategy to use when there are changes in weather/temperature conditions? Prompt: Example: land use, time to plant, diversifying crops, soil type, improving irrigation, fertilizer application. If men, why? If women, why?
25. Does your gender affect/determine the adaptation strategy you choose? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] If yes, how?
26. Please do you divide labor among men and women into the adaptation strategies you use? Prompt: Do men/women have specific roles to perform in farming when there are changes in weather/temperature conditions? Please give examples.
27. Please who allocates resources in these adaptation strategies? Prompt: Resources include land, credit facilities, seeds, information extension services, etc. Are men/women given specific/different resources to adapt to climate change? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] Please give examples.
To assess the different needs of men and women in adaptation strategies
28. What problems do you face in adapting to the changes in climate? Please give examples. Do you think you face these problems due to your gender? Yes [] No [] Not sure [] If yes, how?
29. What capacities/resources do you need to effectively adapt to the changes in weather/temperature conditions?
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30. In what ways can adaptation support be improved to meet specific needs? Prompt: What can locals, NGOs, CSOs, governments, and other stakeholders do to support farmers to adapt to climate change effectively?
31. Please do you have any other comments, questions, or observations?
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APPENDIX 2
Appendix 2: Interview guide for the selected institution- MoFA, Department of Agricultural Extension Services, Ejisu Municipality.
Hello, my name is Eunice Adwoa Sarpong, I am a master student at Örebro University (Sweden), I am
undertaking a study on “Gender and Climate Change Adaptation Strategies in agriculture: lessons from
farming communities in Ejisu Municipality, Ghana” you have been selected as one of the participants
of this study, I would appreciate if you could spend about an hour to answer questions in this study. The
information collected will be solely for academic purposes and your response will be treated with
confidentiality and anonymity.
Background questions
1. How many years have you worked in the municipality?
2. What are your main responsibilities here?
3. What are the main responsibilities of the department?
Extension officer’s perceptions and knowledge about climate change
To assess the extension officer’s understanding of the meaning and causes of climate change.
4. Please are you aware of the term climate change? Yes [] No [] Not sure []
5. Have you observed any changes in weather/temperature patterns in the municipality?
Yes [] No [] Not sure []
Please give examples of the major changes you have seen in weather patterns.
6. What are the causes of climate change?
Please give examples.
To examine the impacts of climate change on the different genders in maize farming
7. Please has this affected farming activities in the municipality? Yes, positively [] Yes
negatively [] No []
If yes how?
8. Do you think these changes affect some farmers in the municipality more than others?
Yes [] No [] Not sure []
If yes, who, how?
Prompt:
Men, women, individual farms, family farms
9. Do you think the farmers face these problems due to their gender? Yes [] No [] Not sure
[]
If yes how?
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To examine the differences in male and female adaptation strategies for maize farming
10. Please what are some agricultural practices farmers in the municipality use for their
maize farming?
11. Please do men and women have different roles to play in these practices?
12. Please have these agricultural practices changed due to climate change? Yes [] No []
Not sure []
If yes how?
13. Do male and female farmers in the municipality have different adaptation strategies to
tackle climate change? Yes [] No [] Not sure []
If yes, what do men/women do differently?
14. Please are you aware of any government policies on adaptation in farming? Please give examples.
To assess gender relation to climate change adaptation strategies
15. Please what are some adaption strategies farmers choose in the municipality?
16. Does gender affect/determine the adaptation strategy farmers choose? Yes [] No [] Not
sure []
If yes, how?
17. Please what is the role of extension officers in climate change adaption?
18. Do you consider climate change adaption a priority area for extension officers in the
municipality? Yes [] No [] Not sure []
19. What measures have you put in place to ensure farmers adapt effectively?
20. Do you consider different gender needs in these adaptative measures?
21. What adaptation training do you offer to farmers in the municipality?
22. How much adaptation education or training has the municipality offered to farmers for
the past five years? Please give examples.
23. Do you consider the different needs of men and women in the adaptation training? Yes
[] No [] Not sure []
If yes, how?
24. Please what challenges is your department facing in adaptation measures for farmers in
the municipality? Are these problems gender specific?
25. In what ways can adaption support be improved to meet specific gender needs?
26. Please do you have any other comments, questions, or observations?