Extensive

READING

Tamar Mikeladze

Tbilisi

2014

Editor: Prof. Dr. Natela Dogonadze Reviewer: Dr. Eka Katsiashvili

Tamar Mikeladze PhD, English language teaching methodology

Contents ექსტენსიური კითხვა

Introduction 1. Theoretical background of extensive reading Understanding reading in a foreign language Reading approaches Definition of extensive reading Hypotheses and input models supporting extensive reading The characteristics of extensive reading The benefits of extensive reading Reading material for extensive reading programs Extensive reading through the Internet Reading in Georgian and Russian foreign language teaching methodology 2. Proposed model of extensive reading program for Georgian universities The characteristics of the program A teaching model of an extensive reading program The role of motivation Reading requirements, activities and testing in an extensive reading program Selecting reading material Obstacles in teaching extensive reading Conclusion References

ექსტენსიური კითხვა

მოცემული მონოგრაფია წარმოადგენს დეტალურ კვლევას

კითხვის და კონკრეტულად, ექსტენსიური კითხვის შესახებ.

ექსტენსიური კითხვის დანერგვა დადებითად მოქმედებს

უცხოური ენის ათვისებაზე შემსწავლელთა შორის. ნაშრომში

წარმოდგენილია დასავლეთის გამოყენებითი ლიგვისტიკის

წამყვანი ექსპერტების (ს. ქრეშენი, ვ. გრაბე, რ.დეი, ჯ. ბამფორდი, ქ.

ნათალი, ფ. სმითი და სხვა).

პირველ თავში წარმოდგენილია ექსტენსიური კითხვის

განმარტება და მისი მახასიათებლები, ექსტენსიური კითხვის

დადებითი მხარეები და უცხოური ენის სწავლების მეთოდიკაში

ექსტენსიური კითხვის გარშემო არსებული ლიტერატურა ქართულ

ენაზე, ამასთანავე, ბოლო წლებში კითხვის განმავითარებელ

პროგრამებთან დაკავშირებულ კვლევებს. ქრეშენი (1982)

განასხვავებს ენის დაუფლებას (acquisition) და შესწავლას (learning),

ამ ორ, ბუნებით განსხვავებულ პროცესებს. ენის დაუფლება არის

ქვეცნობიერი პროცესი, იმ პროცესის მსგავსი, რომელიც

მიმდინარეობს ბავშვში მშობლიური ენის ათვისებისას. ათვისება

მოითხოვს აზრობრივ, ანუ ბუნებრივ კომუნიკაციას შესასწავლ

ენაზე, რომლის დროსაც მოსაუბრე ფოკუსირებას ახდენს არა

სათქმელის ფორმაზე, არამედ თვით კომუნიკაციაზე. ქრეშენის

მიხედვით უცხო ენის სწავლების პროგრამას ექნება ორი

შემადგენელი კომპონენტი – ათვისება/დაუფლება და შესწავლა.

ათვისების ერთ-ერთი შემადგენელი ნაწილია ექსტენსიური (დიდი

რაოდენობით) კითხვა. ქრეშენი ასკვნის, რომ ენის ათვისება უფრო

მთავარია, ვიდრე ენის სწავლება მეორე ენის შესწავლისას, ხოლო

ენის ათვისებას განაპირობებს ინფორმაციული ნაკადი (intake),

რომლის მიწოდება უნდა იყოს ბუნებრივი პროცესი. ექსეტენსიური

კითხვა მისი აზრით არის ინფორმაციული ნაკადის მიწოდების

ბუნებრივის ხერხი. მეორე ჰიპოთეზა, რომელიც ასევე მხარს უჭერს

ექსტენსიურ კითხვას, არის ქრეშენის (1993) სიამოვნების მიღების

ჰიპოთეზა (Pleasure hypothesis). ქრეშენის თანახმად, როდესაც

ბავშვები კითხულობენ სიამოვნებისათვის, ენის ათვისება

შეგნებული ძალისხმევის გარეშე ხორციელდება. ის კითხვის

პროგრამები, სადაც სიამოვნების ფაქტორი მაღალია, ისინი

გაცილებით ეფექტურ საშუალებას წარმოადგენენ ენის

სწავლებისას, ვიდრე სხვა დანარჩენი პროგრამები პროგრამები.

უცხოური ენის სწავლებაში განასხვავებენ ორი სახის

კითხვის სწავლების მიდგომას: ინტენსიურს და ექსტენსიურს.

ინტენსიური კითხვა გულისხმობს მცირე ზომის ტექსტის კითხვას

და შინაარსის დეტალურ წვდომას მასწავლებლის მითითებებით.

ექსტენსიური კითხვა მოიცავს ვრცელი ტექსტების კითხვას. ამ

ტიპის კითხვის მიზანია სიამოვნების და ინფორმაციის მიღება და

ზოგადი შინაარსის გაგება, რაც გულისხმობს შინაარსის 100% -ზე

ნაკლებ შინაარსის გაგებას. წასაკითხი მასალის სირთულე უნდა

შეესაბამებოდეს შემდეგ მოდელს: i – 1, სადაც i შემსწავლელში

უცხოური ენის დონის გამომხატველი ცვლადია, ხოლო „-1“

ნიშნავს რომ უცხო ლექსიკური ერთეულები და ენობრივი

სტრუქტურა თითქმის არ არის მოცემული წასაკითხ მასალაში.

კითხვის სიჩქარე მნიშვნელოვნად სწრაფია ექსტენსიურ კითხვაში,

თუმცა იგი გაცილებით სასიამოვნო და კომფორტული უნდა იყოს

მკითხველისათვის. როგორც უკვე აღვნიშნეთ, ექსტენსიური

კითხვა გულისხმობს დიდი მოცულობის წასაკითხი მასალის

კითხვას, მაგალითად, წიგნი. წასაკითხი მასალა

ინდივიდუალურია თითოეული სტუდენტისათვის. სტუდენტები

თავად ირჩევენ უცხოური ენის ფლობის დონის შესაბამის

წასაკითხ მასალას და კითხვას მოიაზრებენ, როგორც ერთგვარ

ჯილდოს. კითხვა წარმოადგენს ძირითად დავალებას ექსტენსიურ

კითხვაში. მასწავლებელი ხელს უწყობს ენის შემსწავლელებს

საკითხავი მასალის შერჩევაში და თავად აჩვენებს კითხვის

მაგალითს მათ.

ექსტენსიურ კითხვა დადებით გავლენას ახდენს ენის

შემსწავლელებზე, ვინაიდან იგი ავითარებს როგორც აქტიურ,

ასევე პასიურ ლექსიკას, წერის უნარ-ჩვევას, მართლწერას, კითხვის

მიმართ დადებით დამოკიდებულებას (Day & Bamford, 2004).

ნათალი (2000:128) საკმაოდ შთამბეჭდავად აღწერს ექსტენსიური

კითხვის როლს: „უცხოური ენის გასაუმჯობესებლად პირველი

საუკეთესო საშუალებაა წახვიდე და იცხოვრო ამ ენაზე

მოლაპარაკეთა შორის, ხოლო მეორე საშუალებას წარმოადგენს

ექსტენსიურად კითხვა ამ ენაზე.“

ექსტენსიური კითხვა არის ეფექტური და სასიამოვნო

საშუალება ინგლისურ ენაზე კითხვის სწავლებისათვის, როგორც

დანარჩენი უცხო ენის შესასწავლი პროგრამების ალტერნატიული

გზა, სადაც სტუდენტებს არ აქვთ თავისუფლება შეარჩიონ

მათთვის საინტერესო საკითხავი მასალა. ექსტენსიური კითხვა

ავითარებს სტუდენტების მოტივაციას იკითხონ უფრო მეტი და

მიიღონ სიამოვნება მათ მიერ შესრულებული საშინაო

დავალებიდან, ვინაიდან ის ავითარებს თავდაჯერებულობას

სტუდენტებში კითხვის უნარ-ჩვევების განვითარების პროცესში,

და რაც მთავარია, ხელს უწყობს უცხოური ენის ათვისებას.

ექსტენსიური კითხვა აფართოებს მასწავლებლის ცოდნას

კითვხის ახალი მიდგომის მიმართ. იგი შესაძლებლობებს აძლევს

პედაგოგს გადაუხვიოს კითხვის სწავლების ტრადიციული გზებს.

ნაშრომში ასევე განხილულია ექსტენსიური კითხვის

სწავლება ინტერნეტის საშუალებით, რაც საკმაოდ ეფექტური

საშუალებაა თანამედროვე ტექნოლოგიების სწრაფი განვითარების

ხანაში. უცხოური ენის მასწავლებლებისათვის ექსტენსიური

კითხვის პროგრამა წარმოადგენს იმპულსს, რათა თავად იკითხონ

მეტი უცხოურ ენაზე, რაც მეტად მნიშვნელოვანია მათში უცხო

ენის უნარ-ჩვევების განმტკიცებისათვის.

მეორე თავში წარმოდგენილია ექსტენსიური კითხვის

სწავლების მეთოდიკა. ექსტენსიური კითხვის სწავლების

მეთოდიკა შედგება შემდეგი პრინციპებისგან: სწავლების

პრინციპები, თანამიმდევრობის, მისაწვდომობის და პრაგმატიზმის

პრინციპები. მოცემული მეთოდიკა მოიცავს ექსტენსიური კითხვის

პრაქტიკულ პრინციპებს:

ადვილად საკითხავი მასალა;

შემსწავლელების მხრიდან საკითხავი მასალის არჩევის

სრული დამოუკიდებლობა;

შემსწავლელების მხრიდან მასალის დიდი ოდენობით

კითხვა;

წაკითხულის გაგება როგორც მკითხველის გამოცდილება;

კითხვის, როგორც ჯილდოდ მოაზრების პრინციპი;

ინდივიდუალურად და ჩუმად კითხვის პრინციპი;

მასწავლებელი, როგორც მიმართულების მიმცემი;

მასწავლებლის მხრიდან ენის შემსწავლელებისათვის

კითხვის მაგალითის მიცემის პრინციპი.

ექსტენსიური კითხვისას კიდევ ერთი მნიშვნელოვანი

პირობაა - ლექსიკონის ნაკლებად გამოყენება. მკითხველისათვის

საკითხავი მასალის ლექსიკა ნაცნობია, ვინაიდან მკითხველის

უცხოური ენის დონეს შეესაბამება. ამას გარდა, ექსტენსიური

კითხვისას შემსწავლელს უვითარდება ახალი ლექსიკური

ერთეულის მნიშვნელობის გამოცნობის უნარი.

მეორე თავში აგრეთვე განხილულია ექსტენსიური

კითხვის სწავლების სასწავლო მოდელი (ავტონომიური სწავლების

მოდელი), და მოტივაცია, სადაც ყურადღება გამახვილებულია

როგორც მასწავლებლის, ასევე ენის შემსწავლელის მოტივაციაზე.

ცალკეულ ქვეთავებში განხილულია სწავლების პრაქტიკული

მხარეები: პროგრამის ფარგლებში წასაკითხი გვერდების

რაოდენობა, სავარჯიშოების ტიპები, შერჩევითი დავალებები,

რომლებიც შეიძლება გამოყენებულ იქნეს საუბრის ან დისკუსიის

დასაწყებად, წასაკითხი მასალის შერჩევა და ტესტირება.

პრაქტიკულ რეკომენდაციებში წარმოდგენილია ჩვენს მიერ

შემუშავებული კითხვის შემდგომი დავალებების კითხვარი ( PRW

- Post Reading Worksheet), რომელიც შევსებულ უნდა იქნეს ყოველი

წიგნის წაკითხვის შემდეგ. კითხვარი შედგება შემდეგი

საკითხებისაგან: ავტორი, წიგნის სათაური, გვერდების

რაოდენობა, წიგნის წასაკითხად დახარჯული დრო, მოკლე

ინფორმაცია პერსონაჟების შესახებ, ახალი ლექსიკური

ერთეულები და ფრაზები, რა ვისწავლე/გავიგე მოცემული

წიგნიდან, მოკლე შეჯამება, რამდენად რთული იყო წიგნი

წასაკითხად და წიგნის შეფასება. ექსტენსიური კითხვის

სწავლებისას მნიშვნელოვანი როლი უკავია კითხვის პროგრამის

დასაწყისში წიგნის შერჩევის ორიენტაციას/ ხელმძღვანელობას.

მასწავლებელი აწვდის რეკომენდაციებს, თუ როგორ შეარჩიონ

სტუდენტებმა მათი ენის დონის შესაფერისი წიგნები, რაც მეტად

მნიშვნელოვანია ექსტენსიური კითხვისათვის.

INTRODUCTION

In the process of teaching foreign languages reading is both

a teaching means and a teaching goal. Reading in a foreign language as a source of information is one of the main goals of teaching a foreign language in general. Reading skill had been emphasized in teaching foreign languages through Grammar-Translation method for centuries. Learning a foreign language by reading the target language literature was viewed as the only way to learn the about the target language culture. In the 21st century reading in a foreign language, especially in English is the most demanding skill as it has become global community language. Also English is the most available nowadays through the ample internet resources and libraries. Therefore the goals of reading development programs should be developing reading skill, promoting reading as a lifelong activity, providing with an enjoyable reading experience. These reading development programs undergo changes to serve the goals better.

In the epoch when English has become global community language, in the developing countries such as Georgia, where Grammar-Translation method was mainly practised over a decade ago, one of the most important issues remains teaching English efficiently. The monograph gives the description of the reading development programs; shapes their teaching methodologies; reveals their problems and strong points; confronts these programs to an extensive reading program; gives the basis for the implementation of an extensive reading program at Georgian universities; presents extensive reading teaching methodology adopted on the basis of the results of the reading development program surveys. Extensive reading will contribute to better results in developing general language competence among Georgian students more than other reading development programs; it will encourage positive attitude toward reading and formation of reading as lifelong habit among Georgian learners.

For decades Georgian methodology of teaching foreign languages was influenced by the theoretical framework of Russian methodologists. Later, from the 1990s Georgian methodologists introduced the experience and gains of the western researchers. Nowadays in the foreign language teaching methodology by Georgian authors the definition of extensive reading is adopted in general. Nevertheless, there is a gap; they do not deal with where,

how and why to use extensive reading. This area has not been studied yet and there is even no clear picture how to introduce extensive reading as a program at Georgian universities

The first chapter presents different views on reading, characteristics of a reader, and defines extensive reading with its characteristics. The separate sections are devoted to the benefits of extensive reading and the review of Georgian and Russian methodology.

The second chapter describes Extensive reading methodology. This methodology is adopted from other authors who work in the field of extensive reading. The methodology consists of several sections on teaching extensive reading: teaching principles, basic principles, teaching model, and motivational framework. Separate sections discuss in more practical terms reading requirements, activities in an extensive reading program and selection of reading materials.

1

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF EXTENSIVE

READING

Understanding Reading in a foreign language Reading is always a meaningful activity. Readers always

read something for a purpose. This process always involves feelings

as well as knowledge and experience. It can never be separated from the intentions and interests of readers or from the consequences that it has on them (Smith, 1994b). Reading is transfer of meaning from mind to mind. The reader gets the meaning by reading. In this process the reader, the writer and the text are involved. Wood (1996, p. 36) recognizes that ―no meaning is created without the active participation of the reader.‖ She stresses that meaning is achieved through an interaction between the reader and those words. According to Smith (1994b, p. 20) ―Reading … might be defined as thought that is stimulated and directed by written language.‖ There are two main reasons why people read: for pleasure and for information. Reading is an important skill to be taught from the early ages. Vonte & Balichi (2005, p. 71) list several reasons why children should be introduced to books: ― to inculcate and consolidate attachment to books; to implement and bring up reading habit; to develop and enrich speech, thinking, imagination and creativity; to develop and enrich emotions (the ability to recognize one‘s own emotions as well as others‘); to develop a skill of using print environment; to develop and encourage one‘s self-expression, freedom of choice, and independence; to allow formation of relations and encourage its development; to develop literacy; to prepare a child for school life and future life in general‖.

Through reading one learns and gets pleasure. The reader gets the knowledge about the world. As a learner progresses in reading, her enjoyment can increase. Reading requires considerable knowledge and skill. One must recognize letters and words of the language, have adequate vocabulary and grammatical/ discourse knowledge.

Reading is usually recognized as a necessary part of foreign language learning (Nuttall, 2000). Second language reading differs

from first language reading in that the former involves two languages. Continual interaction between languages and continual change to language demands imply the dual-language involvement. For this reason, L2 reading is crosslinguistic and, thus, inherently more complex than L1 reading (Koda, 2007, p. 1).

As we mentioned before, L2 reading combines L1 and L2 reading resources into a dual-language system. The dual-language involvement implies continual interactions between two languages as well as incessant adjustment in accommodating the demands each language imposes. For this reason, Koda (2005, p. 1) relates L2 reading to crosslinguistic and argues that it is more complex than L1 reading.

L2 reading is an ability that combines L2 reading and L1 reading resources into a dual-language processing system (Grabe, 2009, p, 129). Cook (1997, as cited in Grabe 2009, p. 129) describes this interaction of L1 and L2 systems as multi-competence.

Commenting on the differences between L1 and L2 reading, Grabe and Stoller (2002, p. 63) outlined 14 broad differences, which they placed into three categories:(a) linguistic and processing differences, (b) individual and experiential differences, and (c) social, cultural, and institutional differences. In his latest publication Grabe (2009, p. 130) distinguishes three major sets of differences between L1 and L2 reading:

1) Linguistic and processing differences 2) Developmental and educational differences 3) Sociocultural and institutional differences L2 readers differ from L1 readers in terms of linguistic

resources that support comprehension such as lexical, grammatical, and discourse knowledge. L1 readers start to learn to read much earlier than L2 readers do. Consequently the abilities of L2 readers, when they are just beginning to read, do not match their L1 beginner counterparts. L2 readers are constrained in time, because they do not have several years to build their language knowledge like L1 readers do. L2 readers develop their reading comprehension skills and linguistic knowledge at the same time (Grabe, 2009). While reading in the L2, L2 readers are involved in different metalinguistic processing. These processes may include: a) metalignuistic analyses processes (knowledge about language systems and structures), b) metalinguistic control process (ability to use metalinguistic knowledge to carry out tasks), c) metalinguistic

awareness (explicitly recognizing the need and directing attention to act on that need) (Bialystok, 2001, p. 131).

Two of the main sets of differences between L1 agnd L2 reading refer to practice in reading and visual information in the orthography of the L2. For these reasons, L2 readers will be slower in word recognition and less accurate in word-recognition processing (Bialystok, 2001). L2 reader will be slower for these following reasons: a) less practice in the L2 reading b) a new L2 orthography c) differing patterns of morphology in the L2 orthography. L2 learners will probably need to be re-oriented to, not only the significant letter features of the new scriptal system, but that more strategic control processes, such as the size of the unit and the salient letter will also need to be changed (Randall, 2007, p. 85).

The next set of differences is developmental/ cognitive and educational distinctions between L1 and L2 reading. First, L1 readers transfer all types of reading strategies and experiences to their L2 reading efforts. These academic skills usually develop through L2 reading practice. Second, there is a big difference in amount of exposure to print that L1 readers have in comparison to L2 readers, who usually have very limited exposure to L2 print; it mostly comes from the classroom contexts. Third, the motivation to read in L1 and L2 readers is diverse. Motivation in reading is strongly connected to goals and purposes. Reading L1 and L2 varies in terms of goals and purposes. L1 readers are willing to read to develop some skills or their expertise, entertain and/or to get information. L2 readers usually have to read to carry out language-learning assignments rather than to build new academic skills. Fourth, the reading material of L1 and L2 readers often varies. L2 readers often encounter different kinds of texts in L2 settings than in their L1 settings, particularly in EFL contexts. Fifth, L2 reading involves a range of supporting resources that are unique to the L2 learning situation. These resources, which are uncommon for L1 settings, include cognates, bilingual dictionaries, word glosses, text translations and learner-based textbooks; they facilitate L2 reading development and therefore it is faster than L1 reading development. Sixth, L2 readers with academic orientation are at higher level of metalinguistic awareness than monolingual L1 readers (Koda, 2007). For example, L2 readers can translate meaning form L2 to L1, L2 readers call for the synonyms, etc. Bailystok (2001) suggests that L2 readers would have a greater awareness of how a text, and the language in the text, is organized.

Another set of differences is societal and cultural contexts in which a learner is socialized. It also influences L1- L2 differences. L1 readers, while learning to read, have certain expectations about reading on the basis of their sociocultural backgrounds. For L2 readers the role of a text can be very different form their L1 literacy experiences. Cultural influence of texts is emphasized by educational and informational purposes. More specific to advanced educational settings, L2 learners may be asked to do more reading in the L2 than they had ever done in the L1 context. The difference between L1 and L2 reading is also based on texts‘ different organization in diverse cultures.

There are three major theories suggesting transfer of L1 effects on L2 reading development. These theories are: the Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis, the language threshold hypothesis and the concept of L2 reading as the product of a dual-language system (Grabe, 2009, p. 140).

The Developmental Interdependence Hypothesis argues that reading is a shared (if not identical) ability, no matter what first and second languages are involved. When L1 reading abilities reach a certain level of proficiency, involving some degree of automaticity and fluency, those underlying skills will transfer to L2 reading. According to this hypothesis, L2 students can have weak L2 language proficiency, but use all of their L1 academic reading skills to carry out L2 academic reading tasks successfully. Cummins (2000, p. 173) posits that ―academic proficiency transfers across language such that students who have developed literacy in their first language will tend to make stronger progress in acquiring literacy in their second language‖ (Genessee et al, 2006, as cited in Grabe, 2009, p. 141).

In the language threshold hypothesis, second language is more important than first language reading abilities. There exists a linguistic threshold, which must be crossed before first language reading ability can be transferred to second-language reading contexts (Alderson, 2000, p. 39). Although the transfer of reading attitude is generally supported, there are different degrees of transferability among different attitude variables: what learners value is more likely to transfer from L1 to L2 than what they feel, for example, comfort, anxiety, self-perception (Yamashita, 2004).

The dual-language processing system that emerges will be dynamic changing, and shifting in response to the reader, task, topic, goal, training, context, etc.

In order to provide L2 readers with large amount of exposure to print and help them to improve different metalinguistic processing a reading development program is utilized. One of the implications for instruction L2 reading according to Grabe (2004, p. 46, 48) is implementing some form of extensive reading in reading curricula in order to increase exposure to L2 print.

Reading is an active process. It is an active skill which requires from the reader to go through various processes to get at meaning, interpret and extract information. According to Davies (1995, p.1) reading is private activity involving cognitive and metacognitive processes in a reader to follow and respond to a message from a writer who is distent in time and space.

Reading is the powerful means of foreign language acquisition. According to Smith (1994a, p. 178) ―we learn to read by reading‖. Krashen (1993, p. 23) goes further and states that ―reading is the only way, the only way we become good readers.‖ Then why

do many people fail to develop this skill? A variety of cognitive processes are involved the reading process, which are different for fast, skilled reader and slow for novice readers such as children and people reading in a language they are not fully literate in. Nuttall (2000, p. 127) finds the answer in the following explanation. She explains that most of the students who cannot develop reading skill are trapped in vicious cycle (Fig.1.1.). The vicious cycle of the weak reader consists of the following stages: Any of these factors produce the same result. Slow readers rarely develop much interest

in what they read, consequently they do not enjoy what they read and they remain slow readers. Nuttall also presents the opposite concept of vicious circle. It is virtuous circle of the good reader (Fig. 1.2.). This circle consists of the following steps. Reading speed, enjoyment, and comprehension are closely connected. Each of these steps can be a key to deviate from vicious circle to virtuous one. Enjoyment is the major factor followed by quantity. Thus, students, who read a lot, progress at increasing speed.

According to Nuttall (2000, p. 48) one of the principle characteristics of a good reader is flexibility. He varies his speed and his whole manner of reading, according to the text and his purpose in reading it:

1) Text/ purpose → speed Nuttall (2000, p. 54) sets a question: do people read quickly

because they understand easily or do they understand easily because of the speed at which they read? The relationship of cause and effect in this question is vague:

2) Speed ↔ understanding (cause and effect relationship is not clear)

In the same way, there is a strong correlation between speed and interest or enjoyment. Nuttall (2000, p. 131) explains this with the motivation that ―spurs us to get to the end of the story as quickly as we can.‖

3) Interest/enjoyment → speed Nuttall (2000) defines a good reader as one who always

interprets a text as the writer intended- except when he chooses not to do so. Wallace (1992) describes efficient reading in the real world as flexible and appropriate response to the material in hand guided by the reader‘s purpose, which means that readers have options, including the option to give up. Berhardt (1991, p. 37) states ―what makes one ‗good‘ or ‗poor‘ reader or give a ‗good‘ or ‗ poor‘ performance is bound to the context or the text and situation…‖

According to Alderson (2000, p. 41) poor readers do not possess knowledge of strategies and are often not aware of how or when to apply the knowledge they do have. They often can not infer meaning from surface level information, have poorly developed knowledge about how the reading system works, and find it difficult to evaluate text for clarity, consistency and plausibility. Instead they often believe that the purpose of reading is errorless word pronunciation, and that reading includes nothing more than verbatim recall.

Cooper (1984) contrasted what he calls ―practised‖ readers with ―unpractised‖ readers. Unpracticed readers were disadvantaged by a poor knowledge of vocabulary and a weak understanding of semantic relationships between words, as well as the meaning of common sentences connectors.

Pang (2008, p. 2) labels as ‗good‘ and ‗bad‘ the reading behaviors which depend on various factors like time of reading, the complexity and the topic of a text. Consequently, the same reader demonstrates good or bad characteristics at different times and to varying degrees on different dimensions. In another words ―good‖ and ―bad‖ reading characteristics can be regarded as desirable and undesirable reading behavior.

Pang (2008) limits readers‘ abilities in terms of three dimensions: linguistic, cognitive, and metacognitive. Linguistic knowledge in a second/foreign language reading includes the following components: word recognition, phonological aspects, lexical knowledge and morphosyntactic knowledge (Bernhardt, 2008; Pang, 2008). In a good reader word recognition is rapid, accurate and automatic; automatic syntactic parsing and semantic proposition is formed; reasonable size of vocabulary ranging from 10,000 to 100,000 is obtained; there is awareness of text type and discourse organization.

Cognitive ability is concerned with readers‘ use of prior knowledge and various strategies in their efforts to construct meaning in the comprehension process: a) good store of cognitive strategies, b) ready access to variety of purposeful strategies, c) higher and proficient use of strategies, d) effective use of prior knowledge, e) supportive use of mother tongue in L2.

Metacognitive strategic competence reflects readers‘ monitoring and control of reading strategies: good knowledge of cognition, competence in monitoring comprehension process, competence in evaluating and regulating strategy use to achieve maximum comprehension.

Pang (2008) distinguishes 4 characteristics that differentiate good from poor readers. They are (a) integration; (b) recognition of aspects of text structure; (c) use of general knowledge, personal experiences, and associations; and (d) response in extensive versus reflexive modes.

In a reflexive mode readers‘ attention is shifted from the text information towards themselves in an affective and personal way. Extensive mode is the opposite of reflexive mode. In extensive mode

the readers‘ attention is fixed on the author‘s ideas in the text instead of relating the text to themselves personally and affectively. Good L2 readers respond to the text in an extensive mode. They integrate information in the text and monitor their understanding consistently and effectively.

Beebe (1988, p. 32) concludes ―Implicit in all this work is the assumption that if we learn the characteristics of the good language learner, perhaps through external manipulation (e.g. modification of materials and method), we can somehow convert poor language learners into good ones. The implication therefore is that external manipulation orientation can somehow change these personality variables in order to produce a better language learner.‖

Mechanical and Psychological Differences - According to Wainwright (2007, p. 25) research into reading in the United States has identified several significant characteristics of 'the mature reader'. Wainwright‘s works deal with the slow and fast readers although the characteristics identified and described by him matches those of good and poor readers. The same characteristics of a slow reader can be found among bad readers and the features of fast readers are those of the good readers. Mechanical differences found among readers are the following: a) regressing, which is the biggest problem of an inefficient or slow reader has is that he or she regresses, that is, goes back to read things again. It is believed that regressions are necessary because one does not understand the first time what one is being told. The evidence is, however, that this is normally not the case. There are several reasons of going back. First, regression is a way of checking the information if it is necessary. Second, regression is a sign of lack of confidence. Third, regression is out of habit. Yet the evidence is that, if readers are put in a position in which they cannot regress, the loss of comprehension is on average no more than 3% to 7%; b) vocalising and inner speech- Many readers vocalise or subvocalise as they read. Vocalising is simply a technical term for reading aloud. Some are unable to read silently. More subvocalise, that is, they read aloud silently. It is often called inner speech and is most noticeable if one is reading something written by someone one knows well or by a well-known personality; c) fixation time - speed of perception or fixation time is a difference between slow and fast readers; d) eye span - is an ability of an eye to take in information in terms of groups of words rather than single words. The good and faster reader has wider eye span and do not fix on separate words; e) rhythm - the slow reader, if

much regression is taking place, lacks rhythm in reading. The faster reader has rhythmic, confident eye movements; f) flexible speeds - the slow reader has no choice but to read slowly all the time, no matter what he or she is reading. The faster reader has a choice and can be flexible, reading easy materials quickly and demanding material relatively slowly, after skimming first.

Psychological differences described by Wainwright (2007, p. 26) are the following: a) tension - many slow readers experience tension when reading under pressure because of time limit; b) anticipating - slow readers often have difficulty in anticipating the nature of subsequent material and they forget what they have read at the top of a page before they get to the bottom. It happens due to the fact that they are going so slowly that the impression made by earlier information fades before it can be related to what follows. Faster readers use anticipatory scanning techniques to predict the nature of material they have not yet read; c) concentration - slow readers often lack concentration except for short periods. Efficient readers exclude distractions, they tend to read at times of day when they know from experience they can concentrate better and reading in environments conducive to good concentration, thus they concentrate well; d) retention - inefficient readers are frequently unable to retain information for very long after reading. Retention of information is better over longer periods in faster readers; e) purpose - slow readers are not sure about their purposes in reading which means they have no clear goals to aim for when they read. Faster readers have a clear knowledge of their purpose and expectations before they begin to read something.

Reading approaches In foreign language teaching two approaches of reading is

recognized: intensive reading and extensive reading. Intensive reading approach deals with short texts under a teacher‘s guidance for detailed understanding. The Intensive reading technique is reading for a high degree of comprehension and retention over a long period of time. Sometimes this approach is also called as sub-skills approach, which divides reading skill into several sub-skills. Munby (1978) suggests nineteen detailed skills to develop reading skills, such as recognizing the script language, deducing the meaning, use of unfamiliar lexical items, etc. However, dividing language skill into too many details, unlike reading in the moterh tongue, will destroy the nature of language. Extensive reading deals

with relatively long texts. Pleasure, information and general understanding are a purpose of extensive reading. Having a balanced approach between these two is the most essential element in any foreign language reading program. What are differences between intensive and extensive reading? According to Schörhbuker (2008, p. 2) list, there are several differences between these two reading approaches. Waring (2006) proposes the difference between intensive and extensive reading approaches in a visual way based on Welch‘s model (1998) (Table 1.1.).

First of all, let me explore the peculiarities of intensive reading and then examine those of extensive reading.

Table 1.1.Intensive and Extensive reading approaches

Intensive reading requires from a reader 100% of understanding of the material. The level of the reading material should be at i + 1; the texts used in intensive reading are at a relatively high level of difficulty. It forces the reader to apply the strategy of translating the target text. The reading speed is usually slow; the reader may pause to look up words in a dictionary, which slows the reading rate. The reader may even translate a word/ sentence into the L1 by writing down translation or by speaking aloud. The length of texts are small, approximately half a page. In intensive reading teachers offer students texts of different genres. The reader has no choice of reading material which has been the custom in teacher-centered pedagogical culture. An advantage of a teacher-selected text is that it can be read together by everyone in the class and common points of difficulty are addressed economically. These texts are for class work and they are the same for each student. These texts are always followed by exercises on

comprehension and language development. The teacher‘s role is active. The teacher acts as a facilitator, who leads classroom activities and reads. In intensive reading both, silent and aloud reading are practised. The text is examined intensively for linguistic purposes such as word recognition, grammatical/syntactical content, lexical content, etc. Reading materials are modeled on test formats and the purpose of reading is to answer the test questions. Vocabulary building is often regarded as the most important element within an intensive approach. Classroom activities are discussions, reading and different kinds of exercises. All these characteristics of intensive reading makes readers‘ experience frustrating, unpleasant and unproductive. As a result, students dislike reading.

Certain reading skills are associated with intensive reading such as scanning a text for specific information. Scanning also involves other sub-skills – the ability to deal with anaphoric/cataphoric (Cataphoric refers to a word which will be used later in a text and you need to look forward to understand. Anaphoric means a word, that refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in the text or conversation, Richards et al., 2002).

Extensive reading is for general understanding which means comprehension of the reading material less than 100%. Comprehensible input should happen at the i – 1 model. Extensive reading employs strategies that a highly literate reader uses in L1. The reading speed in extensive reading is relatively fast, but it should be comfortable for a reader. Reading speeds for extensive reading are below 100 to 150 words per minute, which is slower than a speed that a literate native may read at, however, it is faster than the pace of translation-like intensive reading. Extensive reading implies reading of a large amount of reading, for example, about 100 000 and even more words. This can greatly change the cognitive process of reading. The reading material presents usually fiction. The reading material is individual for each student. The main assignment which is given to students is reading. The teacher supports the students and gives a role model for reading. In extensive reading students mainly apply silent reading. The main classroom activity is reading. Extensive reading tends to take place outside class. Effective extensive reading develops the following subskills: predicting, skimming, chunking, etc. When one reads fluently, the written text is perceived as ‗chuncks‘ rather than isolated words. The eyes ‗bounce‘

from phrase to phrase, for that reason a students must have absorbed particular rules of syntax/word order.

Susser&Robb (1990) describe intensive reading approach in Japan. For example, English instruction at the university level is usually the ―intensive reading procedure‖, which implies close study of short passages, including syntactic, semantic, and lexical analyses and translation into the L1 to study meaning. Nuttall (2000, p. 38) also states that a text at a language development lesson is a means to present vocabulary and structure, which is usually a focus of this kind of lesson. The meaning of the text is not focus of the language development lesson. Nevertheless, in a reading lesson the meaning of a text is important; students use the language to respond to the messages in a text, and learning happens incidentally. Alderson and Urguhart (1984) have argued that is not a reading but a language lesson: Such pedagogic practice of focusing on the language of a text- may be justified as a language lesson, but it may very well be counterproductive as a reading lesson.

By comparing these two approaches we do not say that one of them is ideal or better, but they are complements to each other. In intensive reading, it is important to remember that in a class, where the size may vary from 15+, reading agendas of students may differ. Reading for information, entertainment, professional translation or to pass concrete examination may be the examples of this different reading agenda. Some students may have no reading agenda at all. In intensive reading all students study the same text that causes another problem which the suitability of level, particularly if there a big difference between the more able and less able students. In addition, intensive reading prevents students from developing of fluent eye movements as the text is too difficult, so balanced program is necessary that allows development of such skills in a extensive reading approach. Palmer (1927, as cited in Smith, 2003, p. 111) emphasized that the benefits of doing large quantities of enjoyable, level-appropriate reading could most effectively be realized through integration with other more language-focused activities. A ―multiple line of approach‖ was one of Palmer‘s nine principles of language study, and he elucidated the importance of both approaches by adopting them concurrently ―… but not in one and the same operation. At times read intensively; at others read extensively.‖

Definition of extensive reading Palmer (1927, as sited in Smith, 2003, p. 454) who is the

originator of the term defines that extensive reading means ‗rapid reading‘. Those, who obtained some amount of foreign language, are able to read texts written in the foreign language with understanding and without that process of mental translation, referring to the dictionary frequently. Palmer called frequent use of a dictionary a vicious linguistic tendency. West (1955, p. 189), while creating supplementary readers, referred to the aim of reading extensively, ―to confer greater facility in the use of the vocabulary already gained, to give the child a sense of achievement and a taste of the pleasure to be derived from his accomplishment.‖ Longman Dictionary of Language teaching and Applied Linguistics defines extensive reading as a skill that is ―intended to develop good reading habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a liking for reading‖ (Richards, Platt, &Platt, 1992, p. 133). Williams (1984, p. 10) defines extensive reading as ―The relatively rapid reading of long texts…‖ Susser and Robb (1990) give the definition to extensive reading using criteria. Extensive reading is reading ―(a) of a large quantities of material or long texts; (b) for global or general understanding; (c) with intention of obtaining pleasure from the text.‖ which is important for language learning. Davis (1995, p. 329) summed up the notion of extensive reading: ―pupils are given the time, encouragement and materials to read pleasurably, at their own level, as many books as they can, without the pressures of testing or marks.‖ Extensive reading exposes learners to "large quantities of material within their linguistic competence" (Grabe and Stoller, 2002, p. 259), which is, at the same time, pleasurable. Hedge (2000: 202) defines extensive reading with the peculiar characteristics:

reading large quantities of material such as short stories and novel, newspaper and magazine articles, or professional reading

reading consistently over time on a frequent and regular basis

reading longer texts (more than a few paragraphs in length) of the types listed in the first point above

reading for general meaning, primarily for pleasure, curiosity, or professional interest

reading longer texts during class time but also engaging in individual, independent reading at home, ideally of self-selected material

In language teaching terms, extensive reading is considered by some writers as just another reading subskill along with skimming, scanning and intensive reading (Grellet, 1981; Calfoglou & Sifakis, 2004). Extensive reading is regarded as a teaching/learning procedure, not a reading subskill by Day & Bamford (2005), Susser & Robb (1990), Krashen (1993), Nuttall (2000).

According to Rodrigo, V., Greenberg, D., Burke, V., Hall, R., Berry, A., Brinck, T., Joseph, H., Oby, M. (2007) extensive reading is reading of great amounts for a general understanding of the text or for the enjoyment of the reading experience.

Other terms used for extensive reading are USSR (uninterrupted sustained silent reading), SSR (Sustained Silent Reading), FVR (free voluntary reading), DEAR (Drop Everything And Read) supplementary reading, free reading time, reading lab and pleasure reading. According to Krashen (1993) free voluntary reading, or FVR, is a system for encouraging silent, self-selected reading of enjoyable books written at the students‘ independent level.

Hypotheses and input models supporting extensive reading The framework that supports extensive reading is Krashen‘s

several hypotheses – the second language acquisition hypothesis, the comprehensible input hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis and pleasure hypothesis (1982, 1989, 1993).

In Krashen‘s theoretical model of the language teaching program there are two major components: acquisition and learning.

Fig. 1.3. A second language teaching program by Krashen

Krashen argues that language acquisition is more central than language learning in second language performance. Therefore, the most important part of the entire program is the ―intake‖ node under the "acquisition" node. The subset of linguistic input that helps the acquirer acquire language is considered to be ―intake‖. Language acquisition comes from ―intake‖.

Extensive reading is the part of this ―intake‖ under the ―acquisition‖ node. Krashen formulates the major function of the second language classroom as providing intake for acquisition. Intake is first of all input that is understood; comprehension is the basis of the language acquisition process: Krashen states that ―we acquire by understanding language that is "a little beyond" our current level of competence.‖ According to Krashen‘s Input Hypothesis if a learner is at ‗i‘ linguistic competence then the acquisition happens ‗i + 1’. The +1 represents new knowledge or language structures that the learner should be ready to acquire, and which are not beyond his linguistic competences. Self-selected free reading provides that kind of intake that is understood by a reader, which is easily comprehensible and within the language competence of a reader.

Krashen argues that language acquisition happens by understanding messages or obtaining ―comprehenible input‖ in low-anxiety situations. His hypothesis - the affective filter hypothesis - states that the acquisition process, to be successful should take

place in a stress free environment. It is suggested that many learners have an effective filter which militates against acquisition. One of the main causes of this filter derives from the over-monitoring of output which itself comes from learning language rules. The monitor hypothesis involves two processes of learning and acquisition which act differently. Acquisition allows the learner to ―pick up‖ a language and is responsible for fluency, while learning acts as an ―edit‖ correcting and re-shaping the spontaneous response. This process is controlled by a monitor.

According to him, free voluntary (another name for extensive reading) reading provides the message in a low-anxiety situation. This is the base of his another hypothesis called the pleasure hypothesis. Krashen (2006) states ―If an activity is good for language and literacy development, then the activity is pleasurable.‖ There are following evidences that reading is pleasant. These facts are based on the research of adults, children and EFL students‘ attitudes towards reading: 1) reading is so pleasant that the readers often are reported to be addicted to it 2) reading is relaxing, especially bedtime reading 3) students prefer free reading to traditional language arts instruction. Krashen goes on talking about ―correlational‖ studies that confirm, a person who reads more shows more literacy development, although it does not mean that self-selected reading is the guarantee of a student‘s accomplishment of high level of competence in a foreign language. Krashen concludes that the time spent in free reading surpasses the time spent in traditional instruction in terms of language development with its efficiency.

Another model of extensive reading comprehensible input is described by Day & Bamford (2005). According to this model sight vocabulary or automaticity training must be at ―i minus 1‖ where ―i‖ is the student‘s current level of acquisition. Day & Bamford (2005, p. 13) define sight vocabulary as the ―words that readers are able to recognize automatically.‖ Day & Bamford‘s (2005, p. 16, 17) argue that ―This i minus 1 is in contrast to Krashen‘s comprehensible input hypothesis, in which, for further acquisition to take place, the comprehensible input has to contain elements that are slightly beyond ‗i‘- that is, ‗i + 1’. The reason for i minus 1 is that the goal of the automaticity training is developing a large sight vocabulary rather than the learning of new linguistic elements.‖ In this case the material at i minus 1 includes vocabulary and syntactic structures of the readers‘ level of language competence and some elements that the reader has not acquired yet. Schörkhuber (2008, p. 3) goes further

by offering ―i – 2‖ comprehensible input which will be appropriate at the initial stage of the reading program.

A further hypothesis that supports extensive reading is about incidental vocabulary acquisition. It is the part of implicit learning. Implicit learning involves the incremental growth of the associative knowledge, learning of skills and language knowledge without being aware of it relying on an extensive amount of input. Input that supports implicit learning includes frequency of repetition, co-occurrence of items that build associations, sequences that are repeated and gradually imprinted as larger units (chunking), and gradual generalization of similar exemplar forms and features to produce categories and prototypes (Grabe, 2009). In incidental vocabulary acquisition, the learner‘s attention is focused primarily on communicative meaning, not on form. Krashen‘s Input Hypothesis makes a stronger claim—namely, that acquisition occurs only when the learner‘s attention is focused on meaning. Comparison studies involving the benefits of extensive reading on vocabulary growth have also indicated that students learn 5–15% of new words from incidental exposure to these words while reading, and this percentage increases with increasing numbers of repeated exposures to words (Schmitt, 2008; Stahl & Nagy, 2006; Grabe, 2010).

Krashen‘s hypotheses stimulated the revision of extensive reading programs as well as other reading programs in various universities of different countries. For example, Japanese, Korean, Chinese and Thai universities actively use extensive reading programs in foreign language teaching and most of the research done in extensive reading are reported by these countries‘ educational institutions.

The characteristics of extensive reading The main goal of a reading development program is to enable

students to enjoy (for at least feel comfortable with) reading in the foreign language, and to read independently unfamiliar authentic texts, at an appropriate speed, silently, and with adequate understanding. The measure of the teacher‘s success is how much the student learns to do without her help. According to Nuttall (2000, p. 127) extensive reading has two positive sides. First, extensive reading improves reader‘s reading skills. Second, if extensive reading is source of enjoyment; it is easy to teach people to read

better. Nuttall (2000, p. 128) describes extensive reading as an activity that students can do for themselves.

Nation (2004) examines the goals of extensive reading and separates language, ideas, and skills. Language goals include learning language issues such as vocabulary, grammar or discourse features. Ideas can involve subject matter knowledge, culture or general knowledge. Skills can comprise all four skills, in addition to fluency and accuracy.

According to Grabe (2009) reading extensively usually requires that a reader know 98-99% of the words in a text, some level of fluency processing words and sentences, the knowledge about text structure, applying of particular strategies and skills as inferencing, monitoring, and evaluation.

There are ten principles in teaching extensive reading. They are the main fundamentals developed by Day and Bamford (2002). They are (See the Fig. 1.4.):

1. The reading material is easy. 2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must

be available. 3. Learners choose what they want to read. 4. Learners read as much as possible. 5. The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure,

information and general understanding. 6. Reading is its own reward. 7. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower 8. Reading is individual and silent 9. Teachers orient and guide their students 10. The teacher is a role model of a reader. Other ―top ten‖ principles are elaborated by Prowse (2002) with

some modification of above mentioned extensive reading teaching principles. Prowse (2002) expends some principles and even adds some new ideas. He introduces the following principles: there should be no comprehension questions; no use of dictionaries; recordings are used in the program; teachers do not test learners; the texts which can engage learners in reading should be exploited. Susser and Robb (1990) characterize extensive reading: (a) reading is individualized, with student choosing the books they want to read, (b) the books are not discussed in class. This variety suggests that quantity of reading is not an absolute number of hours or pages but depends on teacher and student perceptions of how extensive reading differs from other reading classes; this will vary according to

type of program, level, and other variables. Nuttall (2000) underlines two main criteria for selecting texts in extensive reading: readability and suitability of content. She also suggests acronym SAVE which summarizes criteria for choosing extensive reading materials: Short, appealing, varied, easy. Teacher is responsible to use every trick to persuade students to ‘get hooked on books‘. Giving students a

Fig. 1.4. Characteristics of extensive reading (adopted from http://www.xmind.net/m/CxVZ/)

purpose for reading is a way of clinging students to reading. Reading is a purposeful activity.

According to Smith (1994b, p. 3) ―a person who has no purpose in reading can bring nothing to the reading and the activity is to be meaningless‖. Nuttall (2000, p. 128) distinguishes two ways to make students read more: requiring them to do so and tempting to do so.

Day&Bamford (2004) offer a number of activities for extensive reading elaborated and used in practice by extensive reading teachers. Most of them are done in the classroom; they are divided into following sections: getting started, introducing reading material, motivating and supporting reading, monitoring reading, evaluating reading, oral reading reports, drama and role play, having fun, written reading reports, writing creatively, developing awareness in reading, increasing reading rate, developing and consolidate

vocabulary. These activities are a helpful guidance for a teacher to orient a student in extensive reading. The teachers should be able to ask students to describe either orally or in writing what they are thinking as they read. The amount of reading learners do in a reading class is crucial.

Nation (2005, p. 14) proposes additional activities to motivate reading. Short report forms completed about each book allows the learner and teacher to see the amount of reading done in a certain period of time. Oral book reports enable a learner to present a commentary on a book to the class in order to encourage others to read it. Discussion groups can stimulate talks among the learners who have already read the same book. Book awards, like Oscars for movies are organized so that the learners can vote on what they thought were the best books they read. The learners can get award for the quantity they read.

Nuttall (2000, p. 143) does not recommend regular formal testing of extensive reading. She believes it can be damaging if it makes students read less freely and widely and with less pleasure. Instead she suggests records of books which students have read.

Among the many factors affecting the shape and success of an extensive reading program, Schmidt (2007) outlined five featured prominently in interviews with eight extensive reading practitioners at universities in Japan:

1) Convictions regarding language learning, especially in regards to amounts of comprehended input needed and the role of independent reading (and listening) in relation to other learning activities

2) Defining desired learning and attitudinal outcomes and setting reading targets and tasks appropriately.

3) Adapting the approach to ER for student attitudes, interests, abilities, and goals

4) Effective introduction of an easily understood ER program, with ongoing support and personal follow-up

5) Developing reading communities, in- and out-of-class. Macalister (2010) investigated teachers‘ attitudes to

extensive reading in higher educational contexts. The teachers taught at university preparation courses at language teaching centers in New Zealand. Macalister (2010) concludes that if extensive reading is to be more widespread in higher educational contexts, it needs to be promoted through teacher education, new research, changes in course design, raising awareness among

administrators and managers, and improved resource provision. Clarity (2007) concludes her scheme of implementation of an ER program ―if the program is managed in an effective, positive, and ongoing manner, extensive reading may be one of the most valuable lessons in learning you will ever teach.‖

The benefits of extensive reading Compared to intensive reading, extensive reading is a long-

run approach, through which learners cannot expect prompt effect. It is a time-consuming approach. Nevertheless, extensive reading has obvious positive outcomes. It contributes to development of different linguistic aspects. The benefits of extensive reading, such as gains in vocabulary, writing, spelling, and positive attitude toward reading, are described by Day and Bamford (2004), Bell (2001). Nuttall (2000, p. 128) formulates the role of extensive reading in foreign language acquisition in a persuasive slogan ‗the best way to improve your knowledge of a foreign language is to go and to live among its speakers. The next best way is to read extensively in it.‖

Steiner (1995) chief inspector for English at Israel ministry of education, in her booklet ―Reading for Pleasure‖ lists following benefits of extensive reading: a) enhances world knowledge, b) accounts for one-third of vocabulary growth, c) promotes reading as a lifelong activity, d) builds vocabulary, e) builds structural awareness, f) improves comprehension skills, g) promotes motivation, h) encourages pupils to read fluently and use all the strategies, i) encourages pupils to progress through different levels of text and monitor their own progress, j) provides with an enjoyable reading experience. Nation (1997) explains the benefits of ER ―Extensive reading is attractive for several reasons; first, reading is essentially an individual activity and therefore learners of different proficiency level could learn at their own level without being locked into an inflexible class program. Second, it allows learners to follow their interests in choosing what to read and thus increase their motivation for learning. Third, it provides the opportunity for learning to occur outside the classroom.‖ Nation (2004) discusses the vocabulary learning benefits from the extensive reading which are of two kinds. One involves learning of previously unknown words, and the other ―involves enriching and strengthening knowledge of words that have been met before‖ which is more important than the former. Elley (1991, pp. 378-379) attributes the success to five factors: a) extensive input of meaningful print, b) Incidental learning, c) the

integration of oral and written activity, d) focus on meaning rather that form, e) high intrinsic motivation. As for Incidental learning, as the title indicates it is unintentional or unplanned learning that results from any activities, which usually occurs at workplace, and during learning in many ways; by watching, talking or observing. The benefits of incidental learning are improved competence, changed attitudes and interpersonal skills self-confidence and self-awareness (McFerrin,1999). However, incidental learning is difficult to measure or harness for use. Adult learners don‘t often make difference between the formally and incidentally acquired learning. In fact, incidental learning is more preferable for adults (Mealman, 1993).

Leung (2002) Investigation was conducted on the impact of the extensive reading on an adult‘s self-study of Japanese over a 20-week period. Data were collected from a learner diary, audio-recordings from private-tutorial sessions and vocabulary texts. The results of this study show that extensive reading can enhance vocabulary acquisition, reading comprehension and promote positive attitude toward reading. The author admits that it is worth incorporating extensive reading into the reading curriculum. The author emphasizes keeping a record of reading and reading speed regarding the effectiveness of extensive reading.

According to Hernandez (1997) it is difficult to implement extensive reading program because of the large numbers of books required although It has been shown to be effective for English language learners because of the power in exposing them to a large volume of English reading and the anxiety reducing power of easy reading (cited in Herrell & Jordan, 2008).

Grabe (2009) indicates the following benefits: positive attitude and motivation, vocabulary growth, development of language and literacy skills, conceptual-knowledge growth and reasoning. Here is the table (Table 1.1) of studies related to the benefits of extensive reading. These studies were carried out in English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL), settings.

Extensive reading approach provides an opportunity for learners to acquire cultural awareness. Delanoy (1997, p. 60) highlights that cultural learning is now viewed as an integral part of communicative language learning; as I have already mentioned in the previous chapter, reading is a kind of communication between writer and a reader.

Extensive reading can result in learner autonomy. Hedge (2000, p. 204) comments that extensive reading can be productive step in developing learner autonomy; it comes from assuming responsibility for one‘s own learning.

Regardless the benefits of extensive reading, it must fit institutional framework in a logical way in order to be most effective.

Table 2.2. The studies in extensive reading adopted from Grabe

Report Population Results

Greaney & Hegarty (1987)

Fifth grade students; Ireland

Positive correlation between amount of time reading books and reading comprehension

Elley & Mangubhai (1983)

Primary; Fiji Reading comprehension, English grammar, vocabulary, listening comprehension, written composition

Janopoulos (1986) University, USA Writing proficiency

Pitts et al. (1989) Adults; USA Vocabulary

Lightbown (1988-1992)

Reading, listening, vocabulary, speaking

Rob & Susser (1989) University, Japan Reading proficiency and positive affect

Hafiz & Tudor (1990) Primary, Pakistan Vocabulary base and writing

Elley (1991) Primary, Singapore Proficiency and positive affect

Gradman & Hanania (1991)

―reading outside of class‖ –outstanding predictor on TOEFL performance

Lai (1993a; 1993b) Secondary, Hong-Kong

Reading proficiency and vocabulary

Cho & Krashen (1994) Adults, USA Reading proficiency, vocabulary, positive affect, and oral skills

Rodrigo (1995) University, USA Positive affect

Mason & Krashen (1997) University, Japan Reading proficiency, positive affect and writing

Elley (2000) Reading comprehension

Tanaka &Stapleton (2007) High school, Japan Positive attitude

Takasa (2007) high school, Japan Reading performance

Karlin & Romanko (2010) University, Japan Affect, fluency, and vocabulary

Yamashita (2013) University, Japan increases in Comfort and

Intellectual Value and a decrease in Anxiety

Reading material for extensive reading programs In extensive reading one of the crucial factors is rich print

environment. Graded readers are the reading materials which are most often used in extensive reading. According to Sheu (2004), and Day & Bamford (1998, p. 61) ―graded readers written under structure and information control are the main materials in most studies on ESL/EFL ER, and have been reported as successful in developing learners‘ language proficiency.‖ Graded readers are a form of language learner literature. They are books specially written for second or foreign language learners, fiction and non-fiction which are graded structurally and lexically. The flow of information and the explicitness of background, concepts and suppositions may be controlled as well (Bamford, 1984). They do not correspond to specific grade levels. They are graded readers in the sense that they are informed by grammar and vocabulary guidelines for specific levels of difficulty. The levels are graded from beginner to advanced, and at each level the books are written using only the grammatical structures and vocabulary items appropriate to that level of study. Readers usually have a specific number of words within which they are written (either - for example - the 1000 most frequently used words in English, or 1000 words chosen from among the most frequently used words in English.)

Beginning learners would read books with simple vocabulary (about 200-300 most common words in narrative English), which are written in basic grammar, which is restricted to the present tense, imperative, 'going to' future and perhaps the regular past; and sentences are typically single clauses of the subject + verb + direct object construction. Vocabulary and plot match their linguistic ability. Once readers feel comfortable reading at this level, they move up through the series by reading books with more challenging vocabulary, grammar, plot and so on. At higher levels, matching the teaching order of most main course textbooks, structures are introduced in a logical way. This is similar to the way a child learns to read in the first language. The first level books contain few words

and many illustrations, and as reading progressed, students are able to read more complex materials. Graded readers also provide suitable conditions for unknown words from context, and they may often contain few questions and exercises

There has often been criticism regarded graded readers as the literature for children unsuitable for university students. The other criticism described graded readers as artificial and low quality reading material. Learners using graded readers develop "reading strategies that are inappropriate for reading unsimplified English" (Honeyfield, 1977).

Wodinsky & Nation (1988) conducted a study of two graded readers and an unsimplified text to determine the contribution that graded readers can make to vocabulary learning. It was found that in order to master the vocabulary at a particular level, it is necessary to read several texts at that level. When moving from one level to another, one does not have to learn the vocabulary of the new level, or master all the vocabulary of the previous levels, in order to read successfully at the new level.

Claridge (2005) examined the characteristics and quality of simplification in graded readers as compared to those of 'normal' authentic English. Two passages from graded readers were compared with the original passages. The computer programme compared uses and analyzed the distribution of high and low frequency words in the passages. The study was in part a reanalysis and extension of Honeyfield's (1977) seminal study of simplification, but different conclusions were drawn. It found that patterns of use of structure, discourse markers, redundancy, collocations, and high and low frequency vocabulary, are similar in both original and simplification and suggested that the writing in well-written graded readers can be experienced as authentic and typical of 'normal' English.

Claridge (2012) reported on a study of graded readers, focusing on interviews with some major publishers of graded readers, to investigate their production rationales. The findings suggested that the publishers did not research regularly opinions of the ultimate consumers, the learners. Publishers based production more on the demands of teachers and librarians. The largest quantity of graded readers was produced for the intermediate levels. The recommendation of the study was to publish a greater number of texts at the lowest level, to develop good reading habits from the beginning.

The following publications of graded readers are widespread: 1) Heinemann Guided Readers 2) Oxford Bookworms Series 3) Macmillan Graded Readers 4) Penguin readers.

Extensive reading through the Internet With the development of the internet and technologies, a new

scheme involving the use of internet - called W-ERP was set in place in collaboration with the students. One of the reasons the Internet is changing the way one learns individually is the enormous amount of information available to anyone equipped with a computer and access to the Internet. For teachers, the web is a rich sorce that makes a smooth transition from learning to read to reading to learn possible.

According to Pino-Silva (2006) Extensive reading (ER) has gradually grown into a world-wide accepted practice in both ESL and EFL reading instruction programs. Researchers and practitioners have been closing ranks thanks, in part, to the initiative of a group who have put up a website (www.extensivereading.net) and a discussion group (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ExtensiveReading/), in which more than 200 members share and debate everything from new ideas about how best to manage an ER program, to research findings. A Web-based ER program (w-ERP) has evolved from an earlier paper-based version (p-ERP) since 1999, both carried out with college students enrolled at Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela.

Extensive reading through the Internet invites learners to read online. Reading online consists of reading texts from a portion of a computer screen. These texts have minimal combination of three colors for background page, the actual written text and another for the purpose of highlighting a link. Besides the color, graphic information, photos, audio and video can be added to a page. A key factor in reading online is the concept of hypertext connecting together the sections or pieces of a text. Information is on the screen in a non-linear fashion; the hyperlinks are responsible for retrieving one or several sections of a single text by a click of a mouse (Pino-Silva, 2006).

Interaction of the eyes, the screen, the texts presented in hypertext and comprehension of verbal and nonverbal information are involved in reading online. The term ‗reading online‘ usually

refers for the act of reading while working in the internet, and even when connection is lost the browsers may show the hypertext.

Studies have looked at the process strategies and at comparison with reading printed material. Comparing reading rates, for instance, Al-Othman (2003) found (cited in Pino-Silva, 2006) that reading online is slower than on paper. In the literature, and especially among reading teachers, both promoters and detractors of reading online can be found. Promoting factors emphasize its powerful pedagogic potential (i.e motivation, text enhancement). Detractors (e.g. text and visuals) may confuse readers, overload their cognitive abilities, and damage vision.

Extensive reading through the internet, whether teacher-led or self-directed, sees learning as an individual pursuit for meaning and relevance. It is a potent tool to learn at one‘s own pace and on one‘s own time. It develops learner autonomy which has the following advantages according to Jones (1998) cited in Pino-Silva‘s study (2006):

Autonomy may strengthen intrinsic motivation

Absence of teacher control can enable personalization of

texts and tasks. This personalized practice may increase

retention of input

Taking charge of one‘s own learning translates into self-

empowerment

Thus, teachers should incorporate the principles of self-direction and autonomy to their pedagogical practice.

In Pino-Silva‘s study (2006) of extensive reading through the Internet three types of users were identified: (a) web or online readers; (b) screen readers and (c) readers of printed Internet articles. Some readers felt discomfort with either online or screen reading and preferred print the text before reading. Another important obstacle in this program was related to cheating. Some students simply copied the work of other students. However, it was not defined what percentage of students are inclined to cheat. The positive result of the study was that students got familiar with both reading online and on screen. Students got the explanation how to work and then they are dispatched home with the instructions (a) to read the manual, (b) send an introductory note to signal the group moderator that they are in the group, and (c) do their first W-ER assignment.

Pino-Silva (2006) surveyed the students to find out what benefits they obtained from the extensive reading through the Internet. Here is some positive feedback:

access to hundreds of newer and interesting articles magazine articles

practice reading after the course is over

easier, faster and more practical reading than from a book

a great help

convenient in term of time

frequent access to the teacher

help with vocabulary

focus on the main idea

attractive method

Some negative statements that appeared in the data are given next:

computer breaking down

no access

Too many commercials pop up in the online working group

Some texts not interesting

The web project provides opportunities for students and teachers to work together. Students help the teacher by finding the materials on the web they would like to read or learn about. The teacher supports students construct main ideas, build vocabulary, develop positive attitudes towards reading, monitor their progress and keep constant and interactive contact with them.

Extensive reading through the Internet seems a promising pedagogical approach that promotes students‘ (a) access and reading from the vast amount of information available on the web, (b) access to updated and varied information, (c) discipline in the use of their time. Students learn to explore, evaluate and make their own decisions on what to read now and what to postpone for later (Pino-Silva, 2006).

The web-based extensive reading is a new perspective, derived from the paper-based procedure. It challenges conventional extensive reading approach with graded books. The web-based approach helps students develop a wide range of reading and language proficiency skills in a foreign language. The combination of both, paper-based and web-based extensive reading will increase options available to students with different learning styles. It will empower teachers in a significant manner.

Reading in Georgian and Russian foreign language teaching methodology In the 1980s all the foreign language departments of

universities in Georgia shared the same curricula, similar disciplines and programs with the variation of material used to teach. The teaching methods and approaches applied in these programs were the same. Mostly these programs reflected the influence of Russian methodologists and their gains in teaching foreign languages.

The reading development program known as home reading was popular in the 1980s and even later. Home reading has some common aspects with extensive reading and obvious differences. Klichnikova (1973) describes home reading as an approach which serves two goals: a) means to consolidate the reading skills learned at the lessons and b) preparation for other classroom activities. She admits that home reading should be enjoyable for the reader, although sometimes this enjoyment is diminished by abundant follow-up activities. Khaliuk (1987, p. 30) suggests that reading of a large quantity of easy materials can support the motivation for reading and encourage obtaining specific language skills more effectively. Russian methodologists and teachers offer many kinds of text-based activities. Koriaktseva (1987) makes distinction between philological and linguistic reading at the foreign language departments. Philological reading is oriented on cultural content. The reading material in philological reading is mainly literary works, where cultural aspects of a foreign language are more vividly presented. On the other hand linguistic reading is focused on the language of the text; the text is the means to expand a learner‘s language competence. Linguistic reading is mainly used to increase vocabulary of a learner or in an autonomous learning. This kind of reading is important in professional education. Russian methodologists did not come to a distinct procedure of teaching home reading. Mostly they distinguished two phases in home reading. The first phase was reading and the other was the sequence of activities which were vocabulary work, comprehension activities, discussion, and writing according to Fadeev (1979), Balakirev (1988), Skazkiv (1982). Furthermore, there is no agreement among Russian methodologists whether to use the activities based on vocabulary and grammar structures present in the reading material. Naturally, the selection of these activities by a teacher depends on what the aim of home reading is. If the purpose

of home reading is reading itself, then the activities will serve to check students‘ comprehension of texts. In addition, if the purpose of home reading is to lead some discussions about the material which students read, then there will be supplementary tasks which will support students‘ discussions.

In Georgian foreign language teaching methodology reading is primarily considered to be the source of information and at the same time the means of language learning i.e. reading is the goal of language learning as well as means. Kraveishvili (2002, pp. 163-164) describes reading approaches and mentions extensive reading as an approach that focuses on the large quantity of reading material which presents the goal of teaching reading; the reader‘s attention is targeted at the meaning of the written form. In another methodological publication (Tsitsishvili, R., Nijaradze, N., Darchia, M., Tevzia, M., & Tkavashvili, E., 2006) extensive reading is defined as an approach used to improve a student‘s reading ability. It focuses on reading materials in the target language in a rapid and casual way with an emphasis on quantity rather than quality.

One of the early publications on teaching home reading is by Tsintsadze designated for senior students of foreign language departments of Georgian universities. According to Tsintsadze (1987, pp. 3-4) the goal of home reading is to develop a learner‘s reading skill and reading comprehension, enrich vocabulary and improve speaking skill. This helpful textbook for teaching home reading is based on short stories after J. Salinger. Each story is ensued by new words and word combinations to remember; lexical units for revision; vocabulary exercises (e.g. translation, paraphrase, matching, etc.) aimed at remembering lexical items; questions and topics for discussions. Tsintsadze considers that home reading enables to introduce linguistic analysis and acknowledges that the amount of reading is preferably 30 pages of authentic material a week. In order to reach reading comprehension, which should be minimum 60%-80% according to the requirements of modern methodology of teaching home reading, the list of obligatory words and word combinations will not be enough. Students will have to acquire partly actively and partly passively lexical units through exercises and questions.

In 2004 the professional and educational journal ‗Tsignieri‘ (Dzamukashvili et al., 2004) published a survey about literacy of 15-year old learners in Tbilisi. The survey was conducted by the faculty of Psychology of Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University in 2003.

The model of the survey belonged to PISA (Program of International Students Assessment) which in 2000 carried out the similar surveys in 32 countries.

In Georgia one of the focuses of this survey was reading in native language. The following issues were explored: a) attitude towards reading among 15-year old students b) motivation in reading c) Self-control in acquisition of reading material. 200 15-year-old students from Tbilisi participated in this survey which revealed the following; the general interest and positive attitude toward reading was obvious. The motivation in reading was high – 96%, although only 40% of the students used to read about 1-2 hours a day. 85% of the students exposed high self-control. If self-control indicator is compared with the amount of reading students did in a day, then this number proves to be incongruous. The conclusion of this survey states that the motivation is high and self-control is effective, even though the number of students, who read every day, is minor, and the time spent on reading is little too. The root of this incongruous fact goes to the inadequate teaching of reading in Georgian educational institutions; consequently, reading as a habit and lifelong activity is very weak.

Another study concerns home reading and the strategies of its teaching. Danelia (2005) presents her study on home reading at foreign language departments of the universities in Tbilisi. 100 students and 20 teachers of home reading participated in her survey. Here are some conclusions made by Danelia (2005, p. 130):

1. 89% of the teachers consider that they use interesting materials; only 23% of the students agree with the teachers‘ opinion, which indicates that students‘ interests and desires are not taken into consideration. 60% of the teachers and 92% of the students acknowledge that most of the reading materials are quite difficult and the plots are quite cumbersome.

2. Homework includes reading and memorization of lexical units. In the classroom, mainly activities are related to retelling the summaries and testing new vocabulary; discussions are rarely used.

3. 34% of the students think that it is possible to teach home reading better and to make this program much more pleasant.

4. 60% of the students express their desire of having more creativity in home reading.

5. The teachers and the students, both, argue the inappropriateness of difficult and large quantity of reading

materials; very often reading of a book is not completed within a semester. Most of the respondents prefer to read smaller books.

6. 60% of the teachers and 58% of the students believe that successful teaching of home reading will contribute to mastering other theoretical subjects. Danelia (2006, p. 5) set the following questions about teaching

home reading: What kind of reading materials should be selected? What should be the goals of home reading? How can the reading materials for homework be checked in the classroom? According to Danelia (2005), working on a reading material in home reading programme consists of the following principles: systematization, consistency, and accessibility. Students‘ assignment is reading at home a part or a whole literary work and doing exercises based on this reading material. The exercises are checked in class. The focus of home reading is not the volume/ amount of reading, but acquired knowledge and skills. Danelia concludes that home reading or so-called ‗extensive reading‘ should be instructed at foreign language departments. Reading materials, utilized in home reading, should combine teaching of language with contents, style, literature, and culture. She elucidates that while teaching home reading it does not imply solely teaching reading skills; moreover, it involves teaching of other language skills - speaking, reading, writing, and grammar. Activities related to these skills should be used in the program. She recommends the system of activities in home reading. This system discerns the activities:

done at home and in the classroom

at different stages of reading

done individually, in pairs and groups

related to general understanding and details

for synthetic and analytical reading To sum up, the first research presents the tendency in L1

literacy among 15-year-old students in Georgia. The students value reading but allot a little time for doing it. The second research is the first attempt to expose the shortcomings, such as difficult and inappropriate reading material, in teaching home reading. Danelia (2006) elaborates teaching of home reading, where she names ‗home reading‘ as ‗extensive reading‘. According to Danelia‘s definition home reading resembles a language development program which focuses on different language skills concurrently; even the activities serve this focus.

Accepting home reading as extensive reading is very common among Georgian foreign language methodologists. It is important to bring light to the point that extensive reading differs from home reading.

2

A MODEL OF EXTENSIVE READING PROGRAM FOR GEORGIAN UNIVERSITIES

My dissertation fulfilled four phases of implementation of extensive reading in Georgian universities (Mikeladze, 2011b). In the first phase two surveys were designed and conducted in 2009 – 2010 (Mikeladze, 2010a). The goals of these surveys were to gather the information about program profiles, teachers‘ attitudes, graduates‘ opinions; describe the teaching methodology of these programs; reveal similarities and differences between these programs and an extensive reading program. The first survey was conducted among the instructors of these programs at Georgian universities. The second survey was carried out among the graduates of foreign language departments who completed the reading development programs in 1998-2009 (Mikeladze, 2010b). Both surveys showed a range of differences between existing reading development programs and an extensive reading program. These discrepancies implied the changes that should have been done in order to improve and alter these reading development programs into a successful extensive reading program. In the second and third phases an ad hoc extensive reading teaching methodology for foreign language departments of Georgian universities was designed and the experimental teaching of the reading programs was incorporated. In the last phase the results of the experimental teaching were analysed with positive findings of extensive reading (Mikeladze, 2011a).

The implementation of extensive reading programs at foreign language departments of Georgian universities consists of several phases. The existing reading development programs require development and improvement. We offer the following alterations to the existing reading programs:

1. The title of the program should be defined in accordance with the program goal and content.

2. The duration of the program must be increased as the duration and intensity of the academic hours are the principal factors which support successful outcome of an ER program.

3. The principles of ER should be applied in teaching ER program. By properly adjusting ER program to the learners‘ language level and interests, the problems mentioned in the questionnaire can be realistically solved. First, in ER programs reading material corresponds with the language level of the reader; the amount of new words in reading material is limited to 3-5 words on a page. The solution of the problem connected to the new lexical units will positively influence learners‘ emotional experience in ER program, and successful reading comprehension will make reading enjoyable; even reading of 50 pages a week will be pleasurable. Second, the readers select different books; if the selected book is uninteresting the reader can change it. This kind of approach prevents the learners from reading the books that are boring for them. Third, the teacher‘s dominant role is reduced in an ER program. A teacher provides learners with freedom in selection of materials and activities. Learners are responsible for their reading and activities they do at home and in the classroom. The activities used in the language learning environment are rare in ER environment. A list of the classroom activities should be prepared in advance and offered to learners for selection. The activities offered by Day and Bamford (2005) give opportunities to the teachers and learners to add creativity to classroom activities and change monotonous lectures into an exciting, reading-friendly setting.

4. A new teaching model for an extensive reading program implementation should be devised. The principles of extensive reading cannot be applied in a traditional classroom setting. In the new teaching model a teacher is a guide and facilitator, and a learner has an active role.

5. Keeping record of reading on regular bases is a characteristic of ER programs. Logbooks reveal at what extent the learner is an active reader.

6. Libraries should be supplied with books, graded readers and various reading materials in English.

The characteristics of the program An extensive reading program is an necessary constituent in

a well designed course, although it should not occupy more than 20% of the time spent in and out of the class (on the course) (Nation, 2004). Teaching principles regulate the teaching process. This is the knowledge about how teaching should be proceeded in accordance

with the objectives of the society. Teaching principles define the activities of a teacher and they are formed in the process of teaching (Asatiani, 2008, p. 125; Malazonia, 2001, p.84). The successful teaching process is built on several teaching principles. Malazonia (2001) distinguishes the following teaching principles: scientific principle of teaching; consistency; connection between life and teaching; consciousness and activeness; use of visual aids; accessibility; sound knowledge acquisition. For a successful extensive reading program three teaching principles are defined which are core of the program and are based on the teaching principles of higher education in Georgia. They are consistency, accessibility and pragmatism.

1. Consistency - the principle of consistency implies that a learner is constantly involved in learning through reading process.

2. Accessibility - the principle of accessibility keeps the program structure, materials, activities, learners‘ and teachers‘ expectations accessible and clear.

3. Pragmatism - the principle of pragmatism directs learning in practical consequences which means that learners acquire the skills that have practical value for them. The goal of an extensive reading program is necessary

condition to run it successfully. For a teacher it is a landmark and for a student it is the destination to reach. The goal of an extensive reading program is to allow students to read self-selected large quantity of reading materials and enjoy it. Through this program some obvious gains should be formed in a reader: a) a positive reading experience, b) reading as a lifelong activity, c) elements of autonomous learning / taking responsibility for own learning. The teacher has to clearly understand the goal of the program to orient the students to the productive result. At the same time a student should be aware that extensive reading is the best pleasant and painless way of mastering language and obtaining experience in reading.

From the traditional 10 principles by Day&Bamford the following principles were adopted and modified. Their significance is underlined for an extensive reading program:

1) The material should be easy. When we say easy we admit Day&Bamford‘s comprehensible model ―i minus 1‖ as the model to practice automaticity in reading and develop sight vocabulary. Another model which is also acceptable for the

program is Krashen‘s comprehensible input ―i + 1‖ to acquire the small amount of new structures and units. Shorbruker‘s comprehensible input ―i minus 2‖ can also be used by weak students. Students should be encouraged to use the first two models of input in substitution. Students must be explained first to read the book where there is no new words and is easy to read, then to take another book, where there will be from 3 to 5 new words on a page. Lowering the difficulty of text means controlling vocabulary and in some cases grammatical complexity. Unusual, low-frequency words can be replaced by common high-frequency words. This technique is used to produce Graded Reader.

2) Students select reading materials / books themselves. They are autonomous in this question. They are free to express their interests in different fields or works of a particular writer.

3) Students should be supported to read a lot. A teacher should explain to them that reading a large quantity is one of the characteristics of this reading program and the part of the program‘s goal, although they should avoid tension in reading. A teacher can remind them about their enjoyable experience of reading in L1, and advise where and how to read. Students are not required to understand 100% of the text, translate it, or use a dictionary. This is one of the differences between the other language programs and extensive reading program. Students read for general understanding. During the other language courses Georgian students are

used to work with dictionaries. At the lesson they usually ask a teacher the meaning of a new lexical item. Usually the teacher helps with the translation of a word. When students have to read something independently they get the meaning through word-for-word translation using a dictionary. Almost all of the unknown words are looked up in the dictionary. If students are asked not to pay attention to some unknown words they feel anxiety and uncertainty about the meaning. Georgian students should learn to practice such strategies as guessing or ignoring unknown words or passages, going for the general understanding, and being comfortable with a certain level of ambiguity. Extensive reading is an approach of keep reading.

4) The comprehension of the reading material it absolutely student‘s experience. The main focus is reader‘s personal experience:

Comprehension achieved/knowledge gained → reader‘s personal experience

5) Reading is its own reward. A teacher can explain what kind of processes are going in a reader‘s mind while reading in a foreign language. A teacher must speak with students about the benefits of reading. Students will appreciate reading only after such a rational approach. The speed should be comfortable for a reader. The reading speed can vary. It depends on a reader. The reading speed depends on interest or enjoyment, comprehension and purpose of a student. According to Leedy (1968, p. 14) ―We read only as fast as the brain converts the verbal perception into meaning.‖

6) Reading is individual and silent. 7) Teachers orient and guide their students. 8) The teacher is a role model of a reader.

A teaching model of an extensive reading program The methodology of teaching extensive reading program

assimilates the elements of learner autonomy. The essential elements of learner autonomy in this program are focused from teaching to learning, peer encouragement and cooperation, practice with readers‘ logbooks which are a documentation of learning and a tool of reflection.

Teacher in traditional classroom is considered as an important media, but in exstensive reading the role of the teaching is diminished which causes doubts and concerns. Here is the case when teaching is changed into learning and the learners are starting taking responsibility for their reading and language acquisition (Dam, 2003).

A learner is supported to take responsibility for his/her own learning/reading by independently:

1) Choosing particular aims and purpose; for example, the amount of pages read in a week, moving from one level of graded reader in a specific period.

2) Choosing materials and tasks. A learner is free to choose the reading material in correspondence to his/her language level. reading his/her favourite writer‘s books, or deepen knowledge in

his/her favourite field. At the beginning the teacher offers two types of activities to a learner.

3) Exercising choice and purpose in organizing and carrying out the tasks. Students systematically exercise their choice by selecting activities and reading materials. They get accustomed to making decisions in their leanrning, consequently they learn to plan and find the ways of its accompishment, for example, they have to plan their daily reading program.

A teacher‘s role in an extensive reading program is comperatively different from the role in other language programs. In other language programs a teacher‘s responsibility is to transfer information, knowledge. According to Tsitsishvili et al. (2008, pp. 13-15) there are several roles of a teacher depeneding on the various ELT methods, for example controller, organizer, assessor, prompeter, participant, resource, tutor and observer. According to the teaching styles the teacher roles‘ can be discerned as teacher explainer, teacher involver, teacher enabler, etc. Teacher enabler aims to assist students to become successful learner by allowing them to learn themselves. This former is the closest to a new role of a teacher in an ER program. A teacher‘s role as a guide is a new concept in Georgian methodology of foreign langauge teaching. A teacher is a guide in an extensive reading program.

A teacher orients learners through the following steps: 1) Experience of reading - no weak learner can ―hide‖. Even weak learners are required to read. 2) Awareness of a learner‘s reading – why, what and how to read. A teacher raises the awareness of learners by emphasizing the benefits extensive reading and explains the purpose of an extensive reading program, which is not for a teacher, or university, but for life. Teacher makes clear to learners what is expected from them and introduce them with the tips how to choose a book as well as possible and varied activities for the learners to select. The teacher presents various ways of organizing reading. The teacher should explain the demands through the ER program clearly. One of the influential factors to make students demonstrate their skills systematically with appropriate quality is the clarity and intensity of teachers‘ requirements. If requirements are high, clearly developed and concrete, students do their maximum, and in contrary , if the requirements are vague, or they are lower, a learner is less productive, inert, and gradually becomes passive. Athough, it should be noted that the teacher‘s requirements through

an ER program should be realistic and achievable (Tkhemaladze et al., 2008, p. 23).

3) participation in decision making (choice of reading materials, activities). Learners are supported to choose activities in order to reach curricular aims and personal goals.

4) responsibility for a student‘s reading (reading, completing logbooks, making presentations).

A teacher supports her students‘ choices, decisions, and their roles in the program by encouraging, prompting, modeling, and clarifying. Nation (1997) recommends that ―teachers need to be serious about extensive reading programs particularly in ensuring that learners do large amounts of reading. The benefits of extensive reading do to come in the short term. Nevertheless, the substantial long-term benefits justify the high degree of commitment needed.‖ The teacher‘s responsibilities include following:

helping students enjoy and value extensive reading

understanding what extensive reading involves

finding out what the students can and cannot do

introduction to library and procedure of selecting books

choosing or devising effective tasks and activities

preparing the students to undertake the tasks

making sure that everyone reads productively

monitoring progress to make sure that everyone in the class improves steadily according to their own capabilities

An extensive reading program is only a part of a language course. Thus, teachers need to make sure that other parts of the course are supporting extensive reading; and vice versa, other parts of the course are being supported by extensive reading.

The role of motivation One of the principles of extensive reading program is

reading for pleasure. Readers will be more motivated to read if the materials they are reading help to meet these broad purposes (Fig. 1.5.). The difference between attitude and motivation is a crucial distinction in the discussion of motivation, as positive attitude towards reading is not the same as motivation towards reading (Ro, 2013). Positive feelings towards reading play a crucial role in facilitating extensive reading, although learners may have positive attitudes towards reading, but such attitudes do not necessarily lead to frequent pleasure reading. As Williams (1984, p. 36) underlines ―motivation, that is - wanting to read, wanting to learn, is crucial‖.

Fransson (1984, p. 112) found an interaction between intrinsic motivation and state anxiety, students who reported being anxious during the reading showed weak intrinsic motivation. Students who have low trait anxiety tend to read at a deeper level, whereas highly state anxious students tend to be surface processors. Reading for pleasure provides many readers an opportunity to relax and enjoy the world of books. For both reasons, readers expect to be able to comprehend the material being read and to reach their purposes. As Guthrie at el. (1999, p. 250) pointed out ―one of the major contributions of motivation to text comprehension is that motivation increases reading amount, which then increases text comprehension.‖ In an extensive reading program two motivation focuses can be defined: Motivation instruction and teacher motivation. Irwin‘s (1991, p. 145) model of motivation instruction is suitable and applicable in an extensive reading program. Motivation can be increased if expected efforts are decreased or the expected reward is increased: Motivation = expected reward: expected effort (Irwin (1991, p. 145)

In an extensive reading program expected effort is

Fig. 1. 5. Motivation in extensive reading (adopted from http://www.xmind.net/m/CxVZ/)

decreased by offering students to read within their language competence. Students do not have to refer to a dictionary. Another factor how we decrease the expected effort is the amount of post-reading activities. The questions in post-reading worksheets (PRW)

are easy to fill in and do not require much effort and time from students. A teacher never presents reading as a chore or a punishment. In an extensive reading program if a student fails to read, the teacher should avoid asking students to do extra reading to recover the amounts of reading. Instead of this, the teacher should identify the obstacle, and help the student to overcome it. In extensive reading expected reward is increased by explaining to students the importance of reading and the benefits that extensive reading contributes to, for example it builds vocabulary, improves reading fluency, provides with enjoyable reading experience, promotes reading as a lifelong activity, etc.

Motivation instruction requires purposeful and systematic approaches from a teacher which should be planned in advance within the program (Natsvlishvili & Gorgodze, 2008); for example, it can involve giving practical tips to readers. A teacher provides readers with the tips given below and asks them to read regularly in order to promote and inspire reading among readers. It is also helpful to write these ideas on a poster and have it in the classroom.

1) Plan your individual reading program. 2) Focus on the benefits of extensive reading, be positive and

visualize your success. 3) See everything that you read as an opportunity to grow. 4) Measure your success every day by hours spent on reading,

pages read and feeling of satisfaction you got. 5) Choose the books that match your personal needs and seek

the variety in reading. 6) Be constant in reading; be responsible for your reading. 7) The more you read and the more effort you put in your

reading program, the more gains you have. 8) Surround yourself with the learners who like reading in

English and are committed to it. 9) Feel free to talk about benefits of extensive reading to other

readers in your group. 10) Help your peers choose books for reading. As I have discussed above a teacher does not transfer

knowledge in an extensive reading program, but she has abundant responsibilities in directing the reading program in a proper way, supporting learners and monitoring the program outcomes. For these reasons, a teacher also necessitates motivational ideas. The following suggestions for teacher motivation in extensive reading are devised:

1. A teacher agrees with the teaching methodology of extensive reading and she completely believes in the benefits of extensive reading. Asraf & Ahmad (2003) explain that ―we felt that it was important that teachers fully understand the aims and objectives as well as the rationale for extensive reading, because it is only when the teachers believe in its value would the program work.‖

2. As much as possible, a teacher increases the reward and decreases the effort.

3. A teacher follows activities that allow the students to use what they learned while reading.

4. A teacher is also interested in the material. A teacher should regularly read and be aware of the books students tend to read. It makes discussion in class easy. Also it enables a teacher to foresee the possible obstacles in students‘ reading of the specific book.

5. A teacher is positive that each student has a chance to succeed. Another important issue in teaching extensive reading is

inculcating reading habit among learners. How can this habit be cultivated among foreing language learners? In order to develop a reading habit in a reader, an inner, specific ―reading‖ need should be created in a subject; later, a situation satisfying reader‘s need should be initiated (Uznadze, 1977, p. 54-55). If a learner is allowed to read a book, enjoy this reading process, and experience positive feelings repeatedly, after some time a need to read a book and undergo the moments of pleasure is instigated in a learner; to satisfy this need a learner strives toward an activity, an action, i.e. reading. When a learner takes a break and ceases the strokes, used in an activity, s/he focuses on an activity itself. Here the objectivism or thinking is developed in a learner. In more concrete terms a learner contemplates about a writer, characters in a book, encountered words and expressions.

Reading requirements, activities and testing in an extensive reading program One of the points that differentiates an extensive reading

program from other language programs, and manifests in its title, is the large quantity of reading that a student is expected to read. There are no established norms of reading amounts that can be considered as extensive. The appropriate technique how to define

the required amount of reading in a week is to investigate how much of reading students do in an intensive reading programs weekly. This amount for Georgian students varies from the level they are at. It is approximately from 10 to 15 pages. The amount of reading in a week that was found suitable for extensive reading program for Georgian students is about 50-80 pages. These numbers were obtained by multiplying intensive reading indicator to 5. Bi-lingual texts at the appropriate level may make it possible to check quickly on the meanings of new structures/lexis. To that extent, slightly more difficult texts could be attempted by students.

Silent reading- twice a month the teacher can ask students to do silent reading. The students read their books; the teacher does not interfere in their reading process. She also gives the example by reading herself.

Oral presentation- Students regularly present the book they have finished. It is 3-5 minute presentation. During an oral presentation students can use their summaries written in their notebooks. The discussion often is like a conference. The teacher can conduct an interview on the topic ‗the best and the most boring books‘.

The logbook - is a significant tool in an extensive reading program because logbooks are the documantation which are basics for asessment and a teacher‘s further orientation in a student‘s reading. First, a reading log provides readers a mechanism of accountability to record what they are reading each day. Students can be encouraged to record what they are reading. Another way that this reading log has proved useful is how much time they spent on reading. The log does not require the reader to provide a detailed description of their comprehension of what has been read. In logs readers must summarize what they have read. The logbook which was designed for Georgian students for an extensive reading program got a name of post reading worksheet (PRW). The PRW develops some reading strategies in readers (cf. Appendix 3). The most prominent ones are scanning and summarization which are discussed separately in the specific sections. The PRW forces the students to activate the knowledge that they gained from the reading. From this process, the students learn how to do their own research of the book.

In the first section the students write the author‘s name and the title of the book. This section helps them to pay attention to the significance of the title and it will help them keep their worksheets

organized. Students should keep a record of the material that they have read.

In the second and third sections the students write the number of pages in the book and the amount of time they spent on reading the book. This data enables the students to monitor their progress. They can compare the speed that they read a book to previous one. The students can also use this section to monitor the time that they have worked on extensive reading lessons throughout the course.

In the fourth section the students list and describe briefly the characters. This section, as well as the fourth and the fifth sections, develops a reading strategy, scanning, in readers. Scanning is a technique often used when looking for specific information, for key words or ideas. In most cases, readers know what they are looking for, so they are concentrating on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases (Nuttall, 2000, p.49).

In the fifth section the students write about the significance of the book and their further comments. After reading, students usually remain under the impression of the book. They want to express their ideas, judgments and emotions after reading. They often complete this section with zeal. In this section students often express their appreciation of the author‘s writing style; however, sometimes students criticize the author and they write their preferred ending to the story. Students also show their sympathy and affection towards the heroes and characters of the story, and they often use new words from a book to express their opinions.

In the sixth section the students discuss those few new words and expressions that they found important and interesting for them. Students especially like this section because they can demonstrate what they have learned. The students can discuss words‘ meanings in their oral presentation.

In the seventh section the students rate the book. This activity is easy for the students. They often rate a book controversially. The discrepancies among their opinions stimulate debates among students as they defend and justify their ratings, sometimes mingled with humor.

In the eighth section the students write the summary. Students summarize the plot of the book briefly. This activity helps students to concentrate on the main idea of the book. According to Hatzitheodorou (2008, p. 61) ―…summarization techniques enable

the individual to both receive and interpret a text competently, appreciating its full meaning, re-enacting all most of its initial circumstances of production and viewing it as a living piece of text, which is embedded in its orders of production and consumption and constituted with its purpose of production and purpose of consumption.‖ Learners should combine both competent readership and authorship combined with interpreting skills. The contribution of summarizing to comprehension within a pedagogical context is attested in Pearson and Fielding‘s (1991, p. 833) study, which argues that condensing texts is conducive to improved

comprehension, increased recall and improvement on standardized reading test scores. Therefore, summarizing serves the purpose of study skill - reading comprehension.

In the nineth section the students analyze the difficulty of the reading material.

The items of PRW can be changed or modified according to a teacher or students‘ requirements even though a teacher should avoid overloading students with tasks.

Tests - Once a month teacher may ask students to write a topic based on a reading material, for example the favorite character‘s description, etc. Every following second week the teacher collects students‘ notebooks and checks them. She usually pays much attention to the summaries, which shows how the students comprehend the texts, rather than writing and spelling. Other optional activities are:

1) Characters you identify with 2) Points of the story or behaviors that interest you 3) Personal experience or thoughts related to the book 4) Favorite parts 5) Parts you dislike 6) How you would change the book 7) How you would act differently from the characters 8) Larger issues raised in the book (war, racism, sexism, etc) 9) Experiences while reading (meeting familiar words,

excitement, sleepiness, etc) 10) Design a poster to advertise the book 11) Draw or use a map to show important places/routes in the

book. Explain why they are important 12) Create a timeline of events in the book, perhaps with some

text to help people understand the events in the timeline 13) Compare the book with a movie/TV version of the same

book 14) Imagine that a character in the story became a student at

your school. How would they dress? How would they behave? How would students, teachers, you, and others react to them?

15) Short note to the next reader of the book 16) Imagine, you met the author, what would you tell?

Most ER researchers discuss learners‘ assessment briefly and discourage teachers from evaluating learners and testing them in an ER program (Day & Bamford, 2005; Nuttall, 2000) According to

Tkhemaladze et al. (2008, p. 77) there are several criteria for assessment: reliability, validity, objectivity, and transparency. According to the purpose of assessment there are two forms of evaluation: developing and defining. The teacher varies these forms of evaluation according to the lesson objectives.

As the goal of ER is to encourage students to read more and enjoy it, the teacher, in order to maintain this goal, should prefer to use frequently developing evaluation more than the defining one. The developing evaluation is aimed at improving skills, giving advice and recommendations as a solution of a certain problem. Through this evaluation a learner constantly gets comments and information from the teacher through different ways. This feedback helps a learner to follow own progress and perceive in learning. Furthermore, through the developing evaluation the teacher monitors students‘ weak and strong sides, suggests the ways of overcoming problems and achieving extensive reading goals.

Selecting reading material In selecting reading material successfully and enjoying the

reading, schemata plays significant role. A schema is a mental structure. It derives from all the particular experiences students have had. It is structure because it is organized; it includes the relationships between its component parts. According to Alderson (2000, p. 33) schemata ―are seen as interlocking mental structures representing reader‘s knowledge. When readers process text, they integrate the new information from the text into their pre-existing schemata. More than that their schemata influence how they recognize information as well as how they store it.‖ The way Georgian students interpret depends on the schemata activated by the text; and whether students interpret successfully depends on whether their schemata are sufficiently similar to the writer‘s. In a responsive reader- one who is alert and actively processing the ideas in the text- the relevant schemata are activated. That means they are ready to be called on to explain unstated relationships and also liable to be modified by new ideas. Perhaps we can say that the responsive readers should be flexible in their approach to the ideas in the text and subconsciously a reader is an experimenter. People of similar background tend to have similar schemata; for them, the common ground is much bigger than for people coming from

different backgrounds. We see the difference in backgrounds and thus in schemata between a Georgian reader and an English writer.

The final component of orientation in selecting books is practical. An important matter refers to students‘ introduction with the library. Students also need to be introduced to the graded readers and tips how to find their appropriate level. The teacher explains that books are colour-coded according to the levels. The teacher has also to show to the students the blurb and why they need to read it, etc.

Nation and Wang (1999) in their study reached the following conclusions how learners should plan and move systematically through the Graded Reader levels: 1) learners should read at least one graded reader every week, no matter what level they are reading at, 2) learners should read at least five books at a level before moving to books at the next levels, 3) learners should read more books at a later levels than the earlier, 4) learners should read between 15-20 readers in a year, 5) Learners may need to study the new vocabulary at the earlier levels, 6) learners should work their way through the levels of Graded Readers. Learners may choose the books that appeal them without considering the level of the books. Some learners may have difficulty getting started. Others may read slowly and reluctantly. For this reason the teacher should monitor learners‘ progress, talking with them individually about problems and reading goals.

A teacher of the program and an administrator of the library can together develop a list of English books existing in the library. This list of publications will be given to students at the beginning of an extensive reading program. The list will have the following sections: level of reading, title, author, amount of pages in a book publisher. It will be good if genre will also be included in this description. Students can often look into the catalogue-list, even at home and plan in advance their reading program for a month. This kind of list also saves students and a librarian‘s time. Students directly come and ask for a specific book. If a book is uninteresting or too difficult a student simply abandons it for another. In other words, readability or comprehensibility is essential. Students often mark titles and make notes on their booklist; therefore this booklist is a matter of discussion among students, even out of class; students recommend the books to one another. This booklist empowers them with the control over their reading, and increase their autonomy.

Obstacles in teaching extensive reading Experimental incorporation of extensive reading at the

foreign language department and the foreign language center divulged some obstacles. These obstacles are also discussed in Day & Bamford (2005). They suggested various reasons: cost of the program; the work required to set up a program; the difficulty in incorporating ER in already-crowded curriculum; the teacher‘s role; the easy-nature of reading material; the prevailed reading skills approach in EFL; the belief that reading should be delayed until students can speak and understand the FL; confusion between extensive reading and class readers. Grabe (2009, p. 311) indicated following problems in implementing ER. He argues that firstly, in L2, fluent reading is not often really the goal for a reading class or a reading curriculum; rather the goal is the development of language skills, vocabulary, grammar, translation, or study skills. Second, teaching ER requires lots of resources. Third, the focus of many reading curricula is on accurate comprehension and ―the assumption that a good comprehender will eventually become a fluent reader of extended texts on his or her own‖. Fourth, Grabe considers one of the reasons of non popularity of ER is the teacher‘s role and unreadiness to teach it. According to him even administrators are uncomfortable with teachers not teaching and students not preparing for high-stakes exams while in classes. The vision of teachers teaching something to students is taken away by ER and teachers feel disempowered. I took into considerations the problems indicated by Grabe (2009), and Day & Bamford (2005) and I designed the experimental implementation of ER in such way that I could decrease the possibility of manifestation of all above mentioned obstacles, however, following gaps and obstacles were met while experimental incorporation of ER: the teacher‘s role; the myth- no reading pain, no reading gain; poor print environment.

1) A teacher as the crucial factor of successful ER program - before implementing ER it is important to instruct teachers on the benefits reading and ER. Most teachers are not aware how reading is favorable to foreign language acquisition. When the teacher is equipped with the necessary knowledge about ER, the next step is to make the teacher believe that ER is the one of the best ways of teaching a foreign language and developing reading skill and reading habit. At the beginning the teacher constantly needs encouragement because the teacher may feel doubt about her role in the program as it differs from other role where she transfers knowledge to learners.

The teacher may be confused with her role and regard it as passive and finally feel uncomfortable. To solve this problem the teacher should permanently read different books and perceive the nature of extensive reading herself/himself. It will be helpful for teachers to become familiar with learner‘s autonomy and periodically have trainings on autonomous learning. It will enable teachers to look at their responsibilities from different point of view and understand the significance of learner‘s independence in studying process.

2) The myth- No reading pain, no reading gain. Students accustomed to wading through difficult foreign language texts might drown when suddenly plunged into a sea of simple and stimulating material. Serious-minded students, for example, some participants A believed in - no reading pain, no reading gain. They did not understand how reading easy and interesting material can help them become better readers. They admitted that one of the limitations of the ER program was easy reading materials. It was monitored that these serious-minded students, who believed that they had to memorize many new words and read difficult texts, complained often about the easiness of materials during the experimental teaching and compared their achievements with the group of the home reading program, where the focus was on vocabulary and the unabridged book was read. This might be serious problem for good readers and the solution is the teacher‘s orientation. This myth or false belief for ER ―no reading pain, no reading gain” can be dispersed by the teacher‘s explanation of the benefits of reading easy materials. At the beginning of the program the teacher elucidates the goals, the benefits and the novelty of the program. The teacher can clarify that students increase their vocabulary on a regular basis through other language programs. If the teacher‘s orientation is done properly good readers will be eagerly involved in the ER program. When foreign language acquirers read for pleasure, they develop the competence they need to move from the beginning ―ordinary conversational‖ level to a level where they can use the foreign language for more demanding purposes such as the serious study of literature , business, and so on.

3) Print environment in Georgian Universities- one of the serious obstacles for the implementation of ER is the poor print environment or in some cases even the absence of print environment. Krashen (1993) highlighted the importance of print environment; ―When the print environment is rich, more reading is done.‖ If not ETAG which provided graded readers for the

experimental instruction of the ER program, it would be difficult to think about implementation of ER at Telavi State University. In order to run successful ER programs it is important that universities be equipped with graded readers, different reading materials, newspapers, and magazines.

We plan to continue the survey of the graduates in order to get a more complete picture of the reading programs at foreign language departments of Georgian Universities. One of the difficulties of the survey was to have access to the graduates. Only the specific group of graduates was available for this time. This group mainly comprises English teachers and MA students. We admit that some responses may be influenced by professional opinions or memories could be biased.

Conclusion The extensive reading is an effective and pleasurable way for

students to learn to read English as a foreign language as an alternative to translation or skill courses in which students are not free to choose reading material that interests them. Extensive reading raises students‘ motivation to read more and enjoy their homework, develops confidence in students within reading; also it promotes foreign language acquisition.

Extensive reading expands teachers‘ awareness about the new approach and encourages them to step aside from the traditional ways of teaching reading. Extensive reading gives an incentive to Georgian teachers to read more which is crucial for teachers too. In addition, Georgian university libraries will create foreign language rich-print environment, which is one of the important issues. Rich-print environment will cause better results in reading and consequently in a foreign language acquisition. The following recommendations are given for the implementation of extensive reading.

Extensive reading programs should be implemented as the efficient reading development programs in Georgian universities. An extensive reading program will widen students‘ education level.

Within this program students will become aware of different cultures, countries, writers, notions, books, people

and people‘s lifestyles. This reading program will raise their activeness as students and as readers.

Extensive reading teaching methodology is adequately designed to fit the requirements of academic programs.

It will contribute to the following improvements and benefits among the students of the foreign language department: positive attitude toward reading, general language competence, and motivation. An extensive reading program will inculcate among students the love of reading, and it will increase interest toward foreign language study.

Extensive reading programs will popularize comparatively less-practiced teaching model in Georgia - learner autonomy. The relationship of a teacher and a student based on learner autonomy, in extensive reading, will create a beneficial background for a student to take responsibility for own learning, and to experience real life reading/learning. On the other hand, a teacher will respect students‘ effort, show deep interest in each student‘s success. Testing and grading will take secondary part in this environment.

Extensive reading will emphasize meaningful interaction between students. This communication will take following forms: lively discussions, analyses, and reading recommendations.

It is essential to continue further research to discuss extensive reading in terms of book selection, course administration, pedagogic procedure, etc. Several suggestions for further research should be presented. Future research could allot an academic hour for foreign language center students for ER and observe the improvements between one group of students reading extensively and another lacking this activity and then assess the two groups‘ performance in general language competence.

To sum up, the extensive reading teaching methodology developed in this chapter includes novelty in itself. It adopts teaching principles which are the pedagogical basis of educational system in Georgia. It outlines and structures the organization of teaching extensive reading. A teacher as a guide and an enabler is relatively new concept in foreign language teaching methodology in Georgia. This methodology supports implementing learner autonomy in the educational environment of Georgia by allowing learners to take

responsibilities for their learning. The extensive reading methodology offers ways of approaching motivation, particularly, teacher motivation and learner motivation. The methodology directs the teacher through all the steps of teaching ER, such as, using activities, testing, and selecting reading materials.

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