PHYSICS

BIOLOGY / CHEMISTRY /PHYSICS

Entrance exammaterials

ENTRANCE EXAM M

ATERIALS

BIOLOGY

CHEMISTRY

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BIOLOGYMaterial prepared by: Sergej Nadalin, M.D., Ph.D., Assistant professor

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. CYTOLOGY

2. GENETICS AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

3. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

4. ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS

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CYTOLOGY

http://www.donmonroe.info/Clips/NYAS/Images/090317_640.jpg

CELL IS A BASIC STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL

UNIT OF ALL LIVING ORGANISMS

In 1665, Robert Hooke coined the term “cell”

following his observations of a piece of cork

cell theory was developed by Schleiden and

Schwann in 1839

according to the cell theory:

- organisms are composed of one or more cells

- all cells contain the hereditary information

for regulating their functions and for

transmitting information to the next

generation of cells

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/7b/3f/d8/7b3fd880166ef8d89a1d7a205e9037bb.jpg

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BACTERIAL CELL

capsule – consists of polysaccharides, protection from phagocytosis and desiccation; flagellum - protein flagellin, locomotion; pili – protein pilin, conjugation; cell wall – peptidoglycan murein, rigidity and determination of cell shape; membrane – phospholipid bilayer, transport of molecules; ribosome – site of protein synthesis;nucleoid - circular, double-stranded piece of DNA, bacterial nucleusplasmid - small circular DNA molecule separated from a nucleoid, replicates independently

MAIN CELL TYPES ARE PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL

organisms kingdom monera: archaebacteria, eubacteria (true bacteria) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)

protists, fungi, plants and animals

cell organization single celled single celled/multicellular

cell syze small (1-10 μm) 10 - 100 μm

cell wall mostly have cell wall (murein) only fungi and plants have cell wall(cellulose and chitin)

organelles none many; with specialized functions

metabolism anaerobic and aerobic mostly aerobic

genetic material single circular double stranded DNA

chromosomes; each with a singledouble stranded DNA and proteinscontained in nucleus

mode of division asexual, mostly binary fission mitosis and meisos

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PILI AND PLASMIDS MEDIATE BACTERIAL CONJUGATION

bacterial benefit from conjugation is development of antibiotic resistance

http://jackbojanbio.weebly.com/uploads/6/0/1/6/60167163/07-32b-conjugationart-l_orig.jpg

PLASMIDS ARE USED IN RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/system/images/images/000/000/558/embed/cloning_dna_oversize20151125-1118-dwkzce.jpg?1448424636

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BINARY FISSION OF BACTERIAL CELL

occurs every ~30 minutes at 37 ºC and takes place without the spindle apparatus

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/ch06lecturepresentation-160209200944/95/ch-06lecturepresentation-63-638.jpg?cb=1455048617

THERE ARE DIFFERENT BACTERIAL CELL SHAPES

spherical - cocci rod-shaped - bacilli spiral - spirilli

http://www.ppdictionary.com/bacteria/bacteria_sizes.jpg

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CYANOBACTERIAL CELL

cell wall – complex structure (oscillin layer, S layer, outer membrane, periplasmic space, peptidoglycan, inner membrane); gas vacuoles –protein gas-filled rods which regulate buoyancy;phycobilisome – consists of chlorophyll type a and accessory pigments, called phycobiliproteins;thylakoids - the photosynthetic membranes with pigments and proteins;carboxysomes - consist of the main enzyme involved in photosynthesis (rubisco);cyanophycin – polypeptide involved in nitrogen metabolism

http://cronodon.com/images/cyanobacterium_structure_labeled.jpg

1. autotrophic bacteria: synthesize their own organic food from inorganic substances- photoautotrophic (possess photosynthetic pigments and utilize solar energy)- chemosynthetic (manufacture organic compounds from inorganic by oxidation)

2. heterotrophic bacteria: depend on external source of food- saprophytic (obtain nutritional requirements from dead organic matter)- symbiotic (live in a mutually beneficial association with other organism)- parasitic (obtain organic food from their hosts)

THERE ARE TWO NUTRITIONAL TYPES OF BACTERIA

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CYANOBACTERIA OFTEN GROW IN COLONIES

https://img.haikudeck.com/mi/8004BCF2-501F-4A44-9DC0-B61D5C728310.jpg

PLANT CELL

components typical for plant cell:

1) cell wall – consists of cellulose, maintains shape and support

2) plastids – chloroplasts (photosynthesis), leucoplasts (starch storage), chromoplasts (pigment synthesis and storage)

3) big vacuole – filled with water,maintains turgor, digests wasteproteins and organelles

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/65/3c/e2/653ce210d685f03c70a44dcebebca315--animal-cell-cycle-.jpg

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ANIMAL CELL

components typical for animal cell:

1) lysosome - digestion

2) centrosome with 2 centrioles –help in the formation of the mitotic spindle

https://images.flatworldknowledge.com/ballgob/ballgob-fig17_006.jpghttps://lh3.googleusercontent.com/WUp-_3JFrXncrj5ds38qjck8iIW8_vIMmC-o4jXztevmuRZ8HCFS-R2hxP-aHoEju_HbC1Gt2M-sBqpq8ZrpZqSv9cH-BWNIUSTZLcEAwpBeCl-flsyQfb55hA7WrzM9ZVnRzVzv

EXAMPLES OF PROTISTS – UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES

Plasmodiummalariae

Modified from: http://cdn1.askiitians.com/cms-content/biologyanimal-kingdomphylum-protozoa_5.jpg

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CYTOSKELETON structure that helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization; it also

provides mechanical support for essential functions like division and movement

- the cytoskeleton of eukaryotes is made of filamentous proteins which can be divided into:microfilaments (actin): maintain cell shape, regulate motility, muscle contraction and cell division in animals; intermediate filaments: maintain cell shape by resisting tension, anchor nucleus and some other organelles; microtubules: maintain cell shape and motility via flagella and cilia, move chromosomes during cell division, move organelles

https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/875dec31-b203-49cd-9b15-9ee9ef336fe5/2877994b-c8a6-49d3-9bde-73877aa480fb.png

CELL MEMBRANE HAS NUMEROUS FUNCTIONS

- maintains the physical integrity and protection of the cell

- base of attachment for the cytoskeleton and cell wall

- modulates cell signaling and communication

- maintains cell potential

- regulates membrane transport

- regulates metabolic activities of the cell (contains proteins/enzymesimportant for metabolic processes)

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MEMBRANE CONSISTS OF LIPIDS, PROTEINS AND CARBOHYDRATES

Lipids (~50%) – phospholipids and cholesterol (fluidity)Proteins (~50%) – membrane functions (membrane transport, enzymes, signaling)Carbohydrates (~2%) – glycolipids and glycoproteins (signaling, protection – glycocalyx)

FLUID MOSAIC MODELSINGER AND NICOLSON, 1972

- describes the cell membrane as a two-dimensional liquid

http://astccc.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/membran-plasma-samping_thumb7.png

MEMBRANE PHOSPHOLIPIDS ARE AMPHIPATHIC MOLECULES

https://ka-perseus-images.s3.amazonaws.com/f6e4f68b9713a9c00865e8947bf4755fa17a74ac.png

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THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS

http://tonga.usp.edu/gmoyna/biochem341/membrane.jpeg

CELL MEMBRANE IS SEMIPERMEABLE

http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/ecb/ecb_images/12_02_diffusion_rate.jpg

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CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

TRANSPORT OF SMALL MOLECULES (ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSPORT)

TRANSPORT OF LARGE MOLECULES (ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS)

What is the difference between active and passive transport?

SMALL MOLECULES TRANSPORT

passive transport (simple and facilitated diffusion)

simple diffusion – CO2, 02, H20, benzene, ethanol

facilitated diffusion – channel mediated: ions, e.g. Na+, Ca2+, K+

- carrier mediated: glucose, amino acids

active transport – e.g. sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump or Na+/K+-ATP-ase), H+ pump

http://what-when-how.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/tmp1436.jpg

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Na+/K+ PUMP MECHANISM

physiological importance: maintenance of resting membrane potential (-60 mV),

control of cell volume, driving force for transport of glucose and amino acids

https://68.media.tumblr.com/36e3023ad0fdcb65c55785dbd9f917af/tumblr_inline_nwg8mkxfEt1rn7dzw_1280.png

ENDOCYTOSIS/EXOCYTOSIS - CELL TAKES IN/EXPELS MOLECULES

THAT ARE TOO LARGE TO PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE

both processes use membrane vesicles for molecular transport and need energy

exocytosis is used for the release of hormones, enzymes, neurotransmitters

endocytosis: entry of pathogens, nutrients, etc.

http://images.slideplayer.com/34/10268890/slides/slide_32.jpg

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THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS

http://slideplayer.com/slide/9164699/27/images/43/Endocytosis:+Phagocytosis+&+Pinocytosis.jpg

ORGANELLES

SUBUNITS WITHIN A CELL THAT HAVE A SPECIFIC FUNCTION

MEMBRANE-BOUND (USUALLY): nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus (body),

lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids (chloroplasts, chromoplasts, leucoplasts)

NON-MEMBRANE BOUND: ribosomes, centrosomes with centrioles

- diminutive (little organs)

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nuclear envelope consists of two cell membranes and nuclear pores

nucleus contains the majority of the genetic material of the cell in the form of

chromosomes (visible during cell division) or chromatine (decondensed)

DNA replication and transcription into mRNA occur in nucleus

NUCLEUS

http://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/53/116253-004-58612C30.jpg

NUCLEOLUS

nucleus may contain one or more nucleoli, which are not surrounded by membrane

within the nucleolus, rRNA synthesis takes place

http://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/53/116253-004-58612C30.jpg

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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

single-membrane enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known as cisternae

exists in two types – rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

rough ER is studded with ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis and glycosylation

smooth ER is involved in the synthesis of some lipids (e.g. steroids)

https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/79/117279-004-4B7393C9.jpg

GOLGI APPARATUS (BODY)

single-membrane cisternae with cis face (enter protein and lipids from ER) and trans face

packs and distributes proteins and lipids, mediates protein glycosylation and lysosome

formation

in plant cells is involved in polysaccharide synthesis

https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/52/116252-004-9615DB80.jpg

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LYSOSOMES

tiny single-membrane sacs which contain acid hydrolases

break down materials from inside the cell (autophagy) and from outside the cell (heterophagy)

primary lysosomes are formed by Golgi body and contain inactive enzymes

secondary lysosomes are formed when primary lysosomes fuse with other membrane-bound

vesicles (e.g. worn-out organelles, phagocytes, etc).

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lastpresntation2-150408132956-conversion-gate01/95/lysosome-12-638.jpg?cb=1428517903

VESICULAR TRANSPORT

transport of molecules between membrane-bound organelles and across plasma membrane

using membrane-bound vesicles and ATP

some examples of vesicular transport

http://pbs.twimg.com/tweet_video_thumb/Cyj84iAUQAAYgT7.jpg

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VESICULAR TRANSPORT CONSISTS OF SEVERAL STEPS

http://drmehmetinan.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/nobel4.jpg

MITOCHONDRION

double-membrane bound organelle, oval/round in shape, independent genome and proteome

composed of compartments (outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane with

cristae and matrix)

generate energy (ATP), store Ca2+ for cell signaling, mediate cell growth and death

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Animal_mitochondrion_diagram_en.svg/2000px-Animal_mitochondrion_diagram_en.svg.png

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THE THREE BASIC PROCESSES OF ATP PRODUCTION

1. glycolysis: occurs in cytoplasm, 2 ATPs are released

2. tricarboxylic acid (Krebs) cycle: occurs in mitochondrial matrix, 2 ATPs are released

3. oxidative phosphorylation: cristae of the inner mitochondrial membrane, 34 ATPs are

released

- glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are part of cellular respiration

Modified from: https://media1.britannica.com/eb-media/78/117278-004-F3E09D23.jpg

FERMENTATION

occurs when there is a lack of oxygen (anaerobic environment)

Modified from: https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/1de5b0cd-fcaf-46b5-885f-496e0231abaf/14dba60d-ef6c-42c1-b00c-13ccb86eb40a.png

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CHLOROPLAST

double-membrane bound organelle (plastid), oval/round in shape, independent genome and

proteome

outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, stroma with thylakoid membranes

the main role of chloroplasts is to conduct photosynthesis in plant leaves

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-f9UpEw7Iniw/VfVyw1sXC0I/AAAAAAAACbo/4U-_5PYPz34/s1600/12.png

THERE EXIST SEVERAL PLASTID TYPES

Modified from: http://www.golifescience.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/plastid-evolution.png

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS REACTION SUMMARY

https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/aac841a7-9a62-4a2b-a467-1f7d9af17626/8ce88d98-81bf-4b6c-8451-95198256e431.png

PHOTOSYNTHESIS CONSISTS OF LIGHT-DEPENDENT AND

LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS (THE CALVIN CYCLE)

light-dependent reactions occur in thylacoid membranes

light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) take place in stroma

http://slideplayer.com/slide/6035707/20/images/14/Reactants+Diagram+H2O+CO2+Light+Chloroplast+C6H12O6+Glucose+O2.jpg

LIPIDS

TRIGLYCERIDES (fats, oils)

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

STEROIDS (cholesterol)

- functions of lipids: energy source and storage (triglycerides); structural components

(phospholipids, cholesterol); source for hormone synthesis (cholesterol)

BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT MACROMOLECULES

CLASS TYPE OF POLYMER (MACROMOLECULE)

MONOMERS MAKING POLYMER

carbohydrates polysaccharides monosaccharides

lipids - -

proteins protein/polypeptide amino acids

nucleic acids DNA/RNA nucleotides

monomers are small units that link to make polymers

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LIPIDS

TRIGLYCERIDES (fats, oils)

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

STEROIDS (cholesterol)

- functions of lipids: energy source and storage (triglycerides); structural components

(phospholipids, cholesterol); source for hormone synthesis (cholesterol)

BIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT MACROMOLECULES

CLASS TYPE OF POLYMER (MACROMOLECULE)

MONOMERS MAKING POLYMER

carbohydrates polysaccharides monosaccharides

lipids - -

proteins protein/polypeptide amino acids

nucleic acids DNA/RNA nucleotides

monomers are small units that link to make polymers

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DIFFERENT CLASSES OF LIPID MOLECULES

http://www.mdpi.com/ijms/ijms-13-15401/article_deploy/html/images/ijms-13-15401f1.png

MONOSACCHARIDES (simple sugars; glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, 2-deoxyribose)

DISACCHARIDES (contain 2 monosaccharides; sucrose, lactose)

POLYSACCHARIDES (contain many monosaccharides; starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin)

- functions of carbohydrates: energy source (e.g. glucose) and storage (starch, glycogen); structural

components (cellulose, chitin); backbone of DNA and RNA

CARBOHYDRATESCarbon + water Cn(H20)n

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MONOSACCHARIDES (simple sugars; glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, 2-deoxyribose)

DISACCHARIDES (contain 2 monosaccharides; sucrose, lactose)

POLYSACCHARIDES (contain many monosaccharides; starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin)

- functions of carbohydrates: energy source (e.g. glucose) and storage (starch, glycogen); structural

components (cellulose, chitin); backbone of DNA and RNA

CARBOHYDRATESCarbon + water Cn(H20)n

EXAMPLES OF SOME CARBOHYDRATES

https://biochemknowledge.files.wordpress.com/2014/02/picture-1.jpg

PROTEINS

relationship between amino acids, peptide and protein

- proteins are structural components of the cell; serve as enzymes, hormones, receptors, antibodies

https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-b97691e7f1beec9f3ec1a5e31045cb4b

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AMINO ACIDS CONTAIN CARBOXYL (COOH)

AND AMINO (NH2) GROUP

formation of peptide bond between two amino acids

https://ka-perseus-images.s3.amazonaws.com/53664237b113b7de95110677b7c6fdca99a26baa.png

TWENTY AMINO ACIDS ARE USED FOR PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

https://cnx.org/resources/90448620a30b8e92f83d042f965513991ef14cc0/Figure_03_04_02.png

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DNA AND RNA STRUCTURE

- functions of DNA/RNA: storage and transfer of genetic material

- what does nucleotide consist of...?

http://pcatexam.com/pluginfile.php/51/mod_page/content/3/RNA_Vs_DNA.png

DNA STRANDS ARE ANTIPARALLEL

https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/596/flashcards/8039596/jpg/image_4337-14D269A467C718610E3.jpg

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PURINE AND PYRIMIDINE BASES IN DNA AND RNA

purines contain two carbon-nitrogen rings, whereas pyrimidines have one ring

https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/638/flashcards/2955638/jpg/image022-149B07B2DC129E6B48C.jpg

COMPLEMENTARY NITROGENOUS BASE PAIRING

complementary pairs always involve one purine and one pyrimidine base

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/base-pairs_med.jpeg

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THERE ARE THREE MAIN TYPES OF RNA

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/93/cc/0e/93cc0eba2d5f000a755cfa836cc312a6.jpg

WATER (H2O) IS THE MOST IMPORTANT INORGANIC MOLECULE IN THE HUMAN BODY

water properties:

- cohesion, adhesion

- surface tension

- capillary action

- good solvent

- water anomaly

there are covalent bonds between water atoms, and hydrogen bonds between water molecules

water accounts for approximately 60% of the human body

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/x65kFrmcBLw/maxresdefault.jpg

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PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF WATER FOR LIVING ORGANISM

https://yourmajestylipbalm.files.wordpress.com/2017/06/screen-shot-2017-06-26-at-12-11-20-pm.png

TOTAL BODY WATER VOLUME IS ~40 l (60% OF BODY WEIGHT)

intracellular fluid volume = 25 l

extracellular fluid volume = 15 l

1) interstitial fluid volume = 12 l

2) plasma volume = 3 l

THE TOTAL BODY WATER IS DIVIDED INTO

INTRACELLULAR AND EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS

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IF THE TOTAL CONCENTRATION OF ALL DISSOLVED

SOLUTES IS NOT EQUAL ON BOTH SIDES OF THE CELL,

WATER MOVEMENT INTO OR OUT OF THE CELL OCCURS

- in a hypotonic solution, the total concentration of all dissolved solute particles is less than that of another solution, or less than that of a cell; in a hypertonic solution, the total concentration of all dissolved solute particles is greater than that of another solution, or greater than the concentration in a cell; when two environments are isotonic, the total molar concentration of dissolved solutes is the same in both of them

0.9% solution of NaCl (saline) is isotonic to

animal cells

http://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/9e4885d8-a834-4bfe-b41a-b82711742fad/Slide13_Pic1_636104355514695843.jpeg

IONS EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (mmol/l)

INTRACELLULAR FLUID (mmol/l)

Na+ 142 10

K+ 4 140

Ca2+ 2 0.5

HCO3- 103 4

Cl- 28 10

phosphates 2.2 42

sulphates 0.5 0.1

IONIC COMPOSITION OF INTRACELLULAR AND

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID

PH (potential of hydrogen) of extracellular fluid is 7.4; PH of intracellular fluid is 7.0

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net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration

OSMOSIS

https://s3.amazonaws.com/data.tackk.com/mio/43641920/14453636379051/large.jpg

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF THE HUMAN BODY

http://willowwoodlessons.weebly.com/uploads/3/9/7/6/39766844/5704544.jpg?1108

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MITOSIS

mitosis is a type of cell division where a single cell

divides into two identical daughter cells

- mitosis consists of karyokinesis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division)

http://faculty.ivytech.edu/~shopper6/ANPweb/gallery/images_and_SWFs/02/037_new_cell_division.jpg1

MITOSIS OCCURS IN SOMATIC CELLS

2n

2n 2n the total number of chromosomes is unchanged in the daughter cells

2n = diploid number of chromosomes

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MITOSIS IS A PART OF THE CELL CYCLE

INTERPHASE (90%)

G1 PHASE

G2 PHASE

S PHASE

G1(gap)

cell grows, protein, RNA and ribosome synthesis occurs,begins replication of centrosome

S(synthesis)

DNA replication (semiconservative),histone synthesis

G2 synthesis of proteins for the mitosis spindle, centriole replication

INTERPHASE

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-gils2KDDUv8/UCobG6HMoQI/AAAAAAAAAHA/2bRBasfnFJ4/s1600/mitosis-26hzktr.jpg

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PROPHASE

chromatin condenses into chromosomes which

become visible

nucleolus dissolves, nuclear membrane

disintegration occurs

the centrosomes move to opposite poles of the

cell, forming a bridge of mitotic spindle fibers

Modified from: https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/6068473_f520.jpg

METAPHASE

mitotic spindle is fully developed, centrosome are

at the opposite poles of the cell

maximally condensed chromosomes are lined up at

the metaphase plate (spindle equator, equatorial

plane)

each sister chromatide is attached to a spindle fiber

originating from opposite poles

Modified from: https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/6068473_f520.jpg

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METAPHASE CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE

q arm

p arm

centromere is the most constricted region on a chromosome that joins identical sister

chromatids; kinetochores are protein structure on chromatids where the spindle fibers

attach during cell division to pull sister chromatids apart

Modified from: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/mitosisppt-150426140405-conversion-gate01/95/mitosis-ppt-16-638.jpg?cb=1430075112

ANAPHASE

sister chromatids (daughter chromosomes) are

pulled toward the opposite poles of the cell

Modified from: https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/6068473_f520.jpg

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TELOPHASE

decondensation of chromosomes at the poles

nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of

chromosomes

the mitotic spindle breaks down, begins cytokinesis

Modified from: https://usercontent2.hubstatic.com/6068473_f520.jpg

CYTOKINESIS IN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL

in animal cells, actin–myosin contractile ring forms cleavage furrow which separates the

daughter cells; in plant cells, Golgi vesicles form a cell plate

http://images.slideplayer.com/33/6844011/slides/slide_2.jpg

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cell division that reduces the number of

chromosomes by half, creating haploid

cells (gametes) each genetically

distinct from the parent cell

MEIOSIS

23 (n) = haploid number of human chromosomes; 2n = diploid number of chromosomes

- meiosis consists of meiosis I and meiosis II

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR A GAMETE TO BE HAPLOID?

https://pbs.twimg.com/media/Cf-1MmYWcAAUyhm.jpg:large

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MEIOSIS I IS CALLED THE REDUCTION DIVISION

http://pumatrendbio.weebly.com/uploads/6/0/9/7/60977291/398998105.png

CROSSING OVER IS THE EXCHANGE OF GENETIC MATERIAL BETWEEN TWO HOMOLOGOUS NON-SISTER

CHROMATIDS

chiasma = the point where two homologous non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material during crossing over

Modified from: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/biok10-150811055529-lva1-app6891/95/bioknowledgy-presentation-on-101-meiosis-ahl-16-638.jpg?cb=1441558287

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MEIOSIS II IS CALLED EQUATIONAL DIVISION AND IT IS SIMILAR TO MITOSIS

http://slideplayer.com/slide/6090360/18/images/6/MEIOSIS+II:+Sister+chromatids+separate.jpg

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

https://cdn.thinglink.me/api/image/647554954260643841/1240/10/scaletowidth

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QUESTIONS

Which of the following answers is correct?

1. Structure(s) helpful in motility of bacteria is:a) flagellumb) capsulec) plasmidd) pilie) nucleoid

2. Plants storage their surplus carbohydrate in the form of:a) glucoseb) fructosec) galactosed) starche) cellulose

3. Centrioles consist of:a) nucleic acids b) polysaccharidesc) lipidsd) proteinse) nucleotides

4. Which of the following organelles can be viewed by a light microscope?a) ribosomeb) primary lysosomec) endoplasmic reticulumd) Golgi apparatus (body)e) mitochondrion

5. Chloroplasts do not contain:a) DNAb) RNAc) enzymesd) lipidse) single membrane

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6. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs in:a) cytoplasmb) matrix of mitochondriac) nucleusd) inner membrane of mitochondriae) outer membrane of mitochondria

7. Glycolysis occurs in:a) smooth endoplasmic reticulumb) rough endoplasmic reticulumc) Golgi bodyd) matrix of mitochondriae) cytoplasm

8) Which of the statements best describes the cell membrane composition?a) it is composed of two layers – one layer of phospholipids and one layer of proteinsb) it consists of equal amount of phospholipids, proteins and carbohydratesc) it is bilayer of proteins with associated lipids and carbohydratesd) it is bilayer of phospholipids with associated proteins and carbohydratese) none of the answers is correct

9. The movement of ions or molecules in and out of the cell through membrane transport proteins, but without the expenditure of energy is called:a) absorptionb) simple diffusionc) facilitated diffusiond) active transporte) osmosis

10. Glycogen is:a) aminoacidb) monosaccharidec) polysaccharided) disaccharidee) oligosaccharide

11. RNA molecule is made of units called:a) nucleosidesb) nucleotidesc) histonesd) chromosomese) phosphoric acid residues

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12. Guanine pairs with:a) uracylb) adeninec) cytosined) thyminee) all pyrimidine nitrogenous bases

13. Stage of mitosis characterized by physical separation of sister chromatids is called:a) interphaseb) prophasec) metaphased) anaphasee) telophase

14. The attachment site on the chromosome for pulling chromosomes apart during mitosis is:a) the cell plateb) the centriolec) the centrosomed) the kinetochoree) all are incorrect

15. Crossing-over occurs during:a) anaphase Ib) anaphase IIc) prophase Id) interphasee) metaphase I

16. The enzymes that act like scissors in recombinant DNA technology are called:a) regenerator enzymesb) restriction enzymesc) constructive enzymesd) polymerasese) ligases

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GENETIC AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

http://tekedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/genetics.jpg

branch of science concerned with genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms

GENETICS

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passing on of traits from parents to their offspring

HEREDITY

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GENOME

genetic material of an organism; it consists of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses)

- haploid human genome size = 3 x 109 base pairs (bp)

http://i0.wp.com/www.epibeat.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/shutterstock_103017107.jpg?fit=4307%2C4277

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GENOTYPE AND PHENOTYPE

genotype is complete heritable genetic identity; the genetic information responsible

for a physical trait

phenotype is the composite of an organism's observable characteristics; it represents

the consequence of genotype–environment interactions

https://adapaproject.org/images/biobook_images/GenoPhenoType.jpg

GENE

region of DNA which represents basic physical and functional unit of heredity;

gene contains a particular set of instructions (i.e.coding for a particular protein)

- the position of a gene on a particular chromosome is called the locus (pl. = loci)

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/gene-and-loci_med.jpeg

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HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES

pair of chromosomes (maternal and paternal) that are similar in shape and size

on the same locus carry genes controlling the same inherited traits

sex-chromosomes in males: X and Y

sex-chromosomes in females: X and X

- human somatic cells consist of 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (2n = 46)

- there are 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex-chromosomes (gonosomes)

ALLELES genes controlling the same inherited traits, and are located on the same locus of

homologous chromosomes

- organism is homozgyous for a particular trait if alleles controlling this trait are identical (e.g. BB or bb)

- organism is heterozygous for a particular trait if alleles controlling this trait are different (e.g. Bb)

- organism is hemizygous for a particular trait if this trait is determined only by one allele (human males are

hemizygous for most X chromosome genes)

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Heterozygous.jpg

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INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ALLELES

DOMINANT: show their effect even if the individual has only one allele copy (heterozygous)

RECESSIVE: only show their effect if the individual has two allele copies (homozygous)

CODOMINANT: both alleles are dominant and expressed equally

EXAMPLE OF DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE ALLELE

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ALLELES FOR THE “A” AND “B” BLOOD CELL ANTIGENS ARE CODOMINANT

- both A and B alleles are dominant over O

- the ABO blood type is an example of multiple alleles, because a trait is controlled by more than two alleles

http://bio1100.nicerweb.com/bio1151/Locked/media/ch14/14_02ABObloodGroup_T.jpg

LINKED GENES

sit close together on a chromosome, making them likely to be inherited together

- genes on separate chromosomes are never linked

- genes that are farther away from each other are more likely to be separated during a crossing over

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/geneticlinkage/images/linkage-1.jpg

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SEX-LINKED GENES

present on one of the sex chromosomes (X or Y); their expression depends on the sex

because Y chromosome is missing genes on X chromosome, X-linked recessive diseases (color blindness

hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, etc). most often occur in males

http://science.halleyhosting.com/sci/soph/genetics/pics/xy.gif

GREGOR MENDEL DEVELOPED THE MODEL OF HEREDITY BY EXPERIMENTS ON PEA PLANTS (PISUM SATIVUM)

- Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was a priest,

scientist and teacher with interests in

astronomy and plant breeding

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MENDEL STUDIED SEVEN PEA TRAITS

https://www.buffalolib.org/sites/default/files/milestones/botany/Mendel/Mendel%27s%20seven%20traits.jpg

WHY MENDEL CHOSE PEAS?

- they are easy to grow

- can be sown each year

- contain both male and female parts

- self-pollinate

- can be cross-pollinated by hand

- each treat has 2 forms which Mendel described as dominant and recessive

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MENDELIAN MONOHYBRID CROSS WITH DOMINANCE

P: AA x aa

G:

F1: Aa, Aa, Aa, Aa

Aa x Aa

G:

A A a a

A a A a

F2: AA, Aa, Aa, aa

A = allele for tall plants (dominant)

a = allele for dwarf plants (recessive)

P = parental generation

G = gametes

F1 and F2 = first and second filial generation

AA = dominant homozygous (tall)

Aa = heterozygous (tall)

aa = recessive homozygous (dwarf)

F2 generation genotypic ratio = 1:2:1

F2 generation phenotypic ratio = 3:1

PARENTAL GENERATION IS PURE BREEDING LINE

expresses only one version of the trait after

generations of self-pollinating

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-WnNnnSxHwtE/TvsURjfWuUI/AAAAAAAAAKE/Nrcc3aLlO_Y/s1600/cl10ch9monohybrid.png

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MENDELIAN DIHYBRID CROSS WITH DOMINANCE

F1: AaBb, AaBb, AaBb, AaBb

AaBb x AaBb

P: AABB x aabb

G: AB AB ab ab

AB Ab aB ab AB Ab aB ab

A = allele for tall plants (dominant)

a = allele for dwarf plants (recessive)

B = allele for yellow seed (dominant)

b = allele for green seed (recessive)

F2 generation = ?

AB Ab aB ab

AB AABBtall, yellow seed

AABbtall, yellow seed

AaBBtall, yellow seed

AaBbtall, yellow seed

Ab AABb tall, yellow seed

AAbb tall, green seed

AbBb tall, yellow seed

AAbb tall, green seed

aB AaBBtall, yellow seed

AaBb tall, yellow seed

aaBBdwarf, yellow seed

aaBb dwarf, yellow seed

ab AaBb tall, yellow seed

Aabb tall, green seed

aaBbdwarf, yellow seed

aabb dwarf, green seed

4 x 4 PUNNETT SQUARE FOR DIHYBRID CROSS

- tall, yellow seed: 9- tall, green seed: 3- dwarf, yellow seed: 3- dwarf, green seed: 1

F2 generation phenotypic ratio = 9:3:3:1

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INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE PRODUCES NEW PHENOTYPE

snapdragons

carnations

http://static.fastbleep.com/assets/notes/image/7894_1.jpghttp://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/925/flashcards/1205925/jpg/incomplete_dominance1335066897569.jpg

F1: rw, rw, rw, rw

rw x rw

G:

r r w w

r w r w

F2: rr, rw, rw, ww

P: rr x ww

G:

MENDELIAN MONOHYBRID CROSS WITH INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

F2 generation genotypic ratio = 1:2:1

F2 generation phenotypic ratio = 1:2:1

r = allele for red flower

w = allele for white flower

rw = heterozygous genotype (pink flower)

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MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

1. LAW OF SEGREGATION: the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so each

gamete carries only one allele

2. LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT: genes for different traits segregate

independently during gametes formation

3. LAW OF DOMINANCE: an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the

effect of the dominant allele

TEST CROSS

the cross of an organism with an unknown dominant genotype with an organism

that is homozygous recessive for that trait to determine whether an organism that

expressed a dominant trait was a heterozygote or a homozygote

http://www.mpietrangelo.com/hbio/unit/10_inheritance/Chapter_09/B_Jpegs_of_Art_and_Photos/09_Labeled_Art_and_Photos/09_06Testcross-L.jpg

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PROBLEM 1

COLOR BLINDNESS IS CAUSED BY X-LINKED RECESSIVE ALLELE. A COLOR-BLIND MAN MARRIES A WOMAN WITH NORMAL VISION WHOSE FATHER WAS COLOR-BLIND. A) WHAT IS THE PROBABILITY THAT THEY WILL HAVE A COLOR-BLIND DAUGHTER? B) WHAT IS THE PROBABILITY THAT THEIR SON WILL BE COLOR-BLIND?

A) father’s genotype: Xn Y mother’s genoytpe: XN Xn (her father: XnY)

gametes: gametes:

XN Xn

Xn XN Xn

girl with normal vision (carrier)

Xn Xn

color-blind girl

Y XNYboy with

normal vision

XnYcolor-blind

boy

XnY XN Xn

A) 50% of daughters will be color-blind.

B) 50% of sons will be color-blind.

PROBLEM 2

A) HOW MANY POSSIBLE GAMETES WOULD PRODUCE TRIHYBRID AaBbCC?

2n = 22 = 4 n = number of heterozygous pairs

Gametes: ABC

aBC

AbC

abC

B) HOW MANY POSSIBLE GAMETES WOULD PRODUCE PENTAHYBRID AaBbCCDDEe?

2n = 23 = 8

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PROBLEM 3

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING IS A TEST CROSS?

a) ABAB x AABB b) AaBb x AaBb c) AaBb x AABB d) aabb x AaBb

Explanation: the test cross is cross of an organism with an unknown dominant

genotype with an organism that is homozygous recessive for that trait(s).

complete set of chromosomes in an organism

KARIOTYPE

male karyotype: 46, XY

female karyotype: 46, XX

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EUPLOIDY

THE NORMAL NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES FOR A SPECIES

- human somatic cells are diploid (2n = 46)

- human gametes are haploid (n = 23)

NUMERICAL CHROMOSOMAL ABERRATIONSAN ABNORMAL NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES FOR A SPECIES

ANEUPLOIDY AND POLYPLOIDY

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ANEUPLOIDY

- chromosome from a homologous pair is missing: (2n - 1 = monosomy)

- there are more than two homologous chromosomes: (2n + 1 = trisomy, 2n + 2 = tetrasomy)

- prognosis of aneuploidy in humans?

SYNDROME KARYOTYPE BASIC CLINICAL FEATURES

Down syndrome or trisomy 21

47, XX, + 21 or 47, XY + 21 characteristic facial appearance, mental retardation, heart defects

Turner syndrome or monosomy X

45, X short stature, loss of ovarian function, infertility

Klinefelter syndrome

47, XXY or 48, XXXY hypogonadism, breast enlargement (gynecomastia), infertility

SOME CLINICAL CONDITIONS CAUSED BY ANEUPLOIDY

Down syndrome – aneuploidy of autosomes

Turner/Klinefelter syndrome – aneuploidy of sex-chromosomes

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DOWN SYNDROME - FACIAL APPEARANCE

kariotype: 47, XX, + 21

https://starpathdesign.files.wordpress.com/2016/09/img_0577.jpg?w=640

POLYPLOIDY

- there are more than two haploid sets of chromosomes

(3n = 3 haploid sets = triploidy; 4n = 4 haploid sets = tetraploidy; 5n = pentaploidy)

- prognosis of polyploidy in humans?

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POLYPLOIDY IN PLANTS – DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS

http://embed.wistia.com/deliveries/e3646a8c00bd2ff48feca8b17b8707980594a5ef.jpg

MUTATIONS

PERMANENT ALTERATIONS IN GENETIC SEQUENCE

OCCUR SPONTANEOUSLY OR CAN BE INDUCED

- chromosomal and gene mutations/somatic and germline mutations

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SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS - DEAMINATION

AND DEPURINATION

http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/bi314/fall12/figure_06_23.jpg

MUTATIONS CAN BE ALSO INDUCED BY

DIFFERENT MUTAGENS

PHYSICAL MUTAGENS (ionizing and UV-radiation)

CHEMICAL MUTAGENS (drugs, genotoxic agents found in food/water, pesticides)

BIOLOGICAL MUTAGENS (viruses)

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MECHANISMS OF GENE MUTATIONS

BASE SUBSTITUTION (one base is substituted for another - POINT MUTATIONS)

INSERTION (the addition of one or more base pairs into a DNA sequence)

DELETION (the loss of one or more base pairs)

DNA REPLICATION

PRODUCTION OF TWO IDENTICAL DNA HELICES FROM A SINGLE DOUBLE STRANDED

DNA MOLECULE

- in what part of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

- why is DNA replication called "semiconservative"?

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEADING AND LAGGING

STRANDS IN DNA REPLICATION

http://www.mun.ca/biology/desmid/brian/BIOL2060/BIOL2060-19/19_09.jpg

NUMEROUS ENZYMES CATALYZE DNA REPLICATION

DNA polymerase – synthesizes new DNA molecules by adding nucleotides to leading and

lagging DNA strandshelicase - separates double stranded DNA; primase - RNA polymerase that generates RNA primers which act as templates for the starting point of replication; single strand binding proteins - prevent re-forming a double stranded structure; topoisomerase - unwinds and rewinds DNA strands to prevent the DNA from becoming tangled or supercoiled; DNA ligase -joins Okazaki fragments together in the lagging strand

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/09p367xzhp8/maxresdefault.jpg

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DNA TRANSCRIPTION

THE PROCESS IN WHICH A GENE'S DNA SEQUENCE IS COPIED TO MAKE AN RNA MOLECULE

- if the gene encodes a protein, the transcription produces messenger RNA (mRNA)

- which are other molecules that may be encoded by the transcribed gene?

https://www.kullabs.com/uploads/21_09.jpg

RNA POLYMERASE IS THE MAIN TRANSCRIPTION ENZYME

RNA polymerase uses 3' → 5' DNA strand as a template strand to make a complementary RNA the non-template strand (5' → 3' DNA strand) is called the coding strand

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the sequence of the coding strand is same as the newly created RNA transcript, except for the substitution of uracil for thymine

DNA STRANDS AND RNA TRANSCRIPT

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/transcriptiondna2011-110919104149-phpapp01/95/transcription-dna2011-3-728.jpg?cb=1316429199

Amanita phalloides (death cap)

WHAT MAKES DEATH CAP MUSHROOMS DEADLY?

these mushrooms produce toxin

α-amanitin which blocks the

transcription of mRNA

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG

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mRNA TRANSLATION

THE PROCESS IN WHICH mRNA IS "DECODED" TO BUILD A PROTEIN THAT

CONTAINS A SPECIFIC SERIES OF AMINO ACIDS

https://cdn.kastatic.org/googleusercontent/-3-gmQmLsFpgx-0OxeOQGNzteHp3L836c3fHpmxMARcBpHwGO8dLz69SobmFIjuYwdVXbd3Kzx00Xzq6mYUSAZPDgA

IN AN mRNA, THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING A

PROTEIN ARE NUCLEOTIDES READ IN GROUPS OF THREE

A SEQUENCE OF THREE NUCLEOTIDES ON mRNA THAT ENCODES A

SPECIFIC AMINO ACID IS CALLED CODON

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THERE ARE 61 CODONS FOR AMINO ACIDS

the first codon translated into protein is start codon and specifies methionine (AUG) triplets that signal a termination of translation into proteins are stop codons

(UAA, UAG, and UGA); they do not specify amino acids

http://dosenbiologi.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/genetic-code-300x257.png

GENETIC CODE IS THE NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE ON DNA

WHICH WILL BE TRANSLATED INTO A SEQUENCE OF

AMINO ACIDS DURING PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

genetic code is a collection of codons

http://herb01.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/4/2/12420435/7731158_orig.png

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THE GENETIC CODE IS DEGENERATE (REDUNDANT)

most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon

http://dosenbiologi.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/genetic-code-300x257.png

tRNA (TRANSFER RNA) CARRIES AMINO ACIDS

each tRNA contains a set of three nucleotides (ANTICODONS) which can bind to one or a few specific mRNA codons

http://www.microbe.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/transfer_rna.jpg

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TRANSLATION OCCURS ON RIBOSOMES

ribosomes are complexes of rRNA and proteins; they consist of large and small subunits which come together around a mRNA molecule during translation

Modified from: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nuclacandprotsynthesis1-140319014957-phpapp02/95/nucleic-acids-and-proteins-synthesis-49-638.jpg?cb=1395200739

FIRST ROUND OF ELONGATION AND

PEPTIDE BOND FORMATION

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/translation-elongation_med.jpeg

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TERMINATION OF TRANSLATION

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/translation-termination_med.jpeg

QUESTIONS

Which of the following answers is correct?

1. A well known example of multiple alleles in human population is that of the:a) heightb) weightc) skin colord) Rhesus factore) blood groups

2. The F2 generation in the Mendelian monohybrid cross with incomplete dominance gives:a) one phenotypeb) two different phenotypesc) three different phenotypesd) 3:1 genotypic ratioe) 3:1 phenotypic ratio

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3. Which of the following genotypes shows different phenotypic expression in comparison to the others?a) AaBbb) Aabbc) AABBd) AaBBe) AABb

4. How many possible gametes pentahybrid AaBbccDdEe would produce?a) 64b) 32c) 16d) 8e) 4

5) Which of the following examples is not an example of test cross?a) Aa x aab) Bb x bbc) Aabb x aaBBd) AaBb x aabbe) AaBB x aabb

6. A healthy man marries a woman suffering from hemophilia. The prognosis for their offspring is: a) 100% of females would have hemophiliab) 50% of males would have hemophiliac) 50% of females would have hemophiliad) 100% of males would have hemophiliae) all children would be ill

7. Starting with a parental (P) generation with the following genotypes (AABB x aabb), and based on the classical Mendelian inheritance, what is the expected phenotypic ratio observed among the F2 progeny?a) 9:3:3:1b) 1:2:1c) 3:1d) 1:1e) 1:1:1:1

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8. In humans, 23 chromosomes are found in:a) neuronsb) erythrocytesc) leukocytesd) primary spermatocytese) sperms

9. The karyotype of male with Down syndrome is:a) 47, XXY, + 21b) 47, XX, + 21c) 47, XY, + 21d) 47, XY, - 21e) 47, XY, + 18

10. How many chromosomes are found in somatic cells of the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)?a) 2b) 4c) 8d) 16e) 32

11. The number of 46 in human somatic cells refers to:a) haploidyb) diploidyc) aneuploidyd) triploidye) poliploidy

12. DNA replication (synthesis) occurs in:a) prophaseb) metaphasec) telophased) anaphase e) none of the answers is correct

13. Transcription is initiated by specific enzyme called:a) DNA polymeraseb) RNA polymerasec) DNA synthetased) RNA synthetasee) DNA ligase

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11. The number of 46 in human somatic cells refers to:a) haploidyb) diploidyc) aneuploidyd) triploidye) poliploidy

12. DNA replication (synthesis) occurs in:a) prophaseb) metaphasec) telophased) anaphase e) none of the answers is correct

13. Transcription is initiated by specific enzyme called:a) DNA polymeraseb) RNA polymerasec) DNA synthetased) RNA synthetasee) DNA ligase

14. The sequence of nucleotides on one DNA strand is "ATTGCAT". The sequence of nucleotides on a complementary DNA strand must be:a) TAATGCAb) TACAGCAc) TAACGTAd) TAAGCATe) TAATGTA

15. The sequence of nucleotides on the template DNA strand is TAC AAA CAT. The sequence of nucleotides on RNA transcript is:a) TAC UUU CATb) AUG UUU GUAc) TAC UUU GUAd) ATG TTT GTAe) TAC UUU GUA

16. The triplet of nucleotides in tRNA that is complementary to a triplet of nucleotides in mRNA is called:a) codonb) stop codonc) anticodond) start codone) repressor

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16. The triplet of nucleotides in tRNA that is complementary to a triplet of nucleotides in mRNA is called:a) codonb) stop codonc) anticodond) start codone) repressor

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

https://www.ara.com/sites/default/files/styles/feature_image/public/images/BiogearsBanner.jpg?itok=vNX0fVji

BLOOD IS A FLUID CONNECTIVE TISSUE WITH

NUMEROUS FUNCTIONS

SUPPLY OF OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS TO TISSUES

REMOVAL OF WASTE (e.g. CO2, UREA)

PROTECTION OF THE BODY FROM INFECTION

BODY SELF-REPAIR MECHANISM BY COAGULATIONTRANSPORT OF HORMONES

REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE

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BLOOD IS COMPOSED OF PLASMA (FLUID PORTION) AND

FORMED ELEMENTS (BLOOD CELLS AND PLATELETS)

blood cells: red blood cells (erythrocytes) and white blood cells (leukocytes)

- hematocrit: the volume percentage of erythrocytes in blood (males: 45%, females: 40%)

http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/biology/images/blood_comp_01.jpg

BLOOD PLASMA

90% WATER, 10% DISSOLVED SOLUTES

DISSOLVED SOLUTES: electrolytes: mostly Na+ and Cl-;

proteins: albumins, α- and β-globulins (transport of hormones);

γ-globulins (antibodies); fibrinogen: participates in blood clotting

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ERYTHROCYTES

the red coloring comes from the hemoglobin (delivers O2 to the body and removes CO2)

biconcave shape; do not contain a nucleus ormitochondria

their life span is ~120 days; they are broken down and recycled in the liver and spleen by macrophages

https://s3.amazonaws.com/classconnection/986/flashcards/5921986/jpg/mariebhap09_17-03_artquest-14B812234C21F633EEA-thumb400.jpg

STRUCTURE OF HEMOGLOBIN

- it is composed of four protein subunits, two α-chains and two β-chains, and a heme group that has iron associated with it; the iron reversibly associates with oxygen; in so doing, it is oxidized from Fe2+ (ferrous) to Fe3+ (ferric)

Modified from: http://www.thealevelbiologist.co.uk/_/rsrc/1337700547906/haemoglobin/haemoglobin.jpg

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DEGRADATION OF HEME GENERATES BILIRUBIN,

STERCOBILIN AND UROBILINOGEN

https://frugaldoc.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/cb810-1.gif

LEUKOCYTES – GRANULOCYTES AND AGRANULOCYTES

primarily involved in the immune response- neutrophil: phagocytosis; eosinophil: phagocytosis and damage of parasite;

basophil: storage of histamine, involved in alergy reaction; monocyte: phagocytosis; lymphocyte: attacks viruses, fungi, some bacteria, transplanted and cancer cells, etc.

- one lobed nucleus (non-segemented)

(50-70%) (0-3%) (0-1%)

(20-40%) (2-6%)

- segmented nucleus

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/660/flashcards/2365660/png/untitled11360004435337.png

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THROMBOCYTES (PLATELETS)

help to stop bleeding by clumping and clotting blood vessel injuries do not contain nucleus; they are formed and released into the bloodstream by

precursor cells (megakaryocytes) that reside within the bone marrow

http://www.med-health.net/images/10436734/image001.jpg

ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

- antigen (agglutinogen)

- antibody (agglutinin)

in Europe, most commom ABO blood types are types A and O

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/abo-blood-groups_med.jpeg

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Rh BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM

D antigen on the erythrocyte surface is the most immunogenic within the Rh system; thus, the Rh status is indicated by Rh positive (Rh+ does have the D antigen) or Rh negative (Rh− does not have the D antigen)

in Europe, ~85% of population is Rh positive

Modified from: https://pixserv.clipmass.com/upload/picture/full/298/a060db3f509f92a9fa309561907a621e.jpg

HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN

(ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS)

most frequently occurs during subsequent pregnancy when an Rh-negative mother becomes pregnant by an Rh-positive father, resulting in an Rh-positive baby

- hemolytic anemia, and erythroblasts (immature red blood cells) are present in the fetal blood; after delivery, bilirubin is no longer cleared, via the placenta, and the symptoms of jaundice (yellowish skin and yellow discoloration of the whites of the eyes) increase

http://spot.pcc.edu/~jvolpe/b/bi234/lec/10_allergies/images/18-06_HemolyticDisease_L.jpg

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HEMATOPOIESIS

(hemocytoblast)

all types of blood cells are derived from hematopoietic stem cellsModified from: https://fastly.kastatic.org/ka-perseus-images/c389bc15859a382b8242f3752d725866eeddd03b.png

TYPE OF ANEMIA CAUSE DISEASE

sideropenic (iron deficiency anemia)

inadequate dietary iron supply, impaired iron absorption, bleeding

fatigue, diminished capability to perform hard labor

pernicious anemia lack of vitamin B12 weakness, headaches, chest pain, weight loss

hemolytic anemiaabnormal breakdown of erythrocytesbecause of infections, tumors, medication side effects

paleness of the skin, fatigue,weakness or inability to do physical activity, jaundice

sickle-cell anemiadue to an abnormal form ofhemoglobin (hemoglobin S), erythrocytes become rigid, sticky and shaped like sickles

the vaso-occlusive crisis (caused by sickle-shaped erythrocytes that obstruct capillaries and restrict blood flow to an organ, which leadsto pain and organ damage)

ANEMIA IS A DECREASE IN THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF

ERYTHROCYTES OR HEMOGLOBIN IN THE BLOOD

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MAIN HEMATOPOIETIC TISSUES AND ORGANS

BONE MARROW (all types of blood cells; in red bone marrow)

THYMUS (T-lymphocytes)

SPLEEN (erythrocytes, granular leukocytes, monocytes, plasma cells; in red pulp)

LYMPH NODES (B-lymphocytes and plasma cells)

FUNCTIONS OF CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

DELIVERY OF OXYGEN, NUTRIENTS AND HORMONES/REMOVAL OF METABOLIC WASTES

PROTECTION FROM INFECTION AND BLOOD LOSS

MAINTENANCE OF CONSTANT BODY TEMPERATURE

- cardiovascular system consists of heart and blood vessels

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INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HEART

https://sulaifi.files.wordpress.com/2010/03/new-picture1.png?w=240

THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS

3 major types – arteries, veins and capillaries; 2 sub-types – arterioles and venules

https://tse3.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.brqqFi6V3OtCg1-BTXFCCgEsDT&pid=Api&w=255&h=181

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SECTION THROUGH THE MAIN BLOOD VESSELS

Modified from: http://biology-igcse.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/0/7/15070316/3289630_orig.jpg

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM CONSISTS OF

SYSTEMIC AND PULMONARY CIRCULATION

pulmonary circulation - the circuit through the lungs where blood is oxygenated systemic circulation - the circuit through the rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-80ljKNp6q-A/VqfVAxazNlI/AAAAAAAAAB8/SbedHYw9on4/s1600/cvs1328763738062.jpg

STROKE VOLUME the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per heart beat (~70 ml)

https://www.artasia.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/sistemul-cardio-vascular.jpg

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CARDIAC CYCLE

THE SEQUENCE OF EVENTS THAT OCCURS WHEN THE HEART BEATSIT CONSISTS OF SYSTOLE AND DIASTOLE

- in systole, the heart pumps blood into the arteries; in diastole, the heart refills with blood

STROKE VOLUME the volume of blood pumped from the left ventricle per heart beat (~70 ml)

https://www.artasia.ro/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/sistemul-cardio-vascular.jpg

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CARDIAC OUTPUT (MINUTE VOLUME)

heart rate (the number of heart beats per minute) x stroke volume

70 beats/min x 70 ml = 4900 ml (~5 L)

https://i.pinimg.com/736x/e8/b3/2b/e8b32b641e45d339df30337bef66009e.jpg

HEART CONDUCTION SYSTEM COMPONENTS

sinoatrial node (primary pacemaker) - located in the right atrium, spontaneously producesan electrical impulse; atrioventricular node (secondary pacemaker) - located between the atria and ventricula, takes the signal from SA node; bundle of His and the Purkinje fibers spread the signal along the ventricles, causing them to contract

- CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS AND CONDUCTING FIBERS SPECIALIZED FOR INITIATING AND

CONDUCTING IMPULSES RAPIDLY THROUGH THE HEART

http://teachmeanatomy.info/wp-content/uploads/Overview-of-Conduction-Pathway-Components.jpg

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AUTONOMIC REGULATION OF HEART- MEDIATED BY SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM;

THESE SYSTEMS HAVE OPPOSITE ACTIONS

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b4/2e/12/b42e12cc986b63d70d26ef6f03e4c0fd.jpg

FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

MAJOR FUNCTION: INTAKE AND EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN AND CO2 BETWEEN

AN ORGANISM AND THE ENVIRONMENT

OLFACTION AND SPEECH

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PARTS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

upper respiratory system: nose, pharynx, larynx: air filtration, warming, moisturizing, sound

production

lower respiratory system: trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli

https://online.science.psu.edu/sites/default/files/bisc004/content/respiratory_system.jpg

EXCHANGE OF GASES OCCURS WITHIN THE ALVEOLI

oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli and capillaries into the erythrocytes, while CO2, produced by the body’s metabolism, diffuses across the capillary and alveolar walls into the air to be removed with expiration

- the majority of oxygen is transported by hemoglobin; most CO2 is transported in the form of HCO3- ions

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/9e/e3/f0/9ee3f0a93deefb3606fba80a7111fa6f.jpg

MECHANICS OF RESPIRATION

inhalation (inspiration) is an active process in which the air enters the lung; exhalation (expiration) is the flow of the respiratory current out of the organism

https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/645dbaa9-dd5e-499a-b961-c4be46cc7708/51d40965d6fc15cc7f03ba5cb487481f.png

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PARTS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

upper respiratory system: nose, pharynx, larynx: air filtration, warming, moisturizing, sound

production

lower respiratory system: trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli

https://online.science.psu.edu/sites/default/files/bisc004/content/respiratory_system.jpg

MECHANICS OF RESPIRATION

inhalation (inspiration) is an active process in which the air enters the lung; exhalation (expiration) is the flow of the respiratory current out of the organism

https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/645dbaa9-dd5e-499a-b961-c4be46cc7708/51d40965d6fc15cc7f03ba5cb487481f.png

IMMUNITY TYPES

1. innate (natural, nonspecific immunity) - activated immediately after a pathogen attack- enzymes, phagocyte cells (macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells), and mast cells

2. adaptive (acquired, specific immunity) - creates an immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, and leads to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that pathogen- humoral (B cell-mediated) and cellular (T cell-mediated)

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ALLERGIC REACTION IS OVERREACTION OF THE

BODY IMMUNE SYSTEM

symptoms: rash, itchy eyes, runny nose, trouble breathing, nausea, diarrhea

skin rash and runny nose from allergy reaction

https://dusbus.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/alargy.jpg http://abacuschinesemed.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Lady_With_Allergens.jpg

THERE ARE NUMEROUS TYPES OF ALLERGENS

http://media.istockphoto.com/vectors/types-of-allergies-background-with-allergens-and-symbols-vector-for-vector-id645468420

SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGIC REACTION ARE

MEDIATED BY HISTAMINE

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/classhypersensitivity-110703093237-phpapp02/95/class-hypersensitivity-6-728.jpg?cb=1309685759

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ALLERGIC REACTION IS OVERREACTION OF THE

BODY IMMUNE SYSTEM

symptoms: rash, itchy eyes, runny nose, trouble breathing, nausea, diarrhea

skin rash and runny nose from allergy reaction

https://dusbus.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/alargy.jpg http://abacuschinesemed.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Lady_With_Allergens.jpg

SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGIC REACTION ARE

MEDIATED BY HISTAMINE

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/classhypersensitivity-110703093237-phpapp02/95/class-hypersensitivity-6-728.jpg?cb=1309685759

FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTION (CHEMICAL BREAKDOWN OF FOOD)

ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS, WATER AND VITAMINS

EXCRETION OF WASTE (DEFECATION)

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COMPONENTS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

digestive organs and digestive glands (salivary glands, liver and pancreas)

https://s3.amazonaws.com/ai2-vision-textbook-dataset/dataset_releases/rc2/train/question_images/human_system_digestive_3713.png

DIGESTION BEGINS IN THE ORAL CAVITY

food is broken into smaller particles by mastication saliva, produced by the salivary glands, mixes with the food salivary amylase (ptyalin) begins the process of converting starch into maltose tongue aids in swallowing by moving the bolus from the mouth into the pharynx

PH in the oral cavity: 6.7 – 7.3

Modified from: http://philschatz.com/biology-book/resources/Figure_34_01_08ab.jpg

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THE ESOPHAGUS TRANSFERS FOOD TO THE STOMACH

THROUGH PERISTALTIC MOVEMENTS

http://www.easynotecards.com/uploads/776/2/_6bdcb617_15405b7ae87__8000_00006908.jpg

STOMACH IS THE MAJOR SITE FOR PROTEIN DIGESTION

protein digestion is mediated by enzyme pepsin, which is secreted by the chief cells in the stomach in an inactive form (pepsinogen)

parietal cells secrete H+ and Cl- ions, which combine to form hydrochloric acid(HCl); HCl converts the pepsinogen to pepsin- secretion of HCl is also stimulated by hormone gastrin

PH in the stomach: 1.5 - 2.5

- mucus protects the stomach from its own digestive secretions

Modified from: http://delta.evrimagaci.org/public/uploads/images/Insan%20Turuyle%20Ilgili%20Gercekler/mide_bAlAmleri.jpg

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IN SMALL INTESTINE

THE ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS TAKES PLACE

THE DIGESTION OF PROTEINS, FATS AND CARBOHYDRATES IS COMPLETED

small intestine consists of duodenum, jejunum and ileum

https://daretobefitblog.files.wordpress.com/2014/08/intestine-mol-biol4masters-edited.jpg

VILLI AND MICROVILLI INCREASE THE SURFACE

AREA FOR ABSORPTION

http://images.slideplayer.com/28/9314475/slides/slide_22.jpg

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VILLI AND MICROVILLI INCREASE THE SURFACE

AREA FOR ABSORPTION

http://images.slideplayer.com/28/9314475/slides/slide_22.jpg

PANCREAS MEDIATES DIGESTION IN SMALL INTESTINE

pancreatic juice contains H20, HCO3- (neutralize the acidic chyme entering the duodenum) and digestive enzymes (pancreatic amylase - breaks down starch and glycogen; proteolytic enzymes - trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase; pancreatic lipase - breakes down triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids)

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nutrition-091101010152-phpapp01/95/nutrition-59-728.jpg?cb=1257037373

THE ROLE OF LIVER AND GALLBLADDER IN DIGESTION

bile produced by liver is stored in gallblader; after eating, it is discharged into the duodenum; bile breaks down fat in the small intestine making it possible for pancreatic lipase to digest it - hormone cholecystokinin in the duodenum causes the release of bile from gallblader

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/nutrition-091101010152-phpapp01/95/nutrition-59-728.jpg?cb=1257037373

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LARGE INTESTINE

reabsorbs water from undigested food and processes/stores waste; it is also capable of absorbing vitamins synthesized by the normal microflora K, B12, etc.)

https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/human-anatomy-large-intestine-medical-illustration-46390019.jpg

METABOLISM

ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED IN MAINTAINING THE LIVING STATE

OF THE CELLS AND THE ORGANISM

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LARGE INTESTINE

reabsorbs water from undigested food and processes/stores waste; it is also capable of absorbing vitamins synthesized by the normal microflora K, B12, etc.)

https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/human-anatomy-large-intestine-medical-illustration-46390019.jpg

METABOLISM

ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED IN MAINTAINING THE LIVING STATE

OF THE CELLS AND THE ORGANISM

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF METABOLIC REACTIONS

CATABOLIC REACTIONS: BREAK DOWN OF MOLECULES TO FORM ENERGY

ANABOLIC REACTIONS: THE SYNTHESIS OF ALL COMPOUNDS NEEDED BY CELLS

MAJOR NUTRIENTS FOR CELL METABOLIC REACTIONS

CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, AND PROTEINS - ENERGY SOURCES

MINERALS, VITAMINS, AND WATER - DO NOT CONTRIBUTE DIRECTLY TO ENERGY NEEDS

- food energy is converted to ATP with 50% efficiency; the other 50% is released as heat

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METABOLIC PATHWAY OF PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES AND FATS

- Krebs cycle unifies

metabolism of these

nutrients

- where does Krebs cycle occur?

http://droualb.faculty.mjc.edu/Course%20Materials/Physiology%20101/Chapter%20Notes/Fall%202011/figure_03_27_labeled.jpg

VITAMIN OR MINERAL SOURCE DISEASE

A (retinol) carrot, fish poor vision, night-blindness

B1 (thiamine) green peas, fish beri-beri

B2 (riboflavin) eggs, almonds dermatitis

B3 (niacin) fish, chicken, pork, liver pelagra

B5 (pantothenic acid) mushrooms (shiitake), fish fatigue, depression

B6 (pyridoxine) fish, nuts dermatitis, anaemia

B9 (folic acid) beans, lentils, spinach anaemia

B12 (cobalamin) liver anaemia

C (ascorbic acid) fruits, vegetables scurvy

D (calciferol) sunlight, sardine, tuna, eggs rickets

E (tocopherol) almonds, sunflower seeds sterility

K kale, broccoli easy or excessive bleeding

iron liver, nuts, beef sideropenic anaemia

calcium milk, kale, cheese weak bones, osteoporosis

iodine salt, dried seaweed goiter (thyroid disease)

DISEASES DUE TO LACK OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS

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BLOOD SUGAR REGULATION (GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS)- THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE LEVELS OF GLUCOSE ARE MAINTAINED BY

THE BODY WITHIN A NARROW RANGE

(hypoglycemia) (hyperglycemia)

insulin enhances entry of glucose into cells, whereas glucagon enhances release of glucose from glycogen - adrenaline (epinephrine), released in stress, has the effect similar to glucagon

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/32-170108082333/95/regulation-of-blood-glucose-levels-6-638.jpg?cb=1502100561

THERMOREGULATION- THE ABILITY OF AN ORGANISM TO MAINTAIN A STEADY BODY TEMPERATURE (37ºC

OR 98.6ºF) EVEN WHEN THE SURROUNDING TEMPERATURE IS VERY DIFFERENT

center for body temperature regulation is located in hypothalamus

- humans are homeothermic

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/lec09thermoregulation-13330360448832-phpapp02-120329105250-phpapp02/95/lec-09-thermoregulation-31-728.jpg?cb=1333540747

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URINARY (RENAL) SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

REMOVAL OF METABOLIC WASTE PRODUCTS FROM THE BODY (E.G.UREA)

REGULATION OF ELECTROLYTE BALANCE AND OSMOREGULATION

BLOOD PRESSURE HOMEOSTASIS

VIEW OF THE URINARY SYSTEM

http://tamilmaruththuvan.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/8/8/51885445/6446240.jpg?1463284310

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URINARY (RENAL) SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

REMOVAL OF METABOLIC WASTE PRODUCTS FROM THE BODY (E.G.UREA)

REGULATION OF ELECTROLYTE BALANCE AND OSMOREGULATION

BLOOD PRESSURE HOMEOSTASIS

KIDNEY ANATOMY

Capsule

Modified from: http://www.stanfordchildrens.org/content-public/topic/images/36/125836.gif

NEPHRON IS THE BASIC UNIT OF THE KIDNEY

NEPHRON FUNCTIONS:

1) glomerular filtration - creates aplasma-like filtrate of the blood

2) tubular reabsorption - returns usefulfiltrate substances to the blood(glucose, amino acids, water, and ions)

3) tubular secretion - adds wastes fromthe blood (e.g. urea) to the filtrate

- each kidney has ~1 million of nephrons

daily diuresis ~ 800 - 1500 ml

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/417/flashcards/2588417/jpg/urine_formation1361213955215.jpg

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ALDOSTERONE REGULATES

BLOOD LEVELS OF Na+ AND K+

VIA NEPHRON

https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/wp-content/uploads/sites/142/2016/03/2711_Aldosterone_Feedback_Loop-01.jpg

ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH) MEDIATES

OSMOREGULATION VIA NEPHRON

http://slideplayer.com/slide/7517841/24/images/74/Anti-Diuretic+Hormone+(ADH).jpg

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM CONSISTS OF HYPOTHALAMUS,

PITUITARY GLAND AND TARGET GLANDS

https://www.womenfitness.net/img2016/artimg/march/glands.jpg

ENDOCRINE GLANDS SECRETE HORMONES THAT

COORDINATE A RANGE OF BODILY FUNCTIONS

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

METABOLISM AND ENERGY LEVELS

REPRODUCTION

RESPONSE TO STIMULI (STRESS)

HOMEOSTASIS - THE INTERNAL BALANCE OF ALL SYSTEMS WITHIN THE BODY

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STEROID AND NON-STEROID (PEPTIDE) HORMONES EXIST

- mechanisms of action of steroid and peptide hormones are different

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/peptide-hormones_med.jpeg, http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/steroid-hormones_med.jpeg

REGULATORY PATHWAY OF TROPIC HORMONES –

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS

hormonal regulation of the male reproductive system

GnRH - gonadotropin-releasing hormone; FSH - follicle-stimulating hormone; LH - luteinizing hormone

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/96/2015/02/Figure_18_03_06.jpg

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STEROID AND NON-STEROID (PEPTIDE) HORMONES EXIST

- mechanisms of action of steroid and peptide hormones are different

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/peptide-hormones_med.jpeg, http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/steroid-hormones_med.jpeg

REGULATORY PATHWAY OF TROPIC HORMONES –

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS

hormonal regulation of the male reproductive system

GnRH - gonadotropin-releasing hormone; FSH - follicle-stimulating hormone; LH - luteinizing hormone

https://opentextbc.ca/biology/wp-content/uploads/sites/96/2015/02/Figure_18_03_06.jpg

HORMONES TARGET EFFECT

growth hormone(somatotropic hormone; STH)

all body cells growth, regeneration

gonadotropins (males):follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)luteinizing hormone (LH) or interstitialcell stimulating hormone (ICSH) gonadotropins (females): LH and FSH

gonads (testiclesand ovaries)

FSH stimulates growth of ovarian follicles (females) and spermatogenesis (males);LH in females triggersovulation, while in malesstimulates Leydig’s cell production of testosterone

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) adrenal gland stimulates production of cortisol and aldosteron

thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) thyroid gland stimulates production ofthyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)

prolactin mammary gland stimulates milk production (lactation)

ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)

INTERMEDIATE PITUITARY HORMONE TARGET EFFECT

melanocyte–stimulating hormone (MSH) keratinocytes in skin melanin production and release

POSTERIOR PITUITARY (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS) HORMONES

TARGET EFFECT

antidiuretic hormone (ADH) nephron regulates the body's retention of water

oxytocin uterus, mammary gland

stimulates uterine contraction before birth, and milk ejection duringlactation

INTERMEDIATE AND POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND

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REPRODUCTIVE (GENITAL) SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS: - PRODUCTION OF SEX HORMONES- PRODUCTION OF GAMETES (EGG/SPERM CELLS), DEVELOPING OFFSPRING- PROTECTION AND NOURISHING THE FERTILIZED EGG UNTIL GIVING A BIRTH

http://human-anatomy101.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/female-anatomy-for-kids-female-reproductive-system-front-view-for-kids-anatomy-human-body.jpg

OTHER GLANDSTHYROID GLAND

- produces thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) which stimulate metabolism

PARATHYROID GLANDS (4)- produces parathyroid hormone (PTH) which maintains calcium and phosphate levels

THYMUS- produces thymosin (stimulates the development of T cells)

ADRENAL GLAND - cortex produces cortisol (which helps regulate metabolism and mediate the response to stress) and aldosterone (which maintains the balance of salt and water, and controls blood

pressure); medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline) which helps body react to stress: increases heart rate, pupil dilatation and a rush of blood to the muscles and brain, and

spikes blood glucose level by helping convert glycogen to glucose in the liver

PANCREAS- islets of Langerhans produce insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood glucose levels;

the pancreas is also an exocrine gland secreting digestive enzymes

SEX GLANDS (GONADS) – TESTICLES AND OVARIES- secrete sex hormones: testosterone (testicles), and estrogen and progesterone

(ovaries); sex hormones are important for gamete production

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SPERMATOGENESIS

the process in which sperm cells (male gametes) are produced fromspermatogonial cells

- it starts at puberty and usually continues uninterrupted until death

https://figures.boundless-cdn.com/19750/large/figure-43-03-05.jpe

SPERMATOGENESIS OCCURS IN SEMINIFEROUS

TUBULES WITHIN TESTICLES

Leydig cells (interstitial cells) are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules and produce testosterone when stimulated by LH (ICSH); Sertoli cells are located in the tubule wall and provide nutrition to the developing sperms

http://rowdysites.msudenver.edu/~raoa/rao/docs/Seminiferous-tubules-testis.jpg

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OOGENESIS

the maturation of the female gamete (ovum)

- oogenesis is not a continuous process and it stops at menopause!

https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/wp-content/uploads/sites/142/2016/03/Figure_28_02_03.jpg

FOLLICULAR DEVELOPMENT AND OVULATION

ovulation - release of the secondary oocyte from the ruptured follicle (Graaf’s follicle) without the oocyte, the Graaf’s follicle transforms into the corpus luteum which produces

estrogen and progesterone; progesterone causes changes in uterus that make it suitable for implantation; if the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum becomes inactive after 10-14 days

https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/0e6f658a-e58a-4ee6-a8bd-f078d93d33c4/795c704aa339eaa2b33103c02f919435.png

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FERTILIZATION AND EARLY DEVELOPMENT (CLEAVAGE)

pronucleus is the nucleus of a sperm or an egg cell during the fertilization, after the sperm enters the ovum, but before the genetic material of the sperm and egg fuse

the fertilized egg is called a zygote; it divides several times (cleavage) to form a blastocyst;cleavage cell produced by mitotic divison of the zygote is called a blastomere

about seven days after fertilization, the blastocyst attaches to the endometrium of the uterus (implantation)

- internal fertilization: the union of egg with a sperm occurs inside the body (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds)

- external fertilization:amphibians, fishes

- fertilization occurs in the outer third of the fallopian tube (ampulla)

http://www.csub.edu/~ddodenhoff/anatomy/development/000007623.gif

BLASTOCYST CONSISTS OF ~70-100 CELLS WHICH HAVE

DIFFERENTIATED INTO TROPHOBLAST AND EMBRYOBLAST

- trophoblast cells start to develop into part of placenta seven days after implantation - the embryo arises from the inner cell mass (embryoblast)

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/391/flashcards/578391/png/untitled1308505262948.png

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GASTRULATION REORGANISES THE TWO-LAYER

EMBRYO INTO A THREE-LAYER EMBRYO- ectoderm: outer germ layer; mesoderm: middle germ layer; endoderm: inner layer

Modified from: http://image.slidesharecdn.com/chapter46-111230052841-phpapp01/95/chapter-46-animal-reproduction-7-728.jpg?cb=1325223471

NERVOUS SYSTEM- COORDINATES AND CONTROLS VARIOUS BODY FUNCTIONS

two main types of the nervous system are central and peripheral nervous system

http://gojiactivesdiet.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Peripheral-Nervous-System-Diagram-EKYW.jpg

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CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

consists of cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem

http://humanbrainfacts.org/images/resource/human-brain-function.jpg

TWO MAIN TYPES OF CELLS IN NERVOUS SYSTEM ARE

NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS

neurons conduct nerve impulses; glial cells support and protect neurons (surround and hold them in place, supply nutrients and oxygen, insulate one neuron from another, destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons)

From: http://hbookreviews.blogspot.hr/2016/04/introduction-to-psychobiology-part-3.html

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PARTS OF NEURON

nucleus

Modified from: http://slideplayer.com/slide/3943841/13/images/11/Parts+of+the+Neuron+-+Terminals.jpg

THREE TYPES OF NEURON

https://image.slidesharecdn.com/std10-ch11-regulators-of-life-160612153128/95/std10-the-regulators-of-life-26-638.jpg?cb=1485018001

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ACTION POTENTIAL- state of the neuron membrane when a nerve impulse passes by; it can be initiated by

mechanical, chemical, thermal or electric stimulation

PROPAGATION OF ACTION POTENTIAL

- depolarization and repolarization

Modified from: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/s3sKI3MRagg/maxresdefault.jpg

ACTION POTENTIAL TRIGGERS THE RELEASE OF

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron transmit a message to the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron

http://cbsetextbooks.weebly.com/uploads/1/2/5/1/12511586/7694763_orig.png

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ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION AND

SYSTEMATICS

http://yourwildlife.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/500px-EEB_forweb_smaller.png

ECOLOGY the study of interactions among organisms and their environment

https://www.e-know.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/science1.jpg

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all the organisms of a given species that live in a particular area

POPULATION

http://news.bbcimg.co.uk/media/images/60855000/jpg/_60855064_colony1.jpg

ecosystem: all the living beings which inhabit a natural area, the physical environment and the relationship between them

biocenosis (ecological community) - all the living beings which inhabit a natural area; biotope - the physical environment (non-living things) of the ecosystem

ECOSYSTEM, BIOCENOSIS AND BIOTOPE

http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-RsLHRpYfbJs/VSTbiiGFBsI/AAAAAAAAACU/01QOmA4TsIs/w1200-h630-p-k-no-nu/Picture1.png

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BIOTOPE + BIOCENOSIS = ECOSYSTEM

Modified from: https://lh6.ggpht.com/otKjKB929VCzL3d3Q7zQNQCFExlDz_bYVtapIbsnVhd80FJhYE3QZsbBPAqN-FVDMQ=h900

BIOME a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for

the environment they exist in, and can be found over a range of continents

world biome map

https://sites.google.com/site/biomesaustralia/_/rsrc/1463967618878/home/Biomes.gif

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DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

(biocenosis)

Modified from: http://eschooltoday.com/ecosystems/images/Levels-of-Organization-in-an-Ecosystem.jpg

ABIOTIC FACTORS

non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem

http://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/123/abiotic-factors-of-the-environment.PNG

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BIOTIC FACTORS

living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/02/1e/ab/021eab9025a4976206de9016d8e73632--ecology-factors.jpg

ECOLOGICAL AMPLITUDE (VALENCE)

the degree of adaptation of a living organism to changes in its environment

https://is.muni.cz/el/1431/jaro2010/Z0005/18118868/book/valence.jpg

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ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time

- primary and secondary succesion

https://ahbelab.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/forest-ecology-succession.jpg, http://images.slideplayer.com/14/4228865/slides/slide_15.jpg

LAND RECLAMATION the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds, or lake beds

http://www.dredgingtoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Prime-Minister-Discusses-Land-Reclamation-Plan.jpg

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ENDEMISM

the ecological state of a species being unique to a defined geographic location

Anolis carolinensis (southeastern United States and some Caribbean islands)

http://www.earthtimes.org/newsimage/endemism-island-mainland-species_8812.jpg

RELICT an organism that inhabits a much smaller geographic area than it did in

the past, often because of environmental change

leopard frog (Lithobates onca) - amphibians of Arizona

http://www.reptilesofaz.org/Graphics/Turtles-Amphibians/RANONC2-05b.jpg

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SPECIES RANGE the area where a particular species can be found during their lifetime; it also

includes areas where they may migrate or hibernate

current species range of the apes (anthropoid primates)

Modified from: http://anthro.palomar.edu/primate/images/map_of_apes.gif

MIMICRY phenomenon in which an animal or plant resembles another creature or

inanimate object, either for defence or to gain other advantages

butterfly mimicry

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Butterfly_mimicry.jpg

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EVOLUTION change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive

generations

http://mangerpaleo.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/human-evolution_wide.jpg

THERE ARE SEVERAL FACTORS THAT DRIVE

EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES

NATURAL SELECTION

SEXUAL SELECTION

GENE FLOW

MUTATIONS

GENETIC DRIFT

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NATURAL SELECTION selects for traits advantageous for survival

Modified from: https://ka-perseus-images.s3.amazonaws.com/8f33aa4bd39c5c435af5e5dc4001d73721a25f85.png

SEXUAL SELECTION

selects for traits that improve mating success

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_p1gMG8sFWIk/SwxQMTfpOkI/AAAAAAAAAgA/8Jw6Ugh_rlI/s1600/wulff.jpg

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MUTATION

produces the genetic variation needed for evolution

relationship between mutation and natural selection

http://www.ichthus.info/Evolution/PICS/evolution.gif

GENE FLOW the movement of alleles between populations through immigration of

individuals

https://i.pinimg.com/originals/7f/87/95/7f879560c1c58bd3e29ddf5533bb963a.jpg

LINNAEUS'S SYSTEM INVOLVES TWO COMPONENTS

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATUREHIERARCHY

- Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), also known as Carl von Linné was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist and father of modern taxonomy

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GENETIC DRIFT

allele frequencies of a population change over generations due to chance its effects are stronger in small populations, and has major effects when a

population is sharply reduced in size by a natural disaster or when a small group splits off from the main population to found a colony (founder effect)

- the loss of some alleles or rise of other alleles may occur

https://s3.amazonaws.com/test.classconnection/398/flashcards/20398/jpg/frogbottleneck.jpg

LINNAEUS'S SYSTEM INVOLVES TWO COMPONENTS

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATUREHIERARCHY

- Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778), also known as Carl von Linné was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist and father of modern taxonomy

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BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

- THE SYSTEM OF NAMING ORGANISMS WITH TWO WORD SCIENTIFIC NAME

1. genus name (a group of similar species); 2. species name (a group of organisms that have similar traits, and are able to produce fertil offspring)

- genus: Canis; species: familiaris

Modified from: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/1classificationandscientificnames-140217130133-phpapp02/95/505-classification-and-scientific-names-9-638.jpg?cb=1392642126

EXAMPLE OF HIERARCHY

Modified from: https://biologydictionary.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Taxonomic-Rank-Graph.jpg

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QUESTIONS

Which of the following answers is correct?

1. The major cation within the extracellular fluid is:a) Na+

b) Ca2+

c) Mg2+

d) K+

e) bicarbonate ion

2. The primary pacemaker site within the heart is located:a) in the left atriumb) in the left ventriclec) in the right atriumd) in the right ventriclee) between the atria and ventricula

3. A megakaryocyte is responsible for the production of:a) lymphocytesb) erythrocytesc) erythroblastsd) granulocytese) thrombocytes

4. The exchange of respiratory gases occurs in: a) pharynxb) larynxc) alveolid) tracheae) bronchi

5) Respiratory center is located in:a) cerebrumb) cerebellumc) midbraind) medulla oblongatae) pituitary gland

128

6. Thermoregulatory center is located in:a) cerebral cortexb) cerebellumc) anterior pituitary gland d) hypothalamuse) medulla oblongata

7. The permeability of the walls of the collecting ducts of a nephron to water is regulated by:a) aldosteroneb) diuretic hormonec) antidiuretic hormoned) parathormonee) tyroxine

8. Bile release into the small intestine is stimulated by:a) trypsinb) chymotrypsinc) pancreatic lipase d) cholecystokinine) pepsin

9. Pancreas secretes:a) trypsinb) bicarbonate ionsc) insulind) glucagone) all of the answers are correct

10. Anterior pituitary gland produces and releases:a) growth hormoneb) oxytocinc) progesteroned) melanocyte–stimulating hormone (MSH)e) epinephrine

11. After fertilization, a fertilized egg implants in the endometrium of the uterusin the form of:a) blastomereb) blastocystc) embryoblastd) trophoblaste) morula

129

12. Corpus luteum produces:a) luteinizing hormone (LH)b) follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)c) estrogend) progesteronee) androgens

13. Biotic component of the ecosystem includes:a) lightb) temperaturec) heterotrophsd) winde) water

14. The ecological state of a species being unique to a defined geographic location is called:a) relictb) endemismc) ecological amplituded) ecological valence e) biome

15. Evolutionary changes are mediated by the following mechanism(s):a) natural selectionb) gene flowc) mutationsd) genetic drifte) all of the answers are correct

16. In binomial nomenclature:a) the first part of the name identifies the species and the second part identifies the genusb) the first part of the name identifies the family and the second part identifies the orderc) the first part of the name identifies the genus and the second part identifies the orderd) the first part of the name identifies the genus and the second part identifies the speciese) the first part of the name identifies the order and the second part identifies the class

130

1. Bruce Alberts, Alexander Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts and Peter Walter. Molecular Biology of the Cell, Sixth Edition, Garland Publishing, New York, 2014.

2. Geoffrey M. Cooper and Robert E. Hausman. The Cell: A Molecular Approach, Sixth Edition, Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, 2013.

3. Peter Turnpenny and Sian Ellard. Emery's Elements of Medical Genetics, 14th Edition, Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, London, 2011.

4. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology, accessed June 2017.

5. https://www.boundless.com/biology, accessed June 2017.

6. https://www.britannica.com/science/genetics, accessed June 2017.

7. http://4mcqs.blogspot.hr/, accessed July 2017.

REFERENCES

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CHEMISTRY Entering exammaterial

University of Rijeka • Faculty of MedicineDepartment of Chemistry and Biochemistry

Material prepared by: Assist. prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

explore challengingquestion

How to use this material?

solve all problems

Read carefully

2

2

Contents:

Matter – Properties; States; ClassificationPeriodic Table of the ElementsAtomsIons and Ionic BondsCovalent BondsChemical Reactions – Types; Mole and Mass Relationship; Free Energy; Reaction Rates;Chemical Equilibrium – Le Châtelier’s Principle; Effect of Changing Conditions on EquilibriaIntermolecular ForcesGases and Gas LawsSolutionsColigative PropertiesAcids and Bases – Dissociation Constants; Dissociation of Water; pHOrganic Chemistry – Hybridization; Families of Organic Compounds; Alkanes and Their Isomers;Kinds of Organic Reactions; Alkenes and Alkynes; Aromatic Compounds; Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers,and Their Sulfur Analogs; Aldehydes and Ketones; Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives; Amines;Biomolecules – Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins;Biomolecules – Carbohydrates;Biomolecules - Lipids

Identify each of the following as a physical change or a chemical change:

Burning of potassium in waterA metal surface being ground Wood burningFruit ripeningTempering steel to form a knife bladeCooking an eggMelting an ice cubeBoiling water

List some properties of water, sugar, and baking soda

4

• Physical properties – color, taste, appearance, melting and boiling point, odor…

• Chemical properties – flammability, acidity, toxicity….

3

2

Contents:

Matter – Properties; States; ClassificationPeriodic Table of the ElementsAtomsIons and Ionic BondsCovalent BondsChemical Reactions – Types; Mole and Mass Relationship; Free Energy; Reaction Rates;Chemical Equilibrium – Le Châtelier’s Principle; Effect of Changing Conditions on EquilibriaIntermolecular ForcesGases and Gas LawsSolutionsColigative PropertiesAcids and Bases – Dissociation Constants; Dissociation of Water; pHOrganic Chemistry – Hybridization; Families of Organic Compounds; Alkanes and Their Isomers;Kinds of Organic Reactions; Alkenes and Alkynes; Aromatic Compounds; Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers,and Their Sulfur Analogs; Aldehydes and Ketones; Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives; Amines;Biomolecules – Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins;Biomolecules – Carbohydrates;Biomolecules - Lipids

MATTER: The physical material that makes up the universe; anything that has mass and occupies space.

BY PROPERTY: Any characteristic that can be used to describe or identify something (size,color, temperature, chemical composition, chemical reactivity...)

CHANGES in properties

Physical change A change that does not affect the chemical makeup of a substance or object; only the state or appearance

Chemical change A change in the chemical makeup of a substance

Chemistry is the study of matter

How to describe a matter?

3

Physical and chemical changes are manifestation of physical and chemical properties

Identify each of the following as a physical change or a chemical change:

Burning of potassium in waterA metal surface being ground Wood burningFruit ripeningTempering steel to form a knife bladeCooking an eggMelting an ice cubeBoiling water

List some properties of water, sugar, and baking soda

4

• Physical properties – color, taste, appearance, melting and boiling point, odor…

• Chemical properties – flammability, acidity, toxicity….

4

Classification of Matter – 1. according to its STATE (physical form)2. according to its COMPOSITION

Matter exist in three forms: solid, liquid,and gas

WATER can exist in all three phases, or states of matter depending on the temperature. The conversion of a substance from one state to another is known as a change of state.

5

STATES of Matter

Formaldehyde is a disinfectant, a preservative, and a raw material for plasticsmanufacture. Its melting point is -92 °C and its boiling point is -19.5 °C.Is formaldehyde a gas, a liquid, or a solid at room temperature (25 °C)?

Sulfur dioxide is a compound produced when sulfur burns in air. It has amelting point of -72.7 °C and a boiling point of -10 °C.In what state does it exist at room temperature (25 °C)?

Menthol, a chemical compound obtained from peppermint or other mint oils, melts at 45 °C and boils at 212 °C.In what state is it found at:(a) Room temperature (25 °C)? (b) 60 °C? (c) 260 °C?

6

* The state of matter of any substance depends on its temperature. Compare the melting and boiling point of formaldehyde with room temperature.

Classify each of the following as a mixture or a pure substance. If it is a pure substance, classify it as an element or a compound:

Pea soup BloodGaseous ammoniaSeawaterThe contents of a propane tankUrine LeadA multivitamin tabletToothpasteGold Table saltAirNotebook paperSweetened teaVanilla ice-creamCarbone dioxide

8

Honey, is a mixture composed mostly of sugar and water. Individually, sugar and water are pure substances.

5

Classification of Matter – 1. according to its STATE (physical form)2. according to its COMPOSITION

Matter exist in three forms: solid, liquid,and gas

WATER can exist in all three phases, or states of matter depending on the temperature. The conversion of a substance from one state to another is known as a change of state.

5

STATES of Matter

Formaldehyde is a disinfectant, a preservative, and a raw material for plasticsmanufacture. Its melting point is -92 °C and its boiling point is -19.5 °C.Is formaldehyde a gas, a liquid, or a solid at room temperature (25 °C)?

Sulfur dioxide is a compound produced when sulfur burns in air. It has amelting point of -72.7 °C and a boiling point of -10 °C.In what state does it exist at room temperature (25 °C)?

Menthol, a chemical compound obtained from peppermint or other mint oils, melts at 45 °C and boils at 212 °C.In what state is it found at:(a) Room temperature (25 °C)? (b) 60 °C? (c) 260 °C?

6

* The state of matter of any substance depends on its temperature. Compare the melting and boiling point of formaldehyde with room temperature.

Classification of Matter: COMPOSITION

Pure substance A substance that has a uniform chemical composition throughout.

MixtureA blend of two or more substances, each of which retains its chemical identity.

ElementA fundamental substance that cannot be broken down chemicallyinto any simpler substance.

Chemical compoundA pure substance that can be broken down into simplersubstances by chemical reactions.A chemical compound is formed bycombining two or more elements.

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Classify each of the following as a mixture or a pure substance. If it is a pure substance, classify it as an element or a compound:

Pea soup BloodGaseous ammoniaSeawaterThe contents of a propane tankUrine LeadA multivitamin tabletToothpasteGold Table saltAirNotebook paperSweetened teaVanilla ice-creamCarbone dioxide

8

Honey, is a mixture composed mostly of sugar and water. Individually, sugar and water are pure substances.

6

Chemical reaction A process in which the identity and composition of one or more substances are changed. All chemical reactions are accompanied by a change in energy.

Symbols - are combined to produce chemical formulasElements - are combined to form chemical compounds

Elements are represented by one- or two-letter symbols, such as C for carbon, S for sulfur, O for oxygen, N for nitrogen, Ca for calcium, Cl for chlorine…

Most symbols are the first one or two letters of the element’s name, but some symbols are derivedfrom Latin names – like: Na, sodium from natrium; Ag, silver from argentum; Fe, iron from ferrum….

Nickel + Hydrochloric acid Nickel (II) chloride + Hydrogen

[Ni + 2 HCl NiCl2 + H2]

REACTANTS PRODUCTS

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NiCl2symbol for nickel symbol for chlorine

implied subscript of 1indicating 1 nickel atom

subscript indicating 2chlorine atoms

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AIR COMPOSITION

The symbols of the known elements are normally presented in a tabular format called theperiodic table of elements.

COMPOSITION of the Human Body (by mass %)

Which of the following are chemical compounds, and which are elements? Name the elements combined in the chemical compounds.

H2O2 Aspirin, C9H8O4Mg CO2O2 NaMgSO4 NaHCO3

Are the following statements true or false? If false, explain why.1) Laughing gas is a compound of nitrogen and oxygen with the formula NiO.2) The addition of heat to solid sodium chloride until it melts is a chemical reaction.3) Heating sugar to make caramel is a physical change.4) White gold is an alloy of gold and nickel with the formula GdNI.5) Table salt, NaCl, is composed of nitrogen and chlorine.6) Tantalum, a hard, shiny solid that conducts electricity is a metalloid.

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Look at the periodic table, locate the following elements and identify them as metals, metalloids or nonmetals:Cr, S, Na, Cl, K, Si, Sb, Mg, P. (Try to give a full name for every element)

7

Most elements are metals , 17 are nonmetals and 7 are metalloids .

117chemical elements

11

Which of the following are chemical compounds, and which are elements? Name the elements combined in the chemical compounds.

H2O2 Aspirin, C9H8O4Mg CO2O2 NaMgSO4 NaHCO3

Are the following statements true or false? If false, explain why.1) Laughing gas is a compound of nitrogen and oxygen with the formula NiO.2) The addition of heat to solid sodium chloride until it melts is a chemical reaction.3) Heating sugar to make caramel is a physical change.4) White gold is an alloy of gold and nickel with the formula GdNI.5) Table salt, NaCl, is composed of nitrogen and chlorine.6) Tantalum, a hard, shiny solid that conducts electricity is a metalloid.

12

Look at the periodic table, locate the following elements and identify them as metals, metalloids or nonmetals:Cr, S, Na, Cl, K, Si, Sb, Mg, P. (Try to give a full name for every element)

8

Chemistry is founded on four fundamental assumptions about atoms and matter, proposed by the English scientistJohn Dalton, which together make up modern atomic theory.

sub-microscopic, or atomic level of chemistry

The smallest and simplest particle of an element.- a word derived from the Greek atomos, meaning indivisible.

Atom

- All matter is composed of atoms.

- The atoms of a given element differ from the atoms of all other

elements.

- Chemical compounds consist of atoms combined in specific ratios.

The enormous diversity in the substances we see around us is

based on the vast number of ways that atoms can combine with one another.

- Chemical reactions change only the way that atoms are combined in compounds. The atoms themselves are

unchanged.13

A Comparison of Subatomic Particles

ISOTOPES

Atoms: extremely small, small mass, made of subatomic particles

14

u – unified atomic mass unit1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom(1.6605 x 10-27 kg)

u

Ξ

9

Electronic Structure of AtomsThe electrons in an atom are grouped around the nucleus into shells.Within shells, electrons are further grouped into subshells of four different types (s,p,d,f).Within each subshell, electrons are grouped into orbitals. ORBITALS are differently-shaped regions around an atom's nucleus where electrons are mathematically likely to be located.

Shell number 1 2 3 4

Electron capacity 2 8 18 32

Subshell designation s s,p s,p,d s,p,d,f

Number of orbitals 1 1,3 1,3,5 1,3,5,7

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s orbitals are

spherical

p orbitals are roughlydumbbell shaped

The shapes of s and p orbitals.The first shell holds only 2 electrons. The 2 electrons have different spins andare in a single 1s orbital.The second shell holds 8 electrons. Two are in a 2s orbital, and 6 are in the three different 2p orbitals (two per 2p orbital).The third shell holds 18 electrons. Two are in a 3s orbital, 6 are in three 3porbitals, and 10 are in five 3d orbitals.The fourth shell holds 32 electrons. Two are in a 4s orbital, 6 are in three 4porbitals, 10 are in five 4d orbitals, and 14 are in seven 4f orbitals.

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An electron configuration can quickly and simply tell us how many electron orbitals an atom has as well as the number of electrons populating each of its orbitals.

1. Electrons occupy the lowest-energy orbitals available, beginning with 1s and continuing in the order shown in Sheme

An atom's electron configuration is a numeric representation of its electron

orbitals.

Electron configuration and can be predicted by applying three rules:

2. Each orbital can hold only two electrons, which must be of opposite spin.

3. Two or more orbitals with the same energy (the three p orbitals) are each half filled by one electron before any one orbital is completely filled by addition of the second electron.

valence shell electron configuration

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17

Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table

The blocks of elements in the periodic table correspond to filling the different types of subshells. Beginning at the top left and going across successive rows of the periodic table provides a method for remembering the order of orbital filling:

The periodic table can be divided

into four regions, or blocks, of

elements according to the electron

shells and subshells occupied by

the subshell filled last.

The cobalt used in cancer treatments has A=60 and Z=27. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in these cobalt atoms?

Chlorine (Cl) has two naturally occurring isotopes 35Cl (or Cl-35) and 37Cl (or Cl-37). Isotopic abundance of 35Cl (Ar=34.97) is 75,77%, and of 37Cl (Ar =36,97) is 24,23%.Calculate the atomic weight for chlorine. How does your answer compare with the atomic mass given in the periodic table?

What atom has the following orbital-filling diagram?

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* Atomic mass = Σ[(isotopic abundance) × (isotopic mass)] We can calculate the average atomic mass for the element by summing up the contributions from each of the naturally occurring isotopes.

Identify element X in the symbol and give its atomic number, mass number, number of protons, number of electrons, and number of neutronsa) 67 b) 207

30 X 82 X

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Ions An electrically charged atom or group of atoms.

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An ion is formed when a neutral atom gains or loses electrons.

Ionization energy - energy required to remove one e-

from a single atom or ion in the gaseous state.

Electron affinity - energy released on or required for adding an e- to a single atomor ion in the gaseous state.

20

Because opposite electrical charges attract each other, the positive ion and negative ion are said to be held together by an ionic bond.

Formulas of Ionic Compounds

K+ + F– → KF

Ca2+ + 2 Cl– → CaCl2

The formula of an ionic compound shows the lowest possible ratio of ions and is known as a simplest formula

Formula unit: The formula that identifies the

smallest neutral unit of an ionic compound - NaCl

Ca(NO3)2 Calcium nitrate

+ -

POLYATOMIC IONS (CO32-; NO3

-; PO43-; CrO4

2-…)

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21

The importance of the cation and the anion is, among other things, that they are fundamental to the concepts of acids and bases.

an acid - a substance that provides H+ ions when dissolved in waterH+ + H2O → H3O+

HCl provides one H+ ion per acid moleculeH3PO4 CAN provide three H+ ions per acid molecule.

a base - a substance that provides OH- ions when dissolved in water.

H+ and OH– Ions

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) provides one OH– ion per formula unit.

Ca(OH)2 can provide two OH– ions per formula unit.

* one of possible difinitionsof acids and bases

One electron pair is shared –

SINGLE BOND

Two electron pairs are shared –

DOUBLE BOND

Three electron pairs are shared –

TRIPLE BOND

Sharing electron pair(s) between atoms – COVALENT BONDING

Molecule - a group of two or more atoms that form the smallest identifiable unit into which a pure substance can be divided and still retain the composition and chemical properties of that substance.

22

Coordinate covalent bond

Numbers of covalent bonds typically formed by main group elements to achieve octet configurations.

13

If water is a molecule, is it also a compound because the hydrogen and oxygen have been chemically combined? If so, how to determine whether a substance is a compound or a molecule?

Classification of Chemical Bonds

Which (3) of the following molecule contains only single bonds?

HCN C2H4 N2 NH4+ O2

C2H6 HCl H2SO4

23

Polarmolecule

24

Pure substances may be elements, or they may be compounds. Elements may be either atomic or molecular. Compounds may be either molecular or ionic.

Elements that exist as diatomic molecules

Classify each substance as anatomic element, molecular element, molecular compound, or ionic compound.- nitrogen- SO2- Au- Na2O- AlCl3

14

Tell whether each statement is true or false:1) A cation is formed by addition of one or more electrons to an atom.2) Group 4A elements tend to lose 4 electrons to yield ions with a charge.3) The individual atoms in a polyatomic ion are held together by covalent bonds.4) Ions are randomly arranged in ionic solids.5) Magnesium sulfate, salt used as laxative and anticonvulsant, has a formula: MgSO46) Ionic compounds are named by citing first the cation and then the anion, with a space between wordsIF FALSE, EXPLAIN WHY.

Tell whether each statement is true or false:1) Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points.2) Molecules are neutral and there is no strong electrical

attraction between different molecules to hold them together.3) Molecular compounds are very soluble in water.4) Ionic compounds are usually composed of nonmetals combined with nonmetals.5) Many ionic compounds are not soluble in organic liquids.6) Ionic compounds have high melting points (e.g., NaCl = 801 °C) while covalent compounds

mainly have low melting points (H2O = 0.0 °C).7) Molecules have specific shapes depending on the number of electron charge clouds (bonds

and lone pairs) surrounding the various atoms.IF FALSE, EXPLAIN WHY. 25

26

Predict whether each of the bonds between the following atoms would be ionic, polar covalent, or nonpolar covalent. If polar covalent, which atom would carry the partial positive and negative charges?a) C and Cl b) N and H c) Na and F d) Rb and Br

All compounds are ionic except:

AgCl CaClO3 KNO3 (NH4)2CO3

NO2 MgCl2 Rb2O

Each of these drawings (a) - (d) represents one of the following ionic compounds: ZnS, PbBr2, CrF3, Al2O3. Which is which?

Complete the table by writing in the formula of the compoundformed by each pair of ions:

S2- Cl- CO32- HPO4

2- HSO4-

Ca2+

NH4+

Fe3+

K+

15

CHEMICAL EQUATION vs CHEMICAL REACTION

• A chemical equation is a written representation of the process that occurs in a chemical reaction.

• A chemical equation is written with the reactants on the left side of an arrow and the products of

the chemical reaction on the right side of the equation.

• The head of the arrow typically points toward the right or toward the product side of the equation,

although reactions may indicate equilibrium with the reaction proceeding in both directions

simultaneously.

• Coefficients next to the symbols indicate the stoichiometric numbers.

Combustion of methane: CH4 + 2 O2 CO2 + 2 H2O

REACTANTS PRODUCTS A BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATION

Indicating state of matter in a chemical equation: 2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)(s) (l) (g) (aq)Solid Liquid Gas Aqueous solution 27

28

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

TYPES OF REACTION

REACTIONSINVOLVING WATER

16

29

Balance the following equations with the smallest whole number coefficients. 1) C4H10 + O2 CO2 + H2O2) Cr2(SO4)3 + RbOH Cr(OH)3 + Rb2SO43) (NH4)2Cr2O7 N2 + Cr2O3 + H2O

Finish and balance the following equations:1) Na(s) + Cl2 (g) Δ2) Fe2O3 (s) + HNO3 (aq)3) S8 (s) + O2 (g) /sulphur (IV) oxide/

COMBUSTIONWhen wood is burned, the organiccompounds that is made from,undergo oxidation to producecarbon dioxide and water

Oxidation-reduction reactions or redox reactionsRedox reactions are reactions in which one species is reduced and another is oxidized.

The oxidation state/oxidation number of the species involved must change.

By comparing the oxidation number of an atom before and after reaction, we can tell whether the atom

has gained or lost electrons.

The rules for assigning oxidation numbers are:

1. An atom in its elemental state has an oxidation number of 0. The atoms in He and N2, for example, have oxidation numbers of 0.

2. The total oxidation state of all atoms in: a neutral species is 0 and in an ion is equal to the ion charge

4. Group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1, Group 2 an oxidation state of +2, Group VIIA element in a compound has -1… (with exceptions!)

3. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1 in compounds, while oxygen generally has an oxidation state of -2 in compounds (except in peroxides)

5. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion.

For example, the oxidation number of Na+ is +1; the oxidation number of N3- is -3.

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17

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The loss of one or more electrons Oxidation The gain of one or more electrons Reduction

Identifying Redox Reaction

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For the following reaction, indicate which atom is oxidized and which is reduced. Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents.

a) 2 Al (s) + 3 Cl2 (g) → 2 AlCl3 (s)b) 2 Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)

What is the oxidation number of sulphur in following substances:S2 CS2 S2O3

2-

S2- SO2 SO3 Na2SO3

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

Identify each of the following as an oxidation or a reduction:

c) Cu (s) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) 2 Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)d) 2 Fe (s) + 3 O2 (g) Fe2O3 (s)

Determine the oxidation number of each element in the following compounds:1.Ba(NO3)2 2. NF33. (NH4)2SO4 4. CrO3

18

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Beside redox reactions there are precipitation reactions and acid-base neutralization reactions.

Precipitation reactions are processes in which an insoluble solid called a precipitate forms when the anions and cations of two ionic compounds change partners.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 KI(aq) 2 KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

Acid-base neutralization reactions are processes in which an acid reacts with a base to yield water plus an ionic compound called a salt. A neutralization reaction removes H+ and OH- ions from solution and yields neutral water, H2O.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2 HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

An aqueous solution of a cation (represented as blue spheres in the diagram) is allowed to mix with a solution of an anion (represented as green spheres) and the following result is obtained:

Which combinations of cation and anion, chosen from the following lists, are compatible with the observed results? Explain.

Cations: K+, Ca2+ , Ag+ , Mg2+ , Ni2+

Anions: Cl-, CO32-, Br- , CrO4

2-, NO3-

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A mole is an amount of substance containing Avogadro’snumber (6.022 × 1023) of atoms,formula units, or molecules.

NA= Avogadro’s constant is 6.022 × 1023 mol-1

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

1-mole samples:sulfur, S (32.07 g); iron, Fe (55.85 g); salt, NaCl (58.44 g);potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7(294.2 g); and sucrose, C12H22O11 (342.3 g).

n = 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨= 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓

The MoleThe amount of a substance whose mass in grams is numericallyequal to its molecular weight.

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić 35

The number of water molecules is maximum in:

(A) 18 gram of water(B) 18 moles of water(C) 18 molecules of water(D) 1.8 gram of water(E) 180 gram of water

Calculate each of the following:a. number of C atoms in 0.500 mole of Cb. number of SO2 molecules in 1.28 moles of SO2c. moles of Fe in 5.22 * 1022 atoms of Fed. moles of C2H5OH in 8.50 * 1024 molecules of C2H5OHe. molecules of ascorbic acid (vitamin C, C6H8O6 ) in a 500 mg tabletf. the mass in grams of 5.0 * 1020 molecules of aspirin (C9H8O4)g. moles of ions are in 1.75 mol of K2SO4

Calculate the molar mass of each of the following compounds:a. calcium carbonate,b. urea,c. ethylene glycol, C2H6O2

d. glucoseHOW MANY MOLES OF CARBON ATOMS ARE THERE IN 1 MOL OF EACH COMPOUND?

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Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić 35

The number of water molecules is maximum in:

(A) 18 gram of water(B) 18 moles of water(C) 18 molecules of water(D) 1.8 gram of water(E) 180 gram of water

Calculate each of the following:a. number of C atoms in 0.500 mole of Cb. number of SO2 molecules in 1.28 moles of SO2c. moles of Fe in 5.22 * 1022 atoms of Fed. moles of C2H5OH in 8.50 * 1024 molecules of C2H5OHe. molecules of ascorbic acid (vitamin C, C6H8O6 ) in a 500 mg tabletf. the mass in grams of 5.0 * 1020 molecules of aspirin (C9H8O4)g. moles of ions are in 1.75 mol of K2SO4

Calculate the molar mass of each of the following compounds:a. calcium carbonate,b. urea,c. ethylene glycol, C2H6O2

d. glucoseHOW MANY MOLES OF CARBON ATOMS ARE THERE IN 1 MOL OF EACH COMPOUND?

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In chemical reactions, the unit to specify the relationship between reactants and products is the mole.

Coefficients in a chemical equation tell how many molecules, and thus how many moles, of each reactant are needed and how many of each product are formed.

Coefficients can be put in the form of mole ratios, which act as conversion factors when setting up factor-label calculations.

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Chemical Arithmetic

In the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to produce NO and nitric acid, which contributes to pollution by acid rain. How many grams of HNO3 are produced for every 1.0 mole of NO2 that reacts?

The following reaction produced 0.022 g of calcium oxalate (CaC2O4).

CaCl2 (aq) + Na2C2O4 (aq) CaC2O4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

What mass of calcium chloride was used as reactant?

One method for preparing pure iron from Fe2O3 is by reaction with carbon monoxide:Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) Fe (s) + CO2 (g)

a) Balance the equation.b) How many grams of CO are needed to react with 3.02 g of Fe2O3c) How many grams of CO are needed to react with 1.68 mol Fe2O3.

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

Energy diagram for the exothermic reaction. Energy diagram for an endothermic reaction.

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The minimum energy necessary to cause a chemical reaction to occur – activation energy

The difference between the heat absorbed in breaking bonds and the heat released in forming bonds is the heat of reaction, ΔH. The terms heat of reaction and enthalpy change are often used interchangeably.

Energy and Chemical Bonds

Chemical Reactions

entalpy

Spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes(a) Spontaneous.Once it begins moving,a rock will continue to roll down a hill. (b) Nonspontaneous.A rock will not spontaneously roll up a hill.

A reaction energy diagramEnergy diagrams show the progress of a reaction (reactant product) and accompanyingenergy changes. In a spontaneous reaction products are lower in energy than reactants,while in a nonspontaneous one the opposite is true. The energy barrier between reactant andproduct is the activation energy for the reaction.

Events that lead to lower energy tend to occur spontaneously.

Many, but not all, exothermic processes take place spontaneously, and many, but not all, endothermic processes are nonspontaneous.

A spontaneous process is one that, once started, proceeds on its own without any external influence. The reverse of a spontaneous process is always nonspontaneous.

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Gibbsenergy(Δ G)

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Chemical Arithmetic

In the atmosphere, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to produce NO and nitric acid, which contributes to pollution by acid rain. How many grams of HNO3 are produced for every 1.0 mole of NO2 that reacts?

The following reaction produced 0.022 g of calcium oxalate (CaC2O4).

CaCl2 (aq) + Na2C2O4 (aq) CaC2O4 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)

What mass of calcium chloride was used as reactant?

One method for preparing pure iron from Fe2O3 is by reaction with carbon monoxide:Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) Fe (s) + CO2 (g)

a) Balance the equation.b) How many grams of CO are needed to react with 3.02 g of Fe2O3c) How many grams of CO are needed to react with 1.68 mol Fe2O3.

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

Energy diagram for the exothermic reaction. Energy diagram for an endothermic reaction.

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The minimum energy necessary to cause a chemical reaction to occur – activation energy

The difference between the heat absorbed in breaking bonds and the heat released in forming bonds is the heat of reaction, ΔH. The terms heat of reaction and enthalpy change are often used interchangeably.

Energy and Chemical Bonds

Chemical Reactions

entalpy

Why do some molecular collisions result in reaction whereas others do not?

The energy of molecular collisions varies.(a ) Two fast-moving molecules colliding head-on have a higher collision energy than (b ) two slower-moving molecules colliding at an angle.

Proper orientation of molecules.(a ) HCl and H2O molecules are oriented so that the H of HCl collides with the O of H2O,and a reaction takes place.(b ) No reaction takes place because Cl, and not H, collides with the O of H2O. The colored arrows show the path of the molecules.

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EFFECTIVE COLLISION CHEMICAL REACTION

Spontaneous and nonspontaneous processes(a) Spontaneous.Once it begins moving,a rock will continue to roll down a hill. (b) Nonspontaneous.A rock will not spontaneously roll up a hill.

A reaction energy diagramEnergy diagrams show the progress of a reaction (reactant product) and accompanyingenergy changes. In a spontaneous reaction products are lower in energy than reactants,while in a nonspontaneous one the opposite is true. The energy barrier between reactant andproduct is the activation energy for the reaction.

Events that lead to lower energy tend to occur spontaneously.

Many, but not all, exothermic processes take place spontaneously, and many, but not all, endothermic processes are nonspontaneous.

A spontaneous process is one that, once started, proceeds on its own without any external influence. The reverse of a spontaneous process is always nonspontaneous.

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Gibbsenergy(Δ G)

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What happens when you take an ice cube out of the refrigerator ?

spontaneous processes that absorb heat energy an increase in molecular disorder, or randomness.

The amount of disorder in a system is called the system’s entropy, S (cal/mol∙K).

The entropy change for a process, (ΔS) has a positive value if disorder increases because the process adds disorder to the system - the melting of ice to give water.Conversely, ΔS has a negative value if the disorder of a system decreases - the freezing of water to give ice.

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Two factors determine the spontaneity of a chemical or physical change: the release or absorption of heat, ΔH, and the increase or decrease in entropy, ΔS. To decide whether a process is spontaneous, both the enthalpy change and the entropy change must be taken into account.

When enthalpy and entropy are both favorable ( ΔH negative, ΔS positive), a process is spontaneous; when both are unfavorable, a process is nonspontaneous.

When determining the spontaneity of a process, both heat of reaction and change in disorder have to be taken into account, and quantity called the free-energy (or Gibbs energy) change

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Free-energy change (ΔG)The value of ΔG tells us only whether a reaction can occur; it says nothing about how fast the reaction will occur.

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For the reaction, A + B C, ΔHo = +30 kJ; ΔSo = +50 J/K, we can say that the reaction is: a) spontaneous at all temperatures. b) nonspontaneous at all temperatures. c) spontaneous at temperatures less than 600 K. d) spontaneous at temperatures greater than 600 K. e) spontaneous only at 25 oC.

In photosynthesis, green plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose according to the following equation: 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O(l) /+ 678 kcal/ C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g)a) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?b) What is the value of ΔH for the reaction?c) Write the equation for the reverse of the reaction, including heat as a reactant or product.

The melting of solid ice to give liquid water has ΔH = 1.44 kcal/mol and ΔS = +5.26 cal/mol.What is the value of ΔG for the melting process at 0 °C. Is the melting spontaneous or nonspontaneous at this temperature?

Lime (CaO) is prepared by the decomposition of limestone (CaCO3).CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g); ΔG = +31 kcal/mol at 25 °C

a) Does the reaction occur spontaneously at 25 °C?b) Does entropy increase or decrease in this reaction?c) Would you expect the reaction to be spontaneous at higher temperatures?

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For the reaction, A + B C, ΔHo = +30 kJ; ΔSo = +50 J/K, we can say that the reaction is: a) spontaneous at all temperatures. b) nonspontaneous at all temperatures. c) spontaneous at temperatures less than 600 K. d) spontaneous at temperatures greater than 600 K. e) spontaneous only at 25 oC.

In photosynthesis, green plants convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose according to the following equation: 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O(l) /+ 678 kcal/ C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g)a) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?b) What is the value of ΔH for the reaction?c) Write the equation for the reverse of the reaction, including heat as a reactant or product.

The melting of solid ice to give liquid water has ΔH = 1.44 kcal/mol and ΔS = +5.26 cal/mol.What is the value of ΔG for the melting process at 0 °C. Is the melting spontaneous or nonspontaneous at this temperature?

Lime (CaO) is prepared by the decomposition of limestone (CaCO3).CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g); ΔG = +31 kcal/mol at 25 °C

a) Does the reaction occur spontaneously at 25 °C?b) Does entropy increase or decrease in this reaction?c) Would you expect the reaction to be spontaneous at higher temperatures?

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Consider the following spontaneous reaction of A2 molecules (red) and B2 molecules (blue):

Write a balanced equation for the reaction.What are the signs of ΔH, ΔS, and ΔG for the reaction? Explain the answer.

There are two curves in the following energy diagram:

a) Which curve represents the faster reaction, and which the slower?b) Which curve represents the spontaneous reaction, and which the nonspontaneous?

There are two curves in the following energy diagram. Which curve represents the catalyzed reaction, and which the uncatalyzed?

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Effects of Temperature, Concentration and Catalysts on Reaction Rates

A reaction energy diagram for a reaction in the presence (green curve) and absence (red curve) of a catalyst. The catalyzed reaction has a lower (Eact) because it uses an alternative pathway with a lower energy barrier. The free-energy change is unaffectedby the presence of a catalyst.

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Reversible Reactions and Chemical Equilibrium

reverse reaction

When the reaction vessel contains all four substances acetic acid, ethyl acetate, ethyl alcohol and water, the reaction is said to be in a state of chemical equilibrium.

Reaction rates in an equilibrium reaction

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A reaction that can go in either direction, from products to reactants or reactants to products reversible reaction

forward reaction

Chemical equilibrium: A state in which the rates of forward and reverse reactions are the same. It is an active, dynamic condition.

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Chemical equilibrium is an active, dynamic condition. All substances present are continuously being made and unmade at the same rate, so their concentrations are constant at equilibrium

Consider a general reversible reaction:

where A, B, . . . are reactants; M, N, . . . are products; and a, b, . . . , m, n, . . . are coefficients in the balanced equation.

At equilibrium, the composition of the reaction mixture obeys the following equilibrium equation, where K is the equilibrium constant.

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The meaning of

equilibrium

constants…

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26

The following diagrams represent two similar reactions that have achieved equilibrium:

Which reaction has the larger equilibrium constant, and which has thesmaller equilibrium constant?

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Le Châtelier’s Principle: The Effect of Changing Conditions on Equilibria

Le Châtelier’s principle When a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the equilibrium shifts to relieve the stress.

stress any change in concentration, pressure, volume, or temperature that disturbs the original equilibrium and causes the rates of the forward and reverse reactions to become temporarily unequal.

Once equilibrium is reached, the concentrations of the reactants and product are constant, and the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.

What happens if the concentration of CO is increased?

Concentration

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Effect of Changes in Temperature and Pressure 51

volume decrease

volume increase

Favored by decreasein temperature

Effects of Changes

in Reaction Conditions

on Equilibria

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Oxygen can be converted into ozone by the action of lightning or electric sparks:For this reaction, ΔH = +68 kcal/mol and K = 2.68 x 10-29 at 25 °C.

3 O2 (g) 2 O3 (g)

(a) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic? (b) Are the reactants or the products favored at equilibrium?(c) Explain the effect on the equilibrium of:

(1) Increasing pressure by decreasing volume (2) Increasing the concentration of O2(g)(3) Increasing the concentration of O3(g) (4) Adding a catalyst(5) Increasing the temperature

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Given the following equilibrium between hemoglobin (Hb), oxygen, and oxyhemoglobin (HbO2), Hb(aq) + O2(g) HbO2(aq)

According to Le Châtelier’s principle, increasing the amount of oxygen in the blood will result in:A. an increase in the amount of hemoglobin in the bloodB. an increase in the amount of oxyhemoglobin in the bloodC. a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin in the bloodD. both B and C answers are correct.E. an increase in the amount of hemoglobin in the blood

Intermolecular Forces

A force that acts between molecules and holds molecules close to one another; also called van der Waals forces.

What determines whether a substance is a gas, a liquid, or a solid at a given temperature?

• In gases, the intermolecular forces are negligible, so the gas molecules act independently of oneanother.

• In liquids and solids, intermolecular forces are strong enough to hold the molecules in close contact. • As a general rule, the stronger the intermolecular forces in a substance, the more difficult it is to

separate the molecules, and the higher the melting and boiling points of the substance.

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There are three major types of intermolecular forces: dipole dipole, London dispersion, and hydrogen bonding

Dipole

Dipole

Forces

The positive and negative ends of polar molecules

are attracted to one another by dipole dipole forces.

As a result, polar molecules have higher boiling

points than nonpolar molecules of similar size.

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Given the following equilibrium between hemoglobin (Hb), oxygen, and oxyhemoglobin (HbO2), Hb(aq) + O2(g) HbO2(aq)

According to Le Châtelier’s principle, increasing the amount of oxygen in the blood will result in:A. an increase in the amount of hemoglobin in the bloodB. an increase in the amount of oxyhemoglobin in the bloodC. a decrease in the amount of hemoglobin in the bloodD. both B and C answers are correct.E. an increase in the amount of hemoglobin in the blood

There are three major types of intermolecular forces: dipole dipole, London dispersion, and hydrogen bonding

Dipole

Dipole

Forces

The positive and negative ends of polar molecules

are attracted to one another by dipole dipole forces.

As a result, polar molecules have higher boiling

points than nonpolar molecules of similar size.

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London Dispersion Forces

- all molecules, regardless of structure, experience London dispersion forces. - they are caused by the constant motion of electrons within molecules.

(a) Averaged over time, the electron distribution in a Br2 molecule is symmetrical.(b) At any given instant, however, the electron distribution may be unsymmetrical, resulting in atemporary polarity that induces a complementary polarity in neighboring molecules.

More compact molecules like 2,2-dimethylpropanehave smaller surface areas, weaker London dispersion forces, and lower boiling points.By comparison, flatter, less compact molecules like pentane have larger surface areas, strongerLondon dispersion forces, and higher boiling points.

2,2-dimethylpropane pentane

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Hydrogen Bonds- an attractive interaction between an unshared electron pair on an electronegative O, N, or F

atom and a positively polarized hydrogen atom bonded to another electronegative O, N, or F. - occur in e.g. water and ammonia:

In many ways, hydrogen bonding is responsible for life on earth.

A Comparison of

Intermolecular

Forces

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Dimethyl ether (CH3OCH3) and ethanol (CH3CH2OH) have the same formula (C2H6O) but the boiling point of dimethyl ether is -25 °C while that of ethanol is 78 °C. Explain.

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Gases and Gas Laws

Table from: McMurry et al. Fundamentals of General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry 8th Edition in SI Units., 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

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*A woman has an initial lung volume of 2.75 L, which is filled with air at an atmospheric pressure of 1.02 atm. If she increases her lung volume to 3.25 L without inhaling any additional air, what is the pressure in her lungs?

*A gas in a cylinder with a moveable piston has an initial volume of 88.2 mL. If we heat the gas from 35 °C to 155 °C, what is its final volume (in mL)?

*A male athlete in a kinesiology research study has a lung volume of 6.15 L during a deepinhalation. At this volume, his lungs contain 0.254 moles of air. During exhalation, his lung volume decreases to 2.55 L. How many moles of gas did the athlete exhale? Assumeconstant temperature and pressure.

* Assignments from: NIVALDO J. TRO: CHEMISTRY A Molecular Approach 3rd Ed, Pearson Education

Which of the following properties of gases can be explained by kinetic molecular theory?A. The volume of a gas is the same as the volume of the container the gas occupies.B. The attractive forces between gas molecules are very small.C. Gas pressure is defined as the force of the gas molecules striking the sides of the container.D. All of these are explained by kinetic molecular theory.

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

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Solutions

The components in heterogeneous mixtures are not uniformly mixed, and the composition varies with location. In homogeneous mixtures, the components are uniformly mixed at the molecular level.

Homogeneous mixtures can be further classified as either solutions or colloids according to the size of their particles.

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Some Characteristics of Solutions, Colloids, and Heterogeneous Mixtures

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Parts of a solution:Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a solventSolvent: The substance in which another substance (the solute) is dissolved

2.0 – 200 nm

> 200 nm

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Solutions

The components in heterogeneous mixtures are not uniformly mixed, and the composition varies with location. In homogeneous mixtures, the components are uniformly mixed at the molecular level.

Homogeneous mixtures can be further classified as either solutions or colloids according to the size of their particles.

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Some Characteristics of Solutions, Colloids, and Heterogeneous Mixtures

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Parts of a solution:Solute: A substance that is dissolved in a solventSolvent: The substance in which another substance (the solute) is dissolved

2.0 – 200 nm

> 200 nm

Although we usually think of solids dissolved in liquids when we talk about solutions,solutions actually occur in all three phases of matter.

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Common Laboratory Solvents

The Solution Process

What determines whether a substance is soluble in a given liquid?

A good rule of thumb for predicting solubility is that “like dissolves like”, meaning that substances with similar intermolecular forces form solutions with one another, whereas substances with different intermolecular forces do not.

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SolvationDissolution of an NaCl crystal in water

In solution, ions are completely surrounded by solvent molecules, a phenomenon called solvation (or, specifically for water, hydration). The water molecules form a loose shell around the ions, stabilizing them by electrical attraction.

- the negatively polarized oxygens of water molecules cluster around Na+

ions and the positively polarized hydrogens cluster around Cl- ions

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dynamic equilibrium

saturated solution

Solution Equilibrium

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Which of the following pairs of substances would you expect to form solutions?(a) Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and hexane (C6H14)(b) Octane (C8H18) and methanol (CH3OH)

Many solutions are stored in high concentrations and then prepared for use by dilution.

Dilution

What is the final concentration if 75 mL of a 3.5 M glucose solution is diluted to a volume of 450 mL?

Consider the following pairs of liquids. Which pairs are miscible?1. benzene (C6H6) and hexane, (C6H14)2. water and methanol (CH3OH)3. water and hexane

c1 and V1 are the molarity and volume of the initial concentrated solutionand c2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the final diluted solutionc1V1 = c2V2

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A patient needs 100.0 g of glucose in the next 12 hours. The number of liters of a 5.0% (m/v) glucose solution that must be given is which of the following?

A. 0.50 LB. 1.0 LC. 1.5 LD. 2.0 L E. 2.5 L

What is the molarity of 2.0 moles of glucose in 4.0 L of glucose solution?

A. 0.25 M glucoseB. 0.50 M glucoseC. 0.75 M glucoseD. 1.00 M glucoseE. 1.25 M glucose

Solution contains 22.4 g glucose (C6H12O6) dissolved in 0.500 L of water. What is the molality of the solution? ( Assume a density of 1.00 g/mL for water.)

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

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Which of the following pairs of substances would you expect to form solutions?(a) Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and hexane (C6H14)(b) Octane (C8H18) and methanol (CH3OH)

Many solutions are stored in high concentrations and then prepared for use by dilution.

Dilution

What is the final concentration if 75 mL of a 3.5 M glucose solution is diluted to a volume of 450 mL?

Consider the following pairs of liquids. Which pairs are miscible?1. benzene (C6H6) and hexane, (C6H14)2. water and methanol (CH3OH)3. water and hexane

c1 and V1 are the molarity and volume of the initial concentrated solutionand c2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the final diluted solutionc1V1 = c2V2

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A patient needs 100.0 g of glucose in the next 12 hours. The number of liters of a 5.0% (m/v) glucose solution that must be given is which of the following?

A. 0.50 LB. 1.0 LC. 1.5 LD. 2.0 L E. 2.5 L

What is the molarity of 2.0 moles of glucose in 4.0 L of glucose solution?

A. 0.25 M glucoseB. 0.50 M glucoseC. 0.75 M glucoseD. 1.00 M glucoseE. 1.25 M glucose

Solution contains 22.4 g glucose (C6H12O6) dissolved in 0.500 L of water. What is the molality of the solution? ( Assume a density of 1.00 g/mL for water.)

Assist. Prof. Gordana Čanadi Jurešić

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Electrolyte Solutions

- a solution containing a solute that dissociates into ions is called anelectrolyte solution.

Osmotic cell

Osmosis

- is the flow of water from a low concentration solution to a high-concentration solution through a semipermeable membrane.

Why Drinking Salt Water Causes Dehydration

Semipermeablemembrane

Osmotic pressure

c is the molarity of the solution, T is the temperature (in Kelvin), R is the ideal gas constant (0.08206 L atm/mol K;

8.314 J/mol K))

П = cRT

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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES: vapor pressure lowering,freezing point depression,boiling point elevation,osmotic pressure.

- property that depends on the number of particles dissolved in solution, not on the type of particle

nonelectrolytes are treateddifferently than electrolytes

1 mol of a nonelectrolytedissolving in water

1 mol of dissolved particles.

electrolyte

Vapor Pressure Lowering

the vapor pressure of the solution is lower than the vaporpressure of the pure solvent .

vapor pressure of a solution

Raoult’s law

χ - the solvent mole fraction

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Boiling Point Elevation in Solutions• The boiling point of the solution is higher

than that of the pure solvent. • The solution must be heated to a higher

temperature for its vapor pressure to reach atmospheric pressure

Freezing-Point Depression of Solutions• The freezing point of a solution is lower than that

of the pure solvent. • Solute molecules are dispersed between solvent

molecules, making it more difficult for solvent molecules to organize into ordered crystals.

nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solution, resulting in a lower freezing point and an elevated boiling point.

The amount freezing point decreases:

Kf is the freezing point depression constant for the solvent

m is the molality of the solution

For water, Kf = 1.86 °C kg/mol

The amount that the boiling point rises in solutions:

ΔTb is the change in temperature of the boiling point in ° Celsius

m is the molality of the solution in moles solute per kilogram solvent

Kb is the boiling point elevation constant for the solvent.For water, Kb = 0.512 °C kg/mol

Some Acids and Their Conjugate Bases

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Acids and BasesWhat are Arrhenius Acids and Bases?

What Are Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases?

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Arrhenius acid: a substance that produces hydronium ion, H3O+, when dissolved in water.

Arrhenius base:a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH–, when dissolved in water.

Some Acids and Their Conjugate Bases

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Identify each of the following as a Brønsted-Lowry acid or base.PO4

3– HClO4 CN– NaOH

Write a balanced equation for the proton-transfer reaction between a phosphate ion andwater, and determine in which direction the equilibrium is favored.

Which of the following is the correct equation for the dissociation of a weak acid in water?A. HNO2(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO2

–(aq)B. H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HSO4

–(aq)C. HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)D. HCl(aq) + H3O+(l) H2O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Which of the following is NOT a conjugate acid–base pair?A. HCl and Cl–B. HNO3 and HNO2C. NaOH and Na+

D. H3PO4 and H2PO4–

E. HCN and CN–

Which of the following acids is a strong acid?

A. HBrB. HNO2C. H3PO4D. HCNE. HCO3

-

Identify the conjugate acid–base pairs in the following reaction:

Acid Dissociation Constants

Some Acid Dissociation Constants, Ka, at 25 °C

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Strong acids have Ka values much greater than 1 because dissociation is favored.Weak acids have Ka values much less than 1 because dissociation is not favored.

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Dissociation of Water

Water is amphoteric - it can act as an acid when a base is present and as a base when an acid is present

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M2

Measuring Acidity in Aqueous Solution: pH

The relationship of the pH scale to H+ and OH- concentrations.76

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The H3O+ concentration in coffee is about 1 × 10–5 M. What pH is this?

Lemon juice has a pH of about 2. What [H3O+] is this?

Which of the following solutions are acidic?1. rain, pH 5.2 2. tears, pH 7.5 3. tea, pH 3.84. bile, pH 8.4 5. blood, pH 7.45 6. photo developer, pH 127. urine, pH 5.9 8. lemon juice, pH 2.1

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 25.5 mL of 0.438 M NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0250 L of HCl?

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Acids, Bases, and Neutralization Reactions

When acids and bases are mixed in the correct proportion, both acidic and basic properties disappear because of a neutralization reaction.

HA(aq) + MOH(aq) H2O(l) + MA(aq)

The H+ ion from the acid combines with the OH- ion from the base to give neutral H2O whereas the anion (A-) from the acid combines with the cation(M+) from the base to give the salt (MA).

HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) H2O(l) + KCl(aq)

Write and balance equations for the following acid-base neutralization reactions:

a) CsOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)b) Ca(OH)2(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)c) HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2 H2O (l) + MgCl2 (aq)d) H3PO4(aq) + LiOH (aq) H2O (l) + Li3PO4 (aq)e) HNO3 (aq) + Ba(OH)21 H2O (l) + Ba(NO3)2 (aq)f) H2SO4(aq) + Al(OH)3 H2O (l) + Al2(SO4)3 (aq)

Organic Chemistry

In all its compounds, carbon is tetravalent - it always forms four bonds when it joins other elements to form stable compounds; carbon atoms can bond to one another to form extended chains of linked atoms.

Chemical Bonding Theory

A representation of van’t Hoff’s tetrahedral C – three-dimensionality

Organic molecules often contain hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, in addition to carbon. Nitrogen can form single, double, and triple bonds with carbon; oxygen can form single and double bonds:

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Ethene (ethylene)

Ethyne(acethylene), C2H2

Organic chemistry The study of carbon compounds

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The H3O+ concentration in coffee is about 1 × 10–5 M. What pH is this?

Lemon juice has a pH of about 2. What [H3O+] is this?

Which of the following solutions are acidic?1. rain, pH 5.2 2. tears, pH 7.5 3. tea, pH 3.84. bile, pH 8.4 5. blood, pH 7.45 6. photo developer, pH 127. urine, pH 5.9 8. lemon juice, pH 2.1

What is the molarity of an HCl solution if 25.5 mL of 0.438 M NaOH is required to neutralize 0.0250 L of HCl?

Organic Chemistry

In all its compounds, carbon is tetravalent - it always forms four bonds when it joins other elements to form stable compounds; carbon atoms can bond to one another to form extended chains of linked atoms.

Chemical Bonding Theory

A representation of van’t Hoff’s tetrahedral C – three-dimensionality

Organic molecules often contain hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, in addition to carbon. Nitrogen can form single, double, and triple bonds with carbon; oxygen can form single and double bonds:

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Ethene (ethylene)

Ethyne(acethylene), C2H2

Organic chemistry The study of carbon compounds

Four sp3 hybrid orbitals, oriented to the corners of a regular tetrahedron, are formed by combination

of an s orbital and three p orbitals (red/blue). The sp3 hybrids have two lobes and are unsymmetrical

about the nucleus, giving them a directionality and allowing them to form strong bonds when they

overlap an orbital from another atom.

sp3 Hybridization

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The structure of methane,showing its 109.5° bond angles.

The structure of ethane

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sp2Hybridization

The three equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitalslie in a plane at angles of 120° to oneanother, and a single unhybridizedp orbital (red/blue) is perpendicular tothe sp2 plane.

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The structure of methane,showing its 109.5° bond angles.

The structure of ethane

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sp2Hybridization

The three equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitalslie in a plane at angles of 120° to oneanother, and a single unhybridizedp orbital (red/blue) is perpendicular tothe sp2 plane.

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The structure of ethylene. One part of the double bond in ethylene results from s (head-on) overlap of sp2 orbitals, and the other part results from p (sideways) overlap of unhybridized p orbitals (red/blue). The p bond has regions of electron density above and below a line drawn between nuclei.

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sp Hybridization.

The two sp hybrid orbitals are oriented 180° away from each other, perpendicular to the two remaining p orbitals (red/blue).

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What orbitals are used to form the carbon-carbon σ- bond between the highlighted carbons? CH3 C C CH3

1. sp3 – sp3

2. sp2 – sp3

3. sp – sp3

4. sp – sp2

5. sp – sp

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The structure of ethyne. The two carbon atoms are joined by one sp–sp σ bond and two p–p π bonds.

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The structure of ethyne. The two carbon atoms are joined by one sp–sp σ bond and two p–p π bonds.

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The Structure of Organic Molecules: Alkanes and Their Isomers

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas are called isomers of one another.

Constitutional isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula but different connections among their atoms.

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Constitutional isomers of a given molecular formula are chemically completely different from one another

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Which of the following has the highest boiling point?

CH3CH2 CH

CH3

CH3 CH3CH2 CH

NH2

CH3 CH3CH2 CH

OH

CH3

CH3CH2 CH

Cl

CH3 CH3CH2 CH

CH2CH3

CH3

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

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Naming Alkanes

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The Structure of Organic Molecules: Alkanes and Their Isomers

Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas are called isomers of one another.

Constitutional isomers Compounds with the same molecular formula but different connections among their atoms.

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Naming Alkanes

Substituents such as – CH3 and –CH2CH3 that branch off the main chain are called alkyl groups.

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Some Common Alkyl Groups

The prefix sec- stands for secondary,and the prefix tert- standsfor tertiary.

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Some Common Alkyl Groups

The prefix sec- stands for secondary,and the prefix tert- standsfor tertiary.

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Cycloalkanes

Name the following cycloalkanes:

dd

numbering clockwise

Correct: 1,3-dimethylcyclohexane Correct: 1-ethyl-3-methylcyclohexane

Begin numbering at the ethyl group

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Kinds of Organic Reactions

Addition reactions occur when two reactants add together to form a single product with no atoms “left over.”

Elimination reactions are, in a sense, the opposite of addition reactions. They occur when a single reactant splits into two products, often with formation of a small molecule such as water.

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Substitution reactions occur when two reactants exchange parts to give two new products.

Rearrangement reactions occur when a single reactant undergoes a reorganization of bonds and atoms to yield an isomeric product.

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Kinds of Organic Reactions

Addition reactions occur when two reactants add together to form a single product with no atoms “left over.”

Elimination reactions are, in a sense, the opposite of addition reactions. They occur when a single reactant splits into two products, often with formation of a small molecule such as water.

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Substitution reactions occur when two reactants exchange parts to give two new products.

Rearrangement reactions occur when a single reactant undergoes a reorganization of bonds and atoms to yield an isomeric product.

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An overall description of how a reaction occurs is called a reaction mechanism. A mechanism describes in detail exactly what takes place at each stage of a chemical transformation - which bonds are broken and in what order, which bonds are formed and in what order, and what the relative rates of the steps are. A complete mechanism must also account for all reactants used and all products formed.

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Classify the following reactions as substitutions, additions, eliminations, orrearrangements:

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bond polarity

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Alkenes and AlkynesNaming

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Ethylene (ethene) Acetylene(ethyne)

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E,Z system, sequence rulesThe cis–trans naming system

(a) (b)

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Draw the other cis-trans isomer for the following molecules:

Give IUPAC names for the following compounds:Draw structures corresponding to the following IUPAC names:a) trans-Hex-3-eneb) 2-Methylbuta-1,3-dienec) cis Hept-3-ened) 2-Methylhex-3-enee) cis-4-Methylpent-2-enef) trans-2,5-Dimethylhex-3-ene

Summary of Reactions

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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2.

1. 3.

4.

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Aromatic Compounds

(a) An electrostatic potential map of benzene and (b) an orbital picture. Each of the six carbon atoms has a p orbital that can overlap equally well

with neighboring p orbitals on both sides. The π electrons are thus shared around the ring in two doughnut-shaped clouds, and all C-C bonds are equivalent.

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Aromatic Compounds

(a) An electrostatic potential map of benzene and (b) an orbital picture. Each of the six carbon atoms has a p orbital that can overlap equally well

with neighboring p orbitals on both sides. The π electrons are thus shared around the ring in two doughnut-shaped clouds, and all C-C bonds are equivalent.

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Naming Aromatic Compounds

Common Names of Some Aromatic Compounds

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a process in which an electrophile (E) reacts with an aromatic ring and substitutes for one of the hydrogens

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution Reactions

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Which of the following names is correct for the aromatic compound below?A. 2-aminochlorbenzeneB. 2-chloroanilineC. chloroanilineD. choro-2-anilineE. 5-chloroaniline

Draw and name all aromatic compounds with the formula C7H7Cl.Which of the following is an electrophile?

1. HO–2. Cl–3. CH3CH2+4. H2O5. CH3NH2

Draw structures corresponding to the following IUPAC names:a) m-Nitrotolueneb) m-Dipropylbenzenec) o-Chlorophenold) 2-Phenylheptanee) Benzene-1,3,5-triol

Draw and name all possible isomers of the dinitrobenzene

Alcohols, Phenols, Ethers, and Their Sulfur Analogs

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In hydration reactions, an alkene reacts with water in the presence of an acid to form_________.A. an alkaneB. a haloalkaneC. an aldehydeD. an alcoholE. an alkyne

Which of the following is a secondary alcohol?

What is the IUPAC name of the oxidation product of pentane-3-ol?

What will be the products when butanol undergoes a combustion reaction?

Primary alcohols are oxidized to form ________, which can then be oxidized to form _______.

What products would you expect from oxidation of the following compounds with CrO3 in aqueous acid?a) Hexane-1-ol b) Hexane-2-ol

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- compounds that contain a carbonyl group.- the carbonyl group has a carbon atom and an oxygen atom connected by a double bond C=O

Aldehydes andKetones

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Naming

Common names of some simple aldehydes

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- compounds that contain a carbonyl group.- the carbonyl group has a carbon atom and an oxygen atom connected by a double bond C=O

Aldehydes andKetones

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Naming

Common names of some simple aldehydes

5.

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Carboxylic

Acids and

Derivatives

Naming

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• Carboxylic acids are weak acids that establish equilibria in aqueous solution with carboxylate anions.

• Carboxylate anions are named by replacing the -ic ending in the carboxylic acid name with -ate.

Interconversions ofcarboxylicacid derivatives. More reactive compounds can be converted into lessreactive ones, but not vice versa.

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Some general reactions ofcarboxylic acidderivatives.

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The flavor ingredient in oil of wintergreen is an ester that is made by reaction of o-hydroxybenzoicacid (salicylic acid) with methanol. What is its structure?

Raspberry oil contains an ester that is made by reaction of formic acid with 2-methyl-1-propanol.What is its structure?

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• Carboxylic acids are weak acids that establish equilibria in aqueous solution with carboxylate anions.

• Carboxylate anions are named by replacing the -ic ending in the carboxylic acid name with -ate.

Interconversions ofcarboxylicacid derivatives. More reactive compounds can be converted into lessreactive ones, but not vice versa.

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Some general reactions ofcarboxylic acidderivatives.

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The flavor ingredient in oil of wintergreen is an ester that is made by reaction of o-hydroxybenzoicacid (salicylic acid) with methanol. What is its structure?

Raspberry oil contains an ester that is made by reaction of formic acid with 2-methyl-1-propanol.What is its structure?

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Carboxylic acids with less than five carbons are soluble in water because_______.A. they form ionic bonds with waterB. they are nonpolarC. they form hydrogen bonds with waterD. the nonpolar portion of the molecule is large enough to overcome the polar portion of the moleculeE. incorrect - they are insoluble in water!

Carboxylic acids react with ____ toform an ester and water.

A. aminesB. alcoholsC. aldehydesD. alkanesE. alkenes

What is the alcohol obtained from the base hydrolysis of ethyl hexanoate?A. propanolB. ethanolC. pentanolD. hexanolE. none

What is the IUPAC name for the following compound?A. ethylbutylamineB. ethylpropylamideC. N-ethylbutanamideD. N-butylethanamideE. N-ethylbutanamine

Draw structure of the amide that can be made from the following reactants:CH3NH2 and (CH3)2CHCOOH

Amines

Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia in the same way that alcohols and ethers are organic derivatives ofwater.

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Caffeine contains an amine group, highlighted in red. Classify this group as:A. ammoniaB. secondaryC. tertiaryD. primary

Write the structure of N,N-diethylbutylamine and identify it as a primary, secondary, or tertiary amine.

Heterocyclic amines

The compound Lidocaine is used medically as a local anesthetic. Identify the functional groups present in Lidocaine.

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Biomolecules: Amino Acids, Peptides, and Proteins

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Kinds of interactions among amino acid side chains that stabilize a protein’s tertiary structure.

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Biomolecules: Carbohydrates

Glucose (dextrose),a pentahydroxyhexanal

Some naturally occurring D sugars.The -OH group at the chirality center farthest from the carbonyl group has the same configuration as (R)-glyceraldehyde and points toward the right in Fischer projections.

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Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.Monosaccharides have three to seven carbon atoms, and a maximum of 2n possible stereoisomers, where n is the number of chiral carbon atoms.

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129

The designations D and L derive from the Latin dextro for right and levo for left.

enantiomers

D and L- sugars

Draw the enantiomer of the following monosaccharides, and in each pair identify the Dsugar and the L sugar.Then draw at least one diastereomer of each sugar.

Diastereomers – stereoisomers that are not mirror images

130α-D-Glucopyranoseβ-D-Glucopyranose

Cyclic form of sugar…

Anomeric carbon atom The hemiacetal C atom in a cyclic sugar;the C atom bonded to an -OHgroup and an O in the ring.

anomers

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The designations D and L derive from the Latin dextro for right and levo for left.

enantiomers

D and L- sugars

Draw the enantiomer of the following monosaccharides, and in each pair identify the Dsugar and the L sugar.Then draw at least one diastereomer of each sugar.

Diastereomers – stereoisomers that are not mirror images

Change in rotation of plane-polarized light resulting from the equilibrium between cyclic anomers andthe open-chain form of a sugar.

Mutarotation

D-Fructose, often called levulose or fruit sugar, occurs in honey and many fruits

α-D-Fructofuranose β-D-Fructofuranose

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Reactions of Monosaccharides

Reaction with Oxidizing

Agents: Reducing Sugars

Carbohydrates that react with mild oxidizing agents are classified as reducing sugars (they reduce the oxidizing agent).

Formation of a glycosidic bond

between two monosaccharides

The two monosaccharides in a disaccharide are connected by a glycosidic bond.The bond may be α or β as in cyclic monosaccharides: α points below the ring and β points above the ring

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Disaccharides

Lactose, or milk sugar, is the major carbohydrate in mammalian milk. In human milk, there is about 7% lactose.

Sucrose is plain table sugar. Sugar beets and sugarcane are the most commonsources of sucrose.

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Glycogen, an animal starch, is a polymer. In this polymer,

______ units are linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, with an

occasional branch linked by a(n) _________. A. glucose; α-1,6-glycosidic bondB. galactose; α-1,6-glycosidic bondC. glycogen; α-1,6-glycosidic bondC. glucose; β-1,6-glycosidic bondD. galactose; β-1,6-glycosidic bond

Fructose is a monosaccharide sugar. It is classified as a(n) ________ and contains ____ carbons.A. ketose; fiveB. aldose; fiveC. ketose; sixD. aldose; sixE. pentose; six

How many chiral centers are in the sugar mannose?A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 6D. 1

Gentiobiose, a rare disaccharide found in saffron, has the following structure. What simple sugars do you obtain onhydrolysis of gentiobiose?

Biomolecules: Lipids

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Consider the condensed structural formula for oleic acid.A. Why is this molecule an acid?B. Is this a saturated,

monounsaturated, or polyunsaturated fatty acid?

C. Is it likely to be a solid or liquid at room temperature?

D. Would it be soluble in water?

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References:

1. JOHN McMURRY et al.: Fundamentals of general, organic, and biological chemistry 6th Ed., 2010, PearsonEducation, Inc.

2. JOHN McMURRY: Fundamentals of Organic Chemistry, 7th Ed., 2011, Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning3. KAREN C. TIMBERLAKE: Chemistry: an introduction to general, organic, and biological chemistry, 12th Ed.,

2015, Pearson Education, Inc.,4. NIVALDO J. TRO: Chemistry A Molecular Approach 3rd Ed., 2014, Pearson Education, Inc.

The autor greately appreciates Pearson Education, Inc., for donating the books and Educator materials, used inpreparation of these materials.

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PHYSICS-entrance exam tutorial

Prof. Marta Žuvić, PhDAssist. Prof. Diana Mance, PhD

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