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Effect of VesicularArbuscular–Mycorrhizal Fungi andPhosphorus Application through Soil-TestCrop Response Precision Model on CropProductivity, Nutrient Dynamics, and SoilFertility in Soybean–Wheat–Soybean CropSequence in an Acidic AlfisolV. K. Suri a & Anil K. Choudhary ba Department of Soil Science , CSK Himachal Pradesh AgriculturalUniversity , Palampur , Himachal Pradesh , Indiab Farm Science Centre, CSK Himachal Pradesh AgriculturalUniversity , Sundernagar , Himachal Pradesh , IndiaAccepted author version posted online: 29 Apr 2013.Publishedonline: 09 Jul 2013.

To cite this article: V. K. Suri & Anil K. Choudhary (2013) Effect of Vesicular Arbuscular–MycorrhizalFungi and Phosphorus Application through Soil-Test Crop Response Precision Model on CropProductivity, Nutrient Dynamics, and Soil Fertility in Soybean–Wheat–Soybean Crop Sequencein an Acidic Alfisol, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 44:13, 2032-2041, DOI:10.1080/00103624.2013.783921

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2013.783921

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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 44:2032–2041, 2013Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 0010-3624 print / 1532-2416 onlineDOI: 10.1080/00103624.2013.783921

Effect of Vesicular Arbuscular–MycorrhizalFungi and Phosphorus Application through

Soil-Test Crop Response Precision Model on CropProductivity, Nutrient Dynamics, and Soil Fertility

in Soybean–Wheat–Soybean Crop Sequencein an Acidic Alfisol

V. K. SURI1 AND ANIL K. CHOUDHARY2

1Department of Soil Science, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India2Farm Science Centre, CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,Sundernagar, Himachal Pradesh, India

A field experiment was conducted in a phosphorus (P)–deficient acidic alfisol of thenorthwestern Himalayas using three vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) cultures:a local culture developed by CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur(Glomus mosseae), VAM culture from Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI),New Delhi (Glomus mosseae), and a culture from the Centre for Mycorrhizal Research,The Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi (Glomus intraradices). These wereapplied alone or in combination with 25 to 75% of recommended P2O5 and rec-ommended nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) based on soil-test crop response (STCR)precision model with an absolute control, farmers’ practice, and 100% of recommendedP2O5 dose based on the STCR model. The results revealed that sole application of eitherof the three VAM cultures have produced 2.68 to 9.81% and 25.06 to 28.62% greatergrain yield than the control in soybean and wheat crops, respectively. Besides greaterstraw yield, NPK uptake as well as soil nutrient buildup increased. Increase in P fertil-ization from 25 to 75% of recommended P2O5 dose coupled with VAM inoculation witheither of the three VAM cultures resulted in consistent and significant improvement incrop productivity (grain and straw yields), NPK uptake, and improved soil nutrient sta-tus, though significantly greatest magnitude was obtained with sole application of 100%of the recommended P2O5 dose. The targeted grain yields of soybean (25 q ha−1) andwheat (30 q ha−1) were achievable with 75% of recommended P2O5 dose along withmycorrhizal biofertilizers, thereby indicating that application of efficient VAM fungiwith 75% of recommended P2O5 dose can economize the STCR precision model fer-tilizer P dose by about 25% without impairing crop yield targets or soil fertility in asoybean-based cropping system in an acidic alfisol.

Keywords Nutrient uptake, phosphorus, productivity, soil fertility, soybean, vesiculararbuscular mycorrhizae, wheat

Received 10 October 2011; accepted 14 March 2012.Address correspondence to V. K. Suri, Directorate of Extension Education, CSK Himachal

Pradesh Agricultural University, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India. E-mail: surivk13jan@gmail.com

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VAM Fungi and P in Soybean-Wheat-Soybean Sequence 2033

Introduction

Soybean (Glycine max) crop has currently become more popular among farmers of thenorthwestern Himalayas than other oilseed crops (Choudhary, Yadav, and Singh 2009;Suri et al. 2009), and wheat is major cereal crop in the same region (Anonymous 2004;Choudhary, Singh, and Yadav 2010). Thus, a soybean–wheat sequence is emerging as animportant crop sequence in rainfed areas of northwestern Himalayas (Anonymous 2011),and the farmers of this region are also diversifying their arable land from conventional rice–wheat or maize–wheat cropping systems to more profitable crop sequences (Choudhary,Yadav, and Singh 2009). However, the resource-poor hill farmers are unable to fulfill thenutrient requirements of these newly emerging crop sequences because of escalating pricesof chemical fertilizers, especially phosphatic fertilizers (Suri and Choudhary 2010). Thesoils of the northwestern Himalayas are generally acidic in nature and have high phos-phorus (P)–fixing power because of the excessive presence of iron (Fe) and aluminium(Al) ions, resulting in low availability of P for crop production (Sharma, Verma, andBhumbla 1980; Choudhary 2011). Moreover, environmental concerns and current issuesof sustainable development are also pressing upon researchers to generate resource conser-vation technologies that involve use of less expensive sources of plant nutrients (Choudhary2011), such as biofertilizers alone or coupled with chemical fertilizers (Narsian and Patel2009). Under such situations, vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi might be use-ful in mobilization and absorption of native soil P as well as applied P, thereby enhancingP supply to the crops (Suri et al. 2009; Suri et al. 2011a). Information is available on theresponse of the soybean–wheat crop sequence to inorganic P nutrition, but studies on VAMfungi alone or in combination with P fertilization are lacking, especially under acidic soils.As P have residual effect and is an expensive input (Suri et al. 2011b), it is crucial to assessthe effect of VAM fungi alone or in combination with P fertilization on crop productiv-ity, nutrient uptake, and soil fertility in the soybean–wheat–soybean sequence under therainfed conditions of the northwestern Himalayas. The present study was undertaken togenerate this information.

Materials and Methods

The field experiment was conducted during kharif (wet season) 2002 to kharif (wet sea-son) 2003 at the Experimental Farm of CSK Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University,Palampur, India (32o 6′ N latitude and 76o 3′ E longitude, 1291 m above mean sealevel). The soil was silty clay loam in texture as determined by the pipette method (Piper1966), acidic in reaction (pH 5.5) with 13 g organic carbon (C) per kg soil and 282, 17,and 103 kg ha−1 available nitrogen (N), phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), and dipotassiumoxide (K2O), respectively. The experiment was laid out in a randomized block designreplicated three times with 15 treatments in each crop under a soybean–wheat–soybeansequence, namely, control, farmers’ practice, and three VAM fungi cultures [VAM (L)—Glomus mosseae, local VAM culture, developed by CSK Himachal Pradesh AgriculturalUniversity, Palampur, India; VAM (T)—Glomus intraradices AM 1004 VAM culturedeveloped by the Centre for Mycorrhizal Research, The Energy Research Institute (TERI),New Delhi, India; VAM (I)—Glomus mosseae, VAM culture developed by the Division ofMicrobiology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India], alone or incombination with 25, 50, and 75% of the recommended P2O5 dose based on targeted yieldconcept following the soil-test crop response (STCR) precision model (Ramamoorthy,Narasimhan, and Dinesh 1967) as well as one treatment with sole application of 100% ofthe recommended P2O5 dose based on the STCR model without mycorrhizal application.

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2034 V. K. Suri and A. K. Choudhary

In all 25 to 100% of recommended P2O5 supplied treatments, 100% of recommended N(in wheat) and K (both in soybean and wheat) were applied based on the STCR preci-sion model. In the case of soybean, N was applied at 20 kg ha−1 as a starter dose in thesetreatments. In the case of farmers’ practice, only N was applied at 20 and 30 kg ha−1 insoybean and wheat, respectively. Nitrogen, P, and K were supplied through urea (46% N),single superphosphate (16% P2O5), and muriate of potash (60% K2O), respectively. All ofP and K in soybean and half of N and whole of P and K in wheat were applied basally atthe time of sowing. The remaining half-dose of N in wheat was applied in two equal splitsat crown root initiation and flowering stages. Nitrogen, P2O5, and K2O were applied onthe basis of targeted yield (Ramamoorthy, Narasimhan, and Dinesh 1967) using the STCRprecision model for soybean and wheat through following fertilizer adjustment equations:

In soybean In wheat

FN = 20 kg ha−1 FN = 4.91 − 0.124 SN

FP2O5 = 6.97 T − 6.34 SP FP2O5 = 7.86 T − 5.61 SP

FK2O = 4.36T − 0.36 SK FK2O = 2.44 T − 0.187 SK

In these cases, FN, FP2O5, and FK2O are fertilizer N, P2O5, and K2O in kg ha−1, respec-tively; T is the targeted yield in soybean (25 q ha−1) and wheat (30 q ha−1); and SN, SP,and SK are soil available N, P, and K in kg ha−1 in their elemental form.

Soybean (Harit Soya) was sown on 25 June 2002 and 4 July 2003 with ospacing of45 × 10 cm and harvested on 25 October 2002 and 28 October 2003 during kharif 2002 and2003, respectively. Wheat (HS-240) was sown on 6 January 2003 (delayed because of thelate onset of winter rains) with row spacing of 20 cm and harvested on 2 June 2003. In boththe crops, plot size was 7.2 m2. The crops were grown under rainfed conditions with therecommended package of practices.

VAM Inoculation

Soil mixed VAM cultures having VAM spores and fungal hyphae were used in the study.In all the three VAM cultures (local, TERI, and IARI cultures), and the spore counts were100, 500, and 400 per 250 g air-dry soil, respectively. The VAM cultures were used at 12 kgha−1. These VAM cultures were used on a spore-equivalent basis taking TERI VAM cultureinto consideration while using the VAM cultures. Local VAM culture was prepared by theinvestigating scientists (authors) by raising the target crops (i.e., soybean and wheat) tomaturity in pots containing 7 kg sterilized soil + 2 kg FYM and 1 kg mother culture (Suriet al. 2011a). After harvest, rhizosphere soil of pot and root biomass constituted the localVAM culture (Suri and Choudhary 2010). The actual inoculation of wheat and soybeanseeds with these cultures was performed by preparing soil slurries of cultures and dippingthe seeds into them for a half hour followed by shade drying to make seed pallets and thensowing in the field.

Soil and Plant Chemical Analysis

Soil reaction (pH) was measured in 1:2.5 soil/water suspension using a glass electrode pHmeter (Jackson 1967). Organic C was determined by rapid titration method (Walkley andBlack 1934), available N by the alkaline permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija 1956),

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VAM Fungi and P in Soybean-Wheat-Soybean Sequence 2035

available P by Olsen’s method (Olsen et al. 1954), and available K by the neutral normalammonium acetate extraction method (AOAC 1970). Plant analysis (grain and stover) wasdone using the standard procedures of Jackson (1967).

Statistical Analysis

The experimental design was a randomized block design (RBD) and the statistical analysiswas done using the standard procedures suggested by Gomez and Gomez (1984).

Results and Discussion

Crop Productivity

Perusal of the data (Table 1) reveals that grain and straw yields of the crops in thesoybean–wheat–soybean crop sequence with the sole application of all three VAM cultures(VAM-L, VAM-T, and VAM-I) were greater than the control and significantly at par withthe farmers’ practice. It is clear that sole use of VAM cultures produced 2.68 to 9.81 and25.06 to 28.62% more grain yield over the control in both soybean (kharif 2002 andkharif 2003) and wheat (rabi 2002–2003) crops, respectively. Wheat (Table 1) was moreresponsive to VAM fungi at low native soil P or applied P in terms of grain and strawyield (Choudhary 2011), indicating that VAM fungi have positive effects on crop pro-ductivity due to mobilization and uptake of plant nutrients by the crop (Karagiannidisand Hadjisavva 1998; Harrier and Watson 2003). Application of any of the three VAMcultures in combination with increasing inorganic P application from 25 to 75% of recom-mended P2O5 based on the targeted yield concept (Ramamoorthy, Narasimhan, and Dinesh1967) resulted in consistent and significant improvement in grain and straw yield of soy-bean and wheat. It was also observed that VAM cultures along with 75% of recommendedP2O5 dose remained almost comparable with sole application of 100% P2O5 dose in thecase of grain yield of these crops, although 100% of recommended P2O5 dose was sta-tistically superior in respect of grain and straw yields in the present study. The targetedgrain yields of soybean (25 q ha−1) and wheat (30 q ha−1) were also achieved with 75%of recommended P2O5 dose along with mycorrhizal biofertilizers, thereby indicating thatapplication of efficient VAM fungi with 75% of recommended P2O5 dose can economizethe STCR precision model fertilizer P dose by about 25% without impairing crop yieldtargets in a soybean–wheat cropping system in an acidic alfisol (Suri et al. 2006). Theseresults are also in close conformity with those obtained by Singh and Kapoor (1999), Kellyet al. (2001), and Harrier and Watson (2003).

Nutrient Uptake

The NPK uptake in soybean and wheat with inoculation of any of these three VAM fungicultures alone was greater over control and farmers’ practice though the differences werenonsignificant (Table 2). The magnitude of NPK uptake in wheat (rabi 2002–2003) andsecond soybean (kharif 2003) was significantly greater with VAM inoculation over controlbut again remained at par with farmers’ practice, thereby indicating a positive effect ofVAM fungi on NPK uptake (Singh and Singh 1993; Suri et al. 2011a), besides enhancedcrop yields (Singh and Kapoor 1999; Suri et al. 2011a) due to mobilization and uptake ofplant nutrients by the crop (Karagiannidis and Hadjisavva 1998; Harrier and Watson 2003).

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Tabl

e1

Eff

ecto

fV

AM

fung

icul

ture

san

dph

osph

orus

appl

icat

ion

thro

ugh

STC

Rpr

ecis

ion

mod

elon

grai

nan

dst

raw

yiel

dsof

soyb

ean–

whe

at–s

oybe

ancr

opse

quen

ce

Gra

inyi

eld

(kg

ha−1

)St

raw

yiel

d(k

gha

−1)

Tre

atm

ent

Soyb

ean

(kha

rif

2002

)W

heat

(rab

i20

02–2

003)

Soyb

ean

(kha

rif

2003

)So

ybea

n(k

hari

f20

02)

Whe

at(r

abi

2002

–200

3)So

ybea

n(k

hari

f20

03)

Con

trol

1776

1209

1753

4345

1695

4300

Farm

ers’

prac

tice

1873

1511

1823

4648

2096

4538

VA

M(L

)al

one

1871

1512

1800

4591

2120

4558

VA

M(T

)al

one

1908

1524

1925

4522

2107

4649

VA

M(I

)al

one

1868

1555

1852

4497

2136

4440

VA

M(L

)+

25%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

1980

2234

1983

5150

3219

5128

VA

M(T

)+

25%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2117

2318

2122

5101

3306

5103

VA

M(I

)+

25%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2033

2340

2085

5174

3326

5137

VA

M(L

)+

50%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2051

2737

2059

5799

3838

5733

VA

M(T

)+

50%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2222

2793

2218

5886

3932

5831

VA

M(I

)+

50%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2162

2801

2160

5871

3943

5737

VA

M(L

)+

75%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2557

3298

2608

6346

4346

6349

VA

M(T

)+

75%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2712

3352

2724

6398

4319

6528

VA

M(I

)+

75%

P 2O

5

base

don

STC

Rm

odel

2508

3443

2613

6456

4329

6466

100%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el27

9637

2528

6172

4948

8370

27

CD

(P=

0.05

)29

825

825

553

912

842

4

2036

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Tabl

e2

Eff

ects

ofV

AM

fung

icul

ture

san

dph

osph

orus

appl

icat

ion

thro

ugh

STC

Rpr

ecis

ion

mod

elon

NPK

upta

ke(k

gha

−1)

inso

ybea

n–w

heat

–soy

bean

crop

sequ

ence

Soyb

ean

(kha

rif

2002

)W

heat

(rab

i200

2–20

03)

Soyb

ean

(kha

rif

2003

)

Tre

atm

ent

Nup

take

Pup

take

Kup

take

Nup

take

Pup

take

Kup

take

Nup

take

Pup

take

Kup

take

Con

trol

137.

96.

330

.023

.84.

011

.913

6.1

6.0

29.0

Farm

ers’

prac

tice

147.

99.

132

.330

.45.

215

.414

3.9

7.4

30.9

VA

M(L

)al

one

146.

57.

232

.030

.65.

815

.814

2.8

7.9

31.5

VA

M(T

)al

one

148.

07.

733

.130

.25.

915

.915

0.5

8.0

33.9

VA

M(I

)al

one

146.

27.

632

.531

.16.

015

.914

6.0

7.7

32.8

VA

M(L

)+

25%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el15

9.9

9.2

35.0

49.2

9.3

25.0

159.

89.

235

.8

VA

M(T

)+

25%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el16

7.8

12.4

38.2

51.9

10.1

27.1

168.

510

.439

.0

VA

M(I

)+

25%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el16

4.0

10.0

37.3

51.8

9.9

26.9

166.

210

.538

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VA

M(L

)+

50%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el17

2.1

11.5

37.4

60.2

12.6

31.8

172.

711

.638

.6

VA

M(T

)+

50%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el18

2.0

12.7

41.8

62.2

13.5

33.7

182.

113

.241

.7

VA

M(I

)+

50%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el17

9.8

12.8

41.5

62.3

13.2

33.2

178.

312

.541

.4

VA

M(L

)+

75%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el20

7.0

15.0

47.6

72.3

17.2

37.1

209.

414

.749

.2

VA

M(T

)+

75%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el21

5.9

16.2

50.6

73.9

18.3

38.7

218.

317

.351

.4

VA

M(I

)+

75%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el20

6.1

15.8

48.7

74.5

18.2

39.0

212.

117

.150

.1

100%

P 2O

5ba

sed

onST

CR

mod

el23

1.3

21.1

55.8

82.4

20.6

45.2

232.

821

.857

.3C

D(P

=0.

05)

13.9

2.7

4.5

4.0

0.9

1.6

15.0

1.6

4.0

2037

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2038 V. K. Suri and A. K. Choudhary

The VAM fungi cultures along with 25 to 75% of recommended P2O5 dose resultedin consistent and significant increases in N, P, and K uptake in these crops, and TERIVAM culture was superiormost among the three VAM cultures, though all these culturesremained at par with respect to NPK uptake at each P application rate. The significantlygreatest NPK uptake was obtained with sole application of 100% of recommended P2O5

based on the STCR precision model. These results revealed that effect of VAM fungi onNPK uptake was more pronounced at low native soil P or applied P (Shirani Rad, Alizadeh,and Hashemi 2000; Choudhary 2011) than at greater P levels where P fertilization broughtmore contrasting results over VAM inoculation (Harrier and Watson 2003). Overall, it wasinferred that VAM fungi can play an important role in P fertilizer economy under low soilP or low applied P conditions, which may be attributed to VAM symbiotic effects (Harrierand Watson 2003) and inorganic P fertilization as well (Suri and Puri 1997). The resultsobtained in the present study are also in close association with those obtained by ShiraniRad and Alizadeh (2000), Singh and Kapoor (2000), and Narsian and Patel (2009).

Soil Nutrient Status

Analysis of soil after the harvest of the wheat and the second soybean crop indicated aslight buildup of available N, P, and K in the soil with the sole application of VAM fungicultures over control and initial status (Table 3). The differences were significant only withrespect to available N with VAM inoculation over control and farmers’ practice irrespectiveof VAM cultures in the present study. The VAM inoculation with either of 3 VAM culturesalong with increasing inorganic P fertilization from 25 to 75% of recommended P2O5 doseresulted in consistent and significant improvement in soil-available N, P, and K content.At each P fertility level, TERI VAM culture (Glomus intraradices AM 1004) remainingat par with IARI and local VAM cultures, exhibited greater buildup of soil available N,P, and K. Significant maximum buildup of soil available NPK was observed with thesole application of 100% of the recommended P2O5 dose based on the STCR precisionmodel, even though inoculation of the three VAM cultures with 75% of recommendedP2O5 dose exhibited almost comparable effects on soil nutrient buildup (Table 3). Thismay be ascribed to mobilization of soil N, P, and K from organic and inorganic complexesby the action of VAM fungi due to its mycelial growth or release of organic acids in therhizosphere (Pare, Gregorich, and Nelson 1999; Suri et al. 2011a). The balanced N andK additions as well as increasing P levels also improved the soil nutrient status in thepresent study (Suri and Puri 1997). Overall, it can be summarized that inoculation of VAMfungi alone or in combination with varying P levels improved the soil available nutrientstatus in a soybean–wheat–soybean crop sequence (Kaushik et al. 2004; Narsian and Patel2009).

Conclusions

From this study, it can be seen that application of VAM fungi alone or with inorganicP fertilization improved the crop productivity and nutrient uptake and helped economizesoil-test and yield-target-oriented P dose using the STCR precision model to the extent ofabout one-fourth of the P requirement of the soybean–wheat–soybean cropping sequencebesides improvement in soil nutrient buildup in a P-deficient acidic alfisol of northwesternHimalayas.

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VAM Fungi and P in Soybean-Wheat-Soybean Sequence 2039

Table 3Effects of VAM fungi cultures and phosphorus application through STCR precision

model on soil-available nutrient status (NPK) after harvest of wheat and second soybeancrop in soybean–wheat–soybean crop sequence

Soil-available nutrient status (kg ha−1)

After wheat harvest(rabi 2002–2003)

After second soybeanharvest (kharif 2003)

Treatment N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O

Control 257.5 15.9 92.0 250.1 15.0 91.4Farmers’ practice 260.5 16.0 92.6 260.1 15.1 90.9VAM (L) alone 270.1 16.0 92.6 267.7 16.0 92.7VAM (T) alone 268.9 16.0 92.8 270.2 15.7 92.7VAM (I) alone 269.4 15.9 92.7 272.5 15.9 92.2VAM (L) + 25% P2O5

based on STCR model278.3 20.6 107.7 283.5 20.4 108.1

VAM (T) + 25% P2O5

based on STCR model280.7 20.6 109.7 285.3 21.3 108.1

VAM (I) + 25% P2O5

based on STCR model279.6 20.3 107.8 283.3 20.4 107.6

VAM (L) + 50% P2O5

based on STCR model283.9 29.1 110.3 289.5 29.9 110.4

VAM (T) + 50% P2O5

based on STCR model287.9 30.5 110.5 293.2 30.9 111.9

VAM (I) + 50% P2O5

based on STCR model285.5 30.1 110.2 291.6 29.9 111.9

VAM (L) + 75% P2O5

based on STCR model297.5 34.1 112.2 301.2 36.1 118.5

VAM (T) + 75% P2O5

based on STCR model302.0 33.1 113.1 304.7 36.8 122.4

VAM (I) + 75% P2O5

based on STCR model299.4 32.1 111.9 302.2 36.7 124.0

100% P2O5 based onSTCR model

310.2 37.4 115.3 315.2 39.0 124.7

CD (P = 0.05) 4.2 1.8 3.1 4.7 2.1 4.6

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, India,for providing financial assistance for this study under the World Bank–funded NationalAgricultural Technology Project (NATP). The authors are also thankful to the Division ofMicrobiology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India, and theCentre for Mycorrhizal Research, The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India,for supplying VAM cultures and providing valuable technical guidance.

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