dyeing plants and knowledge transfer in the yungas communities of northwest argentina

Dyeing Plants and Knowledge Transfer in the YungasCommunities of Northwest Argentina1

DANIELA ALEJANDRA LAMBARÉ1,4, NORMA INÉS HILGERT*,2,3,

AND RITA SOLEDAD RAMOS1

1Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, Jujuy, Argentina2Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Puerto Iguazú, Argentina3Centro de Investigaciones del Bosque Atlántico (CeIBA), Instituto de Biología Subtropical (IBS),Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Andresito 21. C.C. 8. 3370, Puerto Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina

4Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Jujuy, Argentina*Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

Dyeing Plants and Knowledge Transfer in the Yungas Communities of Northwest Argentina. Inthe Yungas region of the Salta province, Argentina, interest in the use of plant dyes has reviveddue to new market demands and the growth of rural tourism. In this study we compare the useof dyeing plants recorded between 1994 and 2000 with those used in 2007 and 2008. We alsoaddress factors currently involved in the acquisition and transmission of knowledge. We workedwith 39 randomly chosen participants (of which 11 were artisans) in the first stage, and 32artisans in the second stage. Information was gathered during semi–structured interviewsand structured questionnaires. Eleven and 57 dye plant species, and 10 and 2 mordants,were registered in the first and second stage, respectively. The use of soft plant parts hasincreased, relative to the employment of roots and barks. Pastels predominate among the colorsobtained. Mothers are the main transmitters of this knowledge; however, new mechanisms ofknowledge acquisition and transfer are gaining importance. These results provide an alternativefor the diversification and quality of existing crafts.

Plantas tintóreas y transmisión del conocimiento en comunidades de Yungas del NoroesteArgentino. En las Yungas de la provincia de Salta, Argentina, ha resurgido el interés por el usode tintes vegetales debido a nuevas demandas del mercado y al turismo rural. Se compara eluso de plantas tintóreas registrado entre 1994 y 2000 con las empleadas en el 2007 y 2008. Seanalizan los factores que actualmente intervienen en la adquisición y transmisión del conocimiento.En una primera etapa se trabajó con 39 personas elegidas al azar (11 de las cuales eran artesanas)y en una segunda con 32 artesanas. Se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas y estructuradas.Se detectaron 11 y 57 especies tintóreas, 10 y 2 mordientes, en el primer y segundo períodorespectivamente. Ha aumentado el uso de órganos blandos en relación al de raíces y cortezas.Los colores obtenidos son pasteles en su mayoría. Se halló que las madres son las principalestransmisoras de estos conocimientos, no obstante, actualmente cobraron importancia nuevosmecanismos de adquisición y transmisión. La aplicación de los resultados de este estudio puedeproveer alternativas para la diversificación y la calidad de las artesanías actuales.

Key Words: Knowledge, processes of change, manufacturing, Los Toldos, Salta.

IntroductionEthnobotanical research is a useful tool for

identifying uses of plants and associated knowledge,

as well as mechanisms of knowledge acquisition andtransmission. It is the core of understanding tradi-tional ecological knowledge, which now alsoincludes an analysis of how this knowledge isadapted, linked, and transmitted through genera-tions (Lozada et al. 2006). It is often assumed thattraditional knowledge is characterized by resistance

1 Received 12 August 2010; accepted 3 August2011; published online 26 August 2011

Economic Botany, 65(3), 2011, pp. 315–328© 2011, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

.

to adaptation or change over time (Ingold 2000).Changes in knowledge, according to this view,should be interpreted as errors in the transmissionprocess, or as loss of traditional status. However, ifit is taken into consideration that each individualhas the ability to generate knowledge and experi-ence, both on a personal and community level, thisassumption has to be rejected (Holl 2005). Whiletradition is often perceived as a symbol of identity,it is important to pay attention to creativity in theadapting process (Davidson-Hunt 2006).Cultural transmission is a process of social

reproduction in which the technological knowledgeof a given cultural group, along with its behavioralpatterns, beliefs, and cosmologies are communi-cated and acquired. Many different forms ofknowledge transmission have been defined basedon a group’s genealogy: 1) horizontal, which occursamong individuals of the same generation, 2)vertical, which takes place between different gen-erations belonging to the same genealogy, and 3)oblique, which occurs when knowledge is passedfrom an older to a younger generation, notbelonging to the same genealogy. Similarly, consid-ering the number of senders and receivers ofknowledge, two opposing modes of transmissionare distinguished: From one person to many (e.g.,teacher to students) and from many to one (e.g., animmigrant in a receiving community). Understand-ing these mechanisms may enable us to not onlypredict the cultural stability and variability of agroup over time, but also to infer the evolutionaryprocess of that group (Aunger 2000; Hewlett andCavalli-Sforza 1986; Lozada et al. 2006).Women have been identified as the principal

transmitters of knowledge in Mapuche commun-ities (Eyssartier et al. 2008). Consequently, toanalyze the influence gender exerts on theseprocesses, women’s importance in projects focus-ing on environmental and sustainable use shouldnot be overlooked (Bingeman 2003; Eyssartier etal. 2008; Gupte 2004; Vázquez-García 2008;Voeks 2007).In Argentina, both indigenous and mestizo

dyeing practices include plant and animalmaterial, as well as minerals. Dyes of lesstechnologically advanced groups were based onthe use of fermented organic materials, whereasamong Andean communities the decoctionmethod predominated. The literature from thelatter half of the 20th century mentions dyeingresources, describes the processes involved, andprovides detailed information about the most

common mordants, such as lye made with theash of several plants, talvina or chuia made fromwheat or corn flour, fermented urine, and saltwater, among others (Marzocca 1993; Millán dePalavecino 1953).The techniques currently used in Andean

regions exhibit a long tradition of influence bySpanish colonists, particularly in the use ofsynthetic dyes and mordants (Fabbio et al.2009; Fester 1962; Millán de Palavecino 1953).In the mid–19th century, synthetic dyes becamepopular due to their greater color range, thebrighter and more vivid shades they offered, andsimpler color fixing, to the detriment of theemployment of natural dyes (Cárdenas 1989).In the Los Toldos municipality, the production

of handicrafts is a new economic activity. Thisincludes wool products (such as bags, blankets,shawls, other clothing, and livestock managementitems) as well as wooden and clay objects. Ingeneral, these products are destined for homeutilization; however, there are some local artisanswho provide crafts for the whole village. Nowa-days, this activity is almost exclusively reserved forwomen. Plants or purchased anilines are used fordyeing clothes (Fabbio et al. 2009; Hilgert 2007;Zardini and Pochettino 1983). The use of dyeingplants in this region has been mentioned inprevious ethnobotanical studies (Fabbio et al.2009; Hilgert 1998, 2007; Levy Hynes 1994;Zardini and Pochettino 1983).Changes in market demands have influenced the

re–evaluation of the use of plant dyes in textile craftsamong the inhabitants of Los Toldos municipality.In response, some workshops and courses are beingrun, and artisans themselves have organized coop-eratives and housewives clubs, where they begin toshare their knowledge about dyeing with plants.Our hypothesis is that these changes have affectedthe use of dyeing species, as well as relatedmechanisms of knowledge production and trans-mission. We anticipate that the revived interest inhandmade textile production has led to an increasein frequency of use and in the number of speciesused to dye wool. Moreover we expect that matri-lineal influence has lost importance in the acquis-ition and transfer of knowledge in comparison withother factors.To investigate this, we: 1) gathered data on

plant dyes, including local and scientific names,plant parts used, colors and shades obtainedthrough dyeing, modes of preparation, and theamount of material needed to achieve the desired

316 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 65

shades and plant gathering seasons, and 2)analyzed forms of knowledge acquisition andtransmission, and changes resulting from therecent revival of textile crafts in the region.

Material and MethodsResearch was carried out in the rural commun-

ities of the Yungas in the upper basin of theBermejo River. Settlements included Baritú, ElArazay, La Misión, Lipeo, Los Toldos, and ElCondado, located in the municipality of LosToldos, Santa Victoria department of the prov-ince of Salta. Due to their geopolitical locationand history, these communities maintain relation-ships with Bolivian communities (Fig. 1).

These settlements are inhabited by descendantsof different Andean indigenous groups that wereinfluenced by Spanish culture. They speak onlySpanish, although many Quechuan expressionsare found in their speech. Most live in marginalsocio–economic conditions. A brief analysis of theregional economy shows the coexistence of shift-ing agriculture, transhumance, nomadic cattle–breeding, hunting and fishing, and paid employ-ment (Hilgert and Gil 2006).

The local vegetation forms a part of subtropicalmountain forest—the Yungas—and the domi-nant species vary along an altitudinal gradient. Inthe highest sector, Podocarpus parlatorei Pilg.,Alnus acuminata Kunth, and Ilex argentina Lillopredominate; the lowest parts are characterized byCinnamomum porphyria (Griseb.) Mez, Nectandracuspidata Nees & Mart. ex Nees, Blepahrocalyxsalicifolius (Kunth) O. Berg, Cedrela angustifoliaDC., and Juglans australis Griseb. The climate istropical continental with warm rainy summersand cool dry winters; the mean annual temper-ature ranges from 14ºC to 25ºC (Bianchi andYañes 1992; Cabrera 1976).

Field research was based on participant observa-tion, semi–structured, and structured surveys. Addi-tionally, an exhaustive review of available literatureon the topic was carried out. Thirty–nine interviewswere conducted with randomly chosen participants(of which 11 were artisans) in Baritú, El Arazay, ElCondado, Lipeo, and Los Toldos, (informationgathered between 1994 and 2000).

The second stage of the research was carriedout between November 2007 and October 2008(hereafter referred to as at present). In this stagewe concentrated on dyeing plants. We worked with32 artisans from El Arazay, El Condado, La Misión,

and Los Toldos. We used the snowball samplingtechnique to recruit a group of participants (Bernard2000). Local experts and/or persons active in thetextile and dyeing crafts were selected as keyinformants, and those interested in participating inthe study were interviewed. No prior informationwas available on the total number of artisans in theregion. According to our estimate, there are 53artisans working with traditional dyeing techniques.Of these, 60% (32) participated in individual,semi–structured, and structured interviews. Weinquired about the species used in the preparationof plant dyes and about familiar dye resources thatare not necessarily employed at present. Theinterview questions also concerned the sources ofthis knowledge, plant names, plant parts used, theamount of material required, the units of measure-ment used locally, dyeing techniques, colorsobtained from dyeing processes, use of mordants,color mixtures, collection times, and local techni-ques of plant management. The information wasrecorded in field notebooks and on a voice recorder.

We collected 101 specimens in the places fromwhich the artisans usually obtained them. Thebotanical material was identified by AlejandraLambaré under the guidance of Norma Hilgert.The voucher specimens are stored in Herbario delMuseo de Farmacobotánica, Facultad de Farm-acia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires(BAF). We estimated the mean and standarddeviation of species used per person with the datagathered at both stages. With the data obtained inthe second stage, dedicated exclusively to thedyeing plants, we estimated the frequency ofuse per species FU ¼ f n=N½ �100ð Þ and comparedthe number of species in each locality by a chi–square test.

In the second stage of the survey, data werecollected on two successive occasions with theaim of investigating the knowledge source andits transmission. First, during the semi–structuredinterviews, the inquiry was oriented towardsthe identification of locally recognized modesof knowledge acquisition. Then, based on theinformation already gathered, all the artisanswere asked about more specific aspects of thesubject. It was estimated if any learning modesand knowledge transfer prevailed in the region(the sum of all the localities) as well as foreach of the four settlements. For that, wemade a comparison among frequencies ofcitations of each mode with the expectedaverage from a random distribution using achi–square test.

317LAMBARÉ ET AL.: DYE PLANTS AND KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER2011]

Fig. 1. Dye plant study area in northwest Argentina.


ResultsTHE TEXTILE CRAFTS AND PLANT DYES

In the course of research on useful plants (firststage), we found that dye species and mordantswere mentioned in 39% of the interviews. In thesecond stage, we determined that the develop-ment and trade of handicrafts is carried outprimarily by women organized into cooperativesand groups. In Los Toldos, the largest town inthe area, there are craft shops where artisansdisplay and sell their work. Textile crafts includebags, blankets, tablecloths, table runners, andclothing made from sheep and, to a lesser extent,llama wool. The wool is in part produced locally,and bartered or purchased from vendors whocome from neighboring villages on higher anddrier ground. The llama wool is brought from LaQuiaca and other localities of Bolivia.

Until about eight years ago, almost all theartisans preferred synthetic dyes, except for one ortwo species that have always been used. However,we observe that the local artisans are increasinglyexperimenting with new dyeing plant species insearch for new colors, and are combining differentspecies together, which is a new phenomenon.Nevertheless, mixtures of natural and syntheticdyes were not reported. This recent interest inplants is based on several reported advantages,including better acceptance by the purchaser,greater resistance of colors, easier availability ofplant material, and reduced water pollution.Artisans generally use plant dyes for pieces to besold and synthetic dyes for home use, as thebright and vivid colors obtained from syntheticdyes are locally particularly appreciated.

In the second stage of the research, 57 speciesof dye plants were reported belonging to 36families and 55 genera. These include taxa knownfor their dyeing properties but not currentlyemployed. Asteraceae (7) and Fabaceae (7)represent the highest number of species. Plantlife forms included 7 herbs, 15 shrubs, 29 trees,and 6 vines or epiphytes. Native speciesaccounted for 68.4% of the reported dyeingplants, followed by cultivated (21%), naturalized(8.7%), and purchased (3.5%) (Table 1).

J. australis, Berberis lilloana Job, Ilex para-guariensis A. St. –Hil., Allium cepa L., andAnadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan var. cebil(Griseb.) Altschul are the highest–ranked specieswith dyeing properties (Fig. 2). When comparingthe number of species employed in each locality

with the total, significant differences were found(χ3

2=5.77; p=0.05). This means that there is nota uniform list of species used in the region,neither in number nor in composition. Thenumber of species included 25 in El Arazay, 15in El Condado, 20 in La Misión, and 41 in LosToldos (Fig. 3). A comparison of the informationgathered during both research stages shows thecurrent increase in the number of species used indyeing and, by contrast, the decrease in thenumber of plant mordants (Table 2).

The use of particular plant parts in dyeingvaries according to the seasons. The artisans alsoreported that at different stages of plant growth—young, adult, and old, in the case of trees andshrubs—different shades are obtained from thesame plant organ. A similar observation was madein relation to the phenological changes of anindividual plant, such as leaf buds, young leaves,and old leaves that produce different shades ofdye. For example, buds and young leaves of J.australis produce lighter shades than older leaves.

The material that is used in dyeing can befresh, dried, or fermented. In recent years newplant organs have been incorporated, such asleaves and flowers, and at present these plant partsare more often used than those previouslyemployed. Indeed, the plant parts most com-monly used are leaves and aerial parts (branches,stems), followed by flowers or inflorescences andfruits. At the same time bark, cataphylls, roots,fronds, seeds, and resin are less frequently chosen(Fig. 4; Table 1). J. australis is the species with thehighest number of citations and, at the sametime, the species with the highest number ofplant organs employed, followed by B. lilloana(Table 1).

Colors obtained from natural dyes depend onthe dye concentration, the plant part used, theseason in which the material is collected, thegrowth stage of the plant, and the employment ofmordants. Pastels predominate among the shades.Green and yellow colors are obtained from thegreatest variety of species (Fig. 5). Differentshades of brown, especially those derived from J.australis, are usually employed as the basic colorof pieces, to which different embroidered figuresare applied. On the contrary, violet, pink, gray,and orange are used to weave embroidery patternsand borders.

At present, the artisans have set about the taskof obtaining natural dyes in the range of red andblue. They base their search for new species on


TABLE1.

DYESP

ECIESUSE

DIN

THEMUNIC

IPALITYOFLO

STOLD

OS,N

ORTHWEST

ARGENTIN

A.

Species(Fam

ily),Lo

calname,Vouchers

Life

form

Provenance

Plantpartused

Obtainedcolor

Mordants

Acaciaarom

aGill.ex

Hook.

&Arn.

(Fabaceae),Tusca,L64

,68

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark,

fruit,andresin

Black;paleanddark

green;

pink;opaque

red

Alum;citrus

juice;urine

Acaciacaven(M

olina)

Molina(Fabaceae),

Chu

rqui,L65

,67

BAF

Tree

Na

Barkandfruit

Black

Alum;citrus

juice;urine

Achyroclin

esp.(Asteraceae),Suncho,L77

BAF

Herb

Na

Flow

erandleaves

Yellow

Alum;vinegar

AffUsnea

angulata

Ach.(Parmeliaceae)Bryophyta,

Sachaverde,bejuco,L23

BAF

Epiph

yte

Na

Entireplant

Green

Alum

Allium

cepa

L.(Alliaceae),Cebolla,L95

BAF

Shrub

CCataphylls

Yellow;bu

rgun

dy;palepink;

green;

orange

Alum;salt;

vinegar

Alnus

acum

inataKun

th(Betulaceae),Aliso,

L60

BAF

Tree

Na

Leaves

andbark

Green;orange;red;

brow

nAlum;citrus

juice;

vinegar;talvina3

Amaranthus

hybridus

L.(Amarantaceae),Aroma,

L38

,42

,46

,62

BAF

Shrub

CInflorescence

Yellow

Alum

Anadenanthera

colubrina(Vell.)

Brenan

var.cebil(Griseb.)Altschul

(Fabaceae),

Cebilcolorado,L51

,58

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark

Red

Alum;citrus

juice;urine

Baccharisdracunculifolia

DC.(Asteraceae),Chilca,

prem

entin

a,L18

,28

,35

BAF

Shrub

Na

Leaves

andstem

sGreen

Alum;salt;

vinegar

BaccharismicrodontaDC.(Asteraceae),Tola,

L29

,31

,34

,45

BAF

Shrub

Na

Leaves

Green

BerberislilloanaJob(Berberidaceae),Palo

Amarillo,

L25

,41

,74

BAF

Tree

Na

Leaves,bark

Yellow

Alum;citrus

juice;vinegar;

salt;

urine

Beta

vulgarisL.

ssp.

vulgaris(Chenopodiaceae),

Rem

olacha,L94

BAF

Shrub

CRoot

Purple;red

Salt

Bidens

pilosa

L.var.minor

(Blume)

Sherff(Asteraceae),Saetilla,L51

BAF

Herb

Na

Flow

erGreen

Alum

Bocconia

integrifolia

Hum

b.&

Bonpl.(Papaveraceae),

Milhombres,gavilán,

L54

,81

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark,

leaves

Yellow

Alum;citrus

juice;salt

Cam

ellia

sinensis

(L.)Kun

tze(Theaceae),Té,L98

BAF

Shrub

PLeaves

andstem

sBrown

Vinegar

Cedrela

angustifolia

DC.(M

eliaceae),Cedro

Tree

Na

Bark

Pink

Alum;citrus

juice;salt

Citrus

sp.L.

(Rutaceae),Naranja,L89

BAF

Tree

NLeaves

andfruit’s

peel

Palegreen

Dahlia

spp.

(Asteraceae),Dalia,L10

1BAF

Shrub

CFlow

erPu

rple

Alum

Enterolobium

contortisiliquum

(Vell.)

Morong

(Fabaceae),Pacará,tim

boi,L90

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark

Palegreen


TABLE1.

(CONTIN

UED).

Species(Fam

ily),Lo

calname,Vouchers

Life

form

Provenance

Plantpartused

Obtainedcolor

Mordants

Erytrhinafalca

taBenth.(Fabaceae),Ceibo,L83

BAF

Tree

Na

Flow

erRed

Eucalyptus

ssp.

(Myrtaceae),Eucalipto,L86

BAF

Tree

CLeaves

Green

Alum

Zanthoxylum

coco

Gilliesex

Hook.

f.&

Arn.

(Rutaceae),Sauco,

cochucho,L56

,71

,75

BAF

Tree

Na

Leaves,bark,

fruits,andresin

Yellow

Alum;citrus

juice;

urine;salt

Galium

ssp.

(Rub

iaceae),Chapi

Herb

Na

Leaves

andstem

sRed

Alum;salt

Gladiolus

sp.(Iridaceae),Gladiolo,

L10

0BAF

Shrub

CFlow

erRed

Alum

Hydrangea

macrophylla

(Thu

nb.)Ser.

(Hydrangeaceae),Hortensia,L99

BAF

Shrub

CLeaves

Green

Hypolepisrepens

(L.)C.Presl

(Dennstaedtiaceae),Helecho,L21

BAF

Fern

Na

Fronds

Green

IlexparaguariensisA.St.-H

ill.

(Aquifo

liaceae),Yerba,L97

BAF

Shrub

PBranches,stem

s,andleaves

Green

Alum;urine;

salt;

vinegar

Jacarandamimosifolia

D.Don

(Bignoniaceae),

Jacarand

á,tarco,

L87

BAF

Tree

Na

Flow

erPu

rple

JuglansaustralisGriseb.

(Jugland

aceae),

Nogal,L22

,39

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark,

leaves

andfruit

Brown

Quechincha4;citrus

juice;salt;

vinegar

Ligariasp.(Loranthaceae),Liga

Vine

Na

Leaves

andflow

ers

Yellow;red

Salt;

vinegar

Dolichandra

unguis-cati(L.)L.G.Lo

hmann

(Bignoniaceae),Uña

degato,L66

BAF

Vine

Na

Leaves

Green

Mespilusgerm

anicaL.

(Rosaceae),

Níspero,L91

BAF

Tree

CLeaves

Palepink

Salt

Morus

sp.(M

oraceae),Mora,L88

BAF

Tree

NFruits

Alum;urine;citrus

juice

Myrsin

ecoriaceae(Sw.)R.Br.(M

yrsinaceae),

Yurum

a,L30

,55

BAF

Tree

Na

Fruitsandleaves

Brown

Alum

Parapiptadenia

excelsa

(Griseb.)Burkart

(Fabaceae),Cebilmoro,

L53

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark

Purple

Passiflora

umbilicata(G

riseb.)Harms

(Passifloraceae),Granada

Tree

CFruit’s

peel

Unknown

Persea

americanaMill.(Lauraceae),

Palta,L92

BAF

Tree

NSeeds

Yellow;brow

nCitrus

juice;vinegar

Piperaduncum

L.(Piperaceae),Matico

Herb

Na

Leaves

Green

Alum;salt

Podocarpus

parla

toreiPilg.(Podocarpaceae),

Pino

criollo,pino

delcerro,

L44

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark,

root

andseeds

Brown

Alum;citrus

juice

Populusalba

L.(Salicaceae),Álamo,

L82

BAF

Tree

CLeaves

Green

Alum

Prunus

persica(L.)Batsch(Rosaceae),

Duraznero,árbol,L85

BAF

Tree

N,C

Leaves

Palegreen

Alum;citrus

juice;

talvina;

vinegar

Rosa

rubiginosa

L.(Rosaceae),Rosa,L93

BAF

Shrub

N,C

Flow

erPalered

Alum

RubusimperialisCham.&

Schltdl.(Rosaceae),

Morasilvestre,L70

,76

BAF

Shrub

Na

Leaves

Green


TABLE1.

(CONTIN

UED).

Species(Fam

ily),Lo

calname,Vouchers

Life

form

Provenance

Plantpartused

Obtainedcolor

Mordants

Rumex

sp.(Polygonaceae),Lampazo,L72

BAF

Herb

Na

Leaves

Green

Salvia

atrocyanea

Epling(Lam

iaceae),

Salvia,L26

,40

BAF

Shrub

Na

Leaves

Green

SambucusnigraL.

subsp.

peruviana(Kun

th)R.Bolli

(Adoxaceae),Mololo,

L20

,24

,43

BAF

Tree

Na

Fruits

Purple

Alum;salt

Sapium

glandulosum

(L.)Morong

(Eup

horbiaceae),Lecherón

Tree

Na

Leaves

Green

Salt;

vinegar

SeneciobomaniiR.E.Fr.(Asteraceae),

Cosillo,

L33

,50

,57

,79

BAF

Shrub

Na

Leaves

Green

Solanum

betaceum

Cav.(Solanaceae),

Chilto

,tomatito

,L84

BAF

Tree

Na

Fruit

Yellow

Solanum

sisym

briifolium

Lam.(Solanaceae),

Vila

vila,L49

BAF

Herb

Na

Fruit

Red

TagetesternifloraKun

th(Asteraceae),

Suico,

L47

BAF

Herb

Na

Leaves

Yellow

Tecom

astans

(L.)Juss.ex

Kun

th(Bignoniaceae),

Guaranguay,

L32

,48

,59

,61

,63

BAF

Tree

Na

Leaves

andflow

ers

Yellow

Alum

Tillandsia

usneoides(L.)L.

(Bromeliaceae),Sachablanca

Epiph

yte

Na

Entireplant

Green

Tipuana

tipu(Benth.)Kun

tze(Fabaceae),

Tipa,L52

BAF

Tree

Na

Bark

Brown;

pink

orange;green

Alum;citrus

juice;

urine;salt;

vinegar

Vassobiabreviflora(Sendtn.)Hun

z.(Solanaceae),

Uchucho,L27

,36

BAF

Shrub

Na

Fruit

Orange

Alum;salt

Xylosmalongipetiolata

Legnam

e(Salicaceae),

Supa

supa,L20

,24

,43

BAF

Tree

Na

Barkandleaves

Pink

Alum;citrus

juice;

vinegar;salt

Zea

maysL.

(Poaceae),Maíz,L96

BAF

Shrub

CStam

enLimegreen

Native:Na;Cultivated:C;Naturalized:N;Pu

rchased:

P1Alum

(millo):doub

lesulfate

ofalum

inum

-potassium

.2Adventitious

citrus:“naranjaagria”

(Citrus

aurantium

L.)and“lim

ón”(Citrus

limon

(L.)Osbeck).

3Talvina

orchuiaof

maize:residu

alsubstanceobtained

during

maize

ferm

entatio

nformaize

beer

(chicha).

4Quechincha:

soot

accumulated

onthekitchen’swallscloseto

thestove.


observations made during daily activities such asweeding and plot cultivation. The indicators arestains on the body and clothes. Occasionally twoor more plant species are mixed to increase therange of colors.

THE DYEING PROCESS

The dyeing process consists of several steps:Washing of fibers, use of mordants before or afterdyeing (optional), dyeing, rinsing, and drying.The time during which the wool is submerged inthe dye, the use of heat and/or the fermentationof the mix vary according to the expected colorand the criterion of the artisan. The color isextracted in different ways: a) the plant material isboiled and used immediately, or prepared in themorning and left until noon, b) plant material isleft in water to ferment until the desired color isobtained, and c) plant material is placed inboiling water, but removed from the fire and left

for a few hours. The first option is the mostwidely used. Fixing colors with mordants dependson the plant material; it is done before or afterdyeing the fiber.

There are different kinds of mordants depend-ing on the mode of preparation and color to beobtained (Fig. 6). The most widely used is alum(locally called millo, a double sulfate of alumi-num–potassium), which was introduced togetherwith synthetic dyes. Fermented mordants areelements of the old dyeing tradition and arelargely abandoned today. Urine is stored in plasticbottles to be fermented. Talvina or chuia is aproduct of corn beer fermentation (chicha demaíz). Fermented mud is locally known as “barrode ciénaga”; it is black, dense, and has a strongsmell. Soot, locally called quechincha, is obtainedfrom ashes accumulated on the kitchen roof.

Mud and soot are used exclusively for dyeingwool black or dark brown. Their use representsan old means of creating brown dye; J. australis’sbark, mud, and soot are mixed together in aprocess known as nogaliado. Nowadays the sametechnique is employed with leaves of A. acumi-nata and J. australis. A few artisans still use amixture of “bog mud” and “red earth” (with ironsalts), or use rust water made of screws and nailsto obtain a gray color (Fig. 6). The preparationsthat include substances with iron are usedexclusively for dyeing wool black or dark brown.

31

1714

874 5 43 2 2 21 2 1

05

101520253035

Los Toldos El Arazay La Misión El Condado

# sp

ecie

s

Na: Native

C: Cultivated

N: Naturalized

P: Purchased

Fig. 3. Dyeing plants in different settlements.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90 28

10

5 4 3 3 3 2 2

5 5 4 4 3 2 2

% F

requ

ency

(N

=32

)

Species (report)

Trees

Shrubs

Fig. 2. Most frequently used dye plant species in Yungas communities of northwest Argentina.


On occasion, such as when a new species is used,a test for color fastness is carried out. For thispurpose, a dyed skein is left in the sun for severaldays. If the color has altered, the yarn is dyed again.

KNOWLEDGE SOURCES AND TRANSMISSION

We identified different modes of knowledgeacquisition and/or transmission associated with thedevelopment of plant dyes. Sometimes trainingbegins in childhood; in other cases, it forms part ofa recent innovation in production. On a regionalscale, we found mothers to be the main source ofknowledge, followed by training and workshops(organized since the late 20th century), exchange ofinformation among peers, grandmothers’ teachings,individual searches, and personal experience. Theseresults were highly significant (χ4

2=25.56; p<0.01).However, these proportions change when each

site is analyzed independently. In La Misión,knowledge comes exclusively from workshops andpersonal learning. In the remaining settlementsthe primary sources are mothers, followed bypersonal learning and training at workshops. LosToldos is the only place where grandmothers’teachings and exchanges of experiences with otherpersons are mentioned as sources of knowledge(Table 3). The unique localities where there was asignificant difference with respect to the sourcesof knowledge were El Arazay (χ4

2=10.75, p<0.05)and Los Toldos (χ4

2=13.43; p<0.01).

The analysis of knowledge transmission, donein a similar way, shows that there are nosignificant differences among the settlements;however a trend exists when we compare alllocalities together with random expected (χ2

2=4.95; p<0.1). This is due to the prevalence ofvertical transmission (from mother to daughter)in most localities, followed by obliquetransmission (from training staff in communityworkshops, grandmothers, and mothers–in–law)and horizontal transmission (among peers fromthe housewives club) (Table 3).Local workshops have different goals. For some,

the main concern is stimulation of the artisans’personal search for dyeing alternatives, putting anemphasis on the native flora. Others have a classicformat—explaining and teaching the use of certainspecies. A. cepa, I. paraguariensis, Persea americanaMill., and Prunus persica (L.) Batsch are species thatare starting to be used as a result of workshops.

DiscussionTHE TEXTILE CRAFTS AND PLANT DYES

We found 57 botanical species currentlyinvolved in dyeing activity in the study area,which significantly raises the number of species

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Leaves, aerial parts

Flower, fruit, inflorescence

Bark Other parts (cataphylls, root,

resin, fronds)

29

20

1412#

Spec

ies

Fig. 4. Plant parts used in the dyeing process.

TABLE 2. USE OF DYE SPECIES AND MORDANTS USED AT DIFFERENT PERIODS IN THE STUDY REGION.

1994–2000 Present

# of dye species 11 (10 families and 10 genera) 57 (36 families and 55 genera)Mean 3.28 8.34Standard deviation 2.95 (1–10) 3.6 (3–18)# of mordant species 10 (4 families and 4 genera) 2 (1family and 1 genus)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Green (dark, lime and pale green)

Red (pale and

opaque red, pink and pale

pink)

Yellow and orange

Brown Purple and burgundy

Black

26

1715

7 6

2

# Sp

ecie

s

Fig. 5. Richness of dye plant species providing dif-ferent colors.


cited in previous publications for the same regionand its surroundings. Indeed, Zardini andPochettino (1983) mentioned the use of bark ofJ. australis and A. colubrina var. cebil, andinflorescences of B. lilloana. Levy Hynes (1994)cited three species in the town of Los Toldos. Inboth cases, the species mentioned are included inour list. Hilgert (1998) found seven plant taxaused for dyeing in rural communities in the samehabitat, but a little further to the south in theOrán department, of which six were reported inour study area. Moreover, Hilgert (2007)reported 25 species with dyeing properties in theentire Bermejo River upper basin, of which 17coincide with those from our study.

The increase in the use of dyeing speciesreported in this study reflects a growingappreciation for natural dyes. A likely explan-ation is the current market demand resultingfrom ecotourism and cultural tourism. Thispotential source of income has encouragedartisans to search for new colors employed incrafts, to participate in workshops, to exchangetheir experiences, and to organize themselvesinto public or private bodies.

Our research documents precise knowledgeabout the dyeing qualities of plants, the suitablemoment for employment of plant organs, theseasonal variation for each species and occasionalindividual variation within the same species. In allcases, the artisans who provided the detailedinformation have a pivotal interest in crafts andthe conservation of traditional techniques, as wellexperimentation with new species and crafttechniques.

Previous findings largely documented the useof tree roots and bark. This study discovered adiversification of plant part use and observedchanges in use frequency. Flowers, leaves, and

fruit were incorporated, while the use of woodyparts has decreased. Artisans who experienceddifficulties in procuring certain plant resourceslikely drove these changes. These innovationswere successfully adopted by artisans once theyexperienced the dyeing properties of non–woody organs and appreciated the greatervariety of available colors, as well as the easiergathering techniques and handling compared towoody parts.

THE DYEING PROCESS

Coloring with natural dyes is a laboriousprocess carried out by decoction and/or byfermentation, or alternation of both methods.According to the regional literature, the use ofmordants has been undergoing a gradual change.The most common mordants in the past, whichwere obtained from fermented materials (urine,corn products, and mud) and/or lye from plantashes, were later replaced by alum (Millán dePalavecino 1953; Tavera de Téllez 1989). Taverade Téllez (1989) and Hilgert (1998, 2007)mention the use of two native species asmordants: “querusilla” (Gunnera apiculataSchindl.) and “alaituya” (Begonia spp.). In thisstudy, we only observed the juice of bitter orange(Citrus aurantium L.) and lemon (Citrus limon[L.] Osbeck) being used for this purpose. Alum,locally called millo, is a foreign product earlyincorporated by the Yungas communities. Notonly is it used in dyeing, but it also plays animportant role in local medicine as it is used totreat some folk illnesses (limpias, alumbriadas).Along with coca (Erythroxylum coca Lam.), millodisplays utilitarian and symbolic values and servesas a cultural marker in these communities(Hilgert and Gil 2006).

The introduction of synthetic dyes marked agradual reduction in the use of natural dyes(Cárdenas 1989; Fester 1962; Millán de Palavecino1953). Synthetic dyes are widespread and havebeen incorporated into the local handicrafts. Thisis particularly evident in the study area, wheresynthetic dyes are applied to the embroideredgarments destined for family use.

KNOWLEDGE SOURCES AND TRANSMISSION

Knowledge of the dyeing properties of bota-nical species is a part of women’s culturalheritage. We did not find any male artisansinvolved in this activity. The importance of

0

10

20

30

40

50

Alum/ Millo

Salt Vinegar Lemon juice

Orange juice

Urine Talvina Soot

Purchased mordants Collected mordants

Fermented mordants

Others

47

29

21 19

6

12

4 4

# Fr

eque

ncy

Fig. 6. Use frequency of employed mordants.


women in the transmission and preservation ofknowledge associated with local use of flora hasbeen widely cited in the ethnobotanical literature,as has the importance of incorporating womeninto sustainable use projects and in the promo-tion of cultural values (Bingeman 2003; Eyssartieret al. 2008; Gupte 2004; Lozada et al. 2006;Vázquez-García 2008; Voeks 2007).Analysis of the forms of knowledge transfer

from one generation to another may reveal thedynamics and adaptive qualities of a local culture,as well as how the local processes of traditionalknowledge transmission can reinforce a particulartype of knowledge (Garibay-Orijel et al. 2007).Vertical transmission is a highly conservativefeature of traditional communities. Where itforms the most important pattern of transmis-sion, it can impede the spread of innovations.However, if other forms of cultural transfer areinvolved, such as from one individual to manyand/or horizontal, then transmission is highlyefficient and cultural change may occur relativelyquickly (Hewlett and Cavalli-Sforza 1986). Theage of the knowledge receiver is also important inthe acquisition process; vertical transmissiondeclines in adulthood and personal experiencepredominates (Aunger 2000). Indeed, an array offactors help shape the knowledge and use ofresources—geographical factors such as distanceto urban centers (Hilgert and Gil 2006), thevalidity of past practices (Zardini and Pochettino1983), and social factors such as the emergence ofnew markets that stimulate the spread of knowl-edge. These factors facilitate the incorporation ofexternal trainers and promoters and discussionamong peers, and also encourage personalexperimentation.We discovered that the main sources of knowl-

edge in this study are mothers, followed by formaltraining and exchange among peers. When con-sidering modes of transmission, vertical trans-

mission predominates, followed by the oblique.The latter can be ascribed largely to extensionworkers and workshop trainers. As proposed byHewlett and Cavalli-Sforza (1986), the participa-tion of extension workers results in more efficientdissemination of new knowledge and its receptionamong the artisans of the municipality. Thus wecan establish a predictive model of changes relatedto this activity. The importance of different formsof knowledge transfer changes during the lifetimeof every individual. In adulthood, personallearning—regulated by the idiosyncrasies of eachperson as well as by environmental and socio–cultural changes—propels a search for adaptiveresponses individually or among peers (Berkes etal. 2000). These adaptive responses may generatelarge changes in the corpus of local praxis (Aunger2000; Eyssartier et al. 2008). By analyzing thechanges that have occurred in recent years and theattitude of those affected by these changes, weobserve that the relational network in which theactivity was immersed has also changed.

ConclusionsWe conducted an ethnobotanical survey

related to crafts and the use of dyeing plants inthe municipality of Los Toldos, Argentina. Weobserved that the development of handicraftsbased on plant dyes is a production strategy thatsupports the creation of a true “women’s space”for meeting, exchange, and preservation of knowl-edge in the Yungas communities. Within textilecraft production, individual and communitarianknowledge has been adapted to new marketdemands. The artisans’ activity has been revalued,and new textile products have appeared withexclusive characteristics in the market. Changeshave occurred in the number of botanical speciesused as well as mechanisms involved in knowl-edge transmission, inter–communitarian rela-tions, and experimentation/observation of the

TABLE 3. KNOWLEDGE SOURCES AND TRANSMISSION.

% Observed(# report)[# informants]

Vertical Oblique Horizontal

PersonalexperimentationMothers Grandmothers Workshop, training

Other (mother in law,club mate)

El Arazay [5] 62.5 (5) 12.5 (1) 25 (2)Los Toldos [19] 46.4 (13) 10.7 (3) 17.8 (5) 17.8 (5) 7.1 (2)La Misión [4] 75 (3) 25 (1)El Condado [4] 60 (3) 20 (1) 20 (1)Total [32] 46.6 (21) 6.6 (3) 22.2 (10) 20 (9) 4.4 (2)


cultural landscape. Matrilineal vertical transmissionis the main mode of knowledge transmission, givingthe mother a crucial role in knowledge acquisitionand transmission. However, the influence of tech-nical assistance in the community gives rise to a newtransmission model. This new mechanism can beconsidered as a complementary tool to promotetraditional crafts. Artisans should be encouragedand trained, and the search for natural dyes shouldbe further developed as should the popularization ofcrafts and related activities, so that the artisansthemselves can trigger mechanisms of transmissionand knowledge exchange.

AcknowledgementsWe thank the artisans for assisting in the

recovery of traditional practices associated withthe use of natural dyes and allowing us access tothe world of fabrics and colors. We are grateful tothe local staff of the National Parks’ Adminis-tration, Walter Maciel, Ximena Garibaldi and herfamily, the director of Los Toldos’ hospital andthe nursing staff of the sanitary post in La Misiónfor providing accommodation in the area. Ourgratitude goes also to Fernanda Fabbio, MonikaKujawska, Guillermo Gil, and Dora Vignale aswell as two anonymous reviewers for theirvaluable contributions.

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dyeing plants and knowledge transfer in the yungas communities of northwest argentina

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