Deakin Research Online This is the authors’ final peer reviewed (post print) version of the item published as: Whyatt, Georgina, Wood, Greg and Callaghan, Michael 2012, Commitment to business ethics in UK organizations, European business review, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 331-350. Available from Deakin Research Online: http://hdl.handle.net/10536/DRO/DU:30046806 Reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright owner. Copyright : 2012, Emerald Group Publishing Limited

CommitmenttobusinessethicsinUKorganizations

TheAuthors

GeorginaWhyatt,OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK

GregWood,DeakinUniversity,Warrnambool,Australia

MichaelCallaghan,DeakinUniversity,Warrnambool,Australia

Abstract

Purpose–ThepurposeofthisresearchistodeterminethecommitmenttobusinessethicsinUKcorporations.Thisstudyreportsontheresponsesofthoseorganizationsthatparticipatedinthesurveyandpossessedacodeofethics.Design/methodology/approach–Anunsolicitedquestionnairewassenttothetop500privatesectororganizationsbymarketcapitalizationintheUK.Atotalof92companiesresponded,ofwhich56possessedacodeofethics.Findings–Theempiricalfindingsindicatethattheprocessesinvolvedindevelopingbusinessethicscommitmenthavebeguntoberecognizedandacteduponatanorganizationallevel.Thesupportingmeasuresofbusinessethicscommitmentappeartobeunder‐utilizedbymanyoftheseUKorganizations.Thissuggeststhatmanyorganizationshavenotsofardevelopedastrongorganizationalcommitmenttoembeddingtheircodesofethicsintoorganizationalpractices.Researchlimitations/implications–Whiletheresponsesprovidedarichpictureoforganizationalactions,furtherresearchexploringinternalcultureandattitudeswouldaddtoanunderstandingoforganizationalcommitment.Practicalimplications–Itisfoundthatinordertoinfluencepractice,itisnotenoughtohavetheartefactsofanethicalculture,suchascodes,withoutensuringthatallemployeesareassistedinunderstandingwhatisrequiredofthem.Originality/value–Despiteahistoryofbusinessethicsresearch,therearealimitednumberofstudiesseekingtounderstandUKcompanies'commitmenttoethicalcodes.Thepaperprovidesguidanceonstepsthatorganizationscantaketodevelopahigherlevelofcommitment.

Keyword(s):UnitedKingdom;Businessethics;Commitment;Privatesector.

Introduction

Organizationsinindustrializedeconomiesneedtofocusuponbusinessethicsmorethantheyappeartohavebeendoingandcurrentpublicityaroundtheworldthatcentersonbusinessmalpracticehighlightsthisneed.Wecontinuetoseelargecorporationscitedforviolationsofnotonlybusinessethics,butalsoofthelaw,however,thesedescriptionsofopportunisticbehaviorarenotnewineitherourrecentordistantpast.

Richardson(2001,p.237)saysthat:

[…]inmedievalEngland,judicialauthoritiesprohibitedthemanipulationofmarketsandvigorouslyenforcedlawsagainstforestalling,engrossing,andregrating,whichwerethelegalancestorsoftheanti‐trustlegislationthatexiststoday.

Furthermore,inVictoriansocietyintheUK(1837‐1901),executivecrimeandrelatedbankruptcywererife(WarrenandTweedale,2002).

Organizational,andpersonal,self‐interestinsomeofthecorporateorganizationscitedforwrongdoingseemtooutweighthedutytoperformone'sworkbothethicallyandlegally.Thesetransgressionsbringintosharpfocustheneedforallorganizationstoexaminetheirbusinessethicspracticesandthephilosophicalpreceptsuponwhichtheydefinetheirbusinessethicsexpectationswithintheirorganizations.Corporationsneedtofocusupontheacceptablebehaviorsthattheywishtoinculcatewithintheirorganization(SinghapakdiandVitell,2007)andtosendaclearmessagetoallaboutthebehaviorsthattheydonotwantwithintheirorganizationsandthosethattheywishtoencourage.

Thenotionthatacodeofethicsshouldexistasameansofenhancingtheethicalenvironmentofanorganizationhasbeenproposedbyanumberofwritersoveralengthytimeperiod(Adamsetal.,2001;CarascoandSingh,2003;Fraedrich,1992;Gellerman,1989;Harrington,1991;LaczniakandMurphy,1991;Sims,1991;Somers,2001;Stoner,1989;Winkler,2011;Wood,2002).Codesofethicsnotonlyencouragestafftoexaminetheethicalpreceptsuponwhichthebusinessforwhichtheyworkispredicated,buttheyarealsoasignaltothegeneralpublicthatacodeexistswithinacompany(Wood,2002).

Somewriterssuggestthatorganizationsdrawupacodeofethicsdocumentbecausetheyvaluethedocumentasasignaloforganizationalbehaviorsandvalues(Adamsetal.,2001;Somers,2001;Wotrubaetal.,2001).Iforganizationsdohavethisviewoftheircodes,thensurelytheyshouldbecommittedtothem,foriftheyarenotcommittedtotheircodeofethics,itbecomessimplyapublicrelationsexerciseandacynicalattempttocapitalizeonarealdesirebythemarketplacetodealwithethicalorganizations(WoodandRimmer,2003).

Althoughsuchacodecanbeseenasthefirstindicatorofcommitment,itsexistenceisnotitselfenoughtoensureethicalbehaviorbystaff,nordoesacodeguaranteeanethicalcorporateculture(Townley,1992).Acodeisonlyoneofarangeofmeasuresthatcorporationsshouldhaveinplacetoinculcateanethicalethosintotheheartandsouloftheorganization.Corporationsmustgobeyondthisinitiallevelofcommitmentandenactproceduresthatwillensurethattheethicalethosoftheorganizationpermeatesalllevelsofthecorporation(Fraedrich,1992;McDonaldandZepp,1989;Sims,1991,1992;Somers,2001;Weaveretal.,1999;Wood,2002;WoodandCallaghan,2003).

Theconceptof“commitment”tobusinessethicsisintegraltothisstrandofresearch.Commitmentisnotasimpleideathatcanbequantifiedeasily,butacomplexconceptthatembracesanumberofelements.Inthisresearchstudy,organizationalcommitmentisexaminedintermsofthefollowingelements:inputs,objectives,andoutputs.Sixareas

ofquestioningwerepursued.Theintentofthesequestionscanbesummarizedasfollows.First,howcommonarecodesofethics?Second,whowasinvolvedinthedevelopmentofthesecodesandwhy?Third,howistheethicsethosimplementedwithintheorganization?Fourth,doorganizationsinformexternalpublicsofthecodes?Fifth,whatarethereasonsforthecodes?Sixth,whataretheprescribedbenefitsofcodes?

BusinessethicsintheUK:background

Britain,inthelatterhalfofthe1980s,becameawareofbusinessethicsasatopicofconcernandonethatshouldbestudied.Atthattime,andincomparisontotheUSA,onecouldarguethatBritishinterestwasunderdeveloped.Nevertheless,by1990,thereweresignificantadvancestoreport.SchlegelmilchandHouston(1990,p.38),inanarticleentitled“Corporatecodesofethics”,suggestedthatinBritaintherewasheightenedinterestinthesubjectofbusinessethics.Theyrefertotheyear1987duringwhich:therewasthedevelopmentofamastersprogramattheLondonBusinessSchool;theinaugurationoftheInstituteofBusinessEthicsinLondon;andtheestablishmentoftheBusinessEthicsResearchCentreatKing'sCollege,UniversityofLondonandalongsidethesedevelopmentsthegrowthintheestablishmentofethicalinvestmenttrusts.Theyviewedthesemovesaspositiveevidenceofincreasedinterest,however,theyemphasizedthattherewasadearthofUKliteratureonthegeneralareaofbusinessethics.

Maclagan(1992,pp.321‐2)states:

UntilfairlyrecentlyitappearedthatBritishmanagementdevelopmentpracticewas,ingeneral,advancingalongaroutewhichbypassedtheparallelriseininterestinbusinessethics.NowanincreasinginterestinvaluesinmanagementdevelopmenthassurfacedinsomequartersintheUK.

Maclagan(1992)alsosuggestedthatBritishmanagersdidnotrecognizetheglobalriseinbusinessethicsasapplicabletothem.Inasimilarfashion,Mahoney(1990,p.549)contendsthatBritishmanagerswereunwillingtoconfrontethicalissuesdirectly:

Theredoesseemtobeacertainnationalreluctanceonthepartofbusinesstodiscussitsactivitiesinovertlyethicalterms,butlaudableassuchdiscreetreticencemaybe,itisattheexpenseofanalysisandsystematicstudyoftheethicaldimensionsofbusiness.

Again,discussingtheBritishcontext,DonaldsonandDavis(1990)refertotheissuesoffamousorganizationalandindividualtransgressionsas“causescélèbres”.Thesetransgressionsfocusonbehaviorsthathavecometopublicprominencebecausetheydemonstratealackofawarenessof,orcommitmentto,businessethicsprinciples.Theseauthorsbelievethattherehadbeenanumberofmajorevents,e.g.thoserelatedtoBaringsbank,BCCI,Guinness,withintheareasoffinancialservicesandindustrialrelations,whichhadspawnedanacceleratedgrowthinareasoflegislation,deregulationandre‐regulationintheUK(Pearson,2000).Forexample,legislationhasbeeninplace,intheformofTheFinancialServicesandMarketsAct,sinceJuly2000,requiringallUKpensionfundstoincludeastatementontheirsocialandenvironmentalinvestmentpolicy.

IntheUK,thenumbersofbothcorporategovernancereports,andcodesofethicsdocumentspublishedbytheFTSE350companieshaveincreasedoverthelastdecade(GrantThornton,2010).Theauthorsalsobelievethattheincreaseinactivityintheseareaswasasadirectresultofa“searchfornewprinciples”andadesiretorediscoverprinciplesthatappliedinthepast.IncreasingnumbersofUKadultsbelievethatUKbusinessesarebehavingmoreethically,comparedtotenyearsago(InstituteofBusinessEthics,2010).ResearchdemonstratesthatUKconsumersseekmoreethicalbehaviors(reflectedintheirgoodsandservices)butthereisoftenalackofclarityandunderstandingastowhatthisreallyinvolvesintermsofmanagementactionsandcultures(ShawandShui,2003).Itseemsthateverydecadeorsomarketplaceeventsandawarenessovertakeusandoverwhelmusandtheserevelationsleadorganizationstore‐evaluatethepreceptsbywhichtheyconducttheirbusinessdealings.

Methodology

ContinuingaresearchstreamthatbeganinAustralia15yearsago(Wood,2000),thisstudypresentstheresearchfindingsofthelatestanalysisofethicsdatacollectedintheUK.Theresearchstream,intotal,hasexaminedcorporatecodesofethicsandthemeasuresinplacetocommunicatetheethosofthecodestobothinternalandexternalstakeholdersinsevencountries:Australia,Canada,Sweden,Taiwan,Turkey,theUKandtheUSA(Aydinliketal.,2008;Callaghanetal.,2009;Svenssonetal.,2009;SvenssonandWood,2004;WoodandCallaghan,2003).

Aquestionnairethatwasnon‐sponsoredandunsolicitedwassenttothetopUK500companies,bymarketcapitalization,operatingintheprivatesector(XLData,2009).Eachrespondentwasassuredofcompleteanonymityastheresultsofthequestionsweretobeaggregated.Allquestionsaskedprovidednominaldatathuslimitingstatisticalanalysistothereportingcontainedwithinthispaper.Aresponserateof18.4percent(n=92)wasachievedintheUK.ThispaperexaminestheresponsesofcompaniesthatfilledinaquestionnaireandthatalsodidpossessacodeprovidingintheUK56organizationsforourstudy.

Empiricalfindings

Consequently,theresponseratefortheseorganizationswas18.4percentwith92organizationsreplyingtotherequestforinformation.AsshowninTableI,therewere92respondentsofwhich77completedaquestionnaireand15organizationsrepliedbystatingtheirrefusaltoparticipate.

Themajorbusinesssectorsrepresentedbyhalfoftherespondents(50.7percent)weremanufacturing20.8percent,diversebusinessinterests11.7percent,financeandinsurance10.4percent,construction7.8percent.Intotal68organizationsoutofthe71(95.8percent)thatansweredthequestionabouttheirparentorganizationsaidthattheirparentorganizationwasBritish.

IntermsofturnoverinBritishpounds,31.6percentofrespondentshadaturnoverunder£1,000million,36.4percenta£1,000millionturnoverbutunder£10,000millionand10.4percentequaltoorgreaterthan£10,000millionturnoverwith11.7percentoforganizationsnotprofferingananswer.

Thelevelofstaffingamongstrespondentswasthat40.3percenthad1,000orlessemployees,31.2percenthadgreaterthan1,000employeesandupto10,000employees,20.8percenthadgreaterthan10,000employees,with7.8percentoforganizationsnotprofferingananswer.

Establishmentofacode

Itappearsthatthemajorityofcodes(69.6percent)havebeenconstructedinthelasttenyears(TableII).Thismayindicatearatherrecentneedtoestablishcodesofethicsintheseorganizationsduetohappeningsinthemarketplaceandsocietyorperhapsthatthosewhohaveestablishedcodesinthelasttenyearsaremoreinterestedinbenchmarkingtheirperformancethanthosecompaniesthatmayhaveestablishedcodesofethicspriortotheyear2000.The16.1percentresponserateof“donotknow”mayindicateearliercodeestablishmentthantheoverallpercentagesmayappeartoshow.Iforganizationscannotgiveanaccurateestimateofwhenthecodewasestablished,thismaymeanthatthecodeswereestablishedpriortorecentorganizationalmemory.

Bywhomandwhywerethecodesdeveloped?

Thedevelopmentofacodeisadecisiontowhichanorganizationmustdedicatetimeandeffort,asthecodewilldisplaytheorganization'sethicalviewstothemarketplaceandthesociety.Itshouldnotbeaprocessthatisrushedoradocumentthatisnotrepresentativeoftheviewsofstaffmembersandevenotherstakeholders.Thecodemustbeofrelevanceandsignificancetoallstaffandassuchtheyshouldbeinvolvedinitsconstruction(RaibornandPayne,1990;Steadetal.,1990;Winkler,2011)(TableIII).

Thelargestthreegroupsofindividualsinvolvedincodeestablishmentarechiefexecutiveofficers(CEOs),boardsofdirectorsandseniormanagers.TheinitiativesandresponsibilityappeartorestwithCEOs,boardsandseniormanagers.Ifcorporategovernanceistobepracticedeffectively,thesegroupsshouldbeattheforefrontofcodedevelopmentastheyallcollectivelyhaveownershipofthecodeandthisownership,oneassumes,willassistwithitsdisseminationthroughouttheorganization(CorneliusandGagnon,1999).

Nearlyone‐thirdofcompaniesinvolveotherstaffintheprocess.Thisinclusivebehaviorbuildsupontheopportunitytoestablishuniversalownershipoftheessenceofthecodethroughouttheorganization(Winkler,2011).Simplyhandingdownacodetostaffcanbeseenasanactofimposition,ratherthanoneofengagement.Ifthestaffdonotfeelcommittedtothecode,thenorganizationsruntheveryrealriskthattheywillbearlesscompliancetoit(Wood,2002).

Organizationswereaskedfortheirreasonsfordevelopingacodeofethics(TableIV).Themajorreasonsprovidedfocusonsupportingtheorganizationalculture,ensuringstaffintegrityandlookingtomakeethicsacorecompetenceoftheorganization.Theorganizationsthatrespondedappeartobestrivingtosupporttheirethicalvalues,andtheirstaffunderstandingofthosevalues,throughformalizingthesevaluesintheircodes.

Supportandmaintenanceofcodes

Intheexpectationthatpolicy,proceduresandobjectivesbealignedwithorganizationalvalues,philosophyandculture,themethodsthatorganizationsinstitutetosupporttheircodesrevealtheirlevelofcommitmenttotheprocess.Iftheycreatenewprocesses(asopposedtoadaptingexistingprocesses)toassistincodesupport,thenonecouldsaythatthisisevidenceofahigherlevelofcommitment.Inpracticalterms,theadaptationofexistingprocessesencompassesthefollowing:communicationwithemployees,induction,discipline,staffappraisal,andstrategicplanning(Winkler,2011;Wood,2002)however,iftheorganizationintroducesnewinitiativessuchasanombudsman,whistle‐blowingprotectionforemployees,ethicscommittees,ethicseducationcommittees,ethicalauditsandethicseducation,thenonecouldsaythatahigherlevelofcommitmenthasbeenachieved(WoodandRimmer,2003).

Communicationtostaff

AsshowninTableV,electroniccommunicationisthemostfrequentmode,usedin80percentoftheorganizations.About43percentofrespondentshaveindicatedthattheyprovideabooklettostaffandothermeasuresarealsousedbuttoalesserdegree.Thefactthatelectroniccommunicationisthemostusedmeansistobeexpected,becauseofthegrowthofdependenceonintranetswithinorganizationsandwebsitedevelopment,inthelastdecade.

Introductionofthecodetonewstaff

Theuseofinductionprogramstoinformnewstaffofthecodeisappliedbymorethantwo‐thirdsoftheorganizations(TableVI).Nottointroducethecodeatinductionwoulddiminishthevalueofthecodeforallstaff(Wood,2002).Theimpactthattheorganizationwantsthecodetomakeuponthenewstaffmembermaybelostiftheattentionrequiredisnotgivenatthetimeofjoiningtheorganization.Howisthenewstaffmembermeanttoknowthatthecodeisimportantifitisnotsignaledordiscussedatthebeginningoftheiremployment?

Consequencesforabreachofthecode

Anumberofwriterscontendthatwithinacodeofethicsoneshouldoutlineenforcementprovisionsforthoseindividualswhodonotupholdthecode(Fraedrich,1992;HegartyandSims,1979;Schwartz,2002;Sims,1991;Stoner,1989;Thomasetal.,2004;TrevinoandBrown,2004).Byhavingproceduresforabreachofthecode,theorganizationsignalstoemployeesthesignificanceoftheneedtoabidebythecodeforboththeirownsakeandthatoftheorganization.

Everyorganizationhasconsequencesforabreach(TableVII).CompaniesintheUKuniversallyformallyholdemployeestoaccountfortheirbehavior.Therecanbeaconcernhereinthatconsequencesforabreachshouldnotbejustplacedinthecodeasapublicrelationsexercise,buttheyshouldbeimplementedinallgoodfaithasameasureofcommitmenttotheethosofthecodeandthebettermentoftheorganization.

Employeeappraisal

Respondentswereaskedwhethertheirorganizationsattemptedtoassessanemployee'sethicalperformanceasapartoftheemployeeappraisalsystem(TableVIII).Organizationsshouldformalizetheethicalperformanceofemployeesthroughtheemployeeappraisalsothatethicaldecisionmakingbecomespartoftheperformanceappraisalofindividuals(TrevinoandBrown,2004).

Inthiswayawarenessofethicalbehaviorisintegratedintoeveryemployee'sperceivedorganizationalperformance;itisanotherwayofrewardingethicalbehavioranddiscouragingunethicalbehavior,however,ithasnotbeenadoptedwidelyintheUKasonlyhalfofthecompanieshavinga“beingethicalintheirdealings”criterionforstaffappraisal.Nottoformalizeanethicsperformanceappraisalmaywelldevaluetheothereffortsbeingmadebytheorganizationtoinculcatetheethosofthecodeintotheeverydaypracticesoftheorganization(CorneliusandGagnon,1999).Havingaperformanceappraisalthatincludesanevaluationoftheethicalperformanceofemployeesalsohighlights–fortheemployees–thevaluethatthecompanyplacesuponbeingethicalintheworkplace(Winkler,2011).

This50:50findingisparadoxicalbecause,inestablishingacoderelatingtoespousedorganizationalstandards,onewouldexpectanorganizationtomonitoranddiscussrelevantbehaviorinmostareasofitsoperations.Onewouldassumethatethicalbehaviorshouldbenodifferent,andthereforeasthisdoesnotseemtobehappeninginatleasthalfoftheUKorganizationsoneneedstoaskwhynot?Thisstudycannotanswerthisissue,asitwouldrequirefurtherresearchexploringtheattitudes,andprocesses,relatingtoemployeeappraisal.

Whistle‐blowingprocedures

Iforganizationsareexpectingethicalbehaviorfromtheirstaff,thentheactofwhistle‐blowing(someonewhoreportswrongdoingbytheorganization)shouldbeconsidered,orevenencouraged,bytheorganization(GraceandCohen,1998;Grant,2002;McLainandKeenan,1999;Micelietal.,1991).Ifstandardsaretobeset,waysareneededtoensurethatviolationsorbreachescanbereported,reviewed,andcorrected.

Whenplanningtoexposeunethicalbehaviorsoractionsthedilemmathatmanyemployeesfaceisinknowingtowhomonecantakeanissuesoastoensureitsintegrity;theintegrityofthepersonagainstwhomthecomplaintismadeandusually,mostimportantly,forthepersonmakingthecomplaint,theguaranteeoftheirownfreedomfromreprisals(WoodandCallaghan,2003).About96percentoftherespondingUKcompanieshadsupportinplaceforwhistle‐blowers(TableIX).

ThisnearperfectscoreisprobablybecauseofthePublicInterestDisclosureAct,1998.ThisUKlegislationcompelsorganizationstoconsiderandimplementwhistle‐blowerprotection.Onecouldsurmisethatitisthusanenforcedcompliancethroughlegislativeobligationratherthanavoluntarycompliance,andcommitment,withintheconceptofbusinessethics.

Theuseofcodesofethicsinstrategicplanning

Iftheorganizationisseriousaboutinculcatingethicalvaluesintoallofitsactivities,thenethicsshouldbeanintegralpartofthestrategicplanningprocess(Harrington,1991;RobinandReidenbach,1987;Wood,2002).Thomasetal.(2004)notethatleadersmustthinkstrategicallyabouthowtheyensurethattheyengenderanethicalculturewithintheirorganization.Leadersmusthaveavisiontomovetheirorganizationtowardsaconsistentethicalculture.Theymustempowertheiremployeestoactinethicalways.Organizationsshouldreviewtheirstrategicplansinlightoftheethicalprinciplesthattheorganizationbelievesitshouldapply,anduponwhichithaspredicateditsdecisionsinrespecttoitsparticipationinsociety.Theintentinaskingthisquestionwastotestthislinkbetweenthecodeanditsuseinthestrategicplanningprocess(TableX).

Withlessthanhalfofthecompanieslinkingtheirstrategicplanwiththeircode,thisUKfigureislowerthanonemighthaveexpected,butitisnotunusualwhencomparedtosimilarresearchundertakeninothercountries(Svenssonetal.,2011).Webelievethatitisofmajorconcernthatmanyorganizationsappearnottorecognizetheneedtoensurethattheirstrategicplanmatchestheirethicalrhetoric.Whatifthereisamismatchbetweentheplansandthecodes?Surelyacheckshouldbecompulsoryasjustdecentcorporategovernance.Suchanomissionleavestheorganizationexposedinitssectortothepossibilityofinconsistencyofpromisesandaccomplishmentsandthemethodsusedtoattainthem.Aclearrelationshipbetweenthestrategyandthecodeisvitaltopreventfutureproblemsfortheorganizationinthemarketplaceandthesociety.

Astandingethicscommittee

AstandingethicscommitteeisusedinmanyUSorganizationsandisrecommendedbyanumberofwriters(CenterforBusinessEthics,1986;Garcia‐Marza,2005;McDonaldandZepp,1989;Rampersad,2003;Weber,1981).Organizationsneedtohaveacommitteefocusedonthisareainordertoassistthecoordinationofeffortsinthisareaofthebusiness.Withonly43percentofrespondentsdeclaringtheircommitmenttoastandingethicscommittee,theresultsshowthatthisconceptisnotwellembeddedinUKorganizations(TableXI).

Nottohaveacommittee,signalstotheorganization'semployeesandotherstakeholdersthatthecompanydoesnotseebusinessethicsasanimportantenoughareatowarrantsuchattention(WoodandCallaghan,2003),buthavingsaidthat,somecompaniesmaychoosetofulfillthisfunctionthroughtheuseofexistingcommittees.

Anethicseducationcommitteeandethicseducation

Thetwoareasofethicseducationcommitteeandethicseducationarelinkedfromatheoreticalperspectivebecauseofaconvictionthatonecannotjustexpectindividualstobeethicaltotheleveloforganizationalexpectationswithouthavingsomeinvolvementwitheducation.Anethicseducationcommitteewouldprovidethefocusandinitiativetoexposeemployeestodiscussionaboutethicsinthebusinesssituationsthattheymightfacewhilstintheorganization'semploy(CenterforBusinessEthics,1986;Harrington,1991;Maclagan,1992;Maclagan,1994;McDonaldandZepp,1989,

1990;Murphy,1988;Sims,1992;Weaveretal.,1999;Weber,1981;Wood,2002;WoodandCallaghan,2003)(TableXII).

Itisaconcernthatfewerthan20percentofrespondentorganizationshaveanethicseducationcommittee;eventhoughtheyhaveacodeofethics.Nottohavesuchacommitteealsosendsthemessagetostaffandotherstakeholdersthattheorganizationmaynotseethisareaasimportant(TableXIII).

JustunderhalfoftheUKorganizationsdonotprovideeducationinethicsfortheirstaff.Theosmotictransferoftheorganization'sethicalvaluescannotbejustexpectedtooccur(Wood,2002).Staffcannotbelefttotheirowndevicesinthisarea.Eachpersonapproachestheorganizationwithdifferentvaluesandperspectivesontheworldandwhattheymayperceiveasacceptableandunacceptableconduct(CorneliusandGagnon,1999).Educationinethicsatthetimeofinductionisnotenough.Whenjoiningtheorganization,theemployeeisusuallybombardedwithmanynewideas,philosophies,rulesandregulationsandassuchtheyareoftenoverwhelmedwithinformationanditsrelevantimportance(Wood,2002).Educationneedstobeongoingasethicalvaluesandindividuals'perceptionsofrightandwrongevolveovertimeandacrosscontexts(SvenssonandWood,2008).

Anombudsman

Theexistenceofanombudsmanisanareaofinquirythathasanaffirmativelinktowhistle‐blowingprocedures.Itisimportantthatorganizationsidentifyindividualswhoaredesignatedinthispositionasthisisinorderthatstaffwhohavegenuineconcernscanfeelfreetovoicethemtoanindependentarbiter(Crottsetal.,2005).Ifanorganizationhasapersondesignatedasaconfidantetowhomstaffcangowithethicalconcerns,employeeswillbeencouragedtovolunteerinformationaboutunethicalactionsandbehaviorsthattheyperceivecouldbedamagingtotheorganization(TableXIV).

Thefactthatlessthan40percentoforganizationsdohavesuchapersonisdisturbing.Towhomdostaffgowiththeirconcerns?Theobviousansweristotheindividual'ssupervisor.Thisisadilemma,becausepreviousresearchshowsthatitisnotuncommonthatitisthesupervisorwhoisatthecenteroftheethicalsituationthatthestaffmemberdesirestoresolve(Baumhart,1961;BrennerandMolander,1977).Thislackofanassignedindividualleavesthestaffandtheorganizationexposedtopossibletraumaanddamage.Unethicalactionsandbehaviormayremainunrevealedandthereforeallowedtocontinue.Itmaycauseamismatchwiththeethicalvaluesthattheorganizationwishestomaintaininthemarketplaceandthesociety.Suchapositionofombudsmanisasafeguardandaninternalwatchdogofcorporatebehavior.Itisfarbettertobealertedbyone'sowninternalwatchdog,thanbyexternalwatchdogssuchasgovernmentregulatorybodiesorevenworsethemedia(Wood,2002).Inthissituation,preventionisfarbetterthantheposthocremedies.

Conductethicalaudits

Garcia‐Marza(2005)viewstheethicsauditasanintegralpartoftheprocessofdevelopingtrust(theotherfactorsindevelopingtrustbeingtheexistenceofethics

codesandethicscommitteesintheorganization).Ethicalauditsdifferfromtheethicalperformanceevaluationofemployees.Ethicalauditsareanexaminationoftheorganization'sethicalperformance,whilsttheotherisanexaminationonapersonalleveloftheethicalperformanceofindividualswithintheorganization.Organizationsuseevaluationsinvariousfacetsoftheiroperationsinordertomonitorstaffadherencetothecompanypolicies.Mingers(2011)suggeststhisisbestpractice.Nearly65percentoftherespondingUKorganizationsconductanethicalevaluationoftheiroperations(TableXV).

Levelsofcommitmentofukcompaniestoembeddingethicscodesintheirorganization

Insummary(TableXVI),wefindthatUKcompanieswithcodes:communicatewithemployees(100percent);usethecodesininduction(94.6percent);associatethemwithdisciplinarymeasures(100percent);usetheminstaffappraisal(50percent);andlinkthemtostrategicplanning(48.2percent).TheUKrespondentshaveaveraged78.6percentinthefactorsthatWoodandRimmer(2003)believedemonstratecommitmentatalowerlevel.Inthefactorsthatindicatea“higher‐levelcommitment”,suchastheuseof:anombudsman(39.3percent);anethicscommittee(42.9percent);anethicseducationcommittee(19.6percent);ethicseducation(53.6percent);andethicsaudits(64.3),UKcompanieshaveaveragedonly43.9percent.

ThisimpliesthattheUKcompaniesresearchedthathaveestablishedcodesarestillatthelowerlevelofcommitmentwhenitcomestoembeddingtheirethicalvaluessetsintheirorganizations(NB:Thefiguresforprocedurestoprotectwhistle‐blowershavebeenleftoutofthiscomparison(TableXVI),astheyarenowalegalrequirementintheUK).

ThefiguresimplythatUKcompaniesfocusonusingtheircodesandrelatedpracticesforastaffcontrolapproachratherthanstaffenhancementtoassistbetterperformance,leadingustowonderwhethertheyaremissingthepointofbeingethical?

Thissituationisconcerning.Wefindthatthemechanismsfortheinternalcommunicationofethicscodesare,ingeneral,inplaceyetthereisaneedtosignificantlydevelopactivitiesthatwillinfluencetheorganizationalcultureand,inthatway,provideeverypossibleopportunityforstafftointernalizetheorganization'sethicalvaluesystem.

Communicationofcodesinthemarketplace

Wealsoaskedwhetherorganizationsinformstakeholdersofboththeexistenceofacodeandalsoofitscontent.IsthecodeadocumentthatissharedwithstakeholdersoutsideoftheorganizationasBenson(1989)andFraedrich(1992)claimitshouldbe?

BothBenson(1989)andFraedrich(1992)believethatacodeshouldhavebothaninternalandanexternalfocus,therefore,wewereinterestedtoexploretheorganization'sinteractionwiththeirexternalpublics.Justover70percentoforganizationsbelievethattheircustomersareawareoftheexistenceoftheircodes(TableXVII).

Informingcustomersandsuppliersofcodes

AsshowninTableXVIII,approximately70percent(69.6percent)oforganizationscommunicatethecodetocustomers.Thesignificantrelianceoninformalmethodsraisestheissueofanadhocapproachinthat–despitetheclaimfrom71.4percentofrespondents–organizationscannotbesurethattheirethicspolicyisactuallybeingcommunicatedtocustomers.Ifitisdoneinaninformalmanner,thenthedepthofunderstandingbythecustomersmayatbestbesuperficialandatworstnon‐existent.

Inrespecttosupplierknowledgeofthecodes,justoverseventypercentoftheorganizationsclaimthattheirsuppliersareawareoftheexistenceoftheircodes(TableXIX).

AsshowninTablesXVIIIandXX,itisofinterestthatorganizationscommunicatetheircodesmuchmoreformallytosuppliers(39.3percent)thantheydotocustomers(19.6percent)andbelievethat73.2percentofsuppliersareawareoftheexistenceofthecode.Thismismatchmaybeindicativeoftheperceiveddifferenceinthepower‐dependencerelationshipthattheorganizationshavewithsuppliersascomparedtotheircustomers.Withsuppliers,organizationscanbemoreincontrolandcantakechargeoftherelationship,whereaswithcustomerstheyareopenmoretothewhimsofthecustomers.Organizationshavepoweroversuppliersfromwhomtheymaywithdrawfurthercommitmentsiftheyconsiderthatthesupplier'sperformanceisnotofasufficientstandard,however,intheirrelationshipwithcustomers,powerusuallylieswiththecustomer.

Coulditbethatorganizationsmaybelesswillingtoemphasizetheircodeformallywithcustomers–andtoensureunderstanding–becauseofthepossibilitythatcustomersandcitizensmayuseaperceiveddisparitybetweenthecodeandactualpracticetocriticizetheorganization,asMingers(2011)suggests?Thissituationmaynotbeaconsciousdecision,butonethathasbeenmadeina“subconscious”mannerbytheorganizationinresponsetoitsperceptionsofitsinteractionswithitsmarketplaceandthesociety.Thisareaoffersanopportunityforfurtherresearchtoexploretheattitudesto,andexpectationsof,ethicalbehaviorsintheinteractionbetweencustomers,suppliersandtheorganization.

Achievementsofcodesinorganizations

Intheprevioussectionsofthispaper,thecommitmenttobusinessethicsinUKorganizationshasbeenviewedfromdifferentanglessuchas:possessionandestablishmentofcodes,bywhomandwhywerethecodesdeveloped,thesupportandmaintenanceofcodeswithintheorganizationandthecommunicationofcodestoexternalstakeholders.Thissectionviewstheachievementsofcodes,suchascodes'abilitytoresolveethicaldilemmasinthemarketplaceandsociety,andtheperceivedeffectivenessofcodes.Inotherwords,whatbenefitsdoorganizationsperceiveregardingtheircodes?Webelievethatifthesebenefitsaresubstantial,thatcommitmentismorelikelytooccurthaniftheyperceivethattheydonotderiveanyoratbestlimitedbenefitfromtheircodes.

Resolvingethicaldilemmasinthemarketplace

Wewereinterestedtodeterminepracticalexamplesofthecodebeingofuseinthemarketplaceandthesocietywithotherorganizationsand/orindividualswithwhomtheorganizationhasdealt,therefore,weaddressedtheareaofwhetherthecodehadassistedinresolvingethicaldilemmasintheorganization'soperations.

Ifcodesarenotusedforresolvingethicaldilemmasintheirenvironment(23.2percent)ororganizationsjust“donotknow”(37.5percent)(TableXXI),thenwhatarethecodesusedforinorganizations?Arecodesofethics,then,theinwardregulatorydocumentsassuggestedbyMathews(1987),LefebvreandSingh(1992)andWood(2000)orareorganizationsjustmissinganopportunitytomaximizetheirutilization?Ifacodedoesnotassistoneinresolvingethicaldilemmasinthemarketplaceandsocietythenwhyhaveone?Maybethecodeisassistingtoresolveethicaldilemmasinthemarketplaceandsociety;becausestaffuseitsmeaningsubconsciouslytosolvedailydilemmas,butnotconsciouslyrecognizingitseffectsonthem.Theresponsestothisquestiondoraiseaconundrumthatcouldbeusefullyexploredinfurtherresearch.

Effectivenessofcodes

InTableXXII,onecanseethattherearelimitedresponsesthatcouldbedescribedasaltruisticasorganizationsseemtofocusmoreupontheeffectsofthecodefromamercenaryand/oraregulatoryperspective.Thefourhighestresponses,withallbeingcitedby16.1percentofrespondents,are:

1. companyreputation;2. assistsprofit;3. avoidspotentialproblems;and4. avoidslitigationandfines.

Theotherendoftheresponserangewith0percentofrespondents,demonstratesthatnotonecompanysuggestedthatacodeassiststhemin“earningtherespectofstakeholders”andmakesthembeperceivedas“beingagoodcorporatecitizen”.Theseareareaswhereonemayhavethoughtthatcodescouldhavebeenseentobeofvalue.Onecouldsuggestthatbeingagoodcorporatecitizenandearningtherespectofstakeholdersmayevenbeidealstowhichanorganizationmayaspireevenintheirowncompanydocumentsbydefiningtheirworld‐viewandhowtheywouldliketobeperceivedexternally.Yet,whenoneintroducescodeeffectiveness(i.e.abenefitofhavingacode)intothesituation,itseemsthateffectivenessisjudgedbymercenarygainandaprotectionfromcontraveningregulatoryedictsofthesociety,i.e.self‐protection.ThisfindingconcurswithVerschoor's(1998,p.1515)findings(intheUSA)thatdemonstratedthat“theprobabilitythatabroadcorporateconcernforethicalconducttowardsstakeholdersisbecomingamainstreammanagementissueinachievinghigherprofitability”.

Concludingthoughts

WhenoneinvestigatesmeasuresofbusinessethicscommitmentattheorganizationallevelintheUK,thereappeartobesomeshortfalls.Webelievethatthesupporting

measuresofbusinessethicscommitment–suchastheonesresearchedanddescribedinthispaper–appeartobeunder‐utilizedinorganizationsthatpossesscodesintheUK.Thislackofutilizationsuggeststhatorganizationssofarmaynothavedevelopedashigherlevelofbusinessethicscommitmentthatmaybepossible.Webelievethattheseorganizationswillneedtomovetothisnextlevelofsupport,orruntheriskofdevaluingthecurrentprocessesthattheyhaveinplace,astheyneedtoconsolidateandmoveforwardtothenextlevelofcommitment(WoodandRimmer,2003).Additionally,organizationsappeartobenervousaboutthecommunicationoftheircodeswithcustomersandothersocietalstakeholders,perhapsbecausetheyareawarethatmorecouldbedonetoembedtheethicalculturewithintheorganization.Implementingthe“higherlevelcommitment”factorswouldreducethelikelihoodoforganizationalpracticefailingtoalignwiththecode.

Consequently,wefindthat,intheUK,theprocessesinvolvedinbusinessethicscommitmenthavebeguntoberecognizedandacteduponatanorganizationallevel.Theseorganizationsarenotonlyarticulatingacodeofethicsbutbeginning–albeitatrelativelyearlystages–toimplementothercomplementaryinitiativesthatreinforcetheneedfortheorganizationalculturetofocusmoreonabusinessethicscommitment.

Insum,wehaveconcernsregardingthelackofuseoftherangeofsupportmeasuresthatcouldinculcatebusinessethicscommitmentintotheorganization.Whenused,thesesupportmeasures,individuallyandcollectively,areindicativeofastrongcommitmenttobeingethical.Itisnotenoughtohavetheartefactsofanethicalculture,suchascodes,withoutensuringthatallemployeesareassistedtounderstandwhatisrequiredoftheminrelationtotheethosofcodes.Thisresearchfindsthatthereisstillanobviouslackofsuchsupportingmeasures.ThishighlightstheopportunitiesavailabletoUKbusinesstoembedastrongethicscommitmentwithgreatpotentialfordevelopingfurtherintothefuture.

Whiletheresponsesprovidedarichpictureoforganizationalactions,furtherresearchexploringinternalcultureandattitudeswouldaddtoanunderstandingoforganizationalcommitmentinthisareaintopUKorganizations.

TableIPossessionofacodeofethics

TableIIEstablishmentofacodesofethics

TableIIIWhowasinvolvedinthedevelopmentofcodes?

TableIVWhytheircodesweredeveloped

TableVHowthecodeiscommunicatedtotheorganization'sstaff

TableVIHoworganizationsinformnewstaffinrespectofthecode

TableVIIConsequencesforabreach

TableVIIIAppraisalofstaffethicalperformance

TableIXGuidelinestosupportwhistle‐blowers

TableXCodeofethicsinstrategicplanning

TableXIAstandingethicscommitteeoritsequivalent

TableXIIAnethicseducationcommitteeoritsequivalent

TableXIIIEthicseducation

TableXIVAnorganizationalombudsmanoritsequivalent

TableXVAnethicalevaluation

TableXVIIndicatorsofcommitment

TableXVIICustomerknowledgeoftheexistenceofthecode

TableXVIIICommunicatingthecodetocustomers

TableXIXSupplierknowledgeoftheexistenceofthecode

TableXXCommunicatingthecodetosuppliers

TableXXIResolveethicaldilemmas

TableXXIITheeffectsofthecodeonthebottomline(i.e.profit/goals)

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