Collective victimisation in post-conflict situations:

in search of a restorative justice approach for countries in transition

Kris Vanspauwen Prof. Dr. S. Parmentier and Prof. Dr. E.G.M. Weitekamp

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

XI International Symposium on VictimologyStellenbosch, July 13-18, 2003

Collective victimization in post-conflict situations

Past century: numerous violent conflicts – Balint: 220 conflicts, 87 million deaths

Conflicts: armed conflicts, civil wars, ethnic conflicts, (post-)colonisation, state divisions, national liberations, apartheid regimes, religious conflicts, oppressive (authoritarian) regimes, etc.

Societal problem

Defining “collective victimization”

“victimization directed at, or affecting, not only individuals but also whole groups. In some cases the groups are very diffuse, the members have nothing or not much in common, and the group is not targeted as a specific entity. More often, however, the acts of victimization are directed against a special population” (Fattah, 1991)

Collective victimization and redress

Empirical studies: enormous gap between the data of victimization and redress that has been addressed in these situations.

Collective victimization and redress

Societal problem Intense debate: how successor

regimes should confront a legacy of violence and abuse of power

Dealing with the past

Dominant voices: punishment vs. amnesia models

Third way: reconciliation, truth commissions

Growing interest in this field has lead to a new discipline called “transitional justice”

Defining “transitional justice”

“Transitional justice has been characterized as the study of the choices made and the quality of justice rendered when states are replacing authoritarian regimes by democratic state institutions. In almost all of these regimes gross violations of human rights took place.” (Siegel, 1998)

Victims and transitional justice

Trend of liberalisation: economic and political motives

Victims’ concerns overlooked In search for holistic approachTRC: first attempt to incorporate

restorative justiceScientific research: restorative

justice vaguely discussed

Restorative justice rediscovered

Rediscovery of traditional and informal forms of justice and dealing with (criminal) conflicts

Dominant model of criminal justice in human history for perhaps all the world’s people

Merits of restorative justice

Merits of informal modes of dispute resolution doubted - confusion subject matter

Literature is practice-basedSeveral definitions of restorative

justice. There is consensus on following definitions

Defining “restorative justice”

“Restorative justice is a process whereby parties with a stake in a specific offence resolve collectively how to deal with the aftermath of the offence and its implications for the future (Marshall, 1996)”

“Restorative Justice is every action that is primarily oriented towards doing justice by repairing the harm that has been caused by the crime (Bazemore and Walgrave, 1999)”

Key principles

Bringing victims and offenders together Focusing on the harm that has been caused

by crime Holding perpetrators responsible for their

acts Meeting the needs for victims’ redress Promoting the reintegration of both victims

and perpetrators Preventing future harm by building on the

strengths of the community and government

Rethinking restorative justice concepts

Key principles in post-conflict situations? State as perpetrator, political crimes? Universal jurisdiction on gross human

rights violations, war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity

Human rights focus on broader issues Broaden up the scope of restorative

justice, beyond the level of personalised and common crimes

Transitional justice developments

End of 20th Century: different strategies and judicial mechanisms were being developed:• Domestic criminal courts • International ad-hoc tribunals (Rwanda,

Yugoslavia)• International criminal court (The Hague)• Mixed tribunals (East Timor, Siera Leone)• Truth Commissions (Guatemala, Chile, South

Africa)• Mixed approach: truth commission &

(international) tribunals

Future challenges

Truth commissions bear the most restorative justice potential since they make an attempt to:• Bring victims and perpetrators together• Hold perpetrators accountable

Challenges:• Include ALL stakeholders together• Meet victims’ needs• Reintegration of victims and perpetrators• Build stronger communities and governance

Framing truth commissions within the restorative justice

theoryEmpirical data somewhat validated

normative research.Restorative justice model: Social

Discipline Window, Stakeholder Needs, Restorative Justice Typology.

This model is based on restorative justice practices like: victim-offender mediation, family group conferencings, etc.

This model ends up to be impractical to frame transitional justice processes.

Social Discipline Window

Restorative justice as a collaborative approach to resolve problems intended to reintegrate and repair

Stakeholder Needs

Those affected by the crime must regain their sense of autonomy - empowerment

Restorative Justice Typology

The extent to which all stakeholders are involved in meaningful emotional exchange and decision-making.

Transitional justice and the social discipline window

One approach: not most desirable?Mixed approach: trials – mediation –

truth commission – compensation funds ...Braithwaite’s restorative regulation

pyramid?

TRC: amnesty rule: no apology, no sign of remorse was necessary. permissive instead of restorative approach

Transitional justice and the restorative regulation

pyramid

Post-conflict situations (Braithwaite, 2002)

Transitional justice and the stakeholder needs

Identify stakeholders: very few people not affected

Limited definition of victims: victims of gross human rights violations

TRC: huge amount felt disappointed and felt neglected – victims of every day apartheid policies, victimised combatants, victims of structural violence, displaced and forcedly removed people, ...

Transitional justice and the stakeholder needs

TRC: ongoing violent conflicts between IFP and ANC were denied – IFP as important stakeholder not fully included in the TRC

TRC: beneficiaries not heavily involved so structural evil of apartheid not considered. Social unjust practices continue to some extent after the transition.

Transitional justice and the stakeholder needs

Post-conflict situations

The meaningful victim-perpetrator encounter shows to be of invaluable importance

Victim’s input, decision making

TRC: imposition of views and frameworks on victims – hearings were often structured, directional

Transitional justice and the restorative justice typology

TRC: victims no key player in amnesty hearings – feelings of anger and retribution should get an important place in the process

TRC: lack of knowledge on victims’ expectations beforehand, background, motivations ... Difficult to assess the restorativeness

TRC: amnesty rule – missed chance, perpetrators could have made personal contribution to restoration victim’s well-being

Transitional justice and the restorative justice typology

Post-conflict situations

Transitional justice and the restorative justice typology

Towards a restorative transitional justice?

Truth commission no “second best” solutionsDespite the critical analysis, truth

commissions can be shaped into restorative justice mechanisms

No general conclusions yetTaking into account the following sensitivities:

• The history of the conflict; • The culture of the nation and its conflicting

parties; • The politics of the conflict; • The specific context in which the conflict occurred.

A Restorative Justice Model for successful transitions will risk jeopardising the restorative potentials that are present in every culture or society

South Africa followed his own road towards reconciliation

However it will be a catalyst for other societies!

Towards a restorative transitional justice?

Restorative approach counterforce to imposing Western cultural values and norms(retributive justice) and mechanisms (trials)

Restorative justice is about understanding and dealing with root causes of mass violence

Restorative justice is about dealing with the real harm found in broken families, destroyed communities, refugees and internatlly displaced people, every day life.

Therefore limit ourselves to selective trials and rediscover our restorative capacities on the road towards reconciliation.

Towards a restorative transitional justice?